Ayyubid Syria

ISLAMIC ART IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

Museum With No Frontiers: a new way to experience exhibitions

THE UMAYYADS. The rise of Islamic art offers– through the diversity of the works pre-sented – the necessary clues to a betterunderstanding of the Umayyad culture. Thisculture represents the emergence of aninnovative artistic language where thesubtle crossbreeding of the Aramean,Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and Persianinfluences yield a new architectural anddecorative order in which the foundationsfor the birth of the Islamic art would belaid.

The Museum With No Frontiers Exhibitionscatalogues are both scientific referencebooks and real thematic travel guideswhich have been wonderfully illustrated.Their authors are researchers and scholarsfrom the country discovered through theeyes of the people who live there.

Museum With No Frontiers carries out art,architecture and archaeology exhibitionswhere the pieces are not displayed in aclosed space – but rather, the monuments,places, and objects are presented in theirplace of origin and within their historicaland cultural context.

182 colour illustrations43 monument plans

224 pages

Catalogues in the collection“Islamic Art in the Mediterranean”

PORTUGALIn the Lands of the Enchanted Moorish MaidenIslamic Art in Portugal

TURKEYEarly Ottoman ArtLegacy of the Emirates

MOROCCOAndalusian MoroccoDiscovery in Living Art

TUNISIAIfriqiyaThirteen Centuries of Art and Architecturein Tunisia

SPAINMudejar ArtIslamic Aesthetics in Christian Art

EGYPTMamluk ArtThe Splendour and Magic of the Sultans

PALESTINIAN AUTHORITYPilgrimage, Sciences and SufismIslamic art in the West Bank and Gaza

ITALYArab-Norman ArtIslamic Culture in Medieval Sicily

ALGERIAWater and Architecture in the DesertThe Pentapolis of Mzab

Carried out within the framework of the Euromed Heritage Programme of the European Union.

THE AYYUBID ERAART AND ARCHITECTURE IN MEDIEVAL SYRIA

MUSEUMWITH NOFRONTIERS

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ISBN: 1-874044-35-X

ISLAMIC ART IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

SYRIA

Cover page:Shayzar Citadel,Qal’at Shayzar,4th–6th/10th–12th century

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THE AYYUBID ERAART AND ARCHITECTURE IN MEDIEVAL SYRIA

International Museum With No Frontiers Exhibition Cycles

ISLAMIC ART IN THE MEDITERRANEANSSYYRRIIAA

MUSEUM WITH NO FRONTIERS

© 2009 Ministry of Culture, Syria & Museum With No FrontiersVienna, Austria / Brussels, Belgium (text and illustrations).

ISBN: 1-000000-00-XAll Rights Reserved Printed in Egypt

For further informationwww.museumwnf.org

The realisation of the Museum With No Frontiers Exhibition “THEAYYUBID ERA: Art and Architecture in Medieval Syria” has beenco-financed by the European Union within the framework of theMEDA-Euromed Heritage Programme and received the support of the following Syrian and international institutions:

Ministry of Culture, Syrian Arab Republic

General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums of Syria

Damascus – Cultural Capital of the Arab World 2008

Syrian Arab Airlines

Official sponsor

EUROPEAN UNIONEuromed Heritage Programme

Idea and overall concept ofMuseum With No FrontiersProgramme Eva Schubert, Brussels

Head of Project &Scientific CoordinatorAbd al-Razzaq Moaz, Damascus

Scientific CommitteeMona Al-Muadin, DamascusDina Bakkour, DamascusVerena Daiber, Damascus / BerlinWa’al Hafian, HamaZena Takieddine, Damascus

With contributions fromHaytham Hasan, DamascusBolasz Mayor, Damascus / BudapestBenjamin Michaudel,

Damascus / ParisYasser Tabbah, Ann Arbor,

Michigan, USA

Editorial frameInci Turkoglu, Istanbul (MWNF)

Catalogue

IntroductionsAbd al-Razzaq MoazZena Takieddine

Presentation of itinerariesScientific Committee

Technical textsKhaled Malas, Damascus

Arabic versionFadel Jetker, Damascus (translation)Jamal Sayde, Damascus (copy editing)

PhotographyMohamad Al Roumi, DamascusIssam Al Hajjar, Damascus

General MapSimon Kabboush, Damascus

Sketches of itineraries,monument plans, drawingsAyham Shaban, DamascusSergio Viguera, MadridSakina Missoum, Madrid

(coordination)

General Introduction“Islamic Art in the Mediterranean”

TextJamila Binous,TunisiaMahmoud Hawari, East JerusalemManuel Marin, MadridGönül Öney, Izmir

Layout and DesignChristian Eckart,Vienna

Local Coordinators

Definition of itinerariesSamer Abdel-Ghafour

Elaboration of catalogueZena Takieddine

Inauguration Exhibition TrailLuna Rajab

Acknowledegements

Photographic references Bodleian Library, Oxford University, unicum HUNT 264, f. 145v-135r.British Museum, London, OA 134. 10-13.01Delpech, A. et al (Damas, 1997) Planche XLIIDrummond, Alexander (Engraving of Aleppo Citadel, c. 1745)Lortet (Dr. Louis), La Syrie d’Au Jourd’hui. 1875-1880 (Engraving of al-Salihiyya)Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, London, Qur 497, f 1v-2rSaint Petersburg, Institute of Oriental Studies, C35, f.4v-54Sauvaget, J. Paris, 1941. Plate XIXWilson, C.W., Picturesque Palestine, (1881) vol. 1, p. 389

And from database ET07 monument – Madrasa al-Salih Najm al-Din AyyoubGE33 object – Incense BurnerPA02 monument – Marble standPA04 object – Biography of SaladinPA16 object – Pieces of MinbarUK1 11 object – Gilded glassUK1 67 object – Astrolabe

Plan references R. Burns (New York, 1999) p40 (Madrasa Firdaws), p144 (Krak des Chevalier),p190 Qalaat Saladin, p204 (Raqqa), p 230 (Tartus City)V. Daiber/A. Becker, Abb. 2 (Bab Baghdad)H. Delpech, et al. page 107 (Noria)M. Ecochard et al (Damas, 1942-3), Fig III (Hammam Nur al-Din)R. Ettinghausen et al (New Haven, 2001) Fig 365 (Madrasa Adiliyya)E. Herzfeld (Ars Islamica, 1946), p10 (Madrasa al-Sahiba), Fig 53 (Bimaristan al-Qaymari),Fig 116 (Madrasa al-Shamiyya)E. Herzfeld (Cairo, 1955) p222-227, (Madrasa Shu’aybiyya) p150-153(Minaret of Umayyad Mosque in Aleppo)Hillenbrand, C. (Edinburgh, 1999). Fig 1.6 (inlaid metalwork), 3.19 (Muqarnas dome),7.67 (Misyaf Citadel)Meinecke, Bosra Citadel, Mabrak Naqa/Gumushtagin, Madrasa al-DabbaghaMeinecke, Salihiyya Quarter, Bimaristan Qaymari, Madrasa al-SahibaJ. Sauvaget (Paris, 1938) Madrasa Adiliyya) (Madrasa Sultaniyya)Sauvaget (Ars Islamica, 1949) Fig 4 (Khan al-Arus)Sauvaget (Damas 1932) details of cenotaph of Salah al-Din

Zusatztext folgt copyright images

We thank the following institutions and authorities for their support, without which this project would not have been possible:Ministry of Culture, Syrian Arab RepublicDirectorate General of Antiquities and Museums, Damascus National Museum DamascusDamascus Cultural Capital of the Arab World 2008

We also would like to thank all those who, while too numerous to name individually, gave their unfailing support and soundadvice during the preparation of this project.

The opinions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the opinion of either the European Union or of its Member States.

Preface

You are holding in your hands a new kind of book combining three characteristics in one: it is at the same time anexhibition catalogue, a thematic travel guide and an academic reference book that invites you to discover the cultural legacyof the Ayyubid Era in Syria and to experience the country as an immense open-air museum. Monuments, archaeologicalsites and artefacts in museums are the exhibits of this new exhibition format, which we call an “Exhibition Trail”. Unlikeconventional exhibitions that display movable artefacts for a limited time in a (usually) closed space, this new formatpresents the works of art in situ, surrounded by their natural environment.Thus, you discover the history, art and cultureof the country together with its present-day culture and its people.

The MWNF exhibition catalogues present history from a local perspective.We believe that anyone who visits a country oris interested in reading about its history and cultural heritage should first become aware of the local point of view.This willhelp understanding of today’s cultural and social context and facilitate contact with the local population.To discover Syriawith this catalogue means to discover the country with the eyes and feelings of a Syrian.

A further concern of MWNF is the time and attention tourists usually give to visiting a country. Thousands of years ofhistory are often squeezed into a tour of only a few days.With the Exhibition Trails and related catalogues we propose thatyou dedicate each visit to a specific theme and period, and encourage you to return several times and to discover each timea different aspect of the country’s art and history. We appreciate only what we see and we understand only what we know: in linewith this idea our Syrian colleagues who designed the visit to discover Ayyubid Syria and wrote the text for this cataloguepaid particular attention to providing you with information that usually remains unveiled to traditional tourists.

Finally some words about the best way to use this book.The MWNF catalogues are intended to be read twice: once beforestarting your visit to familiarise yourself with the period and, a second time, during your visit.The general introduction toIslamic art in the Mediterranean is followed by more specific introductions to the historical and artistic background ofAyyubid Syria. Detailed descriptions of the monuments and archaeological sites to be visited in each itinerary focus onthe theme of the Exhibition Trail. Practical information to help you plan your visit appears in italic at the beginning of theartistic descriptions. Since our catalogues don’t provide any information about accommodation, places to eat and localtransport, we suggest to those who use this book as a guide for a thematic visit to Syria to purchase also a general guide tothe country or to obtain information from the Syrian tourism authorities.

On behalf of the whole MWNF team I wish you an enjoyable visit and look forward to meeting you soon in another partof our Euro-Mediterranean museum with no frontiers.

Eva SchubertChairperson and CEOMuseum With No Frontiers

Transliteration of the Arabic

We have retained the common spelling for Arabic words in common use and included those in the English dictionary, suchas “suq”.We have maintained the phonetic spelling of the words in Arabic as determined by the authors and in accordancewith Jordanian standards. For all other words, we have simplified the transcription.We do not transcribe the initial hamzabut kept the initial ‘Ayn in personal nouns as in ‘Ali, ‘Abd al-Malik, etc. We did not differentiate between short and longvowels, which are written as a, i, ou. Some of the proper nouns are transliterated in the text according to the OxfordDictionary.The transcription for the 28 Arabic consonants are provided in the table below as well as “a” or “at” for the ta’marbuta.

Words in itallics in the text without an accompanying translation or explanation can be found in the glossary.

The Muslim era

The Muslim era began with the exodus of the Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Yathrib. Then the name was changedto Madina, “The City” or “town of the Prophet”. With his small community of followers (70 people and members of hisfamily) recently converted to Islam, the Prophet undertook the al-hijra (literally “the emigration”) and the new era began.

The date of the emigration is the first of the month of Muharram in year 1 of the Hijra, which corresponds to the 16th Julyof the year 622 of the Christian era.The Muslim year is made up of twelve lunar months, each month having 29 or 30 days.Thirty years form a cycle in which the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 26th and 29th are leap years having 355 days;the others are normal years with 354 days. The Muslim lunar year is 10 or 11 days shorter than the Christian solar year.Each day begins immediately after sunset, i.e. at dusk rather than after midnight. Most Muslim countries use both the HijraCalendar (which indicates all the religious events) and the Christian Calendar.

Dates

Dates are given according to the Hijra calendar followed by their equivalent date on the Christian calendar after an obliquestroke.The Hijra date is not indicated in references derived from Christian sources, European historical events, those occur-ring in Europe, Christian Dynasties, those prior to the Muslim era or those after 1917, the end of Ottoman domination inJordan.Exact correspondence between years in one calendar and another is only possible when the day and month are given. Tofacilitate reading, we chose to avoid intermediate years and, in the case of Hijra dates falling between the beginning and theend of a century, the two centuries are mentioned. Dates prior to the beginning of the Christian era are indicated with BC.To avoid confusion, the use of the abbreviation AD is used for periods beginning before the birth of Christ and finishingafter his birth.

Abbreviations:AD = in the year of our Lord; BC = before Christ; d = death; f.h. = first half; r. = reign.

Advice

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Dear Visitor,

This exhibition is divided into eight itineraries based on thematic concepts which also include the main cities and geo-graphical landscapes that Syria has to offer. Each itinerary is marked by a Roman numeral and represented by a schematicsketch with icons symbolising the type of monument. The itineraries themselves are sub-divided into Arabic numeralsindicating cities, villages, or archaeological locations in addition to several “optional” suggestions which are marked in grey.All destinations, whether optional or part of the itinerary proper, are fronted by a short italicised text that provides thevisitor with technical information on how to reach each location. Each itinerary also includes on or two ‘windows’ on acultural or historical aspect that relates to the art, architecture, or theme of the itinerary.

Spring and autumn are the best times to visit Syria as the weather tends to be very pleasant. The hottest periods are Julyand August and the coldest December and January, these months are probably best avoided.Visiting during the holy monthof Ramadan should not pose any problems per se, but visitors may be inconvenienced by variations in opening times.As themonth of Ramadan is based on a lunar calendar and therefore changes every year, it is best to check its duration with touristinformation centres and travel agents.

The Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums (DGAM) operates several tourist information offices in all Syriancities, and these offices can be consulted for information regarding accessibility to monuments and appropriate modes oftravel.Visitors are advised to take advantage of typical Syrian friendliness, as everyone is very willing to answer questionsand provide assistance when approached with a smile.

Local coach and bus services are present in all cities and are an appropriate mode of transportation between them. Moreremote sites can be very easily visited using the cheap and efficient ‘microbus’ network that also serves for public transportwithin busy city centres. Some of the sites described in this catalogue may be off the traditionally beaten track and mayrequire some ingenuity from travellers who are not predisposed to renting a car, but the more adventurous are likely toparticularly enjoy the charm of these excursions. Alternatively, when visiting a site that lies a few kilometres outside of thecity proper, hiring a taxi may be an intelligent option.

The official day off for museums and the main tourist sites is Tuesday.The sites operated by the DGAM generally adhere totheir opening schedules: 09:00–18:00 in the summer and 09:00–16:00 in the winter, keeping in mind that the Friday noonprayer is usually observed. It is also not uncommon to find many locations closed, for restoration purposes or otherreasons, whereby we hope the photos and texts provided in this catalogue may offer insight into what might turn out beinaccessible on location. Visitors are advised to practice patience, friendliness and resourcefulness, as it is also very likelythat the custodian of a particular monument or site can be easily located within the immediate vicinity.

When visiting places of worship, visitors are kindly asked to adhere to established dress codes and respect the sanctity ofplaces of worship and not interrupt prayers.

Whilst the catalogue’s main purpose is to highlight the architectural and artistic heritage of the 5th/11th to the 7th/13th centuriesin Syria, visitors are advised to take full advantage of the depth and richness of Syria's heritage.The medieval monumentsdescribed in this catalogue often exist in total immersion with ancient structures and modern ones.They are best under-stood as nodes of interest within a broader cultural, historical and natural landscape.

For information on cultural or artistic events, please check the Ministry of Culture’s website www.moc.gov.sy and for thelatest in tourist information please visit www.syriatourism.org.

While we wish you a most enjoyable voyage in Syria, Museum With No Frontiers is not responsible for any variations inopening times nor for any inconveniences or injuries occurring during your trip.

Khaled MalasTechnical Text

Zena TakieddineLocal Editorial Coordinator

Practical advice

12 Islamic Art in the MediterraneanJamila Binous, Mahmoud Hawari, Manuela Marín,Gönül Öney

35 Historical Artistic IntroductionAbd al-Razzaq Moaz, Zena Takieddine

53 Ayyubid Art and ArchitectureAbd al-Razzaq Moaz

75 Itinerary I (Damascus, 2 days)Religion, Science and the Transmission of Knowledgeunder the Atabegs and AyyubidsIntroduction: Abd al-Razzaq MoazMonuments: Abd al-Razzaq Moaz, Zena TakieddineThe Bimaristan and Public HealthYasser TabbaaMechanical SciencesZena Takieddine

121 Itinerary II (Bosra, 1 day)Bosra: Antique Heritage in an Ayyubid CityIntroduction and Monuments:Verena DaiberLocal and Imperial Architecturein a Provincial CapitalVerena Daiber

139 Itinerary III (Damascus Environs and Homs, 1 Day)Christian Art and Architecture in Medieval Syria Introduction and Monuments: Dina BakkourA Brief Survey of Christian Art in SyriaDina Bakkour

157 Itinerary IV (Hama, 1 day)Water and Hydraulic WorksIntroduction:Yasser TabbaaMonuments:Wa’al HafianMemoirs of an Arab KnightYasser TabbaaNoria Construction Wa’al Hafian

181 Itinerary V (Coastal Mountains, 2 days)Confrontation and Coexistence:Fortifications in western SyriaIntroduction: Benjamin MichaudelMonuments: Benjamin Michaudel, Bolasz Major,Haytham HasanThe Isma’iliyya Emirate of SyriaHaytham HasanMemoirs of Salah al-DinYasser Tabbaa

211 Itinerary VI (Aleppo, 1 day)Commerce and Daily LifeIntroduction and Monuments:Yasser TabbaaAleppo SuqYasser Tabbaa

225 Itinerary VII (Aleppo, 1 day)Patronage and Court Life under the Atabegsand Ayyubids in SyriaIntroduction and Monuments:Yasser TabbaaInscriptions and Public Texts Yasser TabbaaFemale Patronage in Urban Developmentand Education Abd al-Razzaq Moaz

245 Itinerary VIII (The Eastern Provinces, 1 day)The Euphrates Region:Window to Mesopotamia Introduction and Monuments:Verena DaiberEastern Influences in Syria Verena Daiber

263 Glossary

269 Historical personalities

277 Further reading

281 Authors

INDEX

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ISLAMIC DYNASTIES IN THE MEDITERRANEANThe Umayyads | The Abbasids

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ISLAMIC DYNASTIES IN THE MEDITERRANEANThe Fatimids | The Muslim West

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ISLAMIC DYNASTIES IN THE MEDITERRANEANThe Central Maghreb | The Ayyubids

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ISLAMIC DYNASTIES IN THE MEDITERRANEANThe Mamluks | The Ottomans

Qusayr ‘Amra, mural inthe Audience Hall,Badiya of Jordan.

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The Legacy of Islam in the Mediterranean

Since the first half of the 1st/7th century, the history of the Mediterranean Basinhas belonged, in remarkably similar proportion, to two cultures, Islam and theChristian West. This extensive history of conflict and contact has created amythology that is widely diffused in the collective imagination, a mythology basedon the image of the other as the unyielding enemy, strange and alien, and as such,incomprehensible. It is of course true that battles punctuated those centuriesfrom the time when the Muslims spilled forth from the Arabian Peninsula andtook possession of the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, and later, North Africa, Sicily,and the Iberian Peninsula, penetrating into Western Europe as far as the southof France. At the beginning of the 2nd/8th century, the Mediterranean cameunder Islamic control.This drive to expand, of an intensity seldom equalled in human history, wascarried out in the name of a religion that considered itself then heir to its twoimmediate antecedents: Judaism and Christianity. It would be a gross over-simplification to explain the Islamic expansion exclusively in religious terms.One widespread image in the West presents Islam as a religion of simple dogmasadapted to the needs of the common people, spread by vulgar warriors whopoured out from the desert bearing the Qur’an on the blades of their swords.This coarse image does away with the intellectual complexity of a religiousmessage that transformed the world from the moment of its inception.It identifies this message with a military threat, and thus justifies a response onthe same terms. Finally, it reduces an entire culture to only one of its elements,religion, and in doing so, deprives it of the potential for evolution and change.The Mediterranean countries that were progressively incorporated into theMuslim world began their journeys from very different starting points. Formsof Islamic life that began to develop in each were quite logically different withinthe unity that resulted from their shared adhesion to the new religious dogma.It is precisely the capacity to assimilate elements of previous cultures (Hellenistic,Roman, etc.), which has been one of the defining characteristics of Islamicsocieties. If one restricts his observations to the geographical area of theMediterranean, which was extremely diverse culturally at the time of theemergence of Islam, one will discern quickly that this initial moment does notrepresent a break with previous history in the least. One comes to realise thatit is impossible to imagine a monolithic and immutable Islamic world, blindlyfollowing an inalterable religious message.

ISLAMIC ART IN THE MEDITERRANEANJamila Binous

Mahmoud HawariManuela Marín

Gönül Öney

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Islamic art in the Mediterranean

If anything can be singled out as the leitmotiv running through the area of the Mediterranean, it is diversity of expression combined with harmony ofsentiment, a sentiment more cultural than religious. In the Iberian Peninsula—to begin with the western perimeter of the Mediterranean— the presenceof Islam, initially brought about by military conquest, produced a societyclearly differentiated from, but in permanent contact with Christian society.The importance of the cultural expression of this Islamic society was felt evenafter it ceased to exist as such, and gave rise to perhaps one of the mostoriginal components of Spanish culture, Mudejar art. Portugal maintainedstrong Mozarab traditions throughout the Islamic period and there are manyimprints from this time that are still clearly visible today. In Morocco andTunisia, the legacy of al-Andalus was assimilated into the local forms andcontinues to be evident to this day. The western Mediterranean producedoriginal forms of expression that reflected its conflicting and plural historicalevolution.Lodged between East and West, the Mediterranean Sea is endowed withterrestrial enclaves, such as Sicily, that represent centuries-old key historicallocations. Conquered by the Arabs established in Tunisia, Sicily has continuedto perpetuate the cultural and historical memory of Islam long after the Muslimsceased to have any political presence on the island.The presence of Sicilian-Norman aesthetic forms preserved in architectural monuments clearly demon-strates that the history of these regions cannot be explained without anunderstanding of the diversity of social, economic and cultural experiencesthat flourished on their soil.In sharp contrast, then, to the immutable and constant image alluded to at theoutset, the history of Mediterranean Islam is characterised by surprisingdiversity. It is made up of a mixture of peoples and ethnicities, deserts andfertile lands.As the major religion has been Islam since the early Middle Ages,it is also true that religious minorities have maintained a presence historically.The Classical Arabic language of the Qur’an, has coexisted side-by-side with other languages, as well as with other dialects of Arabic.Within a settingof undeniable unity (Muslim religion, Arabic language and culture), eachsociety has evolved and responded to the challenges of history in its owncharacteristic manner.

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The Emergence and Development of Islamic Art

Throughout these countries, with ancient and diverse civilisations, a new artpermeated with images from the Islamic faith emerged at the end of the 2nd/8th

century and which successfully imposed itself in a period of less than a hundredyears.This art, in its own particular manner, gave rise to creations and innovationsbased on unifying regional formulas and architectural and decorative processes,and was simultaneously inspired by the artistic traditions that proceeded it:Greco-Roman and Byzantine, Sasanian, Visigothic, Berber or even CentralAsian.The initial aim of Islamic art was to serve the needs of religion and variousaspects of socio-economic life. New buildings appeared for religious purposessuch as mosques and sanctuaries. For this reason, architecture played a centralrole in Islamic art because a whole series of other arts are dependent on it.Apartfrom architecture a whole range of complimentary minor arts found theirartistic expressions in a variety of materials, such as wood, pottery, metal,glass, textiles and paper. In pottery, a great variety of glaze techniques wereemployed and among these distinguished groups are the lustre and polychromepainted wares. Glass of great beauty was manufactured, reaching excellence withthe type adorned with gold and bright enamel colours. In metal work, themost sophisticated technique is inlaying bronze with silver or copper. Highquality textiles and carpets, with geometric, animal and human designs, weremade. Illuminated manuscripts with miniature painting represent a spectacularachievement in the arts of the book.These types of minor arts serve to attestthe brilliance of Islamic art.Figurative art, however, is excluded from the Islamic liturgical domain, whichmeans it is ostracised from the central core of Islamic civilisation and that it istolerated only at its periphery. Relief work is rare in the decoration of monumentsand sculptures are almost flat. This deficit is compensated with a richness inornamentation on the lavish carved plaster panelling, sculpted wooden panelling,wall tiling and glazed mosaics, as well as on the stalactite friezes, or muqarnas.Decorative elements taken from nature, such as leaves, flowers and branches,are generally stylised to the extreme and are so complicated that they rarelycall to mind their sources of origin.The intertwining and combining of geometricmotifs such as rhombus and etiolated polygons, form interlacing networks thatcompletely cover the surface, resulting in shapes often called arabesques. Oneinnovation within the decorative repertoire is the introduction of epigraphic elements

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Dome of the Rock,Jerusalem.

in the ornamentation of monuments,furniture and various objects. Muslimcraftsmen made use of the beauty ofArabic calligraphy, the language of thesacred book, the Qur’an, not only forthe transcription of the Qur’anic verses,but in all of its variations simply as adecorative motif for the ornamentationof stucco panelling and the edges ofpanels.Art was also at the service of rulers.It was for patrons that architects builtpalaces, mosques, schools, hospitals,bathhouses, caravanserais and mauso-leums, which would sometimes beartheir names. Islamic art is, above all,dynastic art. Each one contributedtendencies that would bring about apartial or complete renewal of artisticforms, depending on historical condi-tions, the prosperity enjoyed by theirstates, and the traditions of eachpeople. Islamic art, in spite of itsrelative unity, allowed for a diversitythat gave rise to different styles, eachone identified with a dynasty.

The Umayyad dynasty (41/661-132/750), which transferred the capital ofthe caliphate to Damascus, represents a singular achievement in the history ofIslam. It absorbed and incorporated the Hellenistic and Byzantine legacy insuch a way that the classical tradition of the Mediterranean was recast in a newand innovative mould. Islamic art, thus, was formed in Syria, and the architecture,unmistakably Islamic due to the personality of the founders, would continueto bear a relation to Hellenistic and Byzantine art as well.The most importantof these monuments are the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, the earliest existingmonumental Islamic sanctuary, the Great Mosque of Damascus, which servedas a model for later mosques, and the desert palaces of Syria, Jordan andPalestine.

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When the Abbasid caliphate (132/ 750-656/1258) succeeded the Umayyads,the political centre of Islam was movedfrom the Mediterranean to Baghdadin Mesopotamia. This factor wouldinfluence the development of Islamiccivilisation and the entire range ofculture, and art would bear the markof that change. Abbasid art andarchitecture were influenced by threemajor traditions: Sassanian, CentralAsian and Seljuq. Central Asianinfluence was already present inSassanian architecture, but at Samarrathis influence is represented by thestucco style with its arabesqueornamentation that would rapidlyspread throughout the Islamic world.The influence of the Abbasidmonuments can be observed in thebuildings constructed during thisperiod in the other regions of theempire, particularly Egypt and Ifriqiya.In Cairo, the Mosque of Ibn Tulun(262/876-265/879) is a masterpiece,remarkable for its plan and unity ofconception. It was modelled after theAbbasid Great Mosque of Samarra,particularly its spiral minaret. InKairouan, the capital of Ifriqiya, vassalsof the Abbasid caliphs, the Aghlabids(184/800-296/909) expanded theGreat Mosque of Kairouan, one ofthe most venerable congregationalmosques in the Maghrib. Its mihrabwas covered by ceramic tiles fromMesopotamia.

Kairouan Mosque,mihrab,Tunisia.

Kairouan Mosque,minaret,Tunisia.

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Citadel of Aleppo, viewof the entrance, Syria.

Complex of Qaluwun,Cairo, Egypt.

The reign of the Fatimids (297/909-567/1171) represents a remarkableperiod in the history of the Islamiccountries of the Mediterranean: NorthAfrica, Sicily, Egypt and Syria. Of theirarchitectural constructions, a fewexamples remain that bear witness totheir past glory. In the central Maghribthe Qal‘a of the Bani Hammad and theMosque of Mahdiya; in Sicily, the Cuba(Qubba) and the Zisa (al-‘Aziza) inPalermo, constructed by Fatimidcraftsmen under the Norman kingWilliam II; in Cairo, the Azhar Mosqueis the most prominent example ofFatimid architecture in Egypt.The Ayyubids (567/1171-648/1250),who overthrew the Fatimid dynastyin Cairo, were important patrons ofarchitecture.They established religiousinstitutions (madrasas, khanqas) forthe propagation of Sunni Islam,mausoleums and welfare projects, aswell as awesome fortificationspertaining to the military conflict withthe Crusaders.The Citadel of Aleppoin Syria is a remarkable exampleof their military architecture.The Mamluks (648/1250-923/1517)successors to the Ayyubids who hadsuccessfully resisted the Crusades andthe Mongols, achieved the unity ofSyria and Egypt and created a formi-dable empire.The wealth and luxuryof the Mamluk sultan’s court in Cairomotivated artists and architects toachieve an extraordinarily elegant style

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Selimiye Mosque,general view, Edirne,Turkey.

Tile of KubadabadPalace, KaratayMuseum, Konya,Turkey.

of architecture. For the world of Islam,the Mamluk period marked a rebirthand renaissance. The enthusiasm forestablishing religious foundations andreconstructing existing ones place theMamluks among the greatest patronsof art and architecture in the history ofIslam. The Mosque of Hassan (757/1356), a funerary mosque built with acruciform plan in which the four armsof the cross were formed by four iwansof the building around a central court-yard was typical of the era.Anatolia was the birthplace of twogreat Islamic dynasties: the Seljuqs (571/1075-718/1318), who introducedIslam to the region; and the Ottomans (699/1299-1340/1922), who broughtabout the end of the Byzantine Empire upon capturing Constantinople, andasserted their hegemony throughout the region.A distinctive style of Seljuq art and architecture flourished with influencesfrom Central Asia, Iran, Mesopotamia and Syria, which merged with elementsderiving from Anatolian Christian and antiquity heritage. Konya, the newcapital in Central Anatolia, as well as other cities, were enriched with buildingsin the newly developed Seljuq style. Numerous mosques, madrasas, turbes andcaravanserais, which were richly decorated by stucco and tiling with diversefigural representations, have survived to our day.As the Seljuq emirates disintegratedand Byzantium declined, the Ottomansexpanded their territory swiftly chang-ing their capital from Iznik to Bursaand then again to Edirne.The conquestof Constantinople in 858/1453 bySultan Mehmet II provided the neces-sary impetus for the transition of anemerging state into a great empire.A superpower that extended its bound-aries to Vienna including the Balkans inthe West and to Iran in the East, as well

24


Great Mosque ofCordoba, mihrab,Spain.

Madinat al-Zahra’,Dar al-Yund, Spain.

as North Africa from Egypt to Algeria,turning the Eastern Mediterraneaninto an Ottoman sea.The race to sur-pass the grandeur of the inheritedByzantine churches, exemplified bythe Hagia Sophia, culminated in theconstruction of great mosques inIstanbul. The most significant one isthe Mosque of Süleymaniye, built inthe 10th/16th century by the famousOttoman architect Sinan, epitomisesthe climax in architectural harmonyin domed buildings. Most majorOttoman mosques were part of a largebuilding complex called kulliye thatalso consisted several madrasas, a Qur’anschool, a library, a hospital (darussifa),a hostel (tabhane), a public kitchen, acaravanserai and mausoleums (turbes).From the beginning of the 12th/18th

century, during the so-called TulipPeriod, Ottoman architecture anddecorative style reflected the influenceof French Baroque and Rococo, herald-ing the westernisation period in artsand architecture.Al-Andalus at the western part of theIslamic world became the cradle of abrilliant artistic and cultural expres-sion.‘Abd al-Rahman I established anindependent Umayyad caliphate(138/750-422/1031) with Cordobaas its capital. The Great Mosque ofCordoba would pioneer innovativeartistic tendencies such as the doubletiered arches with two alternatingcolours and panels with vegetal orna-

25


Tinmal Mosque,aerial view, Morocco.

mentation which would become partof the repertoire of al-Andalus artisticforms.In the 5th/11th century, the caliphateof Cordoba broke up into a score ofprincipalities incapable of preventingthe progressive advance of the re-conquest initiated by the Christianstates of the Northwestern IberianPeninsula.These petty kings, or TaifaKings, called the Almoravids in479/1086 and the Almohads in540/1145, repelled the Christians andreestablished partial unity in al-Andalus.Through their intervention in the Iberian Peninsula, the Almoravids (427/1036-541/1147) came into contact with a new civilisation and were captivatedquickly by the refinement of al-Andalus art as reflected in their capital,Marrakesh, where they built a grand mosque and palaces.The influence of thearchitecture of Cordoba and other capitals such as Seville would be felt in allof the Almoravid monuments from Tlemcen,Algiers to Fez.Under the rule of the Almohads (515/1121-667/1269), who expanded theirhegemony as far as Tunisia, western Islamic art reached its climax. Duringthis period, artistic creativity that originated with the Almoravid rulers wasrenewed and masterpieces of Islamic art were created.The Great Mosque ofSeville with its minaret the Giralda,the Kutubiya in Marrakesh, theMosque of Hassan in Rabat and theMosque of Tinmal high in the AtlasMountains in Morocco are notableexamples.Upon the dissolution of the AlmohadEmpire, the Nasrid dynasty (629/1232-897/1492) installed itself inGranada and was to experience aperiod of splendour in the 8th/14th

century. The civilisation of Granadawould become a cultural model in

Ladies Tower andGardens,Alhambra,Granada, Spain.

26


Mertola, general view,Portugal.

future centuries in Spain (Mudejar Art) and particularly in Morocco, wherethis artistic tradition enjoyed great popularity and would be preserved untilthe present day in the areas of architecture and decoration, music and cuisine.The famous palace and fort of al-Hamra’ (the Alhambra) in Granada marksthe crowning achievement of al-Andalus art, with all features of itsartistic repertoire.

At the same time in Morocco, theMerinids (641/1243-876/1471)replaced the Almohads, while inAlgeria the ‘Abd al-Wadid’s reigned(633/1235-922/1516), as did theHafsids (625/1228-941/1534) inTunisia. The Merinids perpetuatedal-Andalus art, enriching it withnew features.They embellished theircapital Fez with an abundance ofmosques, palaces and madrasas, withtheir clay mosaic and zellij panellingin the wall decorations, considered

Decoration detail,Abu Inan Madrasa,Meknes, Morocco.

27


Qal‘a of the BaniHammad, minaret,Algeria.

Sa‘adian TombMarrakesh, Morocco.

to be the most perfect works of Islamic art.The later Moroccan dynasties,the Sa‘adians (933/1527-1070/1659) and the ‘Alawite (1077/1659 – until thepresent day), carried on the artistic tradition of al-Andalus that was exiledfrom its native soil in 897/1492.They continued to build and decorate theirmonuments using the same formulas and the same decorative themes ashad the preceding dynasties, adding innovative touches characteristic of theircreative genius. In the early 11th/17th century, emigrants from al-Andalus(the Moriscos), who took up residence in the northern cities of Morocco,introduced numerous features of al-Andalus art.Today, Morocco is one of thefew countries that has kept traditions of al-Andalus alive in its architectureand furniture, at the same time modernising them as they incorporated thearchitectural techniques and styles of the 15th/20th century.

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ARCHITECTURAL SUMMARY

In general terms, Islamic architecture can be classified into two categories:religious, such as mosques, madrasas, mausoleums, and secular, such as palaces,caravanserais, fortifications, etc.

Religious Architecture

Mosques

The mosque for obvious reasons lies at the very heart of Islamic architecture.It is an apt symbol of the faith that it serves. That symbolic role was under-stood by Muslims at a very early stage, and played an important part in thecreation of suitable visual markers for the building: minaret, dome, mihrab,minbar, etc.The first mosque in Islam was the courtyard of the Prophet’s house in Medina,with no architectural refinements. Early mosques built by the Muslims as theirempire was expanding were simple. From these buildings developed thecongregational or Friday mosque (jami‘), essential features of which remaintoday unchanged for nearly 1400 years. The general plan consists of a largecourtyard surrounded by arched porticoes, with more aisles or arcades on theside facing Mecca (qibla) than the other sides. The Great Umayyad Mosquein Damascus, which followed the plan of the Prophet’s mosque, became theprototype for many mosques built in various parts of the Islamic world.

Two other types of mosques developedin Anatolia and afterwards in theOttoman domains: the basilical andthe dome types. The first type is asimple pillared hall or basilica thatfollows late Roman and ByzantineSyrian tradition, introduced withsome modifications in the 5th/11th

century. The second type, whichdeveloped during the Ottoman period,has its organisation of interior spaceunder a single dome.The Ottoman

Umayyad Mosque ofDamascus, Syria.

29


Great Mosque, Divrig *i,Turkey.

architects in great imperial mosquescreated a new style of domedconstruction by merging the Islamicmosque tradition with that of domebuilding in Anatolia.The main domerests on hexagonal support system,while lateral bays are covered bysmaller domes. This emphasis onan interior space dominated by asingle dome became the startingpoint of a style that was to be intro-duced in the 10th/16th century. Duringthis per iod, mosques becamemultipurpose social complexesconsisting of a zawiya, a madrasa, a public kitchen, a bath, a caravanseraiand a mausoleum of the founder. The supreme monument of this styleis the Sülaymeniye Mosque in Istanbul built in 965/1557 by the greatarchitect Sinan.The minaret from the top of which the muezzin calls Muslims to prayer, is themost prominent marker of the mosque. In Syria the traditional minaretconsists of a square-plan tower built of stone. In Mamluk Egypt minarets areeach divided into three distinct zones: a square section at the bottom, anoctagonal middle section and a circular section with a small dome on the top.Its shaft is richly decorated and thetransition between each section iscovered with a band of muqarnasdecoration. Minarets in North Africaand Spain, that share the square towerform with Syria, are decorated withpanels of motifs around paired setsof windows. During the Ottomanperiod the octagonal or cylindricalminarets replaced the square tower.Often these are tall pointed minaretsand although mosques generally haveonly one minaret, in major cities thereare two, four or even six minarets.

Sülaymeniye Mosque,Istanbul,Turkey.

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Typology of minarets. Madrasas

It seems likely that the Seljuqs builtthe first madrasas in Persia in the early5th/11th century when they weresmall structures with a domedcourtyard and two lateral iwans.A later type developed has an opencourtyard with a central iwan andsurrounded by arcades. During the6th/12th century in Anatolia, themadrasa became multifunctional andwas intended to serve as a medical

school, mental hospital, a hospice with a public kitchen (imaret) and a mausoleum.The promotion of Sunni (orthodox) Islam reached a new zenith in Syriaand Egypt under the Zengids and the Ayyubids (6th/12th–early 7th/13th

centuries). This era witnessed the introduction of the madrasa established bya civic or political leader for the advancement of Islamic jurisprudence. Thefoundation was funded by an endowment in perpetuity (waqf), usuallythe revenues of land or property in the form of an orchard, shops ina market (suq), or a bathhouse (hammam). The madrasa traditionally

followed a cruciform plan with acentral court surrounded by fouriwans. Soon the madrasa became adominant architectural form withmosques adopting a four-iwan plan.The madrasa gradually lost its solereligious and political function asa propaganda tool and tended tohave a broader civic function, servingas a congregational mosque and amausoleum for the benefactor.The construction of madrasas inEgypt and particularly in Cairogathered new momentum with thecoming of the Mamluks.The typicalCairene madrasa of this era was a

Sivas Gök Madrasa,Turkey.

31


Mosque and madrasaSultan Hassan, Cairo,Egypt.

multifunctional gigantic four-iwanstructure with a stalactite (muqarnas)portal and splendid façades.With theadvent of the Ottomans in the10th/16th century, the joint foundation,typically a mosque-madrasa, becamea widespread large complex thatenjoyed imperial patronage. Theiwan disappeared gradually andwas replaced by a dominant domechamber.A substantial increase in thenumber of domed cells used bystudents is a characteristic of Ottomanmadrasas.One of the various building types that by virtue of their function and oftheir form can be related to the madrasa is the khanqa. The term indicatesan institution, rather than a particular kind of building, that housesmembers of a Muslim mystical (sufi) order. Several other words used byMuslim historians as synonyms for khanqa include: in the Maghrib, zawiya;in Ottoman domain, tekke; and in general, ribat. Sufism permanentlydominated the khanqa, which originated in eastern Persia during the4th/10th century. In its simplest form the khanqa was a house where agroup of pupils gathered around a master (shaykh), and it had the facilitiesfor assembly, prayer and communal living. The establishment of khanqasflourished under the Seljuqs during the 5th/11th and the 6th/12th centuriesand benefited from the close association between Sufism and the Shafi‘imadhhab (doctrine) favoured by ruling elite.

Mausoleums

The terminology of the building type of the mausoleum used in Islamicsources is varied.The standard descriptive term turbe refers to the functionof the building as for burial. Another term is qubba that refers to the mostidentifiable, the dome, and often marks a structure commemorating Biblicalprophets, companions of the Prophet Muhammad and religious or militarynotables.The function of mausoleums is not limited simply to a place of burial

32


and commemoration, but also plays animportant role in “popular” religion.They are venerated as tombs of localsaints and became places of pilgrimage.Often the structure of a mausoleumis embellished with Qur’anic quota-tions and contains a mihrab within itto render it a place of prayer. In somecases the mausoleum became part ofa joint foundation. Forms of MedievalIslamic mausoleums are varied, butthe traditional one has a domed squareplan.

Secular Architecture

Palaces

The Umayyad period is characterisedby sumptuous palaces and bathhousesin remote desert regions.Their basicplan is largely derived from Romanmilitary models. Although thedecoration of these structures iseclectic, they constitute the bestexamples of the budding Islamicdecorative style. Mosaics, mural

paintings, stone or stucco sculpture were used for a remarkable varietyof decorations and themes. Abbasid palaces in Iraq, such as those atSamarra and Ukhaidir, follow the same plan as their Umayyad forerunners,but are marked by increase in size, the use of the great iwan, dome andcourtyard, and the extensive use of stucco decorations. Palaces in thelater Islamic period developed a distinctive style that was more decorativeand less monumental.The most remarkable example of royal or princelypalaces is the Alhambra. The vast area of the palace is broken up into aseries of separate units: gardens, pavilions and courts.The most striking

Qasr al-Khayral-Sharqi, Syria.

Ribat of Sousse,Tunisia.

33


feature of Alhambra, however, isthe decoration that provides anextraordinary effect in the interiorof the building.

Caravanserais

A caravanserai generally refers to alarge structure that provides a lodgingplace for travellers and merchants.Normally, it is a square or rectangularfloor plan, with a single projectingmonumental entrance and towers inthe exterior walls. A central court-yard is surrounded by porticoes and rooms for lodging travellers, storingmerchandise and for the stabling of animals.The characteristic type of building has a wide range of functions since ithas been described as khan, han, funduq, ribat. These terms may imply nomore than differences in regional vocabularies rather than being distinctivefunctions or types. The architectural sources of the various types ofcaravanserais are difficult to identify. Some are perhaps derived from theRoman castrum or military camp to which the Umayyad desert palaces arerelated. Other types, in Mesopotamia and Persia, are associated withdomestic architecture.

Urban organisation

From about the 3rd/10th century every town of any significance acquired fortifiedwalls and towers, elaborate gates and a mighty citadel (qal‘a or qasba) as seatof power.These are massive constructions built in materials characteristic ofthe region in which they are found; stone in Syria, Palestine and Egypt, orbrick, stone and rammed earth in the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa.A unique example of military architecture is the ribat. Technically, this is afortified palace designated for the temporary or permanent warriors of Islamwho committed themselves to the defence of frontiers.The ribat of Sousse in

Aksaray Sultan Khan,Turkey.

34


Tunisia bears resemblance to early Islamic palaces, but with a different interiorarrangement of large halls, mosque and a minaret.The division of the majority of Islamic cities into neighbourhoods is based onethnic and religious affinity and it is also a system of urban organisation thatfacilitates the administration of the population. In the neighbourhood there isalways a mosque. A bathhouse, a fountain, an oven and a group of stores arelocated either within or nearby. Its structure is formed by a network of streets,alleys and a collection of houses. Depending on the region and era, the hometakes on diverse features governed by the historical and cultural traditions,climate and construction materials available.The market (suq), which functions as the nerve-centre for local businesses,would be the most relevant characteristic of Islamic cities. Its distance from themosque determines the spatial organisation of the markets by specialised guilds.For instance, the professions considered clean and honourable (bookmakers,perfume makers, tailors) are located in the mosque’s immediate environs, andthe noisy and foul-smelling crafts (blacksmith, tanning, cloth dying) aresituated progressively further from it.This geographic distribution respondsto imperatives that rank on strictly technical grounds.

AleppoQ. Najm

Maskaneh Q. Jab‘arar Raqqa

Tadmur

Mar Musa Monastery

I Damascus

HomsSafitaTartus

Q. Marqab

Latakia

IV HamaMisyaf

Maarret Al-Num‘an

III

V

II Bosra

Khan al-Arus

Qara

III

Nebek

Q. Shayzar

VI+VII

Abu Qubays

C. Chevalier

VIII

THE ITINERARIES

The era presented by this catalogue, fromthe mid-5th/-11th century until the mid-7th/-13th century, emerges from a back-ground of turbulence in the Muslimworld. This is because the period ofunity and prosperity founded by the‘Abbasid Caliphate in 132/750 withits monumental capital in Baghdad,a veritable Golden Age of humancivilisation under the banner of Islam, hadby the 4th/10th century begun to dis-integrate. Due to its wide expanse,‘Abbasid-appointed governors weregrowing gradually autonomous and somewere even fragmenting into smallerindependent states, greatly weakeningBaghdad’s central authority. Moreover, aPersian military dynasty from northernIran, known as the Buyids, or Buwayhids,had even taken the capital by 333/945,rendering the ‘Abbasid caliph a puppet.Most astounding of all was the pro-clamation of an Isma‘ili counter-caliphate led by the Fatimid Dynastyin Ifiqiya (Tunisia) in 269/909. TheFatimid caliphate grew immenselypowerful and extended eastward toestablish a new Islamic capital in Egyptcalled Al-Qahira “the Victorious”,modern-day Cairo, in 358/969. The‘Abbasids were incapable of decisivelycountering the Fatimids, and Cairoflourished into a magnificent courtwith a strong economic and politicalMediterranean presence. The Fatimidseven took over the holy lands in Palestineand Arabia. These lands were formerlyunder ‘Abbasid governance and playeda crucial role in the bolstering ofgovernment legitimacy since they held

the sacred shrines of Islam, Mecca,Medina and Jerusalem. The antagonism between ‘AbbasidBaghdad and Fatimid Cairo wroughthavoc in the lands lying between them,known as Bilad al-Sham, and namelySyria. This included the stretch of theeastern Mediterranean coast fromAlexandretta and Antioch in the north, tothe River Jordan in the south, which thenswept inland in the famous “FertileCrescent” fashion, and included thecentral sweep of desert-like steppes,reaching the Euphrates and the Tigrisrivers. The land that these two riverssurround is known as “the Island” oral-Jazira, which to this day is used inreference to north-west Syria. An additional and ever-present pressureon the Muslim world of this region camealso from the north, the ByzantineEmpire, which indulged in expansionistcampaigns encroaching into northern andcoastal Syria. A local tribe known as theHamdanids made great efforts to establisha strong court in Aleppo to counter theByzantine menace, particularly under theleadership of Sayf al-Dawla (d. 356/967)the heroic deeds of whom were celebratedby the court poet al-Mutanabbi, but madelittle headway with the Byzantines.Meanwhile, the Fatimids in the south hadtaken Damascus in 358/970 causing theoutbreak of warring militias and thedestruction of the Great UmayyadMosque, the spiritual focal point of thecommunity and the major urbanlandmark of the city. These externalpressures, marking a difficult century ofSyrian history, further aggravated internal

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

Abd al-Razzaq Moaz

37

Great UmayyadMosque of Damascus,view of the minaret ofthe Bride (al-‘Arus).

Table showingthe Abbasid and theFatimid Caliphs.

38

Historical Introduction

The Abbasid Caliphate The Fatimid CaliphateAbu Abbas al-Saffah 132-136/750-754Al-Mansur 136-158/754-775Al-Mahdi 158-169/775-785Al-Hadi 169-170/785-786Harun al-Rashid 170-193/786-809Al-Amin 193-198/809-813Al-Ma’mun 198-218/813-833Al-Mu‘tasim 218-227/833-842Al-Wathiq 227-232/842-847Al-Mutawakkil 232-247/847-861Al-Mustansir 247-248/861-862Al-Mustacin 248-252/862-866Al-Mu‘tazz 252-255/866-869Al-Muhtadi 255-256/869-870Al-Mu‘amid 256-270/870-892Al-Mu‘tadid 270-289/892-902Al-Muktafi 289-295/902-908Al-Muqtadir 295-320/908-932Al-Qahir 320-322/932-9341) Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi 297-322/909-9342)Al-Radi 322-329/934-940 Al-Qaim 322-334/934-946Al-Muttaqi 329-333/940-944Al-Mustakfi 333-334/944-945 Al-Mansur 334-341/946-953Al-Muti‘ 334-363/945-9743) Al-Mu‘izz 341-365/953-9754)Al-Tai’ 363-381/974-991 Al-‘Aziz 365-386/975-996

Al-Qadir 381-422/991-1031 Al-Hakim bi Amr Allah 386-411/996-1021Al-Zahir 411-427/1021-1036

Al-Qa’im 422-467/1031-10755) Al-Mustansir 427-487/1036-10946)Al-Muktafi 467-487/1075-1094 Al-Musta‘il 487-495/1094-1101Al-Mustazhir 487-512/1094-1118 Al-Amir 495-525/1101-1130Al-Mustarshid 512-529/1118-1135 Al-Hafiz 525-544/1130-1149Al-Rashid 529-530/1135-1136 Al-Zafir 544-549/1149-1154Al-Muqtafi 530-555/1136-1160 Al-Faiz 549-555/1154-1160Al-Mustanjid 555-566/1160-1170 Al-‘Adid 555-567/1160-11717)Al-Mustadi’ 566-575/1170-1180Al-Nasir 575-622/1180-1225Al-Zahir 622-623/1225-1226Al-Mustansir 623-640/1226-1242Al-Musta’sim 640-656/1242-12588)Source: “Abbassids”, Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol 1, p. 22; “Fatimids”, Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 2, p. 850.

1) The Abbasid Caliphate is challenged by a Fatimid counter-Caliphate.2) The Fatimids found the first Shi’a caliphate in Islamic history.3) Baghdad falls to the Buyids.4) Fatimids found Cairo as new capital 358/969.5) Baghdad taken by the Seljuks, founding Seljuk Sultanate, and re-instating Ayyubid Caliphate.6) The Fatimids lose Syria and the Holy Lands to the Seljuks under Toghril Beg between 447/1055 and 473/1088.7) End of Fatimid Caliphate by Salah al-Din.8) The Mongols destroy Baghdad.

disintegration and shifty alliances. Thepervasive sense of insecurity andcontinuous warfare is lamented by theSyrian poet Abu al-Alaa al-Maarri(d. 449/1057): “Falsehood hath socorrupted all the world, Ne’er deal astrue friends they whom sects divide …Each party defends its own creed,I wonder in vain where the Truth lies!”

The Seljuqs

Promise of a Syrian revival came from theSeljuqs. These nomadic Turkmen tribesfrom Central Asia (Transoxiana) weregreatly skilled warriors and adept militaryleaders who desired to recover andreunite the fallen lands of the once great‘Abbasid caliphate. The Seljuqs took overBaghdad from the Buyids in 447/1055and struck an alliance with the weakened‘Abbasid Caliph, al-Qaim (d. 467/1075)thus establishing legitimacy for their rule.Many of their Turkmen armies headedtowards Armenia, the Caucasus andAnatolia to fight back the Byzantines andtheir allies. Under the leadership ofSultan Alp Arslan (d. 1072/470), so-called for his valiant fighting skills, theSeljuqs achieved astounding victory at theBattle of Manzikert in 463/1071, evencapturing the Byzantine Emperor himself,Romanos IV Diogenes. These Turkmen,known as the Seljuq-Rum, settled inAnatolia. With the Byzantine armywrecked, the main branch of the Seljuqsproceeded to occupy Syria and push theFatimid powers out. Seljuq rule thereforeredeemed the Muslim state from Syria to

Central Asia and re-strengthened theprestige of the ‘Abbasid caliphate.The Seljuqs attached great importance toSyria as the westward extension of theirpowerful position, especially since itmarked the frontier with their Fatimidrivals. The Fatimids no longer heldSyrian territory and suffered internal

Ceramic statuedepicting a Seljuqknight and knownas “Faris al-Raqqa” or the “Horsemanof al-Raqqa”.

39


Areal view of theBosra Citadel

Syria. In their far-reaching power they didnot claim to be caliphs upholding thebelief in a single ‘Abbasid caliphate forall of Islam, but, instead, they referredto themselves as Sultans. With theirpolitical rejuvenation, the Seljuqs had acultural impact too, adding Eastern(Iranian and Central Asian) traditions tothe Islamic governmental system and theArab lands, as well as influencing theindigenous artistic and architecturalrepertoire. In order to galvanise the fragmentedsociety into taking heed of their leader-ship, the Seljuqs embarked on massiveurban-development campaigns that

weaknesses. A major rift had occurredamong them with the death of theirCaliph, al-Mustansir, in 487/1094, divid-ing their followers between adherents totwo his two sons; supporters of Nizarsuppressed by those who supportedal-Musta’li, the elder son. The Nizaris,therefore, fled Egypt and founded amilitant Isma‘ili community in themountainous regions of Syria. Knownas the Assassins, from the Arabic termHashshashin, they added further to thediversity and political interplay of theregion.The Seljuqs became rulers of an empirestretching right across Iran, Iraq and

40


Genealogy of theSeljuq Sultans. The Seljuk Dynasty

Toghril Beg 447-455/1055-10631)Alp Arslan 455-464/1063-1072Malik Shah 465-485/1071-10922)Mahmud B. Malik Shah 485-487/1092-1094Berk Yaruq b. Malik Shah 487-498/1094-1104Malik Shah b. Berk Yaruq b. Malik Shah 498/1104-1105Mahmud b. Malik Shah 498-511/1105-1118Sanjar b. Malik Shah 511-552/1118-11573)Mahmud b. Muhammad b. Malik Shah 511-525/1118-11314)Daud b. Mahmud b. Muhammad b. Malik Shah 525/1131Toghril b. Muhammad b. Malik Shah 525-529/1131-1134Mas‘ud b. Muhammad b. Malik Shah 529-547/1134-1152Malik Shah b. Mahmud b. Muhammad b. Malik Shah 547/1152-1153Muhammad b. Mahmud b. Muhammad b. Malik Shah 547-554/1153-1159Sulayman b. Muhammad b. Malik Sahah 555/1160Arslan b. Toghril b. Muhammad Malik Shah 555-557/1160-1175Toghril b. Arslan b. Toghril b. Muhammad b. Malik Shah 571-590/1175-1194

Source: “The Seljuk Vezirate: A Study of Civil Administration (1055-1194)”, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Harvard University, 1973, pp. 105-110.

1) The Abbasid Caliphate is challenged by a Fatimid counter-Caliphate.2) The Fatimids found the first Shi’a caliphate in Islamic history.3) Baghdad falls to the Buyids.4) Fatimids found Cairo as new capital 358/969.

served to protect the cities, ensure thesafety of city-dwellers and rebuild thelargely destroyed urban centres. Mostimportantly, they sought to re-educatethe people so that they may serve in theirnew administrative system and counterthe sway of Fatimid shi’ite authority.Thus, the Seljuqs built madrasas (collegesfor legal and theological study) inabundance. These were generally de-dicated to the transmission of knowledgealong orthodox Sunni lines, which wenthand in hand with re-establishing thedominance of the ‘Abbasid caliphate. Although the prestigious MadrasaNizamiyya, founded in Baghdad by thepowerful Seljuq vizier Nizam al-Mulkin 457/1065, is not the first madrasa inthe Arab world, it is certainly the mostfamous due to its strong patronage andmethodical systemisation. It was also in

this period that Muhammad al-Ghazali(d. 505/1111), one of the most celebratedscholars of Islam and a distinguishedprofessor at Madrasa Nizamiyya, pro-duced his important work Ihya Ulumal-Din (Revival of the Religious Sciences).The work gave new impetus to traditionalregulations of Islam and brought themystical approach of the Muslim faith,Sufism, within the folds of traditionalIslamic practice, attracting a wider andmore nuanced scope of believers. The Seljuq ruler of Syria, Taj al-DawlaTutush I (d. 488/1095) and his wifeKhatun Safwat al-Mulk (d. 512/1119)were powerful rulers who were alsoimportant patrons of religious architec-ture. Safwat al-Mulk was a capable regentas a widow. In Damascus, she built afunerary compound known as Qubbatal-Tawawis – the Peacock Cupola – which

Misyaf Castle, oncethe headquarters of theIsma‘iliyya Nizariyyain the Syrian coastalmountains.

41


included a mosque, a khanqa (Sufihospice) and a mausoleum for herself andher son, Duqaq. Though this exemplarySeljuq monument has not survived to thepresent day it set an example for sub-sequent rulers, male and female, and theSeljuqs’ patronage of public institutionsto support their social, politicaland cultural revival, was a practiceenthusiastically adopted by their Atabeggovernors and the Ayyubid Dynasty.

The Faranj

Amidst this busy period of transition, anew and unexpected threat appeared.These were the Latin Crusaders, knownby the Arabs as al-Faranj, or al-Ifranj, whoinvaded the Eastern Mediterranean landsin the name of Christendom in the late5th/11th century. They first appeared onthe Syrian coast in the autumn of 490/1097 where they lay siege to Antioch fornine months before it finally succumbed.They then went on to devastate the cityof Ma’arrat al-Nu’man; both Arab andLatin chroniclers express shudderingdespair in recording the depravity of thebattle. Finally, they conquered the holyland of Jerusalem in 492/1099, causingpopular outrage from all faiths of the localpopulation. This sudden and unprece-dented appearance of the Franks and theirplundering of the Holy Land shocked thecommunity. But the political rulers –Seljuq princelings, Turkish and Kurdishatabegs and various other Arab tribaldynasties – were unable to unite. Themain reason for this lack of unity was that

Detail of wooden screenfrom the Mausoleumof Sultan Duqaqin Damascus, now inthe National Museumof Damascus.

42


Burj Safita, near Tartus,an entrance to aCrusader donjon.

they sought to preserve their local terri-tories and were reluctant to form militaryalliances that might threaten their respec-tive authorities. The Latin settlementsthus remained for over two centuries; theArwad Island off the coast of Tartus wasthe last Crusader position in Syria, repos-sessed in 701/1302. The complicatedpolitical fabric of the region influencedthe internal policies of the Seljuqs inbuilding a strong, obedient and unifiedsociety. The Zangid and Ayyubiddynasties, which exemplify Syria duringthis period, originated from the Seljuqsultanate. The Zangids of Syria were atwo-generational dynasty, beginning withthe reign of an Atabeg by the name of Imadal-Din Zangi in 521/1127 and endingwith the death of his son Nur al-Dinbin Zangi in 569/1174. The Ayyubids,founded by Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi in thesame year, covers four generations of thefamily’s leadership up until approximately658/1260, after which some branches ofthe family remained as vassals to otherpowers.

The Atabegs

The Seljuqs had a strong policy ofreconstructing the wearied cities tosupport their religious, economic andpolitical revival. Given the wide expanseof territory, they often maintained localrulers, together with the employment ofmembers of the Seljuq family as provin-cial governors, known as Atabegs. Theterm “Atabeg” is the title given to a Seljuqdignitary – “ata” meaning father and “beg”

meaning leader. The first person to begiven the title of Atabeg was Nizamal-Mulk (d. 485/1092), one of the mostpowerful figures of the Seljuq court inBaghdad and a vizier to the sultan. Thetitle generally meant “teacher”, wherebyan Atabeg would be given the charge ofinstructing a young prince in the skills ofmilitary leadership and state governance.

Madrasa Atabakiyya,Damascus, detail ofthe stone muqarnasportal.

43


The Zangids

Imad al-Din Zangi, the Atabeg ruler ofAleppo, was one of the most importantAtabegs to consolidate his autonomywithin the Seljuq Empire, thanks to hismany successful expeditions. By 521/1127 he had control of Mosul and Aleppowhere he used his position to further con-solidate his power and limit the expansionof the Artuqids, another Turkman dynastybased in Asia Minor with influences innorthern Syria. In 523/1129, the Seljuqsultan Mahmud knew Zangi as King ofthe West “Malik al-Gharb”. When heconquered Edessa from the Crusaders in539/1144, he became a jihad hero. A Frankish slave murdered Zangi in540/1146, leaving the city suddenlyvulnerable to an encroaching Crusaderinvasion. His son, Nur al-Din (r. 541–69/1146–74), quickly took over his father’sposition and managed to rally a unitedMuslim offensive against their Frankishopponents. Under Nur al-Din’s leader-ship the Crusaders, ward off Aleppo werecompelled to withdraw from Edessa. Thiswas one of the strongest victories of theMuslim warriors against the Crusaders,and Nur al-Din was everywhere extolledfor his virtues as a defender of Islam.As a far-sighted ruler Nur al-Din sentofficial homage to his elder brother, rulerof Mosul, Sayf al-Din bin Zangi. Thissecured inner unity and shared effortsof jihad against their common enemy.With the regions of northern Syria thussecured, Nur al-Din turned to Damascusin the spring of 541/1147, negotiating apeaceful alliance with its rival governor,

Quite often, Atabegs actually heldcontrol of entire states, competing witheach other to secure the wealth andprosperity of their lands. In Syria, the focal point of the rivalry wasbetween the Atabegs of Aleppo rulingunder the Seljuq prince Radwan, andthe Atabegs of Damascus ruling underthe Seljuq prince Duqaq, while thesmaller cities that lay in between themcame under alternating spheres ofinfluence. Though war marked the period, so didrefortification and urban expansion,largely thanks to the might of the Seljuqs.If the status of Syrian cities at the end ofFatimid domination was to be comparedwith their situation under the SeljuqAtabegs, it would not be an exaggerationto say that they witnessed a secondcoming; a re-founding.

44


A crusader sword,Tartus Museum.

Mu’in al-Din Unur al-Atabeki (d. 543/1149) by marrying his daughter. Unurwas powerful enough to ward off theSecond Crusade’s siege of Damascus in542/1148, and when he died the follow-ing year, Nur al-Din took control of thecity. United, thus, under one visionaryleadership, Damascus and Aleppo createda solid front to counter the Crusaderstates. Nur al-Din rebuilt all of Syria’s cities.He founded new mosques, many ofwhich are referred to colloquially as Nurimosques in his name, as well as schools,hospitals and fortifications. Nur al-Dinendowed his mosques with innovativefinely carved wooden minbars or pulpits,from which weekly sermons methodically

propagated his vision, calling for piety,unity and jihad to liberate Jerusalem fromthe Frankish invaders. On an economiclevel, this unification of northern andsouthern Syria also gave him access to thefertile lands and granaries of Hauran andBosra in the south which were necessaryto keep his war-threatened cities well fedand prosperous. All in all the arrival ofNur al-Din to Damascus marked thebeginning of a new era for Syria.From the northern regions of Aleppo andthe Byzantine frontiers, through the citiesof Hama and Homs, to the new capital ofDamascus and all the way south to theregion of Bosra where pilgrims set offto the Holy Lands of Arabia, all of Syriabecame a united front. Nur al-Din

45


Fragments of thewooden minbarcommissioned byNur al-Din for theAqsa Mosquein Jerusalem.Islamic Museum,al-Aqsa Mosque,Jerusalem.

the other in 565/1170, his buildingendeavours never ceased. By the middle of the 6th/12th century, theseat of Islamic power had shifted to Syria,thanks to the concerted efforts of Nural-Din. The city of Damascus witnessed averitable political, economic and culturalrenaissance becoming in every sense animperial capital that revived a legacy,which dates back to the UmayyadCaliphate some 400 years earlier. Notsurprisingly, in the inscription of theMadrasa al-Hallawiyya in Aleppo builtin 543/1149, Nur al-Din no longerconsidered himself an Atabeg of theSeljuq sultan, but is bestowed withgrander honorific titles, most notably,al-Mujahid, “the fighter for the faith”.The style of the inscription, a thick andeasily legible cursive script known asthuluth, also marks a decisive change inmonumental epigraphy and reflects Nural-Din’s willful transformation of bothform and content of Syria’s leadership.

46


Madrasa Hallawiyya,Aleppo, detail of Nural-Din’s monumentalinscription.

Great UmayyadMosque of Damascus,detail of Nur al-Din’srestoration of themosaics.

guaranteed food supplies for all theMuslim towns and launched a thoroughfortification campaign of all the majorcities. Despite two large earthquakes thatravaged the land, one in 525/1157 and

Syria’s cities expanded, the populationgrew and the construction of variousmosques, madrasas and centres forreligious, legal and scientific studymarked his reign. He restored the GreatUmayyad Mosque of Damascus and hesought to liberate the Holy Land ofJerusalem, dedicating a magnificentminbar to the Masjid al-Aqsa. Amidst hiscopious city building and military activity,he also managed to perform the hajj,the Muslim pilgrimage, in 556/1161,where he showed great generosity to theinhabitants of the cities he passed anddevoted attention to the improvement ofthe wells in the Arabian Desert. He diedin the residence that he had constructedin the citadel of Damascus in 569/1174,but he had already introduced his mostcapable lieutenant Salah al-Din, known inthe West as Saladin, to the region as abarrier to Frankish intervention. Interredin the funerary madrasa that he was in theprocess of constructing to the south-westof the Great Umayyad Mosque, it is tothis day the object of popular veneration.

The Ayyubids

The Sultan al-Nasir Salah al-Din Yusuf ibnAyyub (d. 589/1193), known as Saladin,was one of Nur al-Din’s most brilliantlieutenants. He had risen to fame duringNur al-Din’s reign thanks to his finaldisposal of the Fatimid caliphate in Cairoin 566/1171. Upon Nur al-Din’s death,this skilled warrior of Kurdish descentspent a decade consolidating his militaryauthority and fighting with other

47


Marble inscriptionpanel commemoratingthe liberationof Jerusalemby Salah al-Dinand signifyinghis aspirationsfor peace. Islamic Museum,al-Aqsa Mosque,Jerusalem.

claimants to the throne, until he was atlast able to proclaim himself founder ofthe Ayyubid Dynasty in 579/1183. Thatyear he was able to capture Aleppo,where allegiance to members of Nural-Din’s family was the strongest, andthus proclaim undisputed authority. Hisunification of Egypt and Syria resultedfrom the formation of a large and verywell organised military force and it was atthis point that he turned his attention tothe Crusaders, leaving his heroic mark inIslamic history. Salah al-Din’s successfulcampaigns saw the conquest of some 50Crusader positions, including Chateau deSaone, which he besieged in 584/1188.Renamed as Saladin’s Citadel, or Qal’atSalah al-Din, it is one of the finestsurviving examples of military architec-ture on a spectacular mountainous ravine.

48


Genealogical Tree ofthe Ayyubid Dynasty.

Qal’at Salah al-Din,previously Château duSoane, near Latakia.

BA’LBECK HOMS

Ayyub d. 578 /1182-3 Shirkuhd. 5691173-4

Al-Kahirc. 5801184-5

Al-Mujahidd. 6371239-40

Al-Mansurd. 6641246-7

Al-Ashrafc. 6441246-7

Al-Salihd. 6591261

Shadi

Turanshah(Yemen)d. 5741178

Shahnshah Tughtegin(Yemen)d. 5931196-7

Salah al-Din564-589

1169-1193

Al-‘Adild. 6151218

Farrukhshah Takial-Din ‘Umar

Ismaild. 5981201-2

Al-Nasird. 6111214-5

Al-Afdald. 6221225

Al-‘Aziz(Egypt)d. 5951199

Al-Ahwad Shahibal-Din Ghazi(Mayafarikin)

d. 6421244-5

Al-Kamild. 6581260

Al-Mansurd. 596

1199-1200

Al-‘Azizd. 6341216-7

Al-AmjadBahram Shah


Sulayman(Yemen)c. 6111214-5 Al-Nasir Yusuf

d. 6591261

Al-Nasir Daud(Karak)d. 6461248-9

Al-Ashraf(Diyar

Mudar andAkhlat)

Al-Zahir Ghazid. 6131216-7

Al-Mu’azzam(Damascus)d. 6251228

Al-Salih Ismail(Damascus)d. 6431245-6

Al-Kamil(Egypt andDamascus)d. 6351237-8

Al-Mas’ud(Yemen)d. 6261226-7

Al-‘Adil(Egypt)d. 6371239-40

Al-Salih Ayyub(Hsn-Kayfa,

Egypt, Damas)d. 6461248-9

Al-Ashraf(Egypt)d. 6481250-1

Musaal-Mughlib(Karak)d. 6611262-3

Turanshahd. 6471249-50

Al-Muzaffard. 6421244-5

Al-Nasird. 6261229


Al-Afdal

Al-Muzaffarc. 6531255

Abu’l Fidad. 7331332-3

Al-Afdald. 7431342-3

HAMA YEMEN JAZIRAALEPPO EGYPT AND DAMASCUS

By far the greatest triumph of Salahal-Din was the Battle of Hittin, whichtook place in 583/1187 and marked amajor turning point in the warfarebetween the Muslim and the Crusaderforces. Salah al-Din’s resounding successat the Battle of Hittin precipitated the fallof the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalemand the long-awaited liberation of theHoly Land of Palestine. To this day, thememory of Salah al-Din is a vibrantsymbol of Islamic heroism and manypolitical leaders and foreign conquerorshave visited his tomb in acknowledge-ment of his esteemed legacy. The key to the success of the AyybuidDynasty was that control remained with-in the hands of Ayyubid-family members.Although a relatively brief reign lastingsome 80 years in most parts of Syria(a little longer in Hama), it was full ofaccomplishments. After Salah al-Din’sdeath in 589/1193, his brother al-‘Adil(d. 615/1218) took control of Damascusand spearheaded a major refortificationcampaign of Damascus Citadel. Hisbrother’s son al-Kamil (d. 635/1238)followed in his father’s footsteps, one ofcapable domination in Egypt and inDamascus. Meanwhile, Salah al-Din’sson al-Zahir Ghazi (d. 613/1216) hadbecome the Ayyubid ruler of Aleppo andthe region of the Jazira. He managed tobring under his sovereignty several castlesand towns of central Syria, such asHarim, Manbij, Najm and Apamea.His reign brought a period of peace andprosperity. In 604/1207, al-Zahir turnedto the coast and took control of theimportant port city of Latakiya, opening

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The Madrasa ofal-Salih Najm al-DinAyyub which was builtin Fatimid Cairo,Egypt, to teach therites of Sunnism.

for his kingdom an outlet to the Mediter-ranean Sea. Not coincidentally, in thesame year, he signed the first trade agree-ment between the Ayyubids and theVenetians. Under the Ayyubids, the citiesof Syria as well as those of Jordan andPalestine were all refortified. In Egypttoo, the great Citadel of Salah al-Din isa lasting landmark, while the Madrasaal-Salih Ayyub and the Mausoleum ofImam al-Shafi’i are prominent examplesof the urban and idealogical developmentspearheaded by the Ayyubids. By al-SalihIsma‘il’s reign (d. 643/1246) inDamascus and that of al-Nasir Yusuf’s

the dynasty. Once the caravans reacheda city, they would find suqs (markets)selling an impressive range of goods: silk,perfume, jewellery, gold, spices, glass-ware, metalwork and ceramic vessels.In the heart of the suq would be thegreat communal mosque, several smallermosques, as wells as charitable institu-tions of scientific and religious education,all patronised by members of the rulingcourt. Madrasas in particular played animportant role in shaping cultural andreligious life as well as in the reconfigu-ration of the urban landscape of Islamiccities, notably for Ayyubid Damascus andAleppo, but also for Mamluk Cairo,Seljuq Anatolia and Marinid Fez inTunisia. Supported by waqf, non-taxable endow-ments, such public institutions werecharitable, as charity is an importantfoundation of Islamic cities. Meanwhile,members of the Ayyubid militarymanaged to earn their wages through anIslamic system of feudalism called iqta‘.Similar to a long-term lease on a revenue-producing property; its main purpose wasto provide military commanders with asteady income in return for equipping andtraining a specified number of horsemen.Their religious and civic institutionsrevived the cities of Syria, making thecapital Damascus a magnet for scholarsfrom all across the Islamic lands. Literacylevels were high and patronage ofscientific as well as artistic worksflourished.Arabic culture blossomed in the Ayyubidcities and institutions; the Arabic languageused not only for the dissemination of

(d. 659/1261) in Aleppo, a gradual shiftof authority was taking place towardsCairo, foreshadowing the rise of theMamluk regime which would supplantthe Ayyubid Dynasty.

The socio-cultural impact of the Seljuq,Zangid and especially the Ayyubid reignsis still strongly evident in Syria’s medievalart and architecture. Just as it was intended,so much urban development brought achange upon the population. Education,religion, trade and military trainingattracted all kinds of people to Syria.These travellers had access to the manycaravan routes that criss-crossed theSyrian lands. They brought with themcommercial activity as well as spiritualreverence. As noted by the al-Andaluspilgrim Ibn Jubayr (d. 614/1217), theroutes were well protected even duringmilitary campaigns, as the assurance ofsafe travel was critical to the prosperity of

50


Taqwim al-Buldan,a manuscript ongeography written byAbu-l Fida, theAyyubid ruler of Hama,National Museumof Damascus.

51


A marvered glass vessel,probably used forperfume, NationalMuseum of Damascus.

Rum-Seljuqs, were substantially Arabisedand Arabic culture, more than Kurdishheritage, formed the main conponant oftheir identity.

The Mongols and the Mamluks

The decisive fall of the Ayyubid Dynastycame at the hands of the Mongols, fiercewarriors from Eastern Asia. Their fearfulreputation preceded them, causing themigration of whole communities west-ward in an attempt to escape their fury,as can be seen by the settlement ofartisans from Afghanistan, in both Mosuland in Damascus. The Mongols, leadby Hulagu (d. 1265/663), soon reachedthe heart of the Muslim world. Theydevastated the capital of Baghdad in656/1258 with exceptional cruelty andcontinued to invade Syria, capturingAleppo and Damascus in 658/1260.From Egypt came the definitive resistanceto the Mongol onslaught, headed bythe Mamluk Sultan Baybars, a formermember of the Ayyubid private guard(called mamluks). Baybars defeated theMongols in Palestine at the Battle of ‘AinJalut in 658/1260 and took controlof Syria. Following in Salah al-Din’sfootsteps the Mamluks were heroicwarriors against the Crusaders, breach-ing their most important stronghold,Crac des Chevaliers, in 669/1270–1 andconquering Acre in 690/1291. The swiftvictories of the Mamluks against both theMongols and the Franks heralded a newera of Islamic revival.

religious and scientific knowledge, butalso as the main language of governanceeven though the rulers were not of Arabdescent. This can be contrasted with thelater phase of Islamic high culture, inwhich the Persian (farsi) and Turkishlanguages came to the fore. At thispoint, however, Arabic continued to behonoured and cultivated as the languageof administration, scholarship and belles-lettres. Though the Ayyubids themselveswere of Kurdish origin, the 25 Ayyubidrulers all had Arabic surnames, with theexception of Turan Shah the ruler ofYemen; they also spoke fluent Arabic.Many were themselves poets, historians,scientists, judges and theologians.Al-Zahir Ghazi of Aleppo and al-Mu‘azzam ‘Isa of Damascus are bothknown to have composed Arabic poetry,an art that required great linguisticexpertise and cultural sensitivity. Thusthe Ayyubids of Syria, unlike the laterMamluks or even their contemporary the

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Crac des Chevaliers:detail of the Mamlukinscriptions.

If the Mamluk era is a period of greatimportance for the production of art andarchitecture in Egypt, and the same forthe Ottoman era in Turkey, the Ayyubidperiod also has a particular place in thehistory Islamic architecture in Syria.Ayyubid architecture it distinguished byits harmony, sobriety, logic and clarity.The introduction of new architecturalforms and new decorative repertoriesinto Syria saw the formation of publicinstitutions such as the madrasas andbimaristans (hospitals) which bear Eastern-inspired architectural features, such as themuqarnas brick dome. Much of theseimported elements became absorbed intothe local traditions of Syria’s city centres.The impact of Ayyubid patronage in-augurated a second era of Islamic art andarchitecture in Syria, more sober andmilitaristic in taste, quite unlike theformative years of Islamic art and archi-tecture. In general, decoration wasminimal and the perfection of construc-tion based on mathematically harmoniousdimensions, highly esteemed. Manyimportant masterpieces have survivedfrom this period, leaving their mark onthe history of Islamic art.

Architecture

Usually, in the Arab world, buildings takeon their patrons’ names, particularlyduring the Atabeg and Ayyubid periodswhen architectural patronage was socopious. Many of the monumentsmentioned in this catalogue will thereforehave names made of genitive titles, which

usually end with the suffix -i, or inthe case of the feminine, -iyya; thus, thebathhouses, Hammam al-Nuri andthe Madrasa al-Nuriyya respectively arenamed after Nur al-Din.As for the building style, two prominentdevelopments of this period are the useof the structural iwan and ornamentalmuqarnas. An iwan is a Persian word for a spaceenclosed by three walls, usually barrel-vaulted, with the open side usually over-looking a fountain, garden, or courtyard.It had been a ubiquitous architecturalform in Iran and Iraq since before the rise

Illustration of themuqarnas domein the mausoleum ofMadrasat Nur al-Dinin Damascus.

53

AYYUBID ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Abd al-Razzaq Moaz

original and ubiquitous features of Islamicarchitecture from this period as well.Rather than a discrete architecturalform, muqarnas is in fact an ornamentalmode – consisting of spherical sections,brackets and pendants – applied tovarious architectural forms such ascornices, capitals, vaults and domes. Generally accepted is the view that thedevelopment of the first muqarnas formstook place in Iran in the early 5th/11th

century, but the earliest construction ofmuqarnas vaults took place about half acentury later in Iraq. In Syria, the earliestinstances of muqarnas vaulting can be seenin the hospital and funerary madrasa ofNur al-Din in Damascus, dated 549/1154and 567/1172 respectively. Both havefully developed brick and plaster muqarnasdomes in the Iraqi style; the hospital alsohas a muqarnas portal vault, the earliest inIslamic architecture.The translation of the Iraqi prototype intostone-built muqarnas first appeared inSyria, specifically Aleppo, in the late6th/12th century, producing a style ofmuqarnas vaults and domes that wouldspread to Seljuq Anatolia and MamlukEgypt. This demanding process resultedin precise, robust and rather curvilinearvaults, usually consisting of three rows ofmuqarnas cells capped by a scallopeddome. In Syrian domes, muqarnas wasrestricted to the transition zone, oftenresulting in a complete halo of two orthree tiers. In view of its luxuriousand mysterious effect, it seems likelythat muqarnas vaulting was a mark ofdistinction and an indication of spiritualvalues.

of Islam, revived under the Seljuqs, andsubsequently brought to Syria. In bothIraq and Iran, the four-iwans-in-axial-symmetry plan was the standard. Therewere some local adaptations to this formin Syria, seen particularly in madrasas(colleges) featuring one main iwan, a longprayer-hall and chambers on the secondfloor.Iwans offered a suitable meeting place forall kinds of activities, thanks to theirenclosed and shaded, yet spacious andresonant, space. They served as a focalpoint for many kinds of monuments.Since similar layouts can serve manyfunctions, the monument’s purpose isgleaned often from epigraphic inscrip-tions found on their door- and window-lintels usually offer information regardingtheir purpose, sponsorship and date ofconstruction.The muqarnas, also called stalactite orhoneycomb vaulting, is one of the most

54

Ayyubid art and architecture

Bimarastan Nur al-Din,Damascus, interior viewof muqarnas dome.

55


Madrasat al-Firdaws,Aleppo, view of themain iwan.

featured flanking towers with salienttowers appearing at regular intervalsalong city walls.

Citadels, Castles and Palaces

The Arabic word for a citadel is qa’la.The use of this term means a fortificationlocated either amidst cities or in distantmountainous regions. Often the distinc-tion between a citadel and a castle is thatthe former is purely military while thelatter is both a fortification and residence.During the Ayyubid period, however, theleadership built residential palaces insidethe walls of the citadel. Therefore, acitadel or a castle can also include apalace, mosque and hammam for theresiding military elite.

Military Gates, Towers andCity Walls

The most important development tooccur in Syria during the reign of theAyyubid Dynasty was the refortificationof its defence systems. The strengtheningof all the city walls established Syriaas a frontier region, offering the cityformidable protection that allowed forsuccessful urban development. In themain cities of Damascus and Aleppo, citygates and walls are typical defensivecharacteristics. Gates, known in Arabic asbab, could have a single or a doubleentrance giving a protective additionalthickness, whereby a barrel-vault orcross-vault covered and connected thetwo gates. Arrow loops and machicola-tions – overhanging slits from whichsoldiers would pour hot oil onto enemiesbelow – usually protected city gates.Machicolations such as these also appearin protruding-box formation. Gates often

56


Bab al-Salama,an Ayyubid gateon the northern wallthat surroundedold Damascus.

Qal’at Najm, Aleppo,view of the palatialcourtyard.

Citadels became more massive, theirwalls thicker and higher, their entrancesmore cleverly protected, often surroundedby a moat and accessed through adrawbridge. The increased dimensionsgrew out of the development in militaryequipment, particularly the manjaniq, ormangonel, with its catapult mechanism.Merlons, machicholations and arrowloops are defensive features that usuallymark the walls and towers of citadels. Architectural ornamentation appearsusually focused on the entrance, while thebulk of Ayyubid architecture remainsplain. In the case of the gate of AleppoCitadel figurative talismans appear,such as serpents or lions, where theysymbolised the power of the state. Anotherimportant feature of Ayyubid architecturerelated distinctly to 6th-/12th-centurymilitary constructs, is the usage of port-cullis – defensive sliding metal gates.The traces of grooves along the sides ofentrances have served to indicate theusage of such mechanisms, which helpsestablish the Ayyubid dating for certain

monuments. Several of the citadels inSyria’s coastal mountains, as well ascitadels in urban settings, reveal suchusage. The most important change to the func-tion of fortresses and citadels during thisperiod of construction is that they nowincorporated the residential palaces of theleadership as well. These Ayyubid citadelpalaces and ceremonial rooms regularlyfeature the four-iwans-in-axial-symmetrylayout, as in Aleppo, Bosra and Qal’atNajm in the Euphrates Region.

Aleppo Citadel, detailof entwined serpentsabove the main gate.

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Aleppo Citadel,modern aerial view.

An 18th-century etchingof Aleppo Citadelamidst the city.

was crucial in the bid for politicalsolidarity. It served to equip society withthe theoretical and practical knowledgenecessary for a cohesive and well func-tioning government oriented towardsSunnism and the ‘Abbasid caliphate. Inthe Arab region madrasas were first builtin Iraq and then, as power shifted fromthe Seljuqs to Ayyubids, they were moreprolifically constructed in Syria. The firstmadrasa introduced in Damascus came byway of the Seljuqs at the end of the5th/11th century, a tradition that was con-tinued by the Atebegs and the Ayyubidsfor the explicit purposes of propagatingunity. Nur al-Din himself is recorded tohave “constructed madrasas for the trans-mission of knowledge, the combat ofheresies and the restoration of thereligion”, namely, Sunnism. As an institution, the madrasa functionedas a centre for higher education, whichalso offered free accommodation forscholars and visiting guests. The majorityof Syrian madrasas followed a local typecomposed mainly of a rectangular hall inthe south suitable for prayer, a main iwanin the north suited to a library, andlodgings surrounding the courtyard oftenfound on the upper floors. Typically,a central basin furnished the courtyard.It was quite common to see the juxta-position of madrasa with the mausoleum– known in Arabic as turba or dareeh –of its founder or its founder’s familymembers, in order that the deceasedwould receive the blessings of thestudents and visitors within, especiallyconsidering that education in the Islamicworld is a form of worship.

It is important to note that the massiveconstruction of citadels, fortifications andcastles, left its impact on civilian archi-tecture too; what certain scholars refer toas “the militarization of artistic taste”.Even non-military buildings begin toexhibit strong military features. This isprobably because the same workforce thatbuilt the expert military constructs wereemployed for civil buildings as well. Evena contemporary traveller to Syria, thepilgrim Ibn Jubayr from al-Andaluswho arrived in Damascus in 580/1184,noted the militaristic style of civilianarchitecture in the region.

Civic Architecture

MadrasaOften translated as “law school” or“theological college”, the madrasa is acentre of higher education that is usuallydesignated according to the madhhab,or the juridical school, it follows. Theenthusiastic patronage of madrasas duringthe Atabeg, Zangid and Ayyubid periods

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Floor-plan of MadrasaAdiliyya, Damascus.

Certain madrasas adopted the four-iwans-in-axial-symmetry plan from Iran, thoughoften adapting it to their own styles. TheSyrian versions of Ayyubid madrasas areexemplified by the Madrasat al-Firdawsin Aleppo and the Madrasa al-Adiliyyain Damascus, which are considered to bein a league of their own. As for buildingaesthetics, the entrance façade is typicallyvery plain, sober and perfectly smooth,with the muqarnas portal standing out asthe only decorative element. The role of the madrasa in the city, as canbe seen by the generosity of the waqfs orendowments assigned to them, was todevelop a more entrenched educationaland charitable institution designed toreshape the social fabric of the mainAyyubid cities.

Dar HadithAs an educational institution, dar hadithswere dedicated to the study of Hadith, or“Sayings of the Prophet”. This type ofinstitution was first introduced by Nural-Din in 549/1118, and it reveals thelevel of specialisation and diversity theZangid ruler wished to propagate when itcame to the educational development ofhis city’s population. Thus, it functionedlike a madrasa and followed a similarlayout, equipped with courtyard, prayer-hall and lodgings. Interestingly, the DarHadith of Nur al-Din was the teachingground for the famous historian ofDamascus, Ibn Asakir in 569/1174and also served as lodgings for thepilgrim voyager and writer Ibn Jubayr.Unfortunately, not many dar hadiths havesurvived, but they are notable as part

of Nur al-Din’s urban revival of Syria,particularly in the capital Damascus.

KhanqaThe sponsorship of khanqas, dwellings forSufis, served as a mystical alternative tothe academic culture of the madrasa. Thekhanqa, on the other hand, focused onmystical practices and offered dwellingsfor Sufis, practitioners of mystical Islam.Sufis were considered blessed and weretypically poor, relinquishing all materialpleasures for the attainment of spiritualliberation. Khanqas were, therefore,charitable institutions that housed thesewandering, otherworldly mystics. The no

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Dar Hadith Nuriyya,Damascus, view of thetriple archway leadinginto the southern bay.

Khanqah al-Farafra,Aleppo, view ofcourtyard basin.

Its plan is nearly identical to that of thetypical madrasa, distinguished by the cellsfor solitary meditation, or khalwa. Suchcells have, however, also been found inmadrasas. Evident in almost every khanqais accommodation for both occasional andfor long-term visitors. The sheikh himselfwould live, with his family, in one of thequarters of the compound and see hisdisciples at fixed hours to supervise theirspiritual progress. A compound such asthis stood at one time near the ShibliyyaMausoleum in Damascus and continuesto exist in the Madrasat al-Firdaws inAleppo.

BimaristanThe bimaristan is an important urbanconstruction introduced to Syria byNur al-Din. The bimaristan treated bothphysical and psychological illnesses,offering treatment without charge, andmedical education for aspiring physicians.Architecturally the layout again followsthe four-iwans-in-axial-symmetry plan,featuring a central courtyard with a pool.The abundance of water was crucial forthe upkeep of hygiene in the bimaristanand for the administration of differentforms of medication. Generally, bimaristanswere soothing places. They had roomsoverlooking pleasant views to helppatients recover, and expert musiciansplaying calming music. Nur al-Din builttwo bimaristans, one in Damascus and theother in Aleppo, and a Kurdish princeof the Ayyubid elite built the BimaristanAl-Qaymari in the Salihiyya districtof Damascus. They all have attractivemonumental entries and grand iwans.

longer extant Khanqa Sa’d as-Su’ada wasfounded by Salah al-Din in 568/1173and, considered a highly revered locationwhere people would gather to watch the300 dervishes who lived there when theywent out for their Friday prayers. TheKhanqa al-Farafra in Aleppo is one ofthe rare and best examples still standing.

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Floor-plan ofBimaristan Qaymari.

Bimaristan Nur al-Din,Damascus, view of thepierced-stucco window.

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Hammam Nahhasin,Hama, detail of thedomed interior withqamariyyat.

their goods, played an important partin the flourishing Ayyubid economy. Twokinds of khan existed: one the typeembedded in the city amidst the busycommercial activity of the suq; the otherbuilt on trade and pilgrimage routesoutside the cities. Defensive features aremore characteristic of the latter type, butboth offer plenty of compartmentalisedspace and an abundant water supply.

Religious Architecture

MosqueThere are generally two kinds of mosques.The Friday mosque, which is larger andsupplied with a minbar (pulpit), designatedfor the weekly sermon and communalnoontime prayers on Fridays. The smallermosques can be found in any location andoffer a clean place for everyday prayer.The larger mosques are generally known asjami’ while the smaller mosques areknown as masjid, but the terms are oftenused interchangeably. Mosques are alwaysoriented towards the Ka’ba and the holycity of Mecca, and this orientation iscalled the qibla – the direction in whichworshippers stand in prayer. In Syria, theqibla is south facing, the direction alwaysindicated by a niche, or mihrab, in theqibla wall of the mosque’s prayer-hall. The great mosques of Syria’s cities wererestored and, in addition, many new oneswere built during the Atabeg and Ayyubidperiods, particularly under Nur al-Din.It was a period of religious revival. The6th-/12th-century historian of Damascus,Ibn ‘Asakir, sites the building and restora-

HammamThe hammam is a common feature inIslamic urban planning. Ritual cleanlinessfor the daily prayers and weekly bathingat the hammam were the norm for allmembers of the city. The hammam,designed architecturally to include areception room and three large chambersfor cold water, warm water and steam,followed the Roman example. Emphasiswas on the warm-water room during theIslamic period. As a regular gatheringplace, the hammam was an important partof urban interaction. The interiors, oftenrichly decorated with multiple domespunctuated by glass knobs known asqamariyyat, added to the experience. The6th-/12th-century Damascene historianIbn ‘Asakir records the existence of 40hammams inside the old city of Damascusand 17 outside.

KhanThe establishment of the khan, a kind ofhostel and storage area for merchants and

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Khan al-‘Arus,Damascus environsen route to Homs,view of the courtyardand storage vaults.

tion of 241 mosques inside the old citywalls of Damascus and 178 outside. Mostimportantly, the Great Umayyad Mosqueof Damascus was repaired after manyyears of neglect.

MinaretThe minaret has long been an architec-tural symbol of Islam and an urban land-mark that defines the silhouette of thecity. During the Atabeg and Ayyubidperiods, minaret construction reveals thecontinuation of local styles in the variouscities of Syria. Cities in the west usuallyfeatured square-based minarets made ofstone, a clear continuity of Umayyadmosque minarets. Stone-carving virtuosityflourished in the north-west, particularly inAleppo. In Hama are seen local variationsin the colour of the stonework pattern-ing, where black-and-white stone blocks

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The famous Mosque ofNur al-Din in Hama.

Nur al-Din Mosque,Ja’bar Citadel,view of the cylindricalbrick minaret nearby.

followed a distinctive diamond motif(ablaq). As for the cities in eastern Syria,the minarets found in Qal’at Jaabar,Raqqa and Abu Huraira are round,following the shape found predominantlyin the Eastern Muslim world, and theyare brick-built. They rise in contrast tothe square counterparts of western Syria.

MausoleumDuring this period, the importance ofthe mausoleum is felt by their sheerabundance. They are usually domedstructures as the dome has long been anhonorific type, commemorating thedeceased and attracting the prayers ofpassers-by. There was also a kind ofmausoleum dedicated to martyrs, knownas shrines or mashshad.The most distinctive feature of amausoleum is the dome. These couldhave several shapes: muqarnas, lobed, orsmooth. The transition from square roomto domed ceiling also followed varyingtechniques. In Damascus, it was typicalto have one or two polygonal drums,or tambours. There are exceptions,however, such as in the mausoleum ofMadrasa al-Shamiyya that has a vaultrather than a dome. In Aleppo, spherical-triangular pendentives, or squinchessupported the dome. As for the muqarnasdome, this style was imported intoDamascus from Mesopotamia by Nural-Din, a form that is raised, basically,by corbelled bricks. Interaction betweenthe various styles of dome building inSyria is evident in several monuments.For example, the squinches of thetomb-chamber in Madrasa al-Adiliyya in

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Great Mosqueof Aleppo, view of thesquare-based stoneminaret.

Damascus, reveals a strong Aleppineinfluence since Damascene domes usuallyrest on drums, not squinches.It was generally desirable to buildmausoleums in religiously prestigiouslocations. The vicinity of the GreatUmayyad Mosque and the southernregion of the Maydan from which thepilgrim’s road towards Mecca began werefavourite locations. Salah al-Din, forexample, requested burial there in orderto receive the blessings of the annualpilgrimage caravans and soldiers thatwould be heading for jihad. His sons,however, chose another location near tothe Great Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.The new district of Salhiyya, north ofDamascus, was also well-chosen as it hadbecome an influential religious centrewith the activism of prominent sheikhs

who came from Palestinian refugeefamilies fleeing the Crusades, as well asrenowned Sufi mystics. A mausoleum often attached to a madrasaas a charitable foundation, offered highereducation for religious scholars and aspace for reading the Qur’an, whichreflected beneficially on the memoryof the deceased. The link betweenmausoleum and madrasa is so prominentthat some scholars have coined the term“funerary colleges”. Sometimes, the sizeof the mausoleum dominates that of themadrasa, indicating that the function of themadrasa was secondary to the primarygoal of the “madrasa-mausoleum”–complex: to attract blessings and prayersto the deceased patron. Nevertheless,even when mausoleums and madrasas areattached to one another, there is a clear

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Badriyya Mausoleum,Damascus.

distinction between their architecturalspaces because it is forbidden in Islam topray to anyone but God and the presenceof a cenotaph must always be separatedfrom the prayer-hall so as not to beperceived as intermediary.

Architectural Media

BrickBrick as a medium is utilised mostly onthe buildings of eastern Syria as an exten-sion to the Mesopotamian and Iranianregions. Monuments built in eastern Syriaexhibit decorative architectural featuresin the exterior patterning of the brick-work, as found in various religiousas well as secular buildings. The buildingsof Raqqa are primary examples ofthe aestheticism of brick. The use ofcorbelled brick for the construction ofdomes, initiated in western Syria by Nural-Din, distinguishes both his mausoleumand his bimaristan in Damascus. It wasotherwise foreign to the region and thepatterning of brickwork on buildingfacades remained an Eastern specialty. Bythe end of the 6th/12th century, it was thearchitectural influence of northern Syria,one dominated by stone, which becamea stronger influence on the building styleof the capital, as can be seen in theMadrasa al-Rukniyya.

StoneAyyubid architecture in general and thearchitecture of Aleppo city in particular,is renowned for its flawless stone-carvingtechniques. Made under the abundant

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Bab Baghdad, Raqqa:a ceremonial gateway.

Madrasat al-Firdaws,Aleppo, detail of theinterlacing marble onthe mihrab.

patronage of Nur al-Din, are some of thebest surviving examples of stone carvingin the region, found, most notably, in theremains of the Madrasa al-Shu’aybiyyaentablature. Its frieze is a masterpiece instone carving and decoration, with vegetalscrolls and monumental Atabeg kuficinscriptions cut with deep incisions andexpert dexterity. More examples ofmagnificent stone carving, offering avariety of decorative styles, decorate theentrance of Mashhad al-Hussein, a shrinein Aleppo. Additionally, the penchant formarble-capped mihrabs, found abundantlyin the madrasas of Aleppo, carries the“taste for stone” even further, since thesedecorative elements were fashioned fromcarved marble blocks rather than themore commonly used inlaid marble.

StuccoThe fashion for decorating interiors withpierced and painted panels of carvedstucco is an Eastern-inspired technique,made famous in the Abassid capital ofSamarra in the 2nd/8th century, andre-invigorated under Ayyubid patronage.Decorative motifs found on stucco panelsinclude calligraphic banners in Atabegkufic script, polygonal fields of vegetalmotifs, and floral or geometric medal-lions that emphasised funerary halls ormain iwans in madrasas and in bimaristans.Stucco decorated the majority ofmausoleums, but not all have survived. Stucco application was particularlycommon in buildings made of brick.Once the fashion for stone from northernSyria began to dominate the buildingstyle, stucco decoration diminished. In

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‘Umari Mosque,Bosra, detail of thecarved stucco.

eastern Syria, brick had always been thepreferred building material, thus stuccodecoration continued to flourish there.Some of the best surviving examples stillin situ can be found in the Madrasaal-Shamiyya, Bimaristan al-Qaymari andthe Badriyya Mausoleu in Damascus,the ‘Umari Mosque in Bosra, and the

mausoleum of the Seljuq Sultan Duqaq insouthern Damascus, currently held at theNational Museum of Damascus. Althoughlittle survives, wood was also used in theconstruction of elaborate ceilings inimportant reception halls. Similarly, carefully and beautifullydecorated wooden minbars (pulpits),which played such a crucial role in thespread of religious and political unity,were constructed. The famous carpenterfrom Aleppo, al-Akhtarini, was commis-sioned by Nur al-Din to design a minbarfor the Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem inanticipation of its liberation from theFranks. The minbars thus constructedacted as the visual articulation of theZangid leader. Although the Aqsa Mosqueminbar was destroyed in a fire in 1969,that from the Mosque of Nur al-Dinin Hama still survives as a comparableexample of contemporary woodcarving. Other prominent examples of wood-carving from the period are the cenotaph

decorated stucco niches in the westernhall of Qasr al-Banat in Raqqa.

WoodSyrian woodwork played a pivotal role inIslamic art during this period: geometricpolygonal shapes, inter-crossing stardesigns, precisely carved vegetal motifs,and calligraphic inscriptions of variousstyles. Artisans in wood appreciated avariety of different woods for their grain,colour and shine when polished. Manymonumental gates constructed for urbanbuildings as well as ritual furnishings formosques were of wood. Wooden doorsreceived a high level of decoration incomparison to the general architecturalsobriety of Ayyubid Syria. Wood wasa specialty of Syrian artisans; goodexamples of this artistry are the geometricpatterned doors of the bimarastans ofNur al-Din in Damascus and Aleppo.Another important masterpiece is thewooden screen, or maqsura, from the

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Minbar of Nur al-Din,detail. Hama ArchaeologicalMuseum.


of Salah al-Din, ceremoniously located inhis mausoleum near the Great UmayyadMosque, and the wooden mihrab niche ofthe Madrasa al-Hallawiyya in Aleppo.

Artistic Objects

MetalworkSyria’s metalworking tradition alsowitnessed a revival during the Atabeg andAyyubid periods. Military costumes andceremonial attire would have featuredimportant metallic artwork, offeringa glimpse of aristocratic fashion. Thefamous Damascene Swords made ofhighly carbonated steel and bearing thedistinctive etchings of their watermarkscontinue to be valued, not only for theirmilitary quality, but also for their beauty. By far the most exquisite art of the periodis the inlaid metalwork. The techniquewas brought to Mesopotamia and Syria bycraftsmen migrating from Central Asia,particularly those fleeing the Mongolinvasions in the region of present dayAfghanistan, many of whom settled inMosul during the reign of the AtabegBadr al-Din Lu’lu’ (607-657/1211-1259)

who was well-known for his love of metalinlaid objects and lavishly commissionedsuch pieces. This artistic fashion and hada strong influence on local metalworkproduction to the extent that many suchitems were signed “al-Mawsili”, althoughthey were produced elsewhere, such asDamascus and also Cairo. The techniques used for inlaid metalworkwere highly valued skills. Expert inlay

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A spherical incenseburner with inlaidmetalwork decoration.Pergamon Museum,Berlin.

Animated inscriptionfrom an inlaid metalcup made in Syriain c. 627/1230.


were cleverly interrelated, adding multiplesymbolism and intellectual playfulness totheir artistic beauty. These metal master-pieces reveal a miniscule attention todetail and a wide repertory of images;combat scenes, hunting scenes, courtlyscenes and the ever-popular astrologicalsymbols relating to power and goodfortune. Calligraphy on metal-wareusually followed in the Eastern – CentralAsian – fashion, whereby the letters weresometimes animated, the vertical linesfeaturing human heads. Lastly, one of the most famous Syrianexamples of metalwork from the Ayyubidperiod is the Rusafa Treasure, an early7th-/13th-century collection of fine silver-ware produced using local methodsin metalworking, and dedicated to theSyrian Church of St Sergios. The treasure,hidden from the Mongols when theyinvaded the Raqqa region in 654/1256,survives as an example of luxuriousSyrian Christian art with interminglingChristian motifs, Syriac inscriptions andIslamic arabesque decorations.

NumismaticsTypically, there were three values of coinsduring the Ayyubid period. The lesserdenomination of fils was made of copperand sometimes bronze, the mediandenomination of dirham was made ofsilver, while the highest value coin, thedinar, was made of gold. With theAyybuid Empire stretching from Syria,through the Sinai Desert to Egypt,and the strategic eastern Mediterraneanports, as well as the Red Sea downto Yemen, trade was a critical part of

artisans used silver, gold and copper onbrass items – such as ewers, bowls andcandlesticks – and, in order to highlightthe contrast of the different colourmetals, they delineated them with blackniello. The depictions created by themanipulation of the inlay could begeometric, calligraphic and figurative –often a combination of all three – distrib-uted around the vessels in concentricbands and roundels. Often the images

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A silver chalicefrom the Rusafatreasure trove,National Museumof Damascus.


the empire’s success. In western Syria,designs for coinage, with concentricbands of calligraphy, follow the Fatimidprecedent, a testimony to theirimportance on the Mediterranean tradingscene. Meanwhile, the coins minted ineastern Syria and Upper Mesopotamiaincluded figurative depictions, followingthe Atabeg model of the region andbearing Byzantine influence. The seatedfigure features mostly on bronze coins,such as that of the prince in Eastern royalattire. The first gold coin minted bySalah al-Din in Damascus in 571/1176followed in the Fatimid tradition andplayed an important part in the AyyubidDynasty’s claim to power and theiremphasis on Damascus as the capital city.An interesting outcome of Ayyubid coinsis that the Crusaders of the 7th/13th cen-tury imitated them. For gold coins, theyfollowed Salah al-Din’s dinar, while forsilver ones they imitated al-Salih Isma‘il’sdirham. The Crusaders also used theArabic cursive, or naskhi, script on theircoins, which sometimes featured spellingor grammatical mistakes, but they followthe Arabic lingua franca nonetheless.

TextilesDespite the fact that it is rare for textilesto survive in good condition, and fewexamples are therefore extant, textileproduction in Syria and the Jaziraflourished during the Atabeg andAyyubid periods. Etymologically, seen bythe continued use of the term “Muslin”,an extremely fine fabric made in Mosuland the Damascene textile known in theWest as “Damasco”, an embroidered type.The fabrics of this period relate by thedecorative repertoires to other art forms,and follow the strong influence of Easternartistic heritage.

ManuscriptsLibraries and books were crucial as partof the cultural, scientific and religiousrevival in Syria. Workshops for paperproduction (warraqat) and trade in paperwere important features of Damascus’ssuqs especially the well-known Suq al-Warraqin next to the Great UmayyadMosque. Increased paper productionsupported the mass transmission ofknowledge. The famous Sufi sheikhMuhyi al-Din al-Arabi penned hisvoluminous Book of Poetry (diwan)in Damascus around 643/1237. Paper

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Gold coins, dinar,minted by Salahal-Din in Cairoin 574/1178,National Museumof Damascus.


and richly ornamented manuscripts sincethey carried the Word of God. An exampleof an illuminated Qur’an frontispiece ofthe Atabeg era is the Qur’an made for thelibrary of a Zangid prince of the Jazira inaround 594/1198. The Ayyubid princes themselves werewell-educated and cultured, sponsoringimportant manuscripts and evencomposing them, as can be seen by thegeographical encyclopaedia written byAbu-Fida, the Ayybubid ruler of Hama.The Arab prince of Shayzar Usama binMunqidh even kept a diary, which hassurvived to offer precious insight into thefirst interactions of the Arabs with theFranks. It also reveals beautiful penman-ship.Also composed during this period isa rare and important manuscript onmilitary topics, dedicated to Salah al-Dinin around 583/1187. Entitled TabsiratArbab al-Albab (The Perception of Those with

as artwork, however, finds its finestexpression in manuscripts sponsored byrulers. Copies of the Qur’an were always themost important, most carefully copied

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The gold and blueilluminated pagesof a Zangid Qur’an,c. 600/1200(Photograph courtesyof the KhaliliCollection, Qr 47,f. 1v-2r, London).

Taqwim al-Buldan(The Almanac ofCountries) by thelate Ayyubid rulerof Hama, Abu’l Fida,in 741/1340,National Museumof Damascus.


Understanding) its author, Murda al-Tarsusi, elucidates the latest mechanismsin the arts of war, it features someexceptional drawings of weapons for bothman-to-man combat and siege warfare, aswell as diagrammatic drawings of battleformations.

GlassTechniques in enamelled and gilded glasswere highly developed in 6th-/12th-centurySyria, particularly in the Raqqa region.The decorative repertoire was wide,including gilded and enamelled cups forcourtly settings, striped, marvered andmoulded glass bottles and jars forperfume and kohl, and a variety of glassvessels mounted with precious or semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli.Recently excavated in Hama, is anAyyubid ewer that is embedded withlapis lazuli beads; it is now part of thecollection at the National Museum of

Damascus. The earliest datable example ofluxurious glass from this period is, how-ever, the fragmentary gilded vessel bearingthe name of Imad al-Din Zangi, and deco-rated with cursive (naskhi) script and figu-rative designs along the upper and lowerbands. It appears that the fashion for gild-ing preceded the use of coloured enamels.

PotteryThe Mesopotamian region of Syria,along the banks of the River Euphrates,was always renowned for its potteryproduction. As for ceramics, i.e. glazed pottery,Raqqa was one of these productioncentres during the Atabeg and Ayyubidperiods, producing fine glazed pottery.Excavations in the region have uncoveredmany kilns used to fire such wares, andfurther elucidate the advanced techniquesused there in the 6th/12th and first half ofthe 7th/13th centuries. Since Raqqa is the

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Fragments of a gildedflask commissioned byImad al-Din al-Zangi,ruler of Aleppo,end of 6th/12th century. The British Museum,London.

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first and most famous place where severaltypical types of medieval glazed potterywas unearthed, it became known as“Raqqa ware”, although it might comefrom other production centres, such asRusafa or Aleppo. This flourishing of the ceramics industrycame as a result of the introduction of anew material called stone-paste, alsoknown as fritware – a fine, white pastewith a high quartz content imitating the

colour and fine texture of porcelain –which had long been a preciously sought-after material known from China. Stone-paste pottery, produced in a numberof centres in the Euphrates area, isdistinguished by several types ofdecoration and glaze: most common is anunder-glazed painted decoration in black,or black, blue and red, under transparentor turquoise glaze. So-called laqabiwares feature raised, moulded decorationpainted in different colours. The mostcommon shapes are flaring bowls on highstands, large dishes with flat rims, andvases. The inspiration for some poly-chromatic vessels with under-glazedpaintings of figurative representations likehunters and musicians and scenes ofcourtly merriment, came from Iranianover-glaze painted mina’i wares. Mostluxurious of all, however, were the lustre-painted pieces that shone in differentshades of metallic gold. Their value camefrom the complicated firing methodand time-consuming production process.Lustre, seen on all glazed colours:turquoise, blue, manganese and trans-parent served to imitate gold, since Islamforbade the use of gold for vessels usedfor eating and drinking. Their richdecorative motifs varied form abstractpatterns to vegetal motifs and animals likehares, tigers and deer.Also a type of large water jar called akhubb emerged, which can be as large asa metre high, a pair of which is exhibitedin the National Museum of Damascus.Such unglazed pottery was well suited towater storage, since the perforated claybody kept the water well ventilated and

Detail of carved andpierced khubb jar,National Museumof Damascus.

The Mongol invasion of 658/1260 notonly marked a historical break but also,since nearly all the kilns in the regionwere destroyed, artistic productionexperienced an interruption. As far aswe know, the centre for production thenshifted to Damascus, becoming the majorsource of glazed wares during thesubsequent Mamluk period.

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A tin-glazed vasewith cobalt-blue andlustre decoration,Raqqa Museum.

cool. Their surfaces, delicately decorated,except for the rounded bases (whichwould have been set into the groundor placed on a stand), had reliefapplied in various ways: moulded,incised, carved or pierced. The motifsreveal fantastical animals and esotericsymbolism juxtaposed with images ofcourtly life and sovereignty.


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Ayyubid Syria