Bad faith 1

Bad faithFurther information: Self deception and DeceptionBad faith (Latin: mala fides) is double mindedness or double heartedness in duplicity, fraud, or deception.[1] It mayinvolve intentional deceit of others, or self deception. Faith is a strong or unshakable belief in something; bad faith iswhen the strong or unshakeable belief is irrational or unreasonable given known facts, or pretended to be held as abelief.[1] A common expression is "to assume bad faith", to see in another person's actions negative motivations,whether or not they actually exist.Bad faith may be viewed in some cases to not involve deception, as in some kinds of hypochondria with actualphysical manifestations. There is a question about the truth or falsity of statements made in bad faith self deception;for example, if hypochondriac makes a complaint about their psychological health, is it true or false?[2]

The expression “bad faith” is associated with “double heartedness”,[1] which is also translated as “doublemindedness”.[3] [4] [5] A bad faith belief may be formed through self deception, being double minded, or "of twominds", which is associated with faith, belief, attitude, and loyalty. In the 1913 Webster’s Dictionary, bad faith wasequated with being double hearted, "of two hearts", or “a sustained form of deception which consists in entertainingor pretending to entertain one set of feelings, and acting as if influenced by another”.[1] The concept is similar toperfidy, or being "without faith", in which deception is achieved when one side in a conflict promises to act in goodfaith (e.g. by raising a flag of surrender) with the intention of breaking that promise once the enemy has exposedhimself. After Jean Paul Sartre’s analysis of the concepts of self deception and bad faith, bad faith has been examinedin specialized fields as it pertains to self deception as two semi-independently acting minds within one mind, withone deceiving the other.Some examples of bad faith include: a scientist who holds metaphysical beliefs which are not consistent with thefindings of science, but puts forth his belief system as though they were;[6] a company representative who negotiateswith union workers while having no intent of compromising;[7] a person who edits an online encyclopedia to beconsistent with their point of view rather than verifiable facts; a prosecutor who argues a legal position that he knowsto be false;[8] an insurer who uses language and reasoning which are deliberately misleading in order to deny aclaim.[8]

Bad faith has been used as a term of art in diverse areas involving feminism,[9] racial supremacism,[10] politicalnegotiation,[11] insurance claims processing,[8] intentionality,[12] ethics,[13] existentialism, and the law.[8]

General useIn ordinary usage, bad faith is equated with being of "of two hearts", or “a sustained form of deception whichconsists in entertaining or pretending to entertain one set of feelings, and acting as if influenced by another”,[1] and issynonymous with double mindedness, with disloyalty, double dealing, hypocrisy, infidelity, breach of contract,unfaithfulness, pharisaicism (emphasizing or observing the letter but not the spirit of the law,[14] see Doctrine ofabsurdity), tartuffery (a show or expression of feelings or beliefs one does not actually hold or possess,[15]

affectation, bigotry, and lip service.[16]

In theologyVarious commentators and translators have discussed being of two beliefs or faiths in being double hearted or doubleminded.[3] [4] [5] Webster's Dictionary equates bad faith with "being of two hearts".[1] "Double hearted" is translatedalso as "double minded", or “of two hearts” or "of two minds" or souls, two beliefs, two attitudes, two loyalties, twothinkings, two beliefs, or being as two souls at the same time. It was originally used as a pejorative in the ChristianBible. In Psalms 119:113, one translation is “I hate double-minded men, but I love your law”.[5]

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It is related to self-deception, where one Biblical translation is that a person "perpetually disagrees with himself".[3]

"Taking the Lord's name in vain", bad faith justifies actions known to be wrong by claiming a direction from God orreligious authority to take unethical positions or untrue beliefs, when a person should know otherwise[17] It is relatedto hypocrisy.[4] It is associated with divided loyalty, when translated as “I hate those with divided loyalties, but I loveyour instructions.”[18]

The Catholic Church does not consider everyone with heretical views to have bad faith: for example, people whoearnestly seek the truth and lead exemplary lives.[19]

Of two beliefs: Double hearted and double mindedClarke's commentary on the Bible commented on Deuteronomy 26:17 and Jewish theology regarding being doublehearted, in that Rabbi Tanchum (fol. 84) remarked, "Behold, the Scripture exhorts the Israelites, and tells them whenthey pray, that they should not have two hearts, one for the holy blessed God, and one for something else."[20]

Clarke's comments that "James refers to those Jews who were endeavoring to incorporate the law with the Gospel,who were divided in their minds and affections, not willing to give up the Levitical rites, and yet unwilling torenounce the Gospel. Such persons could make no progress in Divine things."[20]

In James 1.8, it denotes instability of a cognitive attitude, "he is a double-minded man, unstable in attitude". In thetranslation in the God's Word Translation, "a person who has doubts is thinking about two different things at thesame time and can't make up his mind about anything".[3] Young's Literal Translation translates this as being "twosouled".[3] In Clarke's Commentary on the Bible, a double-minded man is one of two souls in that one is for earth,and the other for heaven, wishing to secure both worlds at once.[20] Gill's exposition of the Bible refers to asking forone thing and meaning another, honoring in word but not in heart, confused in the mind.[3]

Relation to hypocrisy

Commenting on double mindedness in James 1:6, James 1:7, and its relation to hypocrisy in Matthew 6:22,Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary says "double-minded-literally, 'double-souled', the one soul directedtowards God, the other to something else... It is not a hypocrite that is meant, but a fickle, 'wavering' man, as thecontext shows".[3] Alford's translation of the Bible uses the ancient Greek literature's "waverer" to express "doubleminded".[4]

In philosophy, psychology, psychoanalysis, and social sciencesA person may hold beliefs in their mind even though they are directly contradicted by facts. These are beliefs held inbad faith. But there is debate as to whether this self deception is intentional or not.[21]

How is bad faith self deception possible?"In bad faith, it is from myself that I am hiding the truth" – Jean Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness

The fundamental question about bad faith self deception is how it is possible.[22] In order for a liar to successfully lieto the victim of the lie, the liar must know that what is being said is false. In order to be successful at lying, thevictim must believe the lie to be true. When a person is in bad faith self deception, the person is both the liar and thevictim of the lie. So at the same time the liar, as liar, believes the lie to be false, and as victim believes it to be true.So there is a contradiction in that a person in bad faith self deception believes something to be true and false at thesame time.[23] In Being and Nothingness, Jean Paul Sartre states the problem this way[24] -

…bad faith… the one to whom the lie is told and the one who lies are one and the same person, which meansthat I must know my capacity as deceiver the truth which is hidden from me in my capacity as the onedeceived.

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’’”I must as deceiver know the truth that is masked for me as the one deceived. Better yet, I must know thattruth very precisely, in order to hide it from myself the more carefully—and this not at two different momentsof temporality...

Freudian psychoanalisisFreudian psychoanalysis answers how bad faith self deception is made possible by postulating an unconsciousdimension of our being that is a-moral, whereas the conscious is in fact regulated by morality, law, and custom,accomplished by what Freud calls repression.[23] The true desires of the subconscious express themselves as wishfulfillment in dreams, or as an ethical position unconsciously taken to satisfy the wishes of the unconscious mind.[23]

Ethics, phenomenology, existentialismFurther information: Ethics of belief, Authenticity (philosophy), and Bad faith (existentialism)Bad faith wish fulfillment is central to the ethics of belief, which discusses questions at the intersection ofepistemology, philosophy of mind, psychology, Freudian psychoanalysis, and ethics.[25] [26] [27] [28]

A person who is not lying to themself is authentic. "Authenticity" is being faithful to internal rather than externalideas.Bad faith in ethics may be when an unethical position is taken as ethical, and justified by appeal to being forced tothat belief as an excuse, e.g., by God or by that person's natural disposition due to genetics, even though factsdisconfirm that belief and honesty would require it.[29]

Phenomenology plays a role leading to discussions of bad faith. It has a role in ethics by an analyses of the structureof will, valuing, happiness, and care for others (in empathy and sympathy). Phenomenologist Heidegger discussedcare, conscience, and guilt, moving to “authenticity”, which in turn led to the feminism of Simone de Beauvoir andexistentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre, both based on phenomenology's considerations of authenticity and it role in badfaith. Sartre analyzed the logical problem of “bad faith” as it relates to authenticity, and where he developed anontology of value as produced by willing in good faith.[30]

Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoirdeveloped ideas about bad faith into

existentialism

Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir developed ideas about bad faithinto existentialism, using the concepts of bad faith and "authenticity" in theethics of belief.[31] In Being and Nothingness, Sarte begins his discussion ofbad faith by rasing the question of how bad faith self delusion is possible.[24]

Sartre calls “bad faith” a kind of project of self-deception; In order to produceexcuses, bad faith first takes a third-person stance toward itself. When itbecomes necessary to elude this stance it has made of itself, it then adopts thefirst-person perspective. In neither case can the deception fully succeed.Without these two facets of existence, if consciousness was unitary and notdivisiable, as in the indivisible “I” in “I think, therefore I am”, it would beimpossible to explain how the very project of self-deception could bepossible. The Freudian theory of the unconscious is viewed by Sartre as basedon an incoherent view of consciousness, but the project of psychoanalysis asan uncovering of the “fundamental project” of an individual's life isconsidered to be valid.[32]

Existentialist philosopher Jean Paul Sartre called the belief that there issomething intrinsically good in itself, which is inherent in the world asabsolute value and is discoverable by people, the “spirit of seriousness’’,

which he argued leads to bad faith. He argued that people fall into the spirit of seriousness because they take their values too seriously, and forget that values are contingent, chosen and assigned subjectively.[33] In Sartre’s words,

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“the spirit of seriousness has two characteristics: it considers values as transcendent ‘'givens’’, independent of humansubjectivity, and it transfers the quality of ‘desirable’ from the ontological structure of things to their simple materialconstitution.”[34]

FeminismCentral to feminism is that women are systematically subordinated, and bad faith exists when women surrender theiragency to this subordination, e.g., acceptance of religious beliefs that a man is the dominant party in a marriage bythe will of God; Simone de Beauvir labels such women "mutilated" and "immanent".[35] [36] [37] [38] Simone deBeauvoir developed modern conceptions of bad faith and modern feminism together in her book The Second Sex.[39]

Love

A life’s project to be in love may result in bad faith; love is an example of bad faith given by both Simone deBeuvoir and Jean Paul Sartre (who were in love with each other).[40] A woman in love may in bad faith allow herselfto be subjugated by her lover, who has created a dependency of the woman on him, allowed by the woman in badfaith.[41]

PsychologyPsychologists have proposed answers as to how bad faith self delusion can be possible.[42]

A “tropism” is an action done without conscious thought.[43] While self deception may be a tropism, not consciouslydone, it may be guided by “projects” one may set for one’s life, such as a desire for personal pleasure, wealth, power,or to get into heaven. For example, a creationist has a project to get into heaven, and a racist with feelings ofpersonal inadequacy may have a project to be superior or to have power over some others. The project may createself deception without conscious thought, as a tropism creates action without conscious thought. A project may beselfish, and overwhelm reason from facts, though its consequences are not directly intentional. But the project itselfmay be intentionally sought, and in a selfish way, whence bad faith arises, as a result of selfish or bad intention inchoice of project.[44] [45] [44] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50]

A homunculus is a little person (or map of the person) inside a person, and homuncularism is the theory inpsychology that there are subsystems of the mind performing different operations; the homuncularist answer to thequestion as to how bad faith is possible is that one such subunit deceives the other.[51]

In humanistic psychology, recognition of bad faith in one’s own acts by the actor results in guilt and regret.[52]

Torture

Psychologists have examined the role of bad faith in psychologists overseeing and directing torture, when they knowthat it is wrong, e.g., in the Guantanamo detention center.[53] [54]

Medicine, hypochondriaHypochondria is a kind of bad faith self deception.[2]

Truth valuesThere is controversy as to whether propositions made bad faith are true or false, such as when a hypochondriac has acomplaint with no physical symtom.[2]

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Theory of justiceBad faith is important to the concept of original position in John Rawls’ theory of justice, where mutual commitmentof the parties requires that the parties cannot choose and agree to principles in bad faith, in that they have to be able,not just to live with and grudgingly accept, but to sincerely endorse the principles of justice; a party cannot take riskswith principles he knows he will have difficulty voluntarily complying with, or they would be making an agreementin bad faith which is ruled out by the conditions of the original position.[55]

In pseudosciencesBad faith can exist not only in an individual, but in entire systems of knowledge.[56] [57] [58]

The pseudoscience of racist eugenics is explained by some to be a result of racism as a kind of bad faith thatpromotes their own desires for superiority over at least someone; e.g., some whites believe in bad faith that blacksare inferior.[59] Bad faith racial supremacist's beliefs are studied in African American Studies.[60] In Nazi Germany,companies knowingly competed for the manufacture of efficient ovens for the concentration camps to make money,with the manufacturers justification to themselves a kind of self deception, but intentionally so, bad faith.[61] Aperson can intentionally self deceive themselves by being inauthentic or insincere, as the Nazis did in holding theirbeliefs to justify their eugenics and genocide.[62]

Creation science's "scientific research" about the age of the earth, against paleontology and evolution and in the faceof overwhelming evidence, has been called bad faith.[63]

Loyalty and patriotismBad faith is associated with being double minded, or of divided loyalty. (See theology section above.)The philosophy of loyalty examines unchosen loyalties, e.g., one does not choose one's family or country, but whenthere is excessive wrongdoing, there is a general unwillingness to question these unchosen loyalties, and this exhibitsbad faith as a type of lack of integrity; once we have such loyalties, we are resistant to their scrutiny andself-defensively discount challenges to them in bad faith.[64] [65] In the philosophy of patriotism (loyalty to one'scountry) bad faith is hiding from oneself the true source of some of one’s patriotic beliefs, such as when one fightsfor a racist totalitarian dictatorship against a free and egalitarian democracy.[64] [66]

Negotiation theory

U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles used an"inherent bad faith" model when negotiating with the

Soviet Union in International relations.

Bad faith is a concept in negotiation theory whereby partiespretend to reason to reach settlement, but have no intention to doso, for example, one political party may pretend to negotiate, withno intention to compromise, for political effect.[7] [67]

Bad faith in political science and political psychology refers tonegotiating strategies in which there is no real intention to reachcompromise, or a model of information processing.[11] The"inherent bad faith model" of information processing is a theory inpolitical psychology that was first put forth by Ole Holsti toexplain the relationship between U.S. Secretary of State JohnFoster Dulles’ beliefs and his model of information processing.[68]

It is the most widely studied model of one's opponent.[69] A stateis presumed to be implacably hostile, and contra-indicators of thisare ignored. They are dismissed as propaganda ploys or signs of weakness. Examples are John Foster Dulles’position regarding the Soviet Union, or Israel’s initial position on the Palestinian Liberation Organization.[69]

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Zen BuddhismPersons practicing Zen claim not to be subject to the “bad faith” in “self-deception”, since they do not explain amotivation for action as a rationalist would; a rationalist must rationalize an irrational desire that is actually rooted inthe body and the unconscious as if it were not.[70]

Analytical philosophy and the error theory of moral statementsFor philosophers in the Anglo-American analytical tradition statements involving moral values have caused concernbecause of their similarity to statements about objects and events in the physical world. Compare:1. Littering is commonplace in Chiang Mai2. Littering is wrongBoth have the same grammatical structure, but the way we might verify the first is quite different from the way wemight want verify the second. We can verify the first statement by observations made in the physical world, but,according to David Hume, no amount of physical world observation can verify statements of the second type.Hume's view is summarized as “you can not derive ought from is”. Whereas statements of the first type must be trueor false, some philosophers have argued that moral statement are neither true nor false. Richard M. Hare, forexample, argues that moral statements are in fact imperatives (commands). For him the statement “littering is wrong”means “do not litter”, and “do not litter” is neither true nor false.In sharp contrast to people like Hare, J. L. Mackie contended that moral statements are false. Mackie's viewdiscomforts Crispin Wright who says that it “relegates moral discourse to bad faith”.[71] Wright is not saying that allmoral statements are bad faith. What he is saying is that if Mackie is correct, and somebody believes that Mackie iscorrect, then that person will be guilty of bad faith whenever he makes a moral statement.

In law

Legal definition - "Badfaith refers to a subjectivestate of mind… motivated

by... sinister purposes’."

In law, there are inconsistent definitions of bad faith, with one definition much morebroad than used in other fields of study discussed in the above sections. Black's LawDictionary equates fraud with bad faith.[72] But one goes to jail for fraud, and notnecessarily for bad faith.[73] The Duhaime online law dictionary similarly defines badfaith broadly as "intent to deceive", and "a person who intentionally tries to deceive ormislead another in order to gain some advantage".[74] A Canadian labor arbitrator wrote,in one case, that bad faith is related to rationality in reasoning, as it is used in otherfields, but is ill defined in the law.[75]

The concept of bad faith is likely not capable of precise calibration and certainlyhas not been defined in the same way by all adjudicators. At its core, bad faithimplies malice or ill will. A decision made in bad faith is grounded, not on arational connection between the circumstances and the outcome, but onantipathy toward the individual for non-rational reasons... The absence of arational basis for the decision implies that factors other than those relevant were considered. In that sense, adecision in bad faith is also arbitrary. These comments are not intended to put to rest the debate over thedefinition of bad faith. Rather, it is to point out that bad faith, which has its core in malice and ill will, at leasttouches, if not wholly embraces, the related concepts of unreasonableness, discrimination and arbitrariness.

What was called "Canada's best judicial definition of 'bad faith'" by Duhaime's Legal Dictionary is similarly moreconsistent with use in other fields discussed above.[76]

Good faith and its opposite, bad faith, imports a subjective state of mind, the former motivated by honesty ofpurpose and the latter by ill-will.

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Duhaime also refers to another description, "...bad faith refers to a subjective state of mind… motivated by ill will ...or even sinister purposes."[77]

Insurance bad faithInsurance bad faith is a tort claim that an insured may have against an insurer for its bad acts, e.g. intentionallydenying a claim by giving spurious citations of exemptions in the policy to mislead an insured, adjusting the claim ina dishonest manner, failing to quickly process a claim, or other intentional misconduct in claims processing.[78]

Insurance bad faith has been broadened beyond use in other fields to include total inaction, a refusal to respond to aclaim in any way.[8]

Punitive and exemplary damages

Courts can award punitive or exemplary damages, over and above the claim, against any insurance company whichis found to have adjusted a claim in bad faith; the damages may be awarded with the aim of deterring such behavioramong insurers in general, and may far exceed the amount of the damage due under the insurance policy.[79] InCanada, one case of this type resulted in a record punitive award of $1 million CAD when an insurance companypressed a claim for arson even after its own experts and adjusters had come to the conclusion that the fire wasaccidental; the company was advised by legal council that the desperate insured parties would be willing to settle formuch less than what they were owed.[80]

References[1] "of two hearts... a sustained form of deception which consists in entertaining or pretending to entertain one set of feelings, and acting as if

influenced by another; bad faith", Webster's Dictionary, 1913[2] “Absent a lesion or a physiological disturbance to account readily for the complaint, the complaint was likely to be regarded as male fide",

Post-Modern Reflections on the Ethics of Naming, The Ethics of Diagnosis Philosophy and Medicine, 1992, Volume 40, Section V, 275-300,George Khushf, (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ r6735871m3782056/ )

[3] James 3:16, Wesley's notes (http:/ / bible. cc/ james/ 1-8. htm)[4] James 3:16, Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary (http:/ / bible. cc/ james/ 1-8. htm)[5] Psalms 119:113 (http:/ / bible. cc/ psalms/ 119-113. htm)[6] Should Creationism be Taught in the Public Schools?, Robert T. Pennock, Springer.[7] "Bad Faith Negotiation," Union Voice, (http:/ / unitas. wordpress. com/ 2008/ 12/ 03/ bad-faith-negotiation/ ).[8] How do I prove bad faith?, Lawyers.com, (http:/ / insurance. lawyers. com/ insurance-bad-faith/ Insurance-Bad-Faith-Claims-FAQs. html).[9] "'The Look' as Bad Faith", Philosophy Today 36, 3 (1992), , Debra B. Bergoffen, pp. 221-227.[10] Bad Faith and Antiblack Racism, L. Grodon, Humanities Press, New Jersey.[11] definition of "bad faith" example of use - "the Republicans accused the Democrats of negotiating in bad faith", Oxford Online Dictionary,

(http:/ / oxforddictionaries. com/ definition/ bad+ faith)[12] Good Faith and Other Essays, Joseph S. Catalano, p. 104.[13] Existentialism & Sociology: The Contribution of Jean-Paul Sartre, Gila J. Hayim, (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=BbXLwO1z7hwC& pg=PR19& lpg=PR19& dq="The+ Ethics+ of+ Bad+ Faith"+ Jean+ Paul+ Sartre& source=bl&ots=m71pIu1AEV& sig=cdqUGgx4s0hCKUjFxmYNdFMMk30& hl=en& ei=xptFTZWiO5D6sAPlyty2Cg& sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q& f=false).

[14] Your Dictionary.com (http:/ / www. yourdictionary. com/ pharisaic)[15] Roget's II: the new thesaurus (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=GHCX9Z0p2-gC& pg=PA222& lpg=PA222& dq=tartuffery+

definition+ "A+ show+ or+ expression+ of+ feelings+ or+ beliefs+ one+ does+ not+ actually+ hold+ or+ possess"& source=bl&ots=YFV2ZBMao5& sig=l68xAwYCzlfayr8c-Yn--SgRtTw& hl=en& ei=wlVcTeLjNYG-sQPJnOn7AQ& sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q& f=false)

[16] Thesaurus.com (http:/ / thesaurus. com/ browse/ bad+ faith)[17] "Religion and Morality," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ religion-morality/ ).[18] Psalms 119:113, New Living Translation (http:/ / bible. cc/ psalms/ 119-113. htm)[19] An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies, Orlando O. Espín and James B. Nickoloff, p.551, (http:/ / books. google.

com/ books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC& pg=PA551& lpg=PA551& dq="bad+ faith"+ Theology& source=bl& ots=31M2KNLajc&sig=PKjISREYwlrVOR941GCeTtlbeHs& hl=en& ei=Y4RATbipCo_CsAPN6qyUCA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5&ved=0CC8Q6AEwBA#v=onepage& q="bad faith"& f=false).

[20] James 1:8, Clarke's Commentary on the Bible (http:/ / bible. cc/ james/ 1-8. htm)

Bad faith 8

[21] "intentional structure of bad-faith", Good Faith and other essays, Joseph S. Catalano, p. 104[22] "Self Deception and the Nature of Mind", Tropisms and Reason, Perspectives on self-deception, Brian P. McLaughlin editor, (http:/ / books.

google. com/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=p6Psh4rXKTEC& oi=fnd& pg=PA207& dq="bad+ faith"+ psychology& ots=H2xGSnT0gC&sig=UozPd8c6ijIz4CPyN9FZm5WnAnw#v=onepage& q="bad faith"& f=false)

[23] “Self Deception and Bad Faith”, Perspectives on Self Deception, Brian P. McLaughlin ed., Alan W. Wood, pp. 207-227[24] Being and Nothingness, Jeane Paul Sartre[25] Self Deception and the Ethics of Belief, David Wisdo, Journal of Value Inquiry 91, 339–347, 1991[26] The Life of Irony and the Ethics of Belief, David Wisdo, SUNY, Albany, 1993[27] ”psychological strategies such as… “bad faith”… become germane in the ethics of belief”, Ethics of Belief, Stanford Encyclopedia of

Philosophy[28] Self Deception Unmasked, Alfred R. Mele , Princeton, NJ: Princeton, 2001[29] “…required by honesty, and to hide this from ourselves is ‘bad faith’. One form of bad faith is to pretend that there is a God who is giving us

our tasks. Another is to pretend that there is a ‘human nature’ that is doing the same thing”, Religion and Morality, Stanford Encyclopedia ofPhilospohy, (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ religion-morality/ )

[30] Phenomenolgy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ phenomenology/ )[31] “The ‘ethics of belief’ refers to a cluster of questions at the intersection of epistemology, philosophy of mind, psychology, and ethics…

central… is ... bad faith wish-fulfillment…”, The Ethics of Belief, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy[32] Notes to Existentialism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ existentialism/ notes. html)[33] ”Spirit of Seriousness”, The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy, NICHOLAS BUNNIN and JIYUAN YU, editors, (http:/ / www.

blackwellreference. com/ public/ tocnode?id=g9781405106795_chunk_g978140510679520_ss1-185)[34] Being and Nothingness, Jean Paul Sartre[35] The Look as Bad Faith, Debra B. Bergoffen, Philosophy Today 36, 3 (1992), 221-227[36] "It argues, with Simone de Beauvoir, that patriarchal marriage is both a perversion of the meaning of the couple and an institution in

transition", Marriage, Autonomy, and the Feminine Protest, Hypatia, Volume 14, Number 4, Fall 1999, pp. 18-35, (http:/ / muse. jhu. edu/login?uri=/ journals/ hypatia/ v014/ 14. 4bergoffen. html)

[37] "mutilated... immanent...", The Second Sex, Simone de Beauvoir, H.M. Parshley (Trans), Vintage Press, 1952[38] “… women are systematically subordinated… de Beauvoir labels women “mutilated” and “immanent”… women succumb to ‘bad faith’ and

surrender their agency…”, Feminist Perspectives on the Self, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy[39] The Second Sex, Simone de Beauvoir[40] Tete-a-Tete: Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre, Hazel Rowley[41] "Love becomes for her a religion. In order to pursue this apparent ... She may employ 'bad faith' in an attempt to resolve this paradox...",

Revolutions of the Heart: gender, power and the delusions of love, Wendy Langford[42] “Self Deception and Bad Faith”, Perspectives on Self Deception, Brian P. McLaughlin ed., Alan W. Wood[43] "action done without cognitive thought", Websters Dictionary Online, (http:/ / www. websters-online-dictionary. org/ definitions/

Tropism?cx=partner-pub-0939450753529744:v0qd01-tdlq& cof=FORID:9& ie=UTF-8& q=Tropism& sa=Search#922)[44] "Self Deception and the Nature of Mind", Tropisms and Reason, Perspectives on Self Deception, Brian P. McLaughlin, editor, (http:/ /

books. google. com/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=p6Psh4rXKTEC& oi=fnd& pg=PA207& dq="bad+ faith"+ psychology& ots=H2xGSnT0gC&sig=UozPd8c6ijIz4CPyN9FZm5WnAnw#v=onepage& q="bad faith"& f=false)

[45] Irrationality in Philosophy and Psychology: the Moral Implications of Self-Defeating Behavior, Journal of Consciousness Studies, 5, 1998,(2): 224-234, Christine A. James

[46] Between Freedom and Self-Subjection: The Dilemma of Writing in an African Language, Literator:Journal of Literary Criticism[47] "Anatomy of Self Deception: Judgment, Belief, and the US Decision to Invade Iraq" by Peter Zimmerman[48] Perspectives on Self-Deception edited by Brain P. McLaughlin and Amelie Oksenberg Rorty[49] "Exploring the Possibility of Self-Deception in Belief" by Brian P. McLaughlin[50] Self-Deception, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ self-deception/ )[51] “There is a natural homuncularist response to this surface paradox of self deception.Distinct subsystems that play the distinct role of

deceiver and deceived are located within the self deceiver. So no single subject of belief is required to both believe (know) a proposition andnot believe (know) it.”, Self Deception and the Nature of Mind, "Tropisms and Reason", Perspectives on Self Deception, Brian P. McLaughlineditor, p63-64, Mark Johnson author, (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=p6Psh4rXKTEC& oi=fnd& pg=PA207& dq="bad+faith"+ psychology& ots=H2xGSnT0gC& sig=UozPd8c6ijIz4CPyN9FZm5WnAnw#v=onepage& q="bad faith"& f=false)

[52] "Existential Regret: A Crossroads of Existential Anxiety and Existential Guilt", Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Marijo Lucas, Ph.D[53] Bad Faith and Distortions, The American Psychological Association: Protecting the Torturers, S. Soldz. September 6, 2006, (http:/ / www.

counterpunch. org. soldz09062006. html)[54] "A Profession struggles to save its soul: Psychologists", Guantánamo and Torture, S. Soldz, (http:/ / www. counterpunch. org/

soldz08012006. html)[55] “Rawls… parties… cannot choose and agree to principles in ‘bad faith’... have to be able, not just to live with and grudgingly accept, but to

sincerely endorse the principles of justice…”, Original Position, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/original-position/ )

Bad faith 9

[56] "… not only characterizes the bad faith in an individual… but also the bad faith contained in certain systems of knowledge…",Existentialism & sociology: the contribution of Jean-Paul Sartre, Gila J. Hayim

[57] Bad Luck, Bad Blood, Bad Faith:Ideological Hegemony and the Oppressive Language of Hoodoo Science, Joyce E. King[58] “… bad faith... pseudoscience... hoodoo science", Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined, Joe L. Kincheloe, p. 186, ISBN

0-312-12-12520-8, (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UVLaKci3uOIC& pg=PA186& lpg=PA186& dq="bell+ curve"+ "bad+ faith"&source=bl& ots=Vs4dUiQt_Z& sig=2tqhRJCOu4vSFTGYiUcftT8IEIk& hl=en& ei=lBxFTbDqMo-asAOy2oi-Cg& sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CBkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q="bad faith"& f=false)

[59] “… bad faith can be defined as fleeing a displeasing truth for a pleasing falsehood. Thus, constructing black people as inferior to whites is a‘pleasing falsehood of antiblack racism.”, Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined, Joe L. Kincheloe, p. 186, ISBN 0-312-12-12520-8, (http:// books. google. com/ books?id=UVLaKci3uOIC& pg=PA186& lpg=PA186& dq="bell+ curve"+ "bad+ faith"& source=bl&ots=Vs4dUiQt_Z& sig=2tqhRJCOu4vSFTGYiUcftT8IEIk& hl=en& ei=lBxFTbDqMo-asAOy2oi-Cg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&resnum=2& ved=0CBkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q="bad faith"& f=false)

[60] Bad Faith and Antiblack Racism, L.Grodon, Humanities Press, New Jersey[61] "In Nazi Germany, companies knowingly competed for the manufacture of efficient ovens for the concentration camps. The manufacturers

could say to themselves... ", Good Faith and other essays, Joseph S. Catalano, p. 168[62] “… the “authentic Nazi” is explicitly disqualified as being oxymoronic”, Jean Paul Sartre, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (http:/ /

plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ sartre/ )[63] “...to teach creationism or whatever... Is it not 'bad faith' to misrepresent the findings of science in what is purported to be a science

class?",Should Creationism be Taught in the Public Schools?, Robert T. Pennock, Springer[64] “Patriotism as Bad Faith",Ethics, 115, Simon Keller, pp. 563–92, 2005[65] Loyalty, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ loyalty/ )[66] "This leads her to hide from herself the true source of some of the beliefs involved. This is bad faith.", Patriotism, Stanford Encyclopedia of

Philosophy, (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ patriotism/ )[67] "negotiating in bad faith", example of use of "bad faith" from definition in Oxford Online Dictionary, (http:/ / oxforddictionaries. com/

definition/ bad+ faith)[68] "The 'Inherent Bad Fatih Model' Reconsidered: Dulles, Kennedy, and Kissinger", Political Psychology, Douglas Stuart and Harvey Starr,

(http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 3791139)[69] “…the most widely studied is the inherent bad faith model of one’s opponent...", The handbook of social psychology, Volumes 1-2, edited by

Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske, Gardner Lindzey[70] "Japanese Zen Buddhist Philosophy", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy[71] Miller, Alexander Realism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ realism/ )[72] definition of "bad faith", Black’s Law Dictionary[73] Rocking Chair Plaza v Brampton, 1988 29 CPC 2d 82, Duhaime online Legal Dictionary, (http:/ / www. duhaime. org/ LegalDictionary/ B/

BadFaith. aspx)[74] definition of "bad faith", Duhaime online Legal Dictionary (http:/ / www. duhaime. org/ LegalDictionary/ B/ BadFaith. aspx)[75] 1992, Re Alcan Wire, 26 LAC 4th 93, Ontario (http:/ / www. duhaime. org/ LegalDictionary/ B/ BadFaith. aspx)[76] Collins v Transport & Allied Worker's Union, 1991, 6 CPC 3d 206, Newfoundland, Duhaime Legal Dictionary[77] Duhaime Law Dictionary (http:/ / www. duhaime. org/ LegalDictionary/ B/ BadFaith. aspx)[78] "The tort of bad faith in first-party insurance transactions after two decades," Roger C. Henderson, (http:/ / heinonline. org/ HOL/

LandingPage?collection=journals& handle=hein. journals/ arz37& div=64& id=& page=).[79] California Fair Claims Settlement Regulations, (http:/ / www. insurance. ca. gov/ 0100-consumers/ 0060-information-guides/

0040-residential/ fair-claims-settlement-regs. cfm).[80] Whiten v. Pilot Insurance Co., 2002 SCC 18 (http:/ / www. canlii. org/ en/ ca/ scc/ doc/ 2002/ 2002scc18/ 2002scc18. html)

Article Sources and Contributors 10

Article Sources and ContributorsBad faith  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=430809520  Contributors: A.Kurtz, Amberrock, Andrea.gf, Asrghasrhiojadrhr, BD2412, Babajobu, BambinoPrime, CRGreathouse,Ccacsmss, Dognsuds, Dozen, Eliz81, EoGuy, Ethan.Meanor, Fratrep, Gestumblindi, Goethean, Hammersoft, HarryHenryGebel, Hgrosser, JimmyTheWig, Joe Kress, John, JonHarder,JonathanFreed, Joseph Solis in Australia, Liftarn, Logicalgregory, Mellamoandres, Midnightdreary, Mufka, Neelix, Neutrality, Nickptar, Ninly, Ocaasi, PPdd, Pathoschild, Piano non troppo,Robocoder, SDY, Sbard, SchmuckyTheCat, Simoes, SimonP, Sjakkalle, Spencerk, SteveHFish, Tbhotch, Tortoiseshell, Ukexpat, Xxanthippe, Zorba The Grape, 74 anonymous edits

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