Ayoob - Democracy, Development and Political Islam - Comparing Iran and Turkey

7/23/2019 Ayoob - Democracy, Development and Political Islam - Comparing Iran and Turkey

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XPLOG MUL COX

Series Edior: Abdou Filali-Anary

Books in the serie include

Developmen Models in uslim Conextshinese, "Islamic and No-Liberal Aleives

Edied by Robert Springorg

The Challenge of PluralismParadis om Muslim Conexs

Edied by Abdou Filali-Anaryand Sikena Karmali Ahmed

The ossibility of Pluralism

Edited by A. C Grayling

DEVELOPMENT OELS IN

US CONTEXTS

Chinese, Hslamic" a eoLiberl Alternative

EDITD BY ROBT SPING BOG

DINBRH NIVERSITY RESS

N ASSIATIN WITH

THE AGAKHANUNIVERSYNTTUTE FORTHTDY OF MCIVLISAIOS


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The opinins expressed n ths volume are those ofthe athrs and d not necessarily reect those ofthe Aga Khan University, Insttute /()r the Stdy f

Mslm Civlisations.

Editoral matter and organsaton Robet

Springborg, 2009

The chapters their several athors, 2009

Ednburh Universt Press Ltd22 George Square Edinburh

wwweupblishngc

Typeset in Goudy Oldstyle bKonna Manchester and

rnted and bond in Great Britan b

CPI Antny Rowe, Chpenam and astbourne

A CIP record for ths book is avalable

from the Brtish Library

SBN 978 0 7486 368 7 (hardback )

The rght f the contrbutors to be dented

as athors of ths work has been asserted n

ac lrdance with the Copyrght, Desgns andPatents Act 1988

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2.

3

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5

6.

Contents

Intoduction: The Lure f Dvepme Mes

Robert Sprngborg

PART ONE: THE INESE ODEL AND ITS GBA RECETIN

A China Model or Just a Brken MouWllam HurstLatin mera'sV ewofChna: nterest but SeptismBarbara StallngsTh e C hina Moe nAfra: AN ew rand of DevepmenasCathere Boone with Dawal Doshi

PART wo TH INESE ODEL AND ITS OMPETITOS

IN THE USLM WOD

Learnng the RghtL essons fro Bejng: Mel for the abWr?

Emma MurphyTowadsa n Isac Modefo he Mdde East and Noh fria ?Clement M. HeryDemoacy, Deveopme n and Pa sam: oparng rananTurkey

Mohammed Ayoob

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26

47

85

1 5

138


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CHAPTER 6

Democracy, Development and Political Islam:Comparing Ian and Turkey

OHAMMED YOOB

At rst glance an an Turkey appear to be a n unambguous stuy n contrast

n both the arenas of poltcs an economcs n the poltcal sphere n commonparlance ran s refere to as a "theocracy whle Turkey s ente as a

"secular republc However the realty s far more complex than s assumeBelyng the vew that Turkey s unequvocally secular n tems of the strct

sepaaton of relgon an state s that the ofcal Turksh enton of secu

larsm subornates relgon to the state nstea of separatng the two spheresthus evatng from the nomally accepte meanng of the term at least nthe Anglo-Amercan traton Moreover one ns that the country's publc

arena s not free from contestaton between relgously nclne forces and those

espousng a mltant an aggressve form of secularsm Ths contestaton nlarge measure a reacton to the state's aggressve secularsm has become sharper

snce the 197s as the relgously observant segments of socety have reganether poltcal voce suppresse for ecaes by the Kemalst el te.

Paraoxcally n ts attempt to control the publc expresson of slam theKemalst state has ene up gvng Sunn slam of the Hana school of jurs

pruence the e facto poston of state elgon by accorng t preferental fsubornate treatment The Drectorate of Relgous Affas apponts an pays

all Sunn mams the state-fune mam-hatp schools tran all Sunn relgous

functonares an the upkeep of Sunn mosques an other relgous establshments s the responsblty of the state. Fnancal subventons prove to Sunn

Hana nsttutons are not extene to Alev or Sha nsttutons let alone to

nsttutons that serve non-Muslm mnortes. The state's obsesson wth Sunn

slam emonstrates the fact that espte all scla mers the Republc of Turkey's

cutral a poltcal entty s extably tetwe wth Su Islam. t s

DEMOCRACY, DVLPMNT N OTCA ISAM

the mrror n whch the state sees ts face.Ths s borne out by the fact that at ts very ncepton the terrtoral contours

of the Turksh republc were ene by the Gran Natonal Assembly as "theterrtores nhabte by an Ottoman Muslm majorty exceptng "terrtores

nhabte by an Arab mjorty. Furtermore the exchange-of-populatonageement w th Greece a t the en of the Turksh War of Inepenence envsage

a transfe to Greece f al Greek Orthoox nhabtants of Turkey outse ofstanbu an a recprocal transfer of all Muslms resng n Greece outse of

Western Thrace to Tukey The prncple on whch ths exchange was basewas relgon not ethncty I In fact the large majorty of Muslms transferre to

Turkey ere Maceonans Albanans an Greeks an not Turks The Republc

of Trkey can eny ts Musm root s only at te exense of ts natonal dentty.

ran s tought t fa at te ther en f te secartheocatc contnuumgoerne as t s supose to be accorng to prncples of Sha theology

However once ne ks cosey at the Iranan poltcal system ts ntera

contractns r t oom very arge. Manstream Sha theologans oseAyatolh Khmen's nterpretaton of Sha octrne a his stablishmentf the nsttutn o te vali-e-faqh, as osyncratc novatos if not wore.Te ery ea tht te Sa uama col rectly rule ove a polity, and tat

one of tem cul be esgnate as a surrogate fo the twt imam n tlatter's absence an arrogate much of the abset but awa te imam's pw thmsef souns bsphemous to many Sha theogas a ay e

Mreoer ths has been se en as oblteratng the stncto betwee S aSa Islam by creatng a Sha calph on the Sunn moe.2 I ote wos, t

entre teologca justcaton fo ran's poltcal structure appeas to be on veryshaky rouns

The role of he Sha cegy n governng ran has therefore constantly facentelectua an potcal chalenges both from lay opponents an from wthnthe ranks f the lama themselves A leang opponent of clercal nvolvementn govenance s Gran Ayatollah Montazer Khomen's chosen successor for

the poston f vali-i-faqih, who was releve of hs poston urng the last yearof Khomen 's fe becase of hs erences wt the la tter Ayatollah Monta zer

has gone to the extent of callng the present system Iran "a monarchcal

setup an obvus reference to the vast powers exercse by the SupremeJust3 Furthermore the fact that a humanmae consttuton was consere

necessary to ene the ns ttuto n of the vali (the Supreme Jurst) hose powersare suppose to be dvnely sanctone f not ney erve sums up the

conunrum face by a poltca system that s on the one han purortely

vnely orane an on the other very much a human nventon (some woul

say one human's nventon)In the same chotomous ven as the "theocatcsecular contrast between


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DEVELOPMENT MODES IN U CNTEXS

Iran and Turky, te raia poia i a auorai wieits Turkis couterpart is referred o a deorai. However, tee desriptions ide as muc a tey convey. ran demonstrate a signiant amount ofpopuar input in ow it is governed, wit representative istitutios co-existingwit uneleted an appointed clerial ones. Depite te Counil of Guardians'

attempts to ontrol eetoral outcomes, Iranian eletion ave prouedsurprising outomes in te 1 997 200 1 and 200 presidential contets, wit te

reformist Katami winig te rst two an te darorse neo-onservative

Amadinejad winning te ir. Parliamenary eletions ave also produedreformist majorities in te pat tat ave been unwelome from te perpetive

of e ardine clergy. I adition, ere are multipe ros-utting eavages in

e ranian body politi tat make political bargaining an oalition-buildingia u precuding undilute autoritarianism and promoting continuous

reie age4e paral ruures of autority, one representative e oter leria,

were e dei berate creation of te postrevolutionary el ite in part because of temixure of emorati and ceria element witin te ani-Sa movement.

Te composition of te popular movement i 19789 was similar o ta of

te movement tat ld to te ontitutionalit revolution of 1905 Te

constitution of 1908 wic was a prouct of te onstitutionalit revoluton,establised a set of repreentative institutions, a well as a leria body wit

supervisory powers. Te parallel structures create in 1 979 were also te result ofinteral contradictions witin Komeini's politi cal preferenes tat were simultaneously democratic an autoritarian in nature. Komeini a w tese intitutions

balancing eac oter uner is benign guiance and prevened a far as posibledirect intervention by te Council of Guarians into te day-to-ay po itic and

aministration of te country. oever, is successor, Ayatolla Kamenei,as politicise cerical structures to a muc larger degree, tus trowing intoshar reief te contraictions inerent in the constitution As a esut of these

contradictions, and te actions of te ranian ruling elite, te political system

a been ef in at as been terme a tate of upene equiibrium". 6

urkey's poitical system may be democratic in form, but its repreentativeinstitutions are constanly hampere in te exercie of teir functions by the

existence of un-eecte power centre colletivey known as te eep state".he ole of te military, ic as stage several oup i n te pat decades, an

even last year issue veile treats to deter parliament from electing AbdullaGul to te presiency, detracs signicantly from urkey's emocratic credental Similar noises ere mae more recently, by e military and its allie,

regaring te constitutional amenment permitting women students to weareadscarves in universities, tus raising furter questions about Turkey's demo

crati aim.

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CRAY, EVLOPN AND LTICAL SLA-

O ae, te urki ii i o oiia iuenetroug te National Security ouni ( ) , wi iludes op mii tary bras

an important cabinet ministers, and i aired by te President of te Republic.Establised by Article 1 1 8 of e 1 982 consttution, wic wa aopte after temili tary coup of 1 980 te NSC affords te mil itary ig commad te opor

tunity to inluence, pressure, an often ictate to e govement i matters of

atonal secrity. Snce security" a been trational ne n Trey asebracing inernl a ell a external isues tt te secr ete ns tret

enng", te military as traitionaly exerce vt etoower n ssesrelatng to olticl sla a Ku etno -nt ona l sm that th Kmlistsrci a tret t atial secrity lto th e rl of te ty bas

iti te SC as n ece n c nt yars, i n rspons to prssur xrcis y te EU th nt t ut in cntinus be mj anu thruh c

lity commadrs ca i nnc civi l in cis ionmaking ct"ete ss s , includ in th stat's rspst I s lmist pol i t ical ac iity.

In oth th Irnin and Turkish cas, th pictur is too cmplicatd tm r t s pl st c scriptions o aucracyrsus-dmcrcy n thcratic

rsus-scular. act, s imi r i i in th cost iut inal and pl ti ca struc

tres o th tw stats ar spciall y strik ing in th ra xcuti uncions.Bt e Ts Irania cnstiutins ar dmoric in om an ma

prisio or rrsnttiv insti tutions an h sparion of unctins mg

th lis lt i, excut v udicil institutions. Priodic lecion to thlisltur d th xcuti v ar als mandatd by thir cnstitui ons. Hwvr,

t lt suprisory unctions to non- lctd inst ituins th Suprm Jrta te cl Guardins i te cas Irn, th military hih commannd te Nt Sect Ccl t cs Turkey. t css thssttut e au td s rpositis guardians f e ndamntal alus

ic th tw polit cal systems r basd. Thy r, rfor, se t bove an u tsi de th norml polit i cl rcss, and ineed ab t cte'

rtte consttts

I ct ct, thy r t utsid t o l i t c l procss t tw coun

tres They ar terl prts o that procss, csantly itrr in it, btithut te ccontalty to te popl tht rprsntti istitutins re

requ r d t emonstrate in a emoccy Jst as th rsidnt Ir s erss

tenty contraine n is role a te cief exectve y te ser atrtyveste i te Supreme Leaer, te uris pme mistr hs to csttly

make sure tat hi o er policie an eciions o o t cros te l imi ts f wht sconsiered appropriate by te mii tary top bras n tis ense, bot Turey anran poess tin execuve raer tan a single locus of executive authority

One coul, in fact, argue ta e o of executive autority is clearer in

ran, ere te Supreme e d a otuioally esignate poition tat

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DVP U X

puts hi above the pesiet t a T, the i lita's political role,whether diect o through the Natioal Seuit Counil, is fa oe oaque,thus creatig geat ucertait i ti e of hate political contestation, such as

ove the headscarves issue The le a ie o f tol ove the ae foces in Ia,

which is veste i the Supree Leaer, b a lage rues out il ita coups inthe coutr This is ot tue i the case of Tue, though, where several coups

have been stage i n the past an the theat o futue coups canot be iscoute

What akes the coparison betwee a an Turke ost interestng,however, s the fact that the po litcal groups who are curret i goveetin both coutries, trace thei oots to Islaist oveets, explcitl i thecase o Ia a ipliitl i the case of urke, an raw at least art of thei

legitiac fo thei Islast ateeets he Ianian egie is the ieteseat of the Islai Revolutio, while the Justie a Develoent Pat

(AKP) is the latest ianatio of Islaist politial parties i Tuke Althoughthe AKP has attepte to preset itself as a oservative eoati" part,

a to itae itself o its l eaers' slaist pas t, it ontiues to have a solibase of support aog relig ious obsevat egets of th populatio, espe

ciall i the provial ities an towns of Aatolia Man people osie theuse of tes such as osevative" a taitional" i its heto as sigifig

Islaic", without it havig to utte the taboo wo for fea of the at beingelae illega" b the Costitutioa Cout o the ilita stagig a o to

safeguar Kemalis" an secularis".

t is also nstrutive to ote in this cotext the otasting uses of sla bthe piipa agets of politial sla in Ira a Tuke I I a, polita l sl a

s use to justif restats on unfettere eocratc futioning though institutions such as that of the vali.ifaqih a the Coui of Guaas. Politial I sla

in Ira has, therefore, taken on a undeocrati iage, espite the pesene ofepresentative istitutios in the countr This iage has bee eifore sice

the paliaetar electons of 2004 a the pesietia electios of 2005 whe

the Councl of Guaians rejecte the noiatio papes of large nubers of

reforst candates whose comitent to stregthenng eocratic sttutions as aganst appointed oes) was clearl o ispla

In contrast, n urke poltcal sla has of late beome the prar vehiclefor the exression of the populaton's deocatic aspiatons Ths was driven

hoe forcefully b the perfoance of the AKP i the ast two paliaentarelectons in 2002 and 2007, n whch it garere 35 a 47 per cent of the

popula vote respectvely, and eerged as the ulig pat i paliaet, able

to for governments wthout the suppot o a othe part o goupng The

election of former foregn iniste Abulah Gul to the pesie in 2007

has further reiforce this iage This is the result of the fat that, in uke,ecularis has becoe deti wth athotaian prial bause the

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DEMOCRACY, DELPMENT AN OLITICAL SLAM

Kealist eite both aggessivel secua a istictive authoitaia habee i coto of the state a of the ostitutioal pocess o ost of the

time the eb has bee i exstee The civilia Kealists have opeyallie theselves with the ita to pevet chaeges fo popula os

that the eemed as waeng the ela bss o th Tukish olitcal ste

the Kemst enit of t Tsh atoal ett It argel as

a eacto to tis thort seularis of the Kealist state that fee

of relig ere (rnll of Ia ratices fee o the fetters ofth tt) c t e dt w h emcrac the is of bstatgt f the Tr ulat, jrt whm have lw bee l sl brvat Th e Islcl-cn tca frt

mj bs trs o lra rtCrr i d Th dv lml sttgis , ik t p l

sysms, as apar rt t b a ty i ots T i te, f

y g by s ro, ss o b vr mo ivved i mgig t ctr'c m d i t r-trc rc trms f th c tr'

r ios wit h globa l y Cosqly, i t cc hr,

Islam s d by sgm t f th r a uig eit t t te tt'n te coy bec ty ar rcl c f ttt

r smistti oy, tig a y o, mu f th t' t t rsors L g mmbrs ' u g ie av b bc ri o te t ct ll tt -a lated sos t comy, espc ill

te honyas (odat o ) Also, rs rs o l , wi outs mt Ho r ct cory's xpo ers a s ctll by ,hav rv dd rme wth srps ro rce th b t c t

t os lyal to t ei d by-f o rals osi

th the d, t Tkish s, s c-wr AKPi 002, hs be ad i orss v ly rc t l i ra m a, s pr oomc lrlt, n ctt

t trt te cry th oba coy. Ts pss sttd i

a ly 19H, wit th cg-t -oce Tugt Ozal , rt r tr ad as ret. t accelerted ec a o th I 990S r rr

rom th F the or B, w t rs coy fltr

ee to b bile ot, an as a relt f t ece the rncl

brgeoisie in cite s such as Kasri a Kon nnt s atrge

and engaged n export-orente ndustresIn contast with Iran, in Turke the Islamcallyncln socl rces, r

cpally the regous observat rovncal Anatoian borge, are nter

este i isatlng the state's oto of the co and ntegratng theTuksh ecooy ito the loa et e Aatolian bougeOisie, as dstinct

fom lage facti ts cte sta, Izmi a Ankara,

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DEVELOPMENT O I UI CNTXTS

the poltcal landscape n the 990S ttests t te tnce of economcsn Tuksh poltcs They wee wped off the poltcl p n 2002 because of

the mseable performance n tems of economc management Ths lesson hsbeen dven home so well to the curent poltcal playes, that even the post

slamst paty the AKP feels t necessay to couch ts deences wth othepates n econoc tems and cater assduously to the needs of ts socal andeconomc consttuences n the wods of Hkan Yavuz, the AKP s no longe"a party of dentty but ather a party that strves to povde bette sevces25

In an, on the ote hand, poltcl cntestton s couched lagely n elgocultual tems wth debate about economc ssu es layng, at bes t, a secondy

ole Ths s the case because "when the govenment s nancally autonomous

from ts ctzens, condtons ae pe fo challengng the state on noneconomc

grounds In ente states only moral and deologcal commtment oblges thegovenment to ncease the natonal wealth, to provde sevces, and to consult

th populaton In othe wods, the elaton between the uled and the ules s

dened n moral and deologcal, not economc tems2 6 Ths facto explansthe lage derence between ran and ukey egadng the tems of poltcal

debate gong on curently n the two countes

Iran and ukey provde vey nteestng comparsons both n tes of

smlartes and contrasts n the poltcal and economc arenas n the poltcalarena, we see democratc and authotaan mpulses, as well as secula andrelgous elements, operatng wthn them, although n dffeent xes and ndeent degees Smlaly, n the economc aena, statst and lberal mpulses

ae evdent n both cases, although agan n deent combnatons and ndeent degees The opeaton of the varable refered to as pol tcal Is lam, n

both contexts, makes the comparsons and contasts between Iran and Tukeyeven more nterestng, especally fo scholars and analysts engaged n unav

ellng the relatonshp between slam on the one hand, and democracy anddevelopment on the othe The two cases clearly demonstrate that Islam does

not pescbe a sngle politcal or economc model Where Islam does seem to

have some nluence n shapng poltcal systems o economc trajectoes of

predomnantly Muslm states, ths nluence s medated through a number ofcontextual vaables that render genealsaton about ths relatonshp all butmpossble

Polcal Is lam s a vey malleable deology n both the economc and poltcl

arenas. It can be used to justfy a state-contolled economy as well as a feemaket economy Smlaly, t can be used to atonalse authotaan contol

over the poltcal system as well as epresentatve democacy It all depends onwho s usng t fo wht ends, and whethe the oonents of poltcal s lam inpatcula leux have oe destndng of the cntextal vaables ope

tng n te scetes, te s vles se te oltcal ecnomy

BRAY, DVOPENT A TL SA

of dscete countes As the nan and uksh cases clealy demonstate,

context mattes hugely n the nteacton between democacy, development

and poltcal Islam2 7

NOTES

Mohmme Ayoob, "Trkey's Mltiple Prxes, Orbis vol. 48, no. 3, 2004, pp.451-63.

2 . Hmid nyt, " myn's ncet f he ihip of the Jisconslt, inJms P. Piscto, Islam in the Political Prcess, Nw rk: mbridge UniversitPress, 13, pp. 6080. A, e H. . hi, "Rligin nd Politics in Irn,Daedlus vl. 2 0 , n . 3 , , . 6 - .

3 Fr mre n z ' ews, se histh ig e, "Wo Res r?New Yrk e'iew f Bks, l. 49 n. 1 , 2 00 2 , 7 1 .

4 - Ali M. Asr , "C uous Rgi hange frm Wthn, WashingtonQuarterly ,vol. 26 , n.4, 2003 , p. 5 3-7 '

5 Dl , invnting Khmeini: The trul fr frm in Iran, C hicg:ivry o Chicag Pres, 20 I .

6. Mahr Kmrava and Houcha HassaYri , "Suendd qui r i um in Iran's , Th ulim Wrld, o . 94, o 4, 2004, p 424

7 F o h N a ecty (:ucil d th mili ary' n t h l t cs fTurkey, se

Min Hr a Aylin y, "Th ty nn f DmorcyTh Rct Turkish c, Armed Fr.1 nd city, vol 26 , n. 4, 2000, 6 3 5 57

Ao, U m i t ( : zr Sakl iou, "Th Ato of th Th Mtyo i c Aunmy, mrive litis, v. 29, . 2 , 7 , 6

8. Om T inr, A Unvn F it! The "Turkish ml nd th Ar wrld, Whigon,DC Th Brkigs Instiutio, 23

Ays Bura, "lss, ultur, an Stte: A Ay f Re Tw T Acitns, Internatinalj urnl f ile East tuies .30, no. 4, , 2

0 . Hn sb, "Th Impt Gbizti l tic Inti ty,rl Airs, . 6 , . , 2 00 , . 2737

Vi Nsr, "T R f "s m emocrcy, Jl f emcracy . 6 , n. 2 ,200, p . 1

12 . . t eymn, "Mty, Secim, nd Ism Th s of Tey, Theryulture n ciety o. 24, no. 2, 2007, . 2 2 .

13 Ayse Bgr, "Labo, Citl, nd eligion: Hmony n onlict Amng theConstitecy of Poitical Islam in Turkey, ile Eastern tuies l. 38, n. 2 ,pri 2002, p. 1 4

14 E. uat Keman and Berrin Koync, "Globiztion, Alterntive Modenities nte Politica conom of Tke, Review f Internatinal litical cnmy vo . 1 2 ,no. , Febrr 2005, 10528

15 Misgh Prs, Scial rins f the ranian Revlutin New Brunswc: tgesniersit Press, 989.

6 rang esavrin, az a tte n ran e Plitcs f the ehran Marketplacee York Cig University Prc,


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VOPET MODELS IN MUSLI COTXT

1 7. Eliot Heov Uersai as e iariaism Wahigto Qr-terly, vol. 30 , o. , 20067 p. 174.

18 . John Waterbury ExportLed Growth and the CeterRight Coalition in Turkey"Comparative Politics, vol. 24, no. 2, 1 992, pp. 12 -4.

19. Hasan Kosebalaban, The Permanet Other"? Turkey and the Question ofEuropea Identity, Mediterraean Quarterly, vol. 18 , o. , 2007, pp. 8711 1 .

20. Oer aspia r Kurdish Nationalism ad Political Islam in Turkey : Kealist Id entit y iTrasitio, Ne York: Routlege, 200.

2 1 . For the iference betwee trait ional coservatives may of wom come rom

the rans o Shia cergy an neoconservatives most of wom are ot reigiouslytraie a may of wom have bee associated with the Revolutionary Guardsan other paramilitary outts, see Anoushirava Ehteshami and Majoob Zeiri,

Iran and the Rise of Its Neocoservatives: The Politics o Tehra's Silent Revolutio,Loon: I. B. Tauris, 2007.

22. HenTov, Uerstading Ira's New Authoritarianism", pp. 3, 1 623 . Accoring to the Economist Itell igence Uit Iran's GDP doubled between 2003 an

2007 from US$ 29.3 bilio to US$ 6. billion thaks to skyrocketing oil prices.As a resut its current account surplus increase twenty fo uring te same perio.http://www.economist.com/contries/Iran/prole.cfm ?fo er= Prole&2 D conomic%20Structure.

2+ Fred Halliay, Forewor, in li Mohammedi (ed.) Iran Ecouterig Global-izatio : Problems and Prospects, New York: RoutegeCurzon 2003, p. xiii.

2 . M. Hakan Yavuz, e Roe of the New Bourgeoisie in the ransformatio o eTurkis Islamic Movemet. i M. Haka Yavz (e.), The Emergece of a NewTurkey : Democracy and the AK Parti, Salt Lake City, U: University of Uah Pressp. 2 .

26. Hoota Shambayati, he Retier State Iterest Grops, a te Paraox ofAutonomy: State a Business in urkey and Ira" Comparative Politics, vol. 26,no. 3 1994, p. 329.

27 . For a detai led analysis of te importance of cotext in shaping te iscrete maifestations of political Islam see Mohammed Ayoob The May Faces of Political Islam,

nn rbor, MI: University of Michigan Press 2008.

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PART HREE

The Ro le of Governancein Development Models

Documents

Ayoob - Democracy, Development and Political Islam - Comparing Iran and Turkey