MALT Reviewer Glenda Obre

Area Author Theories Main IdeaLCT Barbara McCombs Personalized Learning

Theory Personalized Learning is “Learner-Centred” First, each learner learns through a unique combination of factors, including

“heredity; temperament; experiential history; beliefs, values, and perspectives; talents; interests; capacities; and needs” (McCombs & Miller, 2007, p. 15).

First, each learner learns through a unique combination of factors, including “heredity; temperament; experiential history; beliefs, values, and perspectives; talents; interests; capacities; and needs” (McCombs & Miller, 2007, p. 15).

Second, being learner-centred means focusing on the best available evidence about learning, how it occurs, and which teaching practices are most likely to result in the highest levels of student motivation and achievement (McCombs & Whisler, 1997).

What we know is that the most highly motivated learning of all is self-motivated learning, which occurs “only when learners possess (1) choice and control about how, what, and when to learn, and (2) choice and control over what they want to achieve” (McCombs & Miller, 2007, p. 16).

LCP Christie (2005); Kruse (n.d.)

Constructivism Learning is an active process Knowledge is constructed from (and shaped by) experience Learning is a personal interpretation of the world

LCT Phyllis Blumberg The more engaged a person is with the content, the better the person learns it because (s)he adds his own meaning and associations to it

The more connections people have to a concept, the more likely that person will be able to retrieve it later and in another context

LCP David Kolb “Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (David Kolb, 1984, p. 38).

Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages:

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of(1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then(4) used to test hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.

Kolb's learning theory (1974)Kolb (1974) views learning as an integrated process with each stage being mutually supportive of and feeding into the next. It is possible to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through its logical sequence.However, effective learning only occurs when a learner is able to execute all four stages of the model. Therefore, no one stage of the cycle is an effective as a learning procedure on its own.

Curriculum Development

John Dewey Curriculum Theory Curriculum should ultimately produce students who would be able to deal effectively with the modern world. 

Curriculum should not be presented as finished abstractions, but should include the child’s preconceptions and should incorporate how the child views his or her own world. 

The four instincts according to Dewey are social, constructive, expressive, and artistic. Curriculum should build an orderly sense of the world where the child lives. Dewey hoped to use occupations to connect miniature versions of fundamental activities of life classroom activities

 Dewey is credited for the development of the progressive schools some of which are still in existence today.

Curriculum Development

John Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi, and Froebel

Child-centered Design Anchored on the needs and and desires of the child The learner is not considered as passive individuals but as one who engages with

his/her environment. One learns by doing. One interacts with the teachers and environment

Curriculum Development

Tyler’s 1949  Linear Product Model The assumption underpinning this model is that there is an agreed body of knowledge that students need to learn.The model is based on four questions: 1. What educational purposes should the institution seek to attain [objectives]?

2. What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives [instructional strategies and content]?

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3. How can these educational experiences be organized effectively [organization of learning experiences?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained [assessment and evaluation]?

Curriculum Development

Hilda Taba Taba Model : Inductive approach

She believed that the curriculum should be designed by the teachers rather than handed down by higher authority.

Further, she felt that teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for their students in their schools rather than by engaging initially in creating a general curriculum design.

She introduce the inductive approach where curriculum workers start with the specifics and build up to a general design as opposed to the more traditional deductive approach of starting with the general design and working down to the specifics.

Curriculum Development

Peter Oliva Oliva Model : Deductive model

Offers a faculty a process for the complete development of a school’s curriculum. Oliva recognized the needs of students in particular communities are not always

the same as the general needs of students throughout our society.

In the Oliva Model a faculty can fashion a plan:• for the curriculum of an area and design ways in which it will be carried out through instruction • to develop school-wide interdisciplinary programs that cut across areas of specialization such as career education, guidance, and class activities. • for a faculty to focus on the curricular components of the model to make programmatic decisions. • to allow a faculty to concentrate on the instructional components.

Assessment Douglas Archbald and Fred Newmann(1988)

Authentic Assessment Theory

Argued that assessment must begin with a defensible theory of academic competence. They contend that for assessment to be considered "authentic" it must measure performance on tasks that reflect meaningful forms of human accomplishment.

Assessment J. Joy Cummings and Authentic Assessment Motivational benefits are expected to accrue when students can perceived the

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Graham S. Maxwell, 1999

relevance of learning and assessment activities, thereby enhancing learning outcomes

Assessment Wiggins, 1993 Authentic Assessment Learning and performance depends on context and motivation.Pioneer of Authentic assessment.

Assessment Resnick 1989 Authentic Assessment Learning theories recognize that learning is dependent on complex interrelationships of cognitive, affective, and socio cultural factors.

Assessment Wiggins, 1993; Anderson et al., 1996

Authentic Assessment Context also has significant effects on learning and performanceAnderson et al. – discuss a continuum of theories of situated ness.

Assessment Linn 1990, 1995; Goldstein, 1989; Gipps, 1984

Authentic theory Assessment theory and practice have been evolving to reflect these complexities, moving away from more narrowly focused psychological theory of measurement that have dominated education until recently.

Assessment Carol Ann Tomlinson (2007/2008, p. 11)

On Formative Assessment Theory

“Informative assessment isn’t an end in itself, but the beginning of better instruction.”

Theorists associated with Behaviorism:

J.B Watson

E. L Thorndike

B.F Skinner

Behaviorism Learning Theory

J. B Watson, the father of Behaviorism, defined learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect relationships.

Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans receive may be generated internally (for example hunger), or externally (for example, a loud noise).

B.F. Skinner expanded on the foundation of Behaviorism, established by Watson, and on the work of Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to Skinner, voluntary or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. "The learning principle behind operant conditioning is that new learning occurs as a result of positive reinforcement, and old patterns are abandoned as a result of negative reinforcement." (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p.59) In his book entitled, The Technology of Teaching, Skinner wrote:

The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, but teachers arrange

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special contingencies which expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearance of behavior which otherwise never occur. (Skinner, 1968, p.64)

Skinner believed that more complex learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and reinforcement "... through successive stages in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed progressively in the direction of the required behavior." (Skinner, 1968, p.10)

The use of exams to measure observable behavior of learning, the use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breaking down of the instruction process into "conditions of learning" (as developed by Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviorist influence.

Learner-Centered Principles1

Colleen Carmen

Learning is ACTIVE when... engaged in solving real-world problems- Merrill intertwined in judgment and exploration- John Seeley Brown situated in action- John Seeley Brown uses active learning techniques- Chickering practice and reinforcement is emphasized- Marchese involvement in real-world tasks is emphasized- Marchese

LEARNING is SOCIAL via... opportunities for cognitive apprenticeship- John Seeley Brown

1 http://www.west.asu.edu/ccarmean/learning/learningtable.htm

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reciprocity and cooperation among students- Chickering prompt feedback- Chickering encouragement of contact between student and faculty- Chickering emphasis on rich, timely feedback- Marchese

Learning is CONTEXTUAL as... new knowledge builds on the learner's existing knowledge- Merrill new knowledge is integrated into the learner's world- Merrill new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner-Merrill students have a deep foundation of factual knowledge- Bransford there is awareness that students come to the classroom with preconceptions -Bransford it focuses on how the world works- Bransford students understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework-Bransford it is made concrete rather than abstract- John Seeley Brown

Learning encourages ENGAGEMENT when it...

respects diverse talents and ways of learning- Arthur Chickering communicates high expectations- Chickering is done in high-challenge, low-threat environments-Marchese emphasizes intrinsic motivators and natural curiosities- Marchese

Learning requiresOWNERSHIP when...

students organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application- Bransfordstudents take control of their own learning: noting failures, planning ahead, apportioning time and memory to tasks- Bransfordit emphasizes time on task- Chickering it emphasizes learner independence and choice-Marchese it allows time for reflection- Marchese it emphasizes higher order thinking (synthesis and reflection)- Marchese

Bransford: John D. Bransford, Ann L. Brown, and Rodney R. Cocking, eds. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (Washington, DC, National Academy Press, 1999)

Brown: John Seely Brown, Growing Up Digital: How the Web Changes Work, Education, and the Ways People Learn, Change, March/April 2000 <<http://www.aahe.org/change/digital.pdf>>

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Chickering: Arthur W. Chickering and Stephen C. Erdmann, Implementing the Seven Principles: Technology as Lever, AAHE Bulletin, October 1996, <<http://www.tltgroup.org/programs/seven.html>>

Marchese: Theodore J. Marchese, The New Conversations about Learning: Insights from Neuroscience and Anthropology, Cognitive Science, and Work-Place Studies, in AAHE Conference on Assessment and Quality, (Washington DC, American Association for Higher Education, 1999) <<http://www.aahe.org/pubs/TM-essay.htm>>

Merrill: W. David Merrill, First Principles of Instruction, Edcation Technology Research and Development 2001, <<http://id2.usu.edu/Papers/5FirstPrinciples.PDF>>

Reference: http://list.uvm.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A3=ind0211&L=CTLDOC&E=7bit&P=104170&B=--&T=text%2Fplain;%20charset=US-ASCII

In order to develop a curriculum, Hilda Taba have conceptualized her Taba Rationale:

Step 1. Diagnosis of needsStep 2. Formulation of objectives Step 3. Selection of content Step 4. Organization of content Step 5. Selection of learning experiencesStep 6. Organization of learning experiences (development of methods) Step 7. Determination of what to evaluate and how (Taba1962:12)

The Learner Centered Principles reflect four domains:

• Cognitive and metacognitive –the intellectual capacities of learners are and how they facilitate the learning process. • Motivational and affective – the roles played by motivation and emotions in learning. • Developmental and social – the influence of various, diverse aspects of learner development and the importance of interpersonal interactions in learning and change. • Individual differences – how individual differences influence learning, how teachers, students, and administrators adapt to learning diversity, and how standards and assessments can best support individual differences in learners

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