Bahrain’s Initial Communications - UNFCCCunfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/bahrnc1.pdfBahrain’s Initial Communications to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Bahrain’sInitial Communications to the United

Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change

Volume I: Main Summary Report

Kingdom of BahrainGeneral Commission for the Protection of Marine

Resources, Environment & Wildlife

��

March� � � �

ii

Ac k now ledgm ent s

The Preparation of the initial communication was supported and funded by the GlobalEnvironment Facility and facilitated by the UNEP coordination office in Kenya. Wegratefully acknowledge their support.

We also thank all the institutions, departments and private sector organization inBahrain, which provided us the necessary inputs and contributions toward thefinalization of this report.

Finally, I would like to extend a special thanks and acknowledgement to the variousproject teams who were responsible for the preparation of all the technical reports.

__________________________

Eng. Zahwa M Al Kuwari

Project Coordinator

Director of Assessment and Planning

General Directorate for the Protection of Environment and Wildlife

Manama, Bahrain

��


iii

Prefac e

�� Convention on Climate Change at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June�!!�"�� #�� $�� %��&��!!�"

At the time of preparation of National Communications, Bahrain has been engaged indiscussions about ratification of the Kyoto Protocol, which is planned for imminentratification.

The Kingdom of Bahrain is very pleased to present this initial National Communicationin fulfillment and its obligations towards as a Party to the Framework Convention, andsoon to the Kyoto Protocol.

________________________

Prof. Ismail M. Al Madani

Director General & Vice President

General Directorate for the Protection of Environment and Wildlife

Manama, Bahrain

��


iv

Cont r ibut or s

Project Coordinators

Dr. Osama A. ElKholi, Late H.H. Sheikh Issa bin Salman AlKhalifa Chair and Director,Technology Management Program, Arabian Gulf University

Dr. Waleed K. Zubari, Head Sphere of Technological Studies, College of GraduateStudies, Arabian Gulf University

Volume I: Main Summary Report

��

Dr. Anwar Shaikh_ul_Din, Desert and Arid Zones Sciences Program, Arabian GulfUniversity

��

Dr. Anwar Shaikh-ul-Din (study supervisor), Desert and Arid Zones Sciences Program,Arabian Gulf University

Dr. Osama A. El-Kholy (study coordinator), H. H. Sheikh Issa bin Salman Al-KhalifaChair and Director, Technology Management Programme, Arabian Gulf University

Eng. (Ms) Zahwa Al-Kuwari,, Ministry of Housing Municipality and Environment –Environmental Affairs

�

Ms. Saba Kazhem Al-Asfour, Ministry of Agriculture and Municipalities�

Mr. Abdel-Mohsen Al-Mahmoud, Ministry of Housing Municipality and Environment –Environmental Affairs

�

Mr. Ali Jassem Al-Hasabi, Ministry of Housing Municipality and Environment –Environmental Affairs

�

�� !��" � ��#�� #��

Ms. Sabah Al-Jenied, Desert and Arid Zone Science Program, Arabian Gulf University

Dr. Mohammad S. Abido, Desert and Arid Zone Science Program, Arabian GulfUniversity

��$��% � ��

Dr. Talat A. Diab (Study Supervisor) Late, Director, Technology ManagementPrograom, Arabian Gulf Universit

Dr. Haytham Al-Qahtani (Team Leader) Ministry of Trade and Industry, Kingdom ofBahrain

Eng. Ahmed Abdrabbo (Study Consultant), Climate Change Unit, EgyptianEnvironmental Affairs


v

Abdulhussein Aly Hussain, Ahmed Mansour Al_Ali Co. Kingdom of Bahrain.

Ms. Luma Al_Mahrous, Ministry of Housing Municipality and Environment –Environmental Affairs

�

��&�'��(� ��)�"� ��#*��

Dr. Waleed K. Zubari, Desert and Arid Zones Sciences Program, Arabian GulfUniversity

Dr. Asma A. AbaHussain, Desert and Arid Zones Sciences Program, Arabian GulfUniversity

Dr. Anwar Shaikh_ul_Din, Desert and Arid Zones Sciences Program, Arabian GulfUniversity

Mr. Nader A. Mousa, Desert and Arid Zones Sciences Program, Arabian Gulf University

Volume II: Technical AnnexesAll the individuals noted in the individual chapters for Volume I were part of technical teamsthat developed the background technical reports in the Annexes found in the second Volume ofthis National Communication.


vi

Table of Cont ent spage

Ac k now ledgm ent s ........................................................................................ ii

Prefac e ................................................................................................................... iii

Cont r ibut ors ....................................................................................................... iv

Lis t of Tab les .................................................................................................. viii

Lis t of Figures ................................................................................................ viii

Lis t of Box es ................................................................................................... viii

Lis t of Abbrevia t ions ................................................................................. ix

� National Circumstances ..............................................................................�� Geographic Profile .................................................................................................. �

�� Land use ......................................................................................................�� Ecosystems..................................................................................................�

�� Climatic Profile ....................................................................................................... �� Water Resources...................................................................................................... �� Population and Demographic Trends...................................................................... �� Human Health ......................................................................................................... �� General Economic Profile ....................................................................................... �� Energy ..................................................................................................................... �� Transportation ......................................................................................................... �� Industry.................................................................................................................... �� Agriculture .............................................................................................................. �� Waste....................................................................................................................... �� Environmental Education and Outreach ............................................................... ��

� Greenhouse Gas Inventory.......................................................................�� Introduction ........................................................................................................... �� Methodology and Data Used................................................................................. ��

�� Methods.....................................................................................................�� Data Sources, Coverage, and Reliability...................................................�� Uncertainties..............................................................................................�� Assumptions and Justifications .................................................................��

�� Energy Sector Inventory........................................................................................ �� Industrial Processes Inventory .............................................................................. �� Agricultural Sector Inventory................................................................................ �� Land Use change and Forestry Inventory ............................................................. ��


vii

�� Waste Management Inventory .............................................................................. �� Summary of Inventory Results.............................................................................. �� Recommendations for Enhancing the Quality of Bahrain’s GHG Inventory ....... ��

� Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment ..........................................�� Introduction ........................................................................................................... �� Approach ............................................................................................................... ��

�� Baseline Scenario ......................................................................................�� Climate Change Scenarios ........................................................................�

�� Sea Level Rise Impacts ......................................................................................... �� Inundation Levels......................................................................................�� Impacts on Human Settlements and Infrastructure ...................................�� Impacts on Agriculture..............................................................................�� Impacts on Corals and Fishing Industry....................................................�� Impacts on Mangrove and Salt Marshes ...................................................�� Impacts on Coastal Erosion.......................................................................�� Impacts on Hydrology and Water Resources............................................��

�� Adaptation Action Plan ......................................................................................... �� Policy Mainstreaming Initiatives ..............................................................�� Ecosystem Protection Initiatives ...............................................................��

� Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Initiatives ................................................�� Business-as-Usual GHG Emissions in Bahrain .................................................... �� Mitigation Initiatives Analyzed............................................................................. ��

�� Energy Efficiency of Power Generation ...................................................�� Renewable Energy Systems for Power Supply: ........................................�� Demand Side Efficiency Measures ...........................................................��

�� Other Mitigation Initiatives Considered................................................................ �� Road Traffic Management And Control ...................................................�� Interconnection Of The Electric Transmission Grid .................................�� Landfill Gas And Utilization In Power Generation ..................................��

�� Impact of Mitigation Initiatives............................................................................. �� Mitigation Action Plan.......................................................................................... ��

� Strategy to Raise Public Awareness ......................................................� �� Context for Action................................................................................................. �� Strategic Objectives and Approach....................................................................... �� Civil Society Engagement..................................................................................... �� Strengthen National Capacity................................................................................ �� Encourage Community-based Initiatives .............................................................. ��

+ List of References .......................................................................................��


viii

Lis t of Tablespage

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Lis t of Figurespage

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/�%�� %��&,�� $'��-��

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ix

Lis t of Abbrev iat ionsAGU Arabian Gulf UniversityCFL Compact florescent lightCH � MethaneCC climate changeCO Carbon monoxideCO � Carbon dioxideCSC Cost of saved carbonCSO Central Statistical OfficeDSM Demand Side ManagementEA Environmental AffairsEF Emission FactorsEIA Energy Information AgencyESCWA Economic and Social

Commission for West AsiaFAO Food and Agriculture

OrganizationGCC Gulf Cooperation CouncilGDP Gross Domestic ProductGDPEW General Directorate for the

Protection of Environmentand Wildlife

GEF Global Environment FacilityGHGs Greenhouse GasesGg !��

�grams) G

GJ #�% 5��$�!��

Joules)GWh Gigawatt- ��$�!��

�Watt-

hours)GWP Global Warming PotentialHa HectareHFCs HydrofluorocarbonsIBA Important Bird AreaICZM Integrated coastal zone

managementIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Changekm � Square kilometerKOB Kingdom of BahrainKSA Kingdom of Saudi ArabiakWh kilowatt- ��!��

watt-

hours)LPG Liquid petroleum gasm � Square meterMoWA Ministry of Works and

AgricultureMW Megawatt

NG Natural gasNGO Non-governmental

organizationNMVOCs Non-methane volatile

organic compoundsNOX Nitrous OxidesO&M Operation and maintenancePV PhotovoltaicSLR Sea Level RiseSO � Sulfur DioxideSOx Sulfur OxidesTAR Third Assessment ReporttC tones of carbonTOE Tonnes of oil equivalenttonne ��

kilograms

UNDP United Nations DevelopmentProgramme

UNEP United Nations EnvironmentProgramme

UNFCCC United Nations FrameworkConvention on ClimateChange

V&A Vulnerability and Adaptation

Bahrain’s First National Communications – � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

March" # # %

�

� National Circumstances� ��+� �� '� �� ,�� %��low-lying islands and shoals, is a nation ofdynamic social and ecological systems aswell as a plethora of accompanying climate-related challenges. In this chapter, thecountry’s main characteristics are outlinedin an attempt to provide readers with a senseof the context in which Bahrain’s climatechange challenges need to be seen.

, Geographic ProfileThe total land area of the Kingdom of� � �� !0=�"� �� * $� �� square kilometers (km & ). It is located in theArabian Gulf stretching between latitudes��

'��>�?� ��

'��>?� ��%��$��

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��>)� ��'��>)�� ,,��:�& ��(�

�� @&� �� $�� % �$�� ,�� the country is jabal Dukhan �� meters above sea level.

The capital city, Manama, is located on thelargest island, Bahrain, which accounts for �� ,�� of the total area of thecountry. Other islands include Al Muharrah!�A�� "'� +�� !�A"'�3&&�

? $$ �� !�A"'� ? �� + �� !��A"� ��B�� !��A"�� $�� $�9 * �'� + * �� $& �� $��$� !�A"��/�%�� $ �*$� � , (sical map of thecountry.

�� Land use

Land and freshwater resources in Bahrain,like many small islands, are subject tocompeting demands for urban development,agriculture, industry, and other uses. Thesetwo resources are vital for meeting basichuman needs, economic growth andimproved access to goods and services.

The total land area of Bahrain has been$�� (�� $��%�$�� >$�� % �land reclamation and dredging activities.Many sites along the northern andnortheastern coastal areas were dredged andreclaimed for industrial, recreational andresidential purposes. As a result, thecountry's total land area has increased from ��@&

&�� @&

&in

��

Although reclamation activities havesignificantly increased prime and suitableland for various development projects, theyincluded a host of adverse social, economicand environmental impacts. In an effort tolessen the adverse impacts associated withfuture reclamation efforts, discussions areunderway for Bahrain to adopt an integratedcoastal area management approach forstrategic planning.

Due to rapid urban and industrialdevelopment, valuable agricultural land inBahrain has been increasingly lost. Arablelands have been converted to residentialareas as demand has continued to increasefor housing and recreational facilities.Moreover, high soil salinity resulting fromthe use of groundwater for irrigation has

��

Bahrain’s First National Communications – � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

March " # # % �

reduced the potential area that could be used�� ,� �� $� !/�='� ��"�� present, these irrigated areas consist of bothannual crops and permanent tree-crops.Because of the low rainfall, poor soil andadverse climatic conditions, naturalvegetation cover is sparse and forests do notexist in Bahrain.

�� Ecosystems

Natural vegetation is of limited extent and iscomposed mainly of mangrove plantations,desert ephemerals, and halophytes (Abbas,�"�� . �%��$� �� &,�� ecological functions in Bahrain forattenuating wave action, sheltering nativespecies of flora and fauna and reducingseawater turbidity. They grow naturally inseveral coastal areas, support a wide varietyof indigenous bird species, and are integralpart of local biodiversity.

Local marine ecosystems are rich in fishstocks, sea grasses, and corals (Sheppard, et �'��"��/��: &,��'�� $,��$�of corals in the waters around Bahrain,which are nursery habitats for shrimp, crabs,and other sea creatures. Coral reefs thrive inthe harsh Bahraini environment of highwater temperatures, salinity levels andsedimentation. In addition, coastal saltmarshes are sensitive ecosystems thatcontain quite, a large variety of native plantspecies. These areas are used as feeding andbreeding sites for several kinds of birds andother species.

The Hawar island chain, located abo�� km southeast of the main island of Bahrain!/�%�� "� �$� � $��$�� *�� ecosystem area. The islands are home to theglobally threatened dugon Dugong dugon

!/�%��"� ��,�$$�$$�� $ ��* ��$�that support a variety of fish and othermarine organisms. The islands are animportant breeding area for resident andmigrant sea birds and are internationallydesignated as an Important Bird Area (IBA).

Within the Hawar chain, the islands ofRubud Al Gharbiyah and Rubud AshSharquiyah are breeding sites for theWestern Reef Heron (Egretta gularis

schistacea) !/�%�� "� �� *��%�grounds for Slender Billed Gulls (Larus

genei) and Greater Flamingos(Phoenicopterus). They are also a staging,�$��&�%� ��* ��$��:��$�� $�the locations of sensitive breeding sites,nesting sites, feeding areas, and migrationflyways for the islands.

,� Climatic ProfileBahrain’s climate is influenced by itslocation in a large arid zone, which extendsfrom the Sahara northeastwards across theArabian Peninsula, to the central Asiandeserts. The climate of Bahrain is further

�� !��Western Reef Heron (bottom

source: University of Michigan

Museum of zoology

source: www.digimages.info/


March " # # % �

influenced by its proximity to tropical zonesand being situated within the Arabian Gulf,a virtually land-locked sea bordered by aridlandmasses. The predominant winds across

the islands are northwesterly, locally knownas Shamal and have average speeds of over��@��$�

��"��ird activity in the Hawar island group


March " # # % �

Bahrain has two seasons: a very hot summerand a relatively mild winter. During thesummer months, which extend from April toOctober, mean monthly temperature range��&� �� %��$� <��%� �� =��the hottest summer days in July and August, �� &,�� $� � �� C� <��/�%�� ,��$� � $�&& �(� ��&,�� ,��-��

The small amount of rainfall that Bahrainreceives is scant, erratic, and occurs duringthe cool winter season that extends fromNovember to April. Average annual rainfall�$� �� &��&��$� $,�� $$� �� %�� (�� ($�,�� (� �'� ��which occur in the summer months. Highrelative humidity levels due to highseawater temperatures, as well asatmospheric temperature inversionscharacterize the islands of Bahrainthroughout the year. Mean monthly relative �&��(� �� A� *�� &� �� (�& :�& �� (��%��&��A��%.

, Water ResourcesBahrain has no natural fresh, surface waterresources. Hence, groundwater anddesalinated seawater are the only sources tomeet water needs for households, industryand agriculture. Annual water consumption�$�� (��&��&

&. F�%��$ �*$� �

breakdown of this amount by different$��$�� (� ��.�$�� * ��'�� (��A'��$��$�&�� %�� sector, which relies heavily on irrigation.

The average annual per capita consumption� ��$� ��&

&per person and has been

$�� (�� $��%� �� A�per year. Current trends in sectoral wateruse are similar to earlier years, with onlymodest declines in water for use inagricultural relative to the other economicsectors.

The production of desalinated watercontinues to increase as the quantity andquality of underground water tends to

decline and per capita consumptionincreases. In ��, about � million m

&of

distilled water were produced using electricpower stations. This represents a significantshare of total water consumption (��A). Inorder to meet the increasing demand forwater, plans are in place to increasingelectric generating capacity over threephases. The initial Phase I, already inprogress, adds sufficient electric capacity toenable the additional desalinization of ��million m

&of desalinated seawater per year.

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Mean monthlyMean daily maximumMean daily minimum

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Source: W. K. Al-Zubari��


March " # # % �

By ��, the goal is another � million m&

of desalinated seawater per year.

,$ Population and DemographicTrends

Bahrain’s total population was just over �� $ �� '� � �� (� �� $��official census. The country has experiencedlarge population growth over the years, withan annual national population growth of��A�,��(� �� %� � ��,��-��'� & @��%� �� % �$�� world. In fact, the total population has�� $�� $�:� �� $ ��people since the first official national census* $��

Population growth in Bahrain is influencedby two significant factors. Growth of theindigenous population as social, health andeconomic conditions improve and the risingnumber of foreign laborers as demand fornew skills by various economic sectorsincreases. Behind the fast growth of both theBahraini and non-Bahraini population wasthe discovery of� �� '� �� investment of its revenues in a range ofnational development projects anddiversification of the economy.

/�%�� $�&& ��D�$� ,�,�� %��*� �, ��$� �� ,�� -�� 4�� '� � �� population ��,��$�� A� ��

�� ,�,�� '��,,��%� �� A��(�� $� � �� &(� ��$�� & ��for skilled labor increased, especially in theindustrial and service sectors, the non-Bahraini population increased significantly -��&��'�� &�$��'��'� �� $�� A'�� &�$��A�,��(� ��

Most of the population of Bahrain isconcentrated along coastal zonesparticularly in the north and northeasternparts of the main island Bahrain. Highpopulation densities -� ,,��:�& ��(� ��persons/km

'�� %� ��

persons/km'� �� - characterize these

areas. This is due in large part to historicallyhigh urbanization rates, which have been��$��(��%��(� �$��4��'��A��the population resided in urban areas. This�� $��A��(��

The overall (i.e., including native Bahrainiand non-Bahraini segments of the,�,�� "� �� (� � �� $� ��years old and over in Bahrain was about�A� �� '� � �� (� �� f the last censustaken. The overall literacy rate among males* $� �&�$�� A'� �� A� ��females. For the native Bahraini population,literacy rate are quite high, ranging from �� A� �� & ��$� �� A� &��%�females). More recent estimates indicatethat the literacy rate continues to improvefor the overall Bahraini population,�� $��%�� A��!A� &��%�� & ��,�,�� A� &��%�the female population).

,& Human Health�� :,�� (� �� $�� &� �� (� �$�during the� ,�� -��'� �� (� �$��%� ��-��'� �� (� �$��%� � �� ,�� -��'� �� :��indicator of national achievements in theprovision of health care services. Thepopulation of Bahrain is relatively young.� �� $�$� ��$�lts showed that about

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March " # # % �

��A�� ,�,�� * $�(��%�� '� �� A� ��*�� %�$� �� =��(� �A� �� ,�,�� * $� �� years of age.

,+ General Economic ProfileBahrain is governed by a constitutionalhereditary monarchy, and is compo$��municipalities. Prior to the discovery of oilin the early thirties the economy of Bahrainwas dependent on pearl fishing, agricultureand regional trade. Since then, the majorengine of economic growth in Bahrain hasbeen the oil and natural gas industry.

The country gained its independence in�� + ��(� ��* ��'� $��-economicand restructuring of the economy took placeat a rapid pace, boosted by the growingproduction of oil and gas and rising nationalrevenues as oil prices increased in the world& �@��'� , �� (� �� $�� the economic risks associated with oil pricevolatility, sustained policy initiatives wereundertaken to diversify the nationaleconomy as a risk-hedging strategy.Industrialization became a focus, togetherwith efforts to establish Bahrain as aninternational financial and service centerlocated in the heart of the Middle East.

The Bahraini economy has shown steady%��*� � �� -�� ,�� !$��/�%�� "�� $� �� %��*� � ��%�earlier ,��$��-��:,��*�� $�� 4�� &��,�� ,�� (� ��'� �� :�� ,�� %�� %� � ��,��-��-�� ,�� &�� %�� &� � ��*� �� 3+E�'�� %� � year of slows economic%��*� '�� % �� E'��

The continued diversification of theBahraini economy has been evident during� �� ;$�� & 5�� $��$'�* �� ,��$�� (� �A� �� (� ��Bahraini economy. In addition to the oil &gas sector, these are trade, financial

services, manufacturing, and government$��$��$��$�� /�%��'�� % $�$��;$�$ �� ,��-�� $� �� &, � �� other sectors. Overall, the oil sector (mining ��7� ��(��%��/�%��,��$��$� ��A�� &�� (� �� $�period - even showing a slight decrease by��– reflecting deliberate national policiesof encouraging investments outside the oilsector in order to build a more diversifiedand resilient economy.

This is particularly evident in themanufacturing sector whose share of GDP$�� (� �� $�� &� ��A� �� &�$��A��(�� $ �� $��$'� * �� * $� �� A� ,�� '� $� �� $�� $��% ��(� �� A� �� #��&�� $��$� �� A� �� A� �� '�indicating an expansion of the role playedby the private sector in providing some ofthe services traditionally provided by thepublic sector.

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GDP

Per capita income

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March " # # % �

,- EnergyThe turning point in the economic andsocial history of Bahrain was the discovery�� +�� '� �� production, processing, distribution andconsumption became major economicactivities and significant sources of nationalincome. Production of crude oil continues toincrease to meet the growing demand forenergy by all sectors of the economy. Mostlocal crude production is consumed locallyin refined oil products.

Production of crude oil reached a peak of�� &�� $� �� '� �ropping to��&�� %��,�slightly after that. Large quantities of crudeare also imported from Saudi Arabia forprocessing in Bahraini refineries andeventual export to international markets.

Bahrain’s crude oil refining capacity hassteadily increased over the past decades.The vast majority of refined oil products,�� A'� �� :,�� & �@��$�!$��/�%��"�

In recent years, natural gas has becomemore widely used, with consumption rising�� &�� ,�� (� �� and continuing to increase since then. Mostof the natural gas consumed in Bahrain isused to generate electricity and to satisfyheat demand from the manufacturingindustries, mostly in the aluminum industry.

Electric power generation has shown steadyincrease significantly over the years.Generated electricity increased by almost�A� ��*�� '� !��'� ��&��'�� '�� #2 "�� $� ��available electric generating capacity in� � ��* $��.2� ��onsistsof four publicly owned power stations (i.e.,Manama, Muharraq, Riffa and Sitra). Theannual output from these plants typically �� A� �� (�%�� '� *�� & �� !��A"�imported from the power station of thealuminum smelting plant (ALBA).

The demand for electricity is relatively highcompared to the region, as well as comparedto the world.. Average annual per capitaelectricity consumption increased from�'��@2 � �� '��@2 � ��'�an overall incre $�� A� !�� AF(� �"�increase during the same period. Totalgeneration to satisfy rising industrial,household, and other demand increased��&��'��#2 ��'��'� �� $�� A� !�� A� ,��year) Most of the electricity consumed is inthe household sector which accounts for �� A� �� (� ��& ��/�%��$�&& ��D�$��$�&,��patterns.

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Sha

reof

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omy

(%)

Oil & gas ManufacturingFinancial services TradeGovernment Services

��


March " # # %

,. TransportationRapid industrial and urban development hasbeen accompanied by rapid increases in thenumber of private and public cars andservice vehicles, particularly within theurban areas, causing problems of congestionand increased air pollutant emissions.Vehicle ownership has increased by about��A� ,�� (� �� ,�� -��'��&� �� usand vehicles. It isexpected that the number of cars per person*��$��&��$��

Fuel consumption has risen less rapidly thanvehicle ownership thanks in part to risingfuel economies. Total fuel consumed inpersonal� � �$� ��$�� &�� $� �� !�� &�� $� �� $��G� ��million liters for gasoline), an annual%��*� � � �� A��=�� $� $ &��period, the annual rate of fuel economy�&,��&�� * $� ��A�� 9�*��'� ��Bahrain the average fuel economy for thepersonal vehicle stock was low, ranging��&� ��$�,��@&��$�,��@&��

,/ IndustryThe industrial base in Bahrain comprises anumber of industries, some mature, othersonly recently developed. Aluminummanufacturing is one of the main

contributors to national wealth inBahrain, following closely after oil andnatural gas production. AluminumBahrain (ALBA), the nationalaluminum company produces about��'�� $� �� &��&� ,�� (� ��Bahrain is a large consumer of petrolcoke in the aluminum industry,��$�&��%� �� '�� $� ��,��@��

The chemical industry in Bahrainincludes chemical industries, asphaltproduction, and cement production.There are two asphalt roofing plants in

Bahrain (Arabian Company for ChemicalProducts and Bahrain Membrane Plant),,��%� � ��&�� '�� $� ��asphalt roofing materials per year. There arethree plants producing road-surfacingasphalt (Bahrain Asphalt Co., United GulfAsphalt and Construction, and Eastern Co.),,��%� � ��&�� '�� $��There is only one cement Packing Factory�� '�,��%� ��'��$�per year

The main food processing industries inBahrain include bread, poultry, cakes,biscuits, and animal feeds. A variety ofgoods, including flours, cakes and biscuits

�� 4+��5��%�� %&� ��6�

&

' ( & & &

) ( & & &

* ( & & &

+ ( & & &

, . . & , . . .

Ele

ctri

city

Use

(GW

h)

Commercial & AgriculturalHouseholdIndustry

0 1 2 4 5kWh/yr

perperson4 1 2 2 8

kWh/yrper

person

��

��-�7��+� ��%&� ��%��%��tonnes of oil equivalent)

Exp

orte

d

9:;< =

>? @ABCD E

Lubricants

Jet Fuel

GasolineNaphtha

KeroseneDiesel

Others

LocallymarketedproductsF G H J

AsphaltLPG

Fuel Oil

Source: Oil Directorate, Ministry of Oil & Industry

Bahrain’s First National Communications – � � � � � � � � � ��

March � � � �

production are produced by the BahrainFlour Mills Co, the national bakerycompany.

,0 AgricultureArable and permanent crop areas totaled ��'�� '�� A�� total land area of the country (Al-Madani,��"�� .�$�� %�� D��$� ��located along the western coast of Bahrainisland. Major commercial crops include datepalms, assorted vegetables, and foddercrops.

Agriculture in Bahrain faces a number ofchallenges rendering it a relatively minorsector with currently little contributiontowards national food self-sufficiency. Itrepresents a small share of national GDP*�� (��A�� % %��agricultural activities. The contribution ofthis sector (including fisheries and poultry)* $� ��A�� :��A��

The agricultural sector in Bahrain usesirrigation extensively and consumes adisproportionately high share of scarcewater resources, relative to its share of#1-�� 4�� '� * �� $�� %�� $� �� A�� available water in Bahrain. Moreover,agricultural activities are constrained bypoor soils, limited supply of capital andskilled manpower and continued loss ofagricultural land for urban, industrial,recreational and other services development.

Agricultural activities are undertaken on��% �(� �A� �� country. Total cultivated land area�� $�� &� �'�� $� ! "� �� '�� continued at essentially the same level�� !$�� "��Livestock has not changed much overthe last few years.

, Waste

The high rates of economic growth duringthe last four decades have been associatedwith rapid growth in consumption, andincreasing rates of municipal solid wasteproduction. Annual levels of solid waste are �� '�� $�� 1 ��(� ,�� ,�� municipal solid waste generation is about�� @%F,��$�� @%F,��$�� (��The content of the waste is mostly percentorganic matter with small fraction of paper,plastics, glass, metals, and other materials.

Management of municipal solid waste isrelatively efficient in Bahrain. Some ofwaste is recycled, while the remainder isdisposed of in sanitary landfills. The highorganic matter content in the wasteprompted the private sector to establish acomposting plant that produces compostfertilizers and soil conditioners.

Management of municipal waste effluentshas evolved considerably in Bahrain. During� �� $� �� $'� � � �� $� ��urban sewerage networks and sewagetreatment facilities to handle the increasingvolume of wastewater generated fromdomestic, commercial and industrial uses. In��'�� & �� $��. � & � ��Muharraq were provided with sewerage$($��&$�� '� ,,��:�& ��(��'�� $� *�� main sewage pipeline system. The areasprovided with pipeline networks isincreasing every year, with the aim that by�� (� ��nhabited areas of Bahrainwill be connected.

Wastewater treatment methods used inBahrain are primary, secondary and tertiary

8�9+��#��+��$�9+��+��$��:�� - '!

YearTotal Area

(Km�)

Cultivableland (ha)

Cultivatedland (ha)

�!!� (!* '�� *��!!� (! )�� *�!��!!� (! !�*�� '��!!* +�( !�+�� '��!!' +�( ��'�� '��!! +�+ �� '��!!( +�+ �� '��*�

Source: �� !


March " # # % ��

treatment. The recycled water is usedmainly to irrigate gardens, fodder crops andhighway landscaping. Sludge is producedin both primary and secondary treatmentplants. It is treated before being recycled asa soil conditioner used on the Ministry ofWorks and Agriculture farms. The methodof wastewater handling in Bahrain is anaerobic system, which produces somemethane (CH & ) because of the poormanagement of the aerobic systems.

Lastly, major industries, though few innumber, produce relatively large quantitiesof liquid waste. These includepetrochemical industries which produces�� .&

'/year, the petroleum industry

whi� � ,��$� �� .&'/year and power

$� ��$� * �� ,�� .&'

/year. Most of these amounts are treated atthe primary level, then mixed with thethermal effluents, which are dischargeddirectly to the sea. Though large amountsof BOD characterize industrial wasteeffluents.

,� Environmental Education andOutreach

Environmental awareness is increasingamong various sectors of Bahraini society,thanks in part to increasing numbers of non-governmental organizations (NGOs).Environmental education is spreading andthere are activities and environmentalcourses being incorporated in the variousdepartments’ curricula of Universities andcolleges. Presently, at least two masterprograms in Environmental managementand Sustainable Development are beingoffered by the University of Bahrain andArabian Gulf University.

However, climate change and its relatedimpacts have not yet publicly recognized asa national threat. Partly, this is due to ashortage in financial and human resources inthe various responsible agencies. Forexample, the Bahrain Center for Scientific

Research, which is one of the leadinginstitutes for research and training inresource development and marine studies,lacks required financial resources toundertake a sustained research agendarelated to sea level rise issues. In thiscontext, updating knowledge on climatechange in educational institutions andbuilding public awareness is a challenge andnew endeavor for concerned authorities andinstitutes in Bahrain.

Bahrain’s First National Communications – � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � s Inventory

March � � � ��

� Greenhouse Gas Inventory�, IntroductionAccording to the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change (IPCC) assessmentreports, there has been a discernable humaninfluence on the global climate. Humanactivities in pursuit of development, such asfuel combustion, industrial processing,intensive agriculture, land-use change andforest utilization, have caused a substantialincrease in Greenhouse Gas (GHG)emissions into the atmosphere, whichcontribute to climate change. Major GHGemissions linked to such activities includecarbon dioxide (CO ! ), methane (CH " ),nitrous oxide (N ! O).

The Kingdom of Bahrain has undertaken, as�� '� � �� $@� �� &,��%� ��$� ��$��inventory of greenhouse gas emissions.These activities will create a GHG emissionprofile for Bahrain that could be used in thelarger global context, will enable Bahrain tocomply with its obligations under the UnitedNations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC), and will assist thenation in formulating climate sensitivedevelopment goals and informed mitigationand adaptation policies.

The national GHG inventory was developed�$��%� � �� $�� 4-<<�#��$� !��"��GHG emissions have been determined forall of the source/sink categories identified inthe different sectors, namely energy,industry, agriculture, waste management,and land-use change and forestry. The teamof national experts formed to compile thegreenhouse gases inventory were drawnlargely from those sectors identified assources and sinks for GHGs, including theCivil Aviation Directorate, the Ministry ofWorks and Agriculture, the Ministry of Oil& Industry, the Bahrain Electricity

Directorate, as well as members of theprivate sector.

�,� Methodology and Data Used

�� Methods

� ��(� ��* $�$�� $�� $��(� ��for all sectors. In keeping with the revisedIPCC guidelines, carbon dioxide (CO ! )methane (CH " ) and nitrous oxide (NO ! )were studied. Nitric oxides (NOx), sulphurdioxide (SO ! ), non-methane volatile organiccompounds (NMVOCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and carbonmonoxide (CO) were also considered. Toassess these gases the national inventorycovered the sources/sink categoriesidentified by the IPCC Guidelines in theenergy, industrial processing, agriculture,land-use change and forestry, and wastemanagement sectors. Specific methodsrelated to each sector and associated sub-sectors are discussed in the sections below.

�� Data Sources, Coverage, and

Reliability

Data on emissions-generating/sequesteringactivities were collected mainly fromsecondary sources, such as publishedresearch, statistical reports, related studies,publications of the FAO, the ArabOrganization for Agricultural, and otherinternational groups, and periodicalgovernment reports.

Data was often available in formats that suitgovernment planning purposes, but do notcover all the information required by theIPCC methodology. This highlights a futureneed for establishing reliable databankswithin each sector, to provide complete andstandardized information. Emissions anddefault factors were taken chiefly from


March � � � � ��

IPCC default values and conversioncoefficients.

�� Uncertainties

Uncertainties are inherent in any estimate ofnational emissions. Commonly,uncertainties and limitations arise fromdifferent interpretations of source/sinkcategories, use of average values (especiallydefault emission factors), and incompletescientific understanding of the basic GHGemission and removal processes. Some ofthe sector-specific uncertainties that wereencountered by the national inventory teamare elaborated in the sections that follow.

��" Assumptions and Justifications

A number of assumptions were made in theapplication of the methodology and defaultdata to the Bahraini context. Similarly,assumptions were made in order to justifythe use of locally derived values, intended torepresent the explicit local conditions ofBahrain as outlined in the sections thatfollow.

�, Energy Sector InventoryIn Bahrain, the only primary sources ofenergy are natural gas and refined oilproducts. There is virtually no use ofbiomass as a fuel source.

)��%(��$�&��%�� (�(� �� $� �$��& �� $ �� B�� A� �� $� &�� !�� thousand TJ) was in the form of natural gas,A�!�� $ ��B"�� &��,��&� ,��$'� �� A� !�� usand

TJ) in the form of crude oil. Greenhousegases emitted from the energy sector aremainly CO , CH ! , and NOx. CO is alsoemitted but to a lesser degree.

The process used to develop the GHGinventory estimates relied on the step-by-$��,� �� &�� logy for calculatingGHG emissions using the ReferenceApproach (for primary fuels), main sourcecategories (for secondary fuels), andfugitive methane emissions (from oil andnatural gas production activities).Definitions of activity/source categorieswere based on those provided in the IPCC6�,��%�4�$��$�!H��&��"��

Default GHG emissions factors were usedfor the carbon content of locally producedfuels, and of those main fuel combustionactivities (source categories). Stored carbon,wherever available, was deducted from thecalculated carbon emissions. Energy datawas derived mainly from the CentralStatistics Organization and privatecompanies. Alternative emission factorswere used occasionally to calculate GHGs,but on a limited basis, and are noted wherethey apply.

� �� $ �*$� � �� #9#�emissions in the energy sector. As can beseen in this table, carbon dioxide emissionsare dominated by power supply , mostly inthe form of electricity production frompublic power stations and heat production.Substantial levels of carbon dioxide are alsoemitted by the transport sector consistingmostly of on-road transportation.

Table ��.: Gree��%��%��%%��%&� ��5�%��.�!GHG Source & Sink Categories CO " CH# N " O NOx CO NMVOC SO "

Total energy �&'�� '�� &��Energy Industries �*�*�� "*� �"�* '"�+ ("�' �"� �Fugitive emissions from fuels � �")) �"�� "�� "�� "�� Transport ��!� �"*� �"�� "�� ("�( ��")( ��++Other Sectors (commercial,agricultural, residential, forestry,fishing)

�� "�� "�� "�) �"�' �"��


March � � � � ��

Small amounts of carbon dioxide areemitted by other sectors (i.e., residential) formiscellaneous end uses. In addition,methane emissions are dominated byfugitive emissions associated with leakagefrom natural gas transport.

�,$ Industrial Processes InventoryThe contribution of the industrial sector toBahrain’s GDP is substantial. Many of theindustrial activities described by the IPCCmethodology are implemented in Bahrainincluding cement production, chemicalproduction, food and beverage production,aluminium production, and halocarbon use.Accordingly, greenhouse gas emissions inthis sector are primarily CO , NMVOC,HFCs, CO, CH ! , and SO . In addition,certain processes contributed to emissionsof CF ! " C " and F # "

Data used in this assessment was obtainedfrom reliable, official statistical recordsources including the Central StatisticsOrganization, private companies, andrecords from various factories. In thissector, only GHGs emissions from physical

and chemical transformation processes wereconsidered.

GHG emitted in this sector, as summarized�� & ��(�<= , NMVOC andCO. Some methane and SO are alsoemitted. Not surprisingly, the mostimportant GHG in this sector is CO '� �A�of which is produced by the chemical andaluminium industries. NMVOC emissionsare attributed almost solely to road pavingwith asphalt, while CO emissions are solelyproduced by aluminium production. Smalllevels of SO are emitted from all industriesexcept for food and beverages.

�,& Agricultural Sector InventoryGHG emissions in this sector come fromseveral sources, including livestock, andagricultural soils. Major GHGs are CH ! ,N O, NOx and CO. Agriculture is a smallsector in Bahrain’s economy. In the year ofthe inventory, its share of GDP reached �� A�� ,�$$�$$�$� $�D� ��numbers cattle, sheep, and poultry.

Data was collected from several sources and

8�9+��.��%��.�%�4��%%��%&� ��%��+�%��.�!

CO $ CH % N $ O NOx CO NMVOC SO $ SF & CF % C $ F &

��)� �"� � � �)� �� "(� � �"�� A-Mineral Products

Cement Production +* � � � � � �"�' � � �Asphalt Roofing � � � � ** �"��( � � � �Road Paving with Asphalt � � � � � ��! � � � �

B-Chemical IndustryAmmonia Production (�( � � � ** ** ** � � �Carbide Production ')( �"� � � � � � � � �Others (Sulfuric Acid) � � � � � � �"�) � � �

C-Metal ProductionAluminum Production (+ � � � �)� � �"'� � �"�� ,�(�� -�� .�Magnesium Foundries � � � � � � � � � �

D-OthersFood and beverages � � � � � �"+* � � � �

Greenhouse Gas Source andSink CategoriesTotal Industrial Processes

�� hout.** Negligible amounts


March � � � � ��

converted to match the IPCC Guidelineworksheets. Data Sources included theCentral Statistics Office. Calculations ofGHG emissions covered a number of sourceactivities, including CH (emissions fromenteric fermentation and manuremanagement, while N ! O emissions werecalculated from manure management.

�$� $ �*�� '� #9#� �&�$$��$�from the agriculture sector are small andconsist mostly of CH �!��#%"��$��@�enteric fermentation constitutes all of theagricultural CH emissions.

�,+ Land Use change and ForestryInventory

This category does not apply in Bahrain asthere are no forests or grasslands that couldbe converted to alternative uses. There arelarge amounts of palm trees and while themonitoring of palm tree areas have typicallybeen neglected, it is well established thatthey are not destroyed when land is areconverted to residential or commercialareas. Rather, they are relocated to otherareas and replanted. As a result, this is notconsidered a land conversion activity.

�,- Waste ManagementInventory

This section deals with theestimation of GHGs especiallymethane (CH ), emitted fromvarious handling methods ofmunicipal solid waste (MSW) andwastewater treatment in Bahrain,closely adopting the methodologies�� 4-<<��#��$��No attempt was made to calculatethe amounts of methane emittedfrom industrial wastewater andsludge handling, because of lack ofspecific data. Though large amountsof BOD characterize the industrial

waste effluents, the handling systems do notallow calculation of methane emissions.

Data sources include the Ministry of Worksand Agriculture (wastewater andmanagement systems) and reports of themunicipalities of Bahrain (total amounts of

MSW) and the Central StatisticsOrganization (total population). IPCCdefault figures were used throughout. Table��,�� $�&& �(��&�$$��$�

�,. Summary of Inventory Results/�%�� $ �*$� � �� &�$$��$� ��#9#$�� ;$��@��(�GHG type, and by sector on a carbondioxide-equivalent basis. Different GHGsare known to contribute differently to thetotal greenhouse effect. This contributionis expressed as Global Warming Potential(GWP) – the ratio of GHG radiative forcing

Table ��.��%��%��%%��%&� ��agricultural energy sector (Gg)

Greenhouse Gas Sourceand Sink Categories

CH " N # O

Total Agriculture �")' �"�!A-Enteric Fermentation andManure Management

CattleSheepGoatsCamelsHorsesPoultry

�"''�"��"�!�"�(�"��"�!

�"��"��"��"��"��"�

B-Manure ManagementSolid storage and dry lotPasture range & Paddock

��

/�"��/�"��

C-Agricultural Soils �"�!Default values used throughout.

Table ��.��%��%��%%��%&� ��,�%��.�!

GHG Source and SinkCategories CH $ N % OTOTAL ��") �"�Solid waste Disposal onland

� �

Managed waste disposalon land

�)") �"�

Wastewater Handling �"� �"�Domestic and !� �"�


March � � � � ��

! ��(� �� ,� �� "� �� @%�relati�� @%� �� <= over a specified,��&��!�$� ��(��'��(� �$�–� � �� -year GWP was chosen for theBahrain GHG inventory). GHG emissionscan be expressed as CO equivalent.

The main gas emitted is carbon dioxide!��'��#%"'�* �� $��$� A� �� '� ��*��(�&�� !��#%"��? O,and other GHGs though are emitted in verysmall amounts.

The main GHG-emitting sector is energy,* �� A� �� emissions on a carbon dioxide equivalentbasis. Waste, industry, and transport account�� A'� ��A'� �� A� ��$,��(�� =�� per capita basis, CO -equivalent emissions �� &�� #%� ,��person.

�,/ Recommendations for Enhancingthe Quality of Bahrain’s GHGInventory

A program to enhance the accuracy ofBahraini national GHG emissions inventoryis necessary and important. A reliable andverifiable greenhouse gas emissionsdatabase is a prerequisite for compliancewith the Framework Convention, and isrelevant to Bahrain’s ability to identifyopportunities for achieving emissionreductions. Based on the experience gainedin developing the first national greenhousegas inventory there are several efforts thatshould be carried out as described below.

In the near-term - and to facilitate thepreparation of future communications - highpriority objectives are strengthening theinstitutional structure for carrying out futureGHG inventory assessment, and developinglocal emissions factors that better representBahraini conditions. Within these braod

Figure ��8��+�.;.��%%��%�95�.;.��5 ��95�0��&� ��.�!

! ! #

$ # & #

' $ * + , - . 0 1 2 3 4)

' $ , & 0 1 2 9 :) ' & ; $ 0 1 > 4

O)

By GHG type

? @ A ? B

C A C B

D E A F B@ A @ B@ A @ BF A C B

@ A E BWaste

Transport

Energy

Industry

industrial solvents

Agriculture

Land-use change/forestry

G D I J F F K L M

G D N I E N N K L M

G D I O @ D K L M

G E I N P J K L M

G P C K L M��


March � � � � ��

objectives, there are several specificrecommendations, as outlined below:

��Institutional strengthening: It isessential to establish a permanentSecretariat within the GeneralCommission for the Protection ofMarine Resources, Environment andWildlife in order to coordinate periodicupdates of the national inventory.Moreover, a national system for GHGdata collection monitoring, reportingand verification is necessary in order toensure that an inventory updatingsystem is both sustainable and meetshigh standards.

��Improvement of local emission factors:

Nationally developed and authenticatedGHG emission factors should be used inplace of the IPCC default values infuture updates. Scientific researchshould be conducted regarding specificsources of emissions – particularlynitrous oxides from soils and emissionfactors associated with in-situagricultural and vegetation wasteincineration.

In the mid-to long-term, the highest priorityis to address some of the gaps in theavailable data. Efforts to improve dataavailability and quality could be principallytargeted at the following sectors:

��Energy: It is recommended that nationalsurveys be conducted to better representconsumption levels and patterns ofvarious subsectors of the economy. Inparticular such survey should focus onmarine and aviation bunker fuels,fugitive emissions, and new modes ofpublic transport.

��Industry: Scientific research should beconducted to better understand andrepresent energy consumption patternsin small industries and factories, as wellas to improve overall data availabilityfrom these emission sources.

��Agriculture: Data should be collectedregarding crop residue disposal systems,the quantity of fertilizers and pesticidesused by the agriculture sector, and thenumber of locally owned and importedlivestock.

��Waste: Data should be collectedregarding the quantities of solid wasteand wastewater produced by small ruralcommunities and their waste disposalsystems.

Bahrain’s First National Communications – � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � " " " " & � �

March ' ( ( ) ��

� Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment

, IntroductionThe low-lying nature of Bahrain’s islands,coupled with significant land reclamationinvestments and extensive industrial,commercial, and residential activity incoastal zones, emphasize the country’s acutevulnerability to climate change-induced sealevel rise (SLR). In the face of this threat, anassessment of vulnerability and adaptationoptions to sea level rise is a criticalcomponent of Bahrain’s response to climatechange. The specific focus, as discussed inthis Chapter, has been to identify vulnerablesectors, regions, and resources and to assessthe degree of future risk posed by SLR. Theresults of this work are expected to provideclearer indications of Bahrain’s coastal zonemanagement challenges, as well as provideinsights into national strategies for proactiveadaptation.

,� ApproachThe purpose of a vulnerability andadaptation assessment is to illuminate thepotential impacts of climate change oncritically important sectors. In the case ofBahrain’s coastal zones, this involves anestimate of the spatial extent of futureinundation from projected SLR, togetherwith an assessment of its impact on humansettlements, agriculture, and naturalecosystems. It also implies the identificationof strategic adaptation options.

This process requires that a scenario becreated of what Bahraini coastal areas mightlook like in a future without climate change,and that this scenario be compared with aparallel vision of what coastal zones wouldlook like under predicted conditions ofclimate change. In order for this to be done,two climate scenarios must be created: abaseline scenario, aimed at representing a

future in the absence of climate change anda climate change scenario, aimed atrepresenting a future under increasedgreenhouse gas concentrations and theresulting changes in sea level.

�� Baseline Scenario

A baseline scenario was constructed usinggeographic information systems (GIS) andremote sensing techniques (Al-Jeneid and��'� ��"�� ,,�� creating a digital elevation model for thefive major islands (i.e., Bahrain, Muharraq,Sitrah, Jiddah, and Um Na’asan) as well as� ��9 * ��%��,��$� ��$��$��%��$ ��imagery.

These islands were chosen for strategicimportance. The five major islands represent�A�� !not including theHawar group islands) and are zones ofintense economic activity and populationgrowth. Inundation from sea level rise couldlead to serious displacement of people andcommercial activities. The Hawar groupislands represent protected areas that aresurrounded by coral reefs and shallows.They are uninhabited and declared asnational protected areas. Inundation fromsea level rise could lead to loss of biologicaldiversity and adverse impacts on the diversepopulations of birds, corals and fish.

To facilitate the analysis, it was assumedthat these islands’ coastal zone geography ��&�� (��$��*��$�&�� * �� (�*�� $��$�a conservative assumption in that it is farlikelier that coastal zones will have been�� ,�� (� �� !�� : &,��'�more land reclaimed, greater economicactivity) and the resulting impacts from SLRof greater magnitude.

Bahrain’s First National Communications – � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � ! � � $ $ $ $ ' � �

March ) * * , �

�� Climate Change Scenarios

Three climate change scenarios – low,moderate, and high - were developed toexamine the impacts from sea level rise onthe selected islands. The low SLR scenario $$�&�� -meter rise above current sea��'� � ��&�� $�� $$�&�� meter rise, and the high scenario assumed a�� &�� $�� $� � �� %��alelevation model was developed for eachclimate change scenario and vulnerableareas were then identified – by sector andland use class - by overlaying the satelliteimagery over the digital elevation models.

This multiple SLR approach to the analysiswas important to offset data limitations andto account for uncertainties associated withtopographic perturbations. (i.e., regionalsubsidence/uplifting). The latter is aparticularly important issue in Bahrain asland surface and seabed topography arecontinually undergoing changes due to theextensive resource extraction activities (i.e.,oil, natural gas, groundwater) that areexpected to at least continue at their currentpace, and possibly intensify over time.

, Sea Level Rise ImpactsThe findings of this first vulnerabilityassessment give cause for concern forBahrain’s security in the face of a changingclimate. As described below, theassessment results suggest that under evensmall changes in sea level, Bahrain facesthreats in terms of land area inundated, anda variety of adverse impacts on populationsettlements, aquatic resources, cropproductivity, coastal erosion, and biologicaldiversity.

�� Inundation Levels

The total land area that would be inundatedunder the various climate change scenarios�$�$��$� �� $�$ �*��/�%��'��the low sea level rise scenario results in an�� A�!��@&

-) of the total

land area of the total land area of Bahrain by�� $� �� $�$� �� A�� !�� @&

-) for the scenario

* ��$� ��$�$��&�� levels.

Inundation will unevenly affect Bahrain’svulnerable infrastructure. For the main

islands of Bahrain,Muharraq, Sitrah, Jiddah,and Um Na’asan - where themajority of socioeconomicactivities are concentrated -inundation would adverselyaffect cities, roads,agricultural areas, as well asbeaches and salt marshes. Ofa total inundated area of �� @&

-, about a

7� �� !��@&-),

would occur in theproductive zones taken up bycities, roads, and agriculturallands.

The extent of inundation onthe Hawar Islands, giventheir status as wetlands of

��/��%��%��+�$�+��%�&��

�

��

'�

(�

)�

��

�� Seal level rise (cm)

/��+��<��!

�0

*0

(0

!0

��0

Indu

ndat

edpe

rcen

tage

(%)

total inundated land area

total inundated percentage


March ) * * , �

international importance, is particularlynoteworthy. The islands in this chain areeven more low lying than the main islands.Jazirat Hawar, the largest in the island� ��'� $� � & :�&�&� �� &��$'� �� &� �� &��$�above sea level. Were sea levels to rise by�� &��'� �� A� !�� @&

-) of the

combined land area of these pristine islandswould be in�� /�%�� $�� $�the spatial extent of this inundation. It isimportant to note that these inundated areassignificantly overlap the sensitive bird��%� ��$��%�$��$�!��:��< ,��"�

�� Impacts on Human Settlements and

Infrastructure

� �� ,�,�� (� � ��&��$� ��$��(��$��:,��*��This is in part thanks to national policiesthat have historically encouraged the sitingof human settlements away from coastalzones so as to promote commercialdevelopment in these areas. On the other

hand, coastal zones are currently whereextensive economic infrastructure is locatedthat includes highway networks, touristcenters, and commercial establishments.Roads networks, for example, would likely�� '� *�� $��& �� @&�� highways and major roads submersed under � �� &�� $� � �� $�� $� ��,��$��$� �significant share of total coastal roads inBahrain.

�� Impacts on Agriculture

Although its contribution to the nationaleconomic accounts is less than one percent,the agricultural sector plays an importantrole in the livelihood of Bahraini society.The agriculture sector relies on heavyirrigation and currently provides job�,,��$��&�� '��,��,�� contributes to national food security goals.

� �� $$� �� %�� meter rise in sea level is likely to be around��@&

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in the country. Other impacts from theinundation of agricultural lands include

damage to drainage systems, anincrease in water logging problems,and higher groundwater tables.These impacts are likely tocontribute to adverse impacts oncrop production levels, particularlydate palms which are highlysusceptible to groundwater salinitylevels.

��" Impacts on Corals and

Fishing Industry

The effect of SLR on coral reefs isdifficult to quantify due to theuncertainties related to regionalsubsidence due extraction ofgroundwater, oil and natural gas.Nevertheless, there are severalpossible impacts that are importantto identify as areas of futureinvestigation, as follows:

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�� Reduced light penetration: Siltationfrom coastal erosion may lead toreduced light penetration that canadversely impact the rate at whichvarious species of corals grow.

�� Sea temperature rise: An increase inclimate change-induced sea temperaturemay contribute to an increase in theincidence of severe coral bleaching, andeventually the death of corals.

�� Coral calcification: It is likely seawaterwith higher levels of carbon dioxide willadversely affect the coral calcificationrate. This could reduce the density ofcoral carbonate skeletons and lead toaccelerated coastal erosion.

� �� (� �� '�� ,��,��employed in the fishing industry. Annualfish yields are ap,��:�& ��(� �� &��tones, of which coral fishes (e.g., shrimp,�� "� �� A� �� annual catch. Deterioration of coral reefhabitats from climate change wouldnegatively affect associated fauna and fishstocks, and eventually threaten the viabilityof the fishing industry.

��# Impacts on Mangrove and Salt

Marshes

Mangrove areas are already under highstress due to land reclamation activities. Inthe event of sea level rise, major portions ofmangrove ecosystems would be inundatedand, in theory, lead to a gradual retreat ofplantations to areas inland. However, inview of land reclamation and associatedcommercial land development pressures, itis unlikely that there will be suitable areas toaccommodate the gradual retreat ofmangrove plantations. The total area ofmangrove plantations affected, though notdirectly quantified in the sea level risevulnerability assessment, is expected to bequite high.

Coastal salt marshes in the main islands willbe among the hardest hit areas due to risingsea levels in terms of the extent of impact.Home to unique and sensitive ecosystems,� �� *�� (� ��&��$��$� ��$� ��@&

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��,��$��$� �� A� �� $��&��$�� $'� �� A�� l land area ofthe main islands.

��$ Impacts on Coastal Erosion

Most of Bahrain’s coastal plains have ��% �$� ��$$� � �� &��$� �� $� � ��and are erosion prone. The wave-inducedmovement of sand along the western andeastern beaches is primarily southward andconsequently heavy transport of sedimentsoccurs toward the southernmost parts ofislands, and especially along the Ras AlBarr sandbar at the lower end of BahrainIsland. This process is likely to beexacerbated under conditions of sea levelrise, with increases in effective waveheights and intensification of littoraltransport along the western and easterncoasts. Furthermore, higher sea levelscoupled with erosion may lead to seapenetration inland in particularly low lying �� $��$$�� &� bove sea level.

��! Impacts on Hydrology and Water

Resources

With the increases in population andeconomic growth of recent decades, Bahrainhas substantially increased its demand for��$ � * �� A� �� $ * ��demand is met by groundwater withdrawals,resulting in a sever decline of thegroundwater table through saltwaterintrusion. At present, over half the volumeof the original groundwater reservoir hasbeen lost to salinization, sharply reducing itsavailability for municipal and agriculturalpurposes.

A rise in sea level will further aggravate aserious problem. One possible impact of sea


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level rise would be a regression in theposition of the freshwater/saline waterfrontleading to further saltwater intrusion anddeterioration of the aquifer. Moreover, SLRwould lead to a new line of contact furtherinland between salt marsh areas andgroundwater which would likely lead tomore seepage of salt water into thegroundwater reservoir. There are alsoindirect impacts from climate change ingeneral as higher temperatures might lead tohigher levels of water consumption inagricultural activities and households,further depleting scarce freshwater supplies.

,$ Adaptation Action PlanThe findings of this first vulnerabilityassessment raise serious issues of greatnational concern. Currently heavily reliantupon its coastal ecosystems and resourcesthat are, in many cases, already fragile ordegraded, the population of Bahrain can illafford the added challenge of increasedecological stress that climate change wouldsurely bring.

Adaptation to sea level rise in Bahrain willlikely need to be a multi-stage and iterativeprocess that includes informationacquisition, raising public awareness,mainstreaming SLR into the policy context,implementing adaptation measures, andmonitoring and evaluation. While there areseveral types and forms of adaptation, theapproach outlined below focuses on a mixof strategies and measures that are tailoredto fit Bahraini local conditions, and take intoaccount existing constraints andopportunities. Two broad elements of anadaptation strategy are essential for Bahrainto adapt to future sea level rise, as discussedbelow.

��"�� Policy Mainstreaming Initiatives

Adaptation policy initiatives are needed toprotect investments in vulnerable areas,minimize coastland loss of vulnerable low-

lying areas, conserve natural ecosystems,control coastal erosion, and protectgroundwater resources. In this respect,adaptation policies are needed that areanticipatory and ensure continued protectionamidst the development of coastalresources, alleviating SLR damagesincurred to date, and developing acomprehensive understanding of strategicresponses. The Environmental Affairs (EA),given its current role in facilitating theintegration of environmental concernswithin Government development plans, is totake the leadership role in the process ofdeveloping a national strategic response andcoordinate stockholder involvementthroughout the planning process. Specificinitiatives it would address are summarizedbelow.

�� Integrate SLR considerations into

national development policies: Thisapproach is principally aimed atintroducing shift in the consideration offormulating policies and nationaldevelopment plans. Since SLR is agradual process, it is still possible toconsider adaptation measures now thatcan render future infrastructureinvestments less vulnerable to SLR.Experience has shown that policymakers, planners and managers (i.e.Ministry of Housing) are eager toaddress SLR vulnerability into theplanning process. A variety of actionitems are needed as summarized in� ��

�� Strengthen stakeholder capacity: Thereis a need for capacity building to enablethe EA, as a principal environmentalauthority, to play a major role inplanning, coordinating andimplementing adaptation programs ofaction. EA capacity needs to bestrengthened in terms of human,financial, technical and technologicalresources. Moreover, the capacity of


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scientific institutions, relatedgovernment agencies, NGOs and otherentities that have a clear stake in SLRshould also be strengthened. A varietyof action items are needed as$�&& ��D��

�� Prioritize near-term coastal protection:

Vulnerable coastal areas containindustrial compounds, recreationalfacilities and human settlements. Theseareas are of high priority and publicinvestment. The current coastal erosionthreat can be addressed by near-termengineering measures and propermaintenance of coastlines. However,protection as a mean of adaptation iscostly and it may have limited long-termeffectiveness. Several initiatives should��,��$��'� $�� '�� can help to systematically minimize thelikely effects of SLR along vulnerablecoastal zones.

��"�� Ecosystem Protection Initiatives

Wetlands and marine resources are undercontinuous stress and their ecosystems arebeing disturbed. Many of the sensitivewetlands in Bahrain are currently subject topollution, over-exploitation, and adverseeffects of coastal envelopment projects thatrequire extensive dredging and landreclamation. Further disturbance as aconsequence of SLR will slowly degrademajor functions of these systems, thusadversely affecting biodiversity. Thefollowing paragraphs highlight majoradaptation action needed to limit ecosystemdeterioration.

�� Mangrove and other wetland (Sabkhas)areas: Mangrove plantations areexperiencing formidable threatsreclamation and infilling activities thatthreaten their existence. Mangrovestands are also vulnerable to SLR havingno capacity for inland retreat. A variety

of action items are needed as$�&& ��D��

�� Coral reefs and other marine resources:

Coral has already experienced bleachingevents. Other types of damage due tomismanagement are evident such aspollution from point sources and fromtanker traffic. A variety of action items �� $�$�&& ��D��

�� Groundwater Resources: Theimportance of groundwater resources inBahrain cannot be overemphasized.Groundwater resources are experiencingsevere pressures from over-extractionpractices. SLR will likely intensifyseawater intrusion into the aquiferleading to a continuous salinization andrapid deterioration of its quality. Avariety of action items are needed as$�&& ��D��

Planning an effective response to SLR willrequire aggressive pursuit of the aboveoptions. The anticipatory initiativesdiscussed in the Action Plan – both policymainstreaming and ecosystem protectioninitiatives - will promote sustainable coastaldevelopment by accounting for the likelyeffects of SLR and current maladaptivepractices. Careful consideration andselection of adaptation policies andstrategies is critical for Bahrain, a small andhighly vulnerable country.

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�� tation Plan

Integrate SLR considerations intopolicies:

Prioritize near-term coastal protection: Strengthen stakeholder capacity:

�� AccomZmodate SLR in thedesign of new policies regardingbuilding codes and coastalstructures,

�� Formulate sector specificdevelopment guidelines (tourism,industry, etc) to highlight forinvestors the potential problemsarising from SLR,

�� Formulate a comprehensivepolicy framework for integratedcoastal and marine resourcesmanagement, and

�� Formulate guidelines andlegislation for the implementationof integrated coastal zonemanagement.

�� Identify and delineate critically vulnerable coastal areas,�� Reassess coastal area vulnerability to SLR, including economic

valuation of endangered properties, establishments, and resources,�� Create a GIS-based coastal database management system for

facilitating decision-making regarding coastal areas,�� Investigate the feasibility of new coastal structures (e.g., dikes,

levees, etc..) and maintenance measures (e.g., periodic beachnourishment) to protect high priority areas.

�� Establish and maintain effective agricultural drainage systems,�� Rehabilitate endangered ecosystems with special emphasis on

coral reef areas, mangroves, and important bird nesting areas,�� Raise public awareness on climate change issues in general, and

SLR in particular,�� Actively enforce legislation regarding coastal areas and marine

resources,�� Formulate an integrated water resource management plan to

rationalize water use and protect aquifers from salinization,�� Accommodate SLR in the design of new policies regarding building

codes and coastal structures, and ongoing projects,�� Review and update legislations related to water usage.

�� Strengthen national capacity (marineauthorities) for monitoring SLRdynamics and trends throughupgrading and networking existingmonitoring stations.

�� Develop legal, institutional andhuman resources capacity for the EAand national research institutions.

�� Conduct training programs inCC/SLR information management,vulnerability, risks assessments andadaptation planning

�� Strengthen the capacity of farmers toadapt to new techniques in farmingand management of salt affectedsoils.

�� Strengthen regional cooperation andnetworking among countries in theregion to facilitate exchange of dataand information on CC/ SLR issues.

Mangrove ecosystems Coral ecosystems Groundwater resources�� Establish a protective buffer

zone around Mangroveplantations.

�� Reforest mudflats & otherlocations along beaches.

�� Revive traditional agriculturalsystems around mangrovesusing treated sewage effluent.

�� Launch a national campaign toraise public awareness amongvarious sectors of the society.

�� Rehabilitate corals in key sites,�� Aggressively enforce of legislation regarding marine resources.

�� Formulate an integrated waterresource management plan torationalize water use and protectaquifers from being excessivelysalinized.

�� Legalize and institutionalize reuse ofsewage treated water.

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� Greenhouse Gas Mitigation InitiativesThis chapter summarizes a national-levelanalysis of a set of options and opportunitiesfor reducing GHG emissions in Bahrain.Each of the initiatives was evaluated relativeto several selection criteria: capitalinvestment required, achievable GHGreductions, cost of saved carbon (CSC), andsocial acceptability. Particular emphasis wasplaced on options that are low or zero-cost,can substantially reduce GHG emissions,and will contribute positively to the nationaldevelopment priorities

While the measures discussed in this chapterwill focus on the potential of varioustechnologies and practices, it is clear that toachieve the results laid out in this chapterwill also involve a certain number ofparallel institutional, regulatory, andfinancial initiatives. The followingdiscussion lays out viable measures thatcould be implemented in the near to mid-term in Bahrain for achieving enduringgreenhouse gas reductions, followed by anoutline of an action plan for implementingthe conclusions.

Two scenarios were considered: a "BaseCase" assuming business-as-usualassumptions, and a "Mitigation Case", witha set of initiatives described below that havethe potential to reduce GHG emissions. Theperiod considered in the assessment was��

�� Business-as-Usual GHG Emissionsin Bahrain

Based on the results of the GHG inventory,the major contributing sectors to GHGemissions in the State of Bahrain aresummarized as follows:

��Energy supply: GHG emissions fromenergy supply are primarily associatedwith electric power generation, as wellas certain large industrial applications(i.e., aluminum, petrochemicals,

refineries). Total carbon dioxide-�� -equivalent) emissions�� !��

��Waste management: GHG emissionsfrom waste management are primarilyassociated with two types of wastes,namely municipal solid waste and�� "��-equivalent�� #�!��

��Industrial processes: GHG emissionsfrom industrial processes in Bahrain areprimarily associated with mineral,chemical, metal and food & beverage$��% �� "�� -equivalent�� #�!��

��Transport: GHG emissions fromtransportation in Bahrain are associatedwith the amount of fuel consumed incars, trucks, a�%� & �� "�� -equivalent emissions of from this sector�� !��

The three other sectoral categories inBahrain’s GHG inventory - solvents andother product use, agriculture, and land-usechange and forestry – contribute negligibleamounts to national GHG accounts (i.e., less��'��(��%��considered to be suitable sectors forconsidering GHG mitigation options.

To estimate the GHG emission trajectory ofthe energy supply, waste management,industrial processes, and transport, ananalysis was carried out that accounted forpopulation growth, economic activity, andseveral other expected trends that can affectthe level of future GHG emissions (AL-)�� (�� *�� expected growth in GHG emissions underbusiness-as-usual assumptions, highlightingthe expected major contributions of theenergy supply sector to overall emission

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�� Mitigation Initiatives AnalyzedThere are several mitigation measures thathave been analyzed to determine their GHGreduction potential and associated costs.Given the prominence of energy supply, allof these options are focused on this sector.The paragraphs below summarize theoptions considered.

�� Energy Efficiency of Power

Generation

The overwhelming majority of GHGemission in the energy supply sector is fromthe combustion of natural gas for electricpower generation. The Bahraini electricpower supply system is characterized bynumerous small and large units operating atlow efficiencies. Replacement or upgradingto achieve greater combustion efficiencieswould considerably reduce annual naturalgas consumption levels.

While several options were considered, themitigation assessment focused on upgradingexisting systems with a combination ofcombined cycle units and co-generation(power and heat for water desalination). Aspart of a mitigation scenario, it was assumed

that combined cycle units�� '�combustion efficiencywould be introduced ateight inefficient singlecycle power stations andcogeneration wasintroduced at one station.These changes wouldannually reduce emissions�� &�� %��,�%�� &�� +�million tonnes.

There are no major cost,institutional, or socialbarriers envisioned for amore widespread use ofenergy efficient technologyin electricity supply. The

cost of saved carbon for implementing this�$�� –-��./�� &�� %��,�%�� %�%(�indicating its attractiveness from aneconomic perspective. Moreover, directsurveys among a range of individualsconfirm the attractiveness from a socialperspective.

�� Renewable Energy Systems for

Power Supply:

This initiative involves adding zero-carbon,renewable resources to the electric system.Bahrain is well endowed with solar energywith an annual average solar insolation level�� &� �� 0/�� 1�� highest in the world. Wind energy is lessattractive as average wind speeds are well&��$��%��rge periodsof the year over large portions of thecountry. Tidal energy is also not consideredan attractive option due to land use requiredfor the installation of turbines and theresulting adverse ecological impacts.

The mitigation assessment focused on solarthermal combined cycle systems to meet�&� �� '� �� %��%�� "�� %�� 20�solar thermal station (with no natural gas

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backup), and would annually reduce�� &��%��,�%��&��tonnes.

The cost of saved carbon for implementingthis option is negative (i.e., –-��/�� carbon dioxide avoided) indicating itsattractiveness from an economicperspective. However, using substantiallevels of intermittent renewable energytechnologies in Bahrain would represent adeparture from business as usual requiringnew coordination among differentinstitutional entities. Indeed, one of the keytechnical issues was how intermittentresources can be integrated in the electricsystem given system interfacing, stability,and operability concerns. While these issueswill require further review for the specificcircumstances posed by the Bahraini electricsystem, it is unlikely that they representunsolvable technical problems.

�� Demand Side Efficiency Measures

Air conditioning and lighting are significantelectricity end-uses in Bahraini households.Lighting efficiency measures— includingautomatic controls for exterior lighting,higher-efficiency fluorescent lightingfixtures, ballasts, lamps, and controls, andcompact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in placeof incandescent bulbs—can significantlyreduce lighting energy and peak power use.High efficiency air conditioning, includinghigher-than-standard efficiencycompressors, heat-exchangers, fans, controlsystems, and other associated equipmentalso has great potential to reduce spacecooling power requirements, whichrepresents almost half of the total powergeneration in Bahrain.

The mitigation assessment focused on theintroduction of CFLs and high efficiency airconditioners in the context of the existingelectric supply system. For both measures,this would involve a complete replacementof existing inefficient technology, phased-in��-year period. The combined effect

of these measures would result in acombined reduction in carbon dioxide�� &�� &� �� %�� %� �� CFLs).

The cost of saved carbon for implementingthis option is negative (i.e., –-��/��carbon dioxide avoided) indicating itsattractiveness from an economicperspective. The major impediments toimplementation of high efficiencytechnology in Bahrain are likely to be thecurrent low electricity tariffs, the high initialcost of many of the technologies relative tothe less costly alternative, and current lackof availability of the efficient productsthemselves. Moreover, the introduction oflighting and space cooling efficiencymeasures require supply and demand for thetechnologies to be built up at the same time.

�� Other Mitigation InitiativesConsidered

In addition to the measures discussed above,several other measures were consideredthough not analyzed due to data limitationsand other uncertainties. The subsectionsbelow briefly summarize the optionsconsidered.

�� Road Traffic Management And

Control

In Bahrain, growth in vehicle ownership is�,$��%� �� %� &�� &�� &� �� "�� ,�� %�infrastructure is becoming increasinglycongested, especially during rush hours,leading to costly traffic delays. Redesigningthe transport system to promote publictransit, high-speed lanes, better vehicle fueleconomy, and the use of alternative fuelscould substantially reduce annual GHGemissions from the transport sector. Furtherinvestigation is needed on future trafficmanagement policies and plans to betterunderstand how certain measure can lead tolasting reductions.


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�� Interconnection Of The Electric

Transmission Grid

The Bahraini electric transmission system iscurrently not connected to region networksand is characterized by relatively high linelosses. Integrating the transmission gridwith that of the neighboring GulfCooperation Council (GCC) countries ispotentially attractive for reducing GHGemissions because it could mean theoperation of larger power generation stationwith better electric system carbon emissionrates (i.e., tC/MWh), as well as being able totap into transmission networks which onaggregate have lower line losses. Furtherinvestigation is needed on the carbonemitting characteristics of regionalelectric systems.

�� Landfill Gas And Utilization In

Power Generation

This option can reduce greenhouse gasemissions by preventing the directrelease of methane to the atmosphere.Since the Bahrain electric supplysector overwhelmingly uses naturalgas, there is no net gain in the carboncontent of electricity on the grid. Theamount of methane that can becaptured annually from large sanitary��%�� &� �� "��cost associated with methane recoveryis much higher than the cost of naturalgas, which is available in Bahrain atrelatively low cost. Further investigation isneeded on site-specific characteristics of thelandfills, as well as the additional pipelinecosts for the transport of methane to localpower stations.

�� Impact of Mitigation InitiativesIf implemented, the combined effect of theinitiatives analyzed can reduce overallemissions of carbon dioxide in Bahrain by�&� �� &� �� ' � &�� *�� 3��&ly, thecosts for implementing the measures arenegative, meaning that they represent “no-

regret” options that are able to yield GHGreduction while saving money. This isprimarily due to the fact that capital costsare more than offset by reductions in fuelcosts over the measure’s lifetime.

�� Mitigation Action PlanThere are several measures, techniques andpolicies that could be implemented toreduce national GHG emissions. InBahrain, there is a variety of economic andsocial factors that influence GHG emissionlevels, as well as the cost effectiveness ofmitigation options and plans.

Based on Bahrain GHGs emission inventoryand projections in this section, it is clear that

natural gas as well as other petroleumproducts is the major sources of energy andGHGs emissions. Therefore, significantmitigation of GHGs emissions could beachieved if more efficient generation wasintroduced, as well as conservation practiceswere implemented. Other strategicmitigation options for Bahrain includeupgrading technologies in transport (e.g.,bus and truck fleets) and buildings (e.g.,more efficient air conditioning and homeelectric appliances).

There are three essential elements of anational mitigation plan of action that

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should be considered for near-term action,as outlined below.

�� Replace inefficient power stations with

new combined cycle units: Themitigation analysis shows that it iseconomically feasible to upgrade orreplace existing, inefficient powerstations with high-efficiency natural gascombined cycle �� -yearperiod. Annually, this would result in�&� �� 2��/�� savings.

�� Utilize solar energy technologies:Despite abundant levels of solarinsolation available in Bahrain, there isno serious initiative to utilize solarenergy technologies. Based on themitigation analysis, solar troughs are aparticularly relevant mitigation option��4�� %��%�� Gg in annual GHG savings, as well asprovide a number of other benefits.

�� Promote efficient air conditioning and

lighting: There are several strategicdemand side opportunities that shouldbe promoted through national publicawareness programs. In particular,energy-efficient air-conditioners andcompact fluorescent lighting should beactively incentivized.

Supporting such action requires confrontingand overcoming certain challenges andbarriers. Specifically, it is necessary to buildnational technical capacity for mitigationassessment, and strengthen inter-ministeriallinks for information sharing. A program ofaction is outlined below.

�� Integrate mitigation options into

national planning: As many of theelements of a mitigation assessment inBahrain cut across traditional ministerialboundaries, it is not clear, from aninstitutional coordination perspective,how all of the various elements of amitigation plan, were one to bedeveloped, could be implemented. The

national climate change committee atthe General Commission for theProtection of Marine ResourcesEnvironment and wildlife could beentrusted to coordinate implementationof the plan.

�� Strengthen technical capacity: Foraggressive Demand Side Management(DSM) programs to be successful inBahrain, training in a number ofdifferent areas should be implemented.Training of Bahraini professional andother workers will be required tounderstand the opportunities for energysavings beyond air conditioning andlighting applications. Nationaleducational institutions can providetraining in the field of climate change.

�� Develop energy information networks:

There is currently only modestinformation regarding energy end-use inBahrain homes, businesses, institutions,and industries. In order to inform manyelements of future mitigationassessments, as well as for many otherforms of energy planning, it is essentialto better understand how energy is usedin Bahrain. To that end, it will beimportant to plan and implement anumber of comprehensive end-usesurveys in a range of different sectors,complemented by a combination of end-use meeting and energy audits for largerbuildings and for industrial facilities.The climate change committee shouldcoordinate such surveys and disseminateits findings.

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� Strategy to Raise Public AwarenessThis chapter summarizes a national-levelstrategy for raising awareness about climatechange issues. Such a strategy is essentialfor moving toward a better understanding ofboth the potential impacts on Bahrain froma changed climate, as well as what its youth,civil society groups and governmentagencies can do in mobilizing adaptationactivities.

As the previous chapters have sought tohighlight, Bahrain has limited naturalresources, a fast growing population, andrapid rates of urbanization andindustrialization. In the face of theadditional risks posed by a changingclimate, the transition to sustainabledevelopment practices is not merely anoption, but an imperative choice forBahrain’s economic and social prosperity�5�� (�

A key step towards meeting the challengesposed by a changing climate is to initiate anational dialogue to raise awareness amongkey policymakers, civil societyorganizations and NGOs about causes andpotential consequences. A sharedunderstanding among these individuals andinstitutions is essential, not only formobilizing public support, but also forundertaking the range of participatoryactivities that will undoubtedly be needed.

�� Context for ActionAn existing commitment to sustainabledevelopment and environmental protectionis a key national premise for formulating anoverall awareness building strategy for theKingdom of Bahrain around climate changeissues. This commitment is evident throughongoing outreach, training and educationefforts undertaken by the Government, civilsociety organizations, academic andresearch institutions, industry and the mediaon environmental protection and resourceconservation. In fact, several institutions

and NGOs are already engaged in a varietyof ongoing activities for raising publicawareness and enhancing research ofenvironmental problems confronting thecountry.

It is important to note that climate changeand its potential negative impacts andconsequences have only recently yet begunto be publicly perceived as a nationalchallenge. A considerable lack of awarenessstill exists in Bahrain regarding how climatechange may threaten national developmentactivities. This is due primarily to a lack ofinformation.

There is therefore a need to both elevatepublic sensitivity to climate change issuesand involve a wide range of groups indeveloping strategic responses. Together,these actions should help to foster a sense ofnational responsibility and greatermotivation and commitment towardsmeeting the challenge of climate change.

Finally, the effectiveness of awarenessraising and education for climate changeissues (mitigation and adaptation) andsustainable development in Bahrain shouldultimately be measured by the degree towhich they change the attitudes andbehaviors of the people in carrying out theircollective responsibilities as citizens.

�� Strategic Objectives and Approach"��1�� $�� 6�$��&�� national workshop to seek public input onhow to build public awareness aroundclimate change issues, there has been abroad level of public participationconcerning the strategic aims of such aprocess. Organized by the Desert and AridZones Sciences Program of the ArabianGulf University, the workshop was attendedby representatives from government, NGOs,scientific research and training institutes, theprivate sector, and media outlets. The

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outcome of this gathering was broadacceptance around a goal to enhancepublic awareness regarding climatechange that can lead to specific actionsto reduce emissions, proactively adapt,and protect the management (Khalil,��(��

Within this overall goal, there is now agrowing national consensus in Bahrainaround a number of key publicawareness objectives. These�&7�� 8�%� �� 4�,� �� essentially dictate and underlie athreefold approach to addressingclimate change issues, namelyengagement of civil society,strengthening of national capacity, andpromotion of community-basedinitiatives. Each of these dimensionsof the public awareness strategy issummarized in the subsections below.An overview of the specific targetgroups, objectives, key messages, andactivities implied by the approach is$��%�%��"�&��

�� Civil Society EngagementEngaging Bahraini civil society is afundamental aspect of the public awarenessstrategy. It should be an interactive processin which different parties are identified,approached and then involved in a dialoguearound climate change issues. Each groupwill need to understand their particularroles, responsibilities and ways for makingtheir voices heard, and for buildingconsensus for social action. For policymakers and other interested groups, theultimate aim is to channel new social normsand attitudes that emerge toward concreteactions that can address climate change.

There are several types of civil societygroups that will be engaged. First andforemost, these include children, youth andteachers who together represent the besthope of a new generation of anenvironmentally sensitized citizenry.

Governmental policy and decision makersalso have an important role to play inshaping of new policies, together with arange of non-governmental and civil societyorganizations that can bring theirperspectives on new legislation or policiesneeded.

The media – television, radio, and print -should also be engaged as a way ofharnessing the way the climate changemessage is communicated to the generalpublic.

Other key groups include the scientific andacademic community with the potential fordeveloping new environmental curricula,religious leaders who can stress thatconservation and environmental protectionare civic as well as religious duties, and theprivate sector (primarily industrial facilityoperators) which has such a role to play inachieving significant GHG emissionreductions.

�� !�"��#$�%�� &��' �(�#��%�Awareness Strategy on Climate Change

�� Identify and increase levels of environmentalawareness among key segments of Bahraini society

�� Protect the environment, rationalize natural resourceuse, and reduce resource depletion rates

�� Inculcate in the younger generation a set of valuesand ethical standards that will lead to proactiveattitudes and behavior toward climate change andenvironmental protection

�� Facilitate public participation and support forresource conservation

�� Enhance institutional capacities of variousgovernment departments, civil society, industrial andeconomic organization relevant to climate change,environmental management, and resourceconservation

�� Establish networks for influencing social, economicand environment policies to be more conducive tosustainable development

��Target influential private and civil society groups forraising awareness campaigns regarding specificadaptation, mitigation and vulnerability reductionpolicies and measures that could be effectivelyimplemented

Bahrain’s First National Communications –

� ��

March

��

��

�� c Awareness Strategic Plan

Target Groups Objectives Message Ranked Programs & ActivitiesLegislature� Government Officials� Members of

Parliament &Consultative Council� Members ofMunicipal Councils

� Develop advocacy networks� Enact legislation on emissions, cleaner production, andcoastal infrastructure standards; allocate necessary funds� Apply "polluter pays" principle� ICZM and take precautionary measures against SLR� Address transport and emission problems� Promote energy conservation� Encourage scientific research & information dissemination

� Bahrain highly impacted by climatechange (sea level rise andtemperature increase)� Highlight economic and health costs� Imperative to take appropriatemeasures to alleviate impacts,implement adaptation policies, andlower emissions

� �� !"# " !" � $% visit decision makers, meetParliament Committee members, write lettersto decision makers� �� &� !"# " !" � $% convene special symposiumfor decision makers� �� '� !"# " !" � $% prepare technical reports onclimate change with particular emphasis oncosts

Industry� Government Officials� Private sector

� Reduce energy consumption and lower emissions� Adopt cleaner production and clean technologies� Encourage landscaping and greening activities (sinks)

� Energy conservation and cleanerproduction technologies increasecompetitiveness� Tree and shrub planting can loweremissions around factories and inBahrain in general

� �� !"# " !" � $% visit factories to introduceCC, discuss roles to address CC, encourageservice� �� &� !"# " !" � $: coordinate symposium forfactory owners with Chamber of Commerce

Public( Citizens( Expatriate groups

( Raise awareness of CC among the public at large( Demonstrate the importance of lowering consumption inemission reductions and resources conservation( Develop national technical capacity for adapting to CC

( Rationalization and conservationhelps to address adaptation to CC( Tree and shrub planting can reducepollution and absorb GHG emissions( Water/electricity conservation isessential

( �� !"# " !" � $% conduct public seminars( �� &� !"# " !" � $% conduct media campaigns(newspapers, TV, radio, road signs, etc.)( �� '� !"# " !" � $% arrange exhibitions at publicevents, festivals, and shopping malls

Youth( Elementary students( University students

( Create an environmentally aware and active generation( Build wise environmental behaviors in the next generation( Increase participation of youth in environmental issues( Increase influence of youth in society at large as activistsand advocates for environmental protection

( Environmental protection andresource conservation are nationalresponsibilities

( �� !"# " !" � $% incorporate climate changeissues in school curricula and activities( �� &� !"# " !" � $% conduct leadershipworkshops( �� '� !"# " !" � $% hold competitions( �� )� !"# " !" � $% involve/support youth inconferences, workshops, meetings on CC

Trainers, Advocates( Educators( Religious leaders( Celebrities( Media & Intellectuals

( Create and raise awareness and understanding of CCamong this group( Convey messages and information to the public aboutimportance of addressing climate change issues

( Resource conservation &environmental protection is both acivic and religious duty( Improving energy/water consumptionpatterns reduces wastes and pollution

( �� !"# " !" � $: conduct training workshopsfor trainers and advocates( �� &� !"# " !" � $% hold awareness buildingworkshops for educators, religious leaders,celebrities, media & intellectuals

Civil society groups( Political NGOs( EnvironmentalNGOs( Labor unions

( Raise awareness of the problem of CC( Work together in raising awareness and mitigatingimpacts & adaptation( Monitor compliance in emission reductions

( Let us work together ( �� !"# " !" � $% hold meeting with civilsociety groups to discuss local CC impacts( �� &

Activities: meet with representatives ofthe General Union of Bahrain Labor( �� '� !"# " !" � $% Meet with NGOs & leaders( �� )� !"# " !" � $% hold public seminars on CC

Bahrain’s First National Communications – � � � � � � � � Raising Awareness about Climate Change Issues

March � � � � ��

The types of methods and tools to be used toengage civil society groups will depend onthe nature of the particular group. It willinclude awareness campaigns, publications,films and videos, internet sites, conferences,and so forth.

�� Strengthen National CapacityThe strengthening of national capacity isessential for sustaining actions that emergefrom the awareness building strategy. Inparticular, strategic training programs areconsidered a constituent of individualcapacity building as well as the mostappropriate tool to develop human resourcesand facilitate the transition to a moreenvironmentally sustainable world. Hence,education, on-the-job training, and formaland informal skill development are corerequirements for any proper capacitystrengthening process. Their aim is to fillgaps in knowledge and skills that wouldhelp Bahraini individuals and communitiesto be actively and effectively involved inclimate change issues.

Training activities in Bahraini traininginstitutes and centers are sectoral in theirorientation with a clear job-specific focus.Vocational training, on job training and re-training programmes are widespread. Anumber of government ministries and theprivate sector have established a series ofvocational training centers designedspecifically to address certain neededexpertise in industry, commercial andfinancial business. These

In fact, there is no lack of traininginstitutions in Bahrain that could be adaptedand/or mobilized to address climate changeconcerns, However, a reorientation of theirprogrammes to integrate climate changeissues is a necessary step towardsunderstanding practical implications of theintersections between national developmentand climate change.

The specific areas recommended forcapacity strengthening are as outlinedbelow:

��Environmental Affairs Agency. Thissection of the Public commission for theProtection of Marine Resources,Environment and Wildlife has the statedmission of creating a critical mass ofsufficiently trained national experts inall areas related to climate change, andto play an active and major role inplanning, coordinating andimplementing programmes of action.

��Scientific institutions and NGOs. Thesecontribute to scientific knowledge and toconvey information on issues pertraining to climate change and itsimpacts on the Kingdom of Bahrain, yetare presently highly constrained withregard to climate change issues.

��Vocational training institutions. Localtraining institutions will need to reorienttheir training curriculums to includeclimate change issues and to initiatetraining activities and workshops onGHG inventories, vulnerability andadaptation assessments and GHGabatement options. There is also a needfor training in monitoring of climatechange and its impacts, use andinterpretation of predictive models andformulation of climate change projectproposals.

��On-the-job training. There is a need foryoung researchers, analysts, engineersand others to receive training as part ofthe typical work experience. Whencombined with train-the-trainerprogram, there should be a multipliereffect for the rest of Bahraini society.

�� Encourage Community-basedInitiatives

Community development, knowledgesharing and grass-roots communication forurban, sub-urban and village communities

Bahrain’s First National Communications – � � � � � � � � Raising Awareness about Climate Change Issues

March � � � � ��

are important initiatives that should benurtured as part of a national publicawareness strategy.

There are many NGOs in the Kingdom ofBahrain that have formulated plans tostrengthen the adaptive capacity of localcommunities to various stresses includingclimate variability. These plans havetypically included community-basededucation, training, public awareness anddemonstration projects. Such effortsextended to address climate change couldhelp promote local community resilience toclimate stresses and other environmentalpressures. It should also enhance localcapacity building for participatory decision-making and collective action.

These initiatives, suitably interwoven withfuture plans and programmes of grass-rootsNGOs, will enhance understanding of theclimate change issues, and its implicationsfor the Kingdom of Bahrain. It should alsolead to the design and implementation ofeffective GHG mitigation and climatechange adaptation measures.

Bahrain’s First National Communications – � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

March " " # ��

� List of References�� !��"��#$��%�

and E. Joubert (eds.). Proceedings of the Workshop on the Conservation of the Flora of��&��#��'�()*"+�',��- -�#��.� -��

��/�) ��0� �� "1.�� (�� ,��#�� 2��1�� &�� Development of Resources in West Asia. Arab Centre for Studies of Arid Zones andDrylands, Damascus.

Al-�� /� �� 2� �--�� Impact of Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment.

General Commission for the Protection of Marine Environment & Wildlife.

AL-Qahtani, H. I., Mansour, A. H., M�� )�� --�� Greenhouse Gas

Mitigation Options in Bahrain.

Al-/�� %� ��3� 2�� !��4 � .��1�� 1�� "�4Proceedings of workshop on Protection and Development of Wildlife in the Countries of

Gulf Cooperation Council, �- 0��#�� 3!��

Al-Zubari, W.K., Al-Jenaid, S.S., and M.N. Alaa El-)�� 0�"1.��5��#��6��-exploitation on Desertification of Soils in Bahrain – � �� /�#�� 7 �3�- ��8�Proceedings of the International Conference on Desert Development in the Arab Gulf��#��..�30 -3��!��9�1�*,��1*!��9��

Al-$#��(�:��--��(��&��5#��.��#��#��4Water Resources Perspectives: Evaluation, Management, and Policy, Ed., A.S. Al-/��(�(�(��..� 33- �;��/��1��1��'��

�� (�� 6��4 �� 1�� -use. In: Proceedings of the

Second Gulf Water Conference: Water in the Gulf Region toward integrated

management�<�� 7��&�.��8�(��/��3-�'�� !��

��9�� 3�,��&��/�#��7 ��3-�--38�,��)��2��(��9�&�6��and Water, State of Bahrain.

Bijlsma,l., Ehler, C.N., Klein, R.J.T., Kulshurestha, S.M., McLean, R.F., Mimura, N., Nicholls,,��'#��=��&��>'��%�/��9��$��#��,�:��(��9,�� Coastal zones and small islands. In: Impact, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate

Change: Scientific-Technical Analysis, Watson, r.T., Zinyowera, m.C. and Moss, r.H.(eds). Contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,..��0�-��

��) �---� ��1�� '��1�� 4 �� -�---� 2�� /�� Directorate (CAD), Bahrain.

��2,�*+'�&*��/�) �� State of Desertification in the Arab Region and the Ways and

Means to deal with it. ACSAD, Damascus. (In Arabic with extensive English summary).

Cicin_Sain, B., Dixon, R.K., Ehler, C.N., Huang, J.C.K., Johnson, B., Knecht, R., Lu, J.-M.,2��=�2�1#��'��,��:�=� ��;�International Workshop: Planning for

Climate Change Through Integrated Coastal Management. Volume I: Summary Report.��.��-�0 ��#�� ;�


March " " # �3

�/? ��/��)��/��!��

�� 3�'��,�.��.��.��;��2��Parties to the Conven�� (�� 7,�1�� "�� ; 8��.4**666��1��*��.;@��@��1

�/�(� ��/��/�(�,��4Economic and Social Commissionfor West Asia, Beirut, Lebanon.

�? ��;� "�� '�� ,�� #�� (�� ,�.�� Agriculture Organization, Rome.

5�� ;��1��,�.��<�� 5��/��5#��.��#��Riyadh. Saudi Arabia.

5�� 0��#��#��)��.1��5#��.��#��/��rd edition, TheGeneral Secretariat, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

5)� �;�45��#��)��.1��#��8�+11��,��#1�/�#��!��1��-<��#1��5��#��(��,��#��#�.#��.�.��

IPC� ��-�Report of the Coastal Zone Management Subgroup: Strategies for Adaptation to

Sea Level Rise.

"&�� ,�� 5#�� '�� 5��#�� 5�� "��4 <�� 5��#��5��"��,�.��"��#��<��5��house Gas Inventory(��9��9<��5��#��5��"��,��2��#��"��1��Panel on Climate Change, UNEP, WMO.

IPCC, �-- �Third Assessment Report (TAR), Working Group II: Adaptation to Climate Changein the Context of Sustainable Development and Equity.

:��"��"�2�2�� #��!��(��/��7�8�'��11��Wildlife Protection, Manama, Bahrain.

:��--��Education, Public Awareness and Training, Desert and Arid Zones SciencesProgramme, College of Graduate Studies, Arabian Gulf University

:��,��,��'�� 1��#��1�� ,�� /6�� 1� �� /�� http://www.ambio.kva.se

Klein, R��,�/�� ;��.��1��4?.��-��?��6&�.��&�.�� *�&* ��;*�+' ��/��!��

2�(� �---�National Report on the Implementation of the United Nations Convention to

Combat Desertification. Ministry of Works and Agriculture, Bahrain.

2��11�� /�� ---� �� #�� !�� .�� #� �� #�#��?��?�� -�3�---!��

Sheppard, C�&��,�� Marine Ecology of the Arabian Region. AcademicPress, London.

+')& �--�� United Nations Development Programme, User’s guidebook for the Adaptationpolicy framework


March " " # ��

+')& �� 5�� 1�� ?#��9 �---� +�� '��ons Environment Programme(UNEP). Earthscan Publications Ltd. London, U.K.

<�� 1��/��11��(��+''�6A��9�

<�#��)� ��0��2��%��/#��!��1��&��Secretariate.

Wats�� ,�� $�� 2�� 2�� ,�%� �� Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analysis.Contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Documents

Bahrain’s Initial Communications - UNFCCCunfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/bahrnc1.pdfBahrain’s Initial Communications to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change