Augustine&ThePelagianControversy

byB.B.Warfield

TableofContents

PartI:TheOrigin&NatureofPelgagianism

PartII;TheExternalHistoryofthePelagianControversy

PartIII:Augustine'sPartinTheControversy

PartIV:TheTheologyofGrace

PartI:TheOrigin&NatureofPelgagianism

ItwasinevitablethattheenergyoftheChurchinintellectuallyrealizinganddefiningitsdoctrinesinrelationtooneanother,shouldfirstbe

directedtowardstheobjectivesideofChristiantruth.Thechiefcontroversiesofthefirstfourcenturiesandtheresultingdefinitionsofdoctrine,concernedthenatureofGodandthepersonofChrist;anditwasnotuntilthesetheologicalandChristologicalquestionswerewellupontheirwaytofinalsettlement,thattheChurchcouldturnitsattentiontothemoresubjectivesideoftruth.Meanwhilesheboreinherbosomafullrecognition,sidebyside,ofthefreedomofthewill,theevilconsequencesofthefall,andthenecessityofdivinegraceforsalvation.Individualwriters,oreventheseveralsectionsoftheChurch,mightexhibitatendencytothrowemphasisononeoranotheroftheelementsthatmadeupthisdepositoffaiththatwasthecommoninheritanceofall.TheEast,forinstance,laidespecialstressonfreewill:andtheWestdweltmorepointedlyontheruinofthehumanraceandtheabsoluteneedofGod'sgraceforsalvation.ButneitherdidtheEasterntheologiansforgettheuniversalsinfulnessandneedofredemption,orthenecessity,fortherealizationofthatredemption,ofGod'sgraciousinfluences;nordidthoseoftheWestdenytheself-determinationoraccountabilityofmen.Alltheelementsofthecompositedoctrineofmanwereeverywhereconfessed;buttheywerevariouslyemphasized,accordingtothetemperofthewritersorthecontroversialdemandsofthetimes.Suchastateofaffairs,however,wasaninvitationtoheresy,andaprophecyofcontroversy;justasthesimultaneousconfessionoftheunityofGodandtheDeityofChrist,oroftheDeityandthehumanityofChrist,inevitablycarriedinitstrainaseriesofheresiesandcontroversies,untilthedefinitionsofthedoctrinesoftheTrinityandofthepersonofChristwerecomplete.Inlikemanner,itwasinevitablethatsoonerorlatersomeoneshouldarisewhowouldsoone-sidedlyemphasizeoneelementortheotheroftheChurch'steachingastosalvation,astothrowhimselfintoheresy,anddrivetheChurch,throughcontroversywithhim,intoaprecisedefinitionofthedoctrinesoffreewillandgraceintheirmutualrelations.

Thisnewheresiarchcame,attheopeningofthefifthcentury,inthepersonoftheBritishmonk,Pelagius.ThenoveltyofthedoctrinewhichhetaughtisrepeatedlyassertedbyAugustine,2andisevidenttothehistorian;butitconsistednotintheemphasisthathelaidonfreewill,butratherinthefactthat,inemphasizingfreewill,hedeniedtheruinoftheraceandthenecessityofgrace.ThiswasnotonlynewinChristianity;

itwasevenanti-Christian.Jerome,aswellasAugustine,sawthisatthetime,andspeaksofPelagianismasthe'heresyofPythagorasandZeno';3andmodernwritersofthevariousschoolshavemoreorlessfullyrecognizedit.ThusDeanMilmanthinksthat'thegreaterpart'ofPelagius'lettertoDemetrias'mighthavebeenwrittenbyanancientacademic';4andBishopHefeleopenlydeclaresthattheirfundamentaldoctrine,'thatmanisvirtuousentirelyofhisownmerit,notofthegiftofgrace,'seemstohim'tobearehabilitationofthegeneralheathenviewoftheworld,'andcompareswithitCicero'swords:5'Forgold,lands,andalltheblessingsoflife,wehavetoreturnthankstotheGods;butnooneeverreturnedthankstoGodforvirtue.'6ThestrugglewithPelagianismwasthusinrealityastrugglefortheveryfoundationsofChristianity;andevenmoredangerouslythanintheprevioustheologicalandChristologicalcontroversies,herethepracticalsubstanceofChristianitywasinjeopardy.TherealquestionatissuewaswhethertherewasanyneedforChristianityatall;whetherbyhisownpowermanmightnotattaineternalfelicity;whetherthefunctionofChristianitywastosave,oronlytorenderaneternityofhappinessmoreeasilyattainablebyman.7

Geneticallyspeaking,Pelagianismwasthedaughteroflegalism;butwhenititselfconceived,itbroughtforthanessentialdeism.Itisnotwithoutsignificancethatitsoriginatorswere'acertainsortofmonks;'thatis,laymenofasceticlife.FromthispointofviewtheDivinelawislookeduponasacollectionofseparatecommandments,moralperfectionasasimplecomplexofseparatevirtues,andadistinctvalueasameritoriousdemandonDivineapprobationisascribedtoeachgoodworkorattainmentintheexercisesofpiety.ItwasbecausethiswasessentiallyhispointofviewthatPelagiuscouldregardman'spowersassufficienttotheattainmentofsanctity—nay,thathecouldevenassertittobepossibleforamantodomorethanwasrequiredofhim.Butthisinvolvedanessentiallydeisticconceptionofman'srelationstohisMaker.GodhadendowedHiscreaturewithacapacity(possibilitas)orability(posse)foraction,anditwasforhimtouseit.Manwasthusamachine,which,justbecauseitwaswellmade,needednoDivineinterferenceforitsrightworking;andtheCreator,havingonceframedhim,andendowedhimwiththeposse,henceforthleavesthevelleandtheessetohim.

AtthispointwehavetouchedthecentralandformativeprincipleofPelagianism.Itliesintheassumptionoftheplenaryabilityofman;hisabilitytodoallthatrighteousnesscandemand—toworkoutnotonlyhisownsalvation,butalsohisownperfection.Thisisthecoreofthewholetheory;andalltheotherpostulatesnotonlydependuponit,butariseoutofit.Bothchronologicallyandlogicallythisistherootofthesystem.

WhenwefirsthearofPelagius,heisalreadyadvancedinyears,livinginRomeintheodourofsanctity,8andenjoyingawell-deservedreputationforzealinexhortingotherstoagoodlife,whichgrewespeciallywarmagainstthosewhoendeavouredtoshelterthemselves,whenchargedwiththeirsins,behindtheweaknessofnature.9Hewasoutragedbytheuniversalexcusesonsuchoccasions—'Itishard!''itisdifficult!''wearenotable!''wearemen!'—'Oh,blindmadness!'hecried:'weaccuseGodofatwofoldignorance—thatHedoesnotseemtoknowwhatHehasmade,norwhatHehascommanded—asifforgettingthehumanweaknessofwhichHeisHimselftheAuthor,HehasimposedlawsonmanwhichHecannotendure.'10Hehimselftellsus11tothatitwashiscustom,therefore,wheneverhehadtospeakonmoralimprovementandtheconductofaholylife,tobeginbypointingoutthepowerandqualityofhumannature,andbyshowingwhatitwascapableofdoing.For(hesays)heesteemeditofsmallusetoexhortmentowhattheydeemedimpossible:hopemustratherbeourcompanion,andalllongingandeffortdiewhenwedespairofattaining.Soexceedinglyardentanadvocatewasheofman'sunaidedabilitytodoallthatGodcommanded,thatwhenAugustine'snobleandentirelyscripturalprayer—'GivewhatThoucommandest,andcommandwhatThouwilt'—wasrepeatedinhishearing,hewasunabletoendureit;andsomewhatinconsistentlycontradicteditwithsuchviolenceasalmosttobecomeinvolvedinastrife.12Thepowersofman,heheld,weregiftsofGod;anditwas,therefore,areproachagainstHimasifHehadmademanillorevil,tobelievethattheywereinsufficientforthekeepingofHislaw.Nay,dowhatwewill,wecannotridourselvesoftheirsufficiency:'whetherwewill,orwhetherwewillnot,wehavethecapacityofnotsinning.'13'Isay,'hesays,'thatmanisabletobewithoutsin,andthatheisabletokeepthecommandmentsofGod;'andthissufficientlydirectstatementofhumanabilityisinrealitythehingeofhiswholesystem.

Therewerethreespeciallyimportantcorollarieswhichflowedfromthisassertionofhumanability,andAugustinehimselfrecognizedtheseasthechiefelementsofthesystem.14Itwouldbeinexplicableonsuchanassumption,ifnomanhadeverusedhisabilityinkeepingGod'slaw;andPelagiusconsistentlyassertednotonlythatallmightbesinlessiftheychose,butalsothatmanysaints,evenbeforeChrist,hadactuallylivedfreefromsin.Again,itfollowsfromman'sinalienableabilitytobefreefromsin,thateachmancomesintotheworldwithoutentailmentofsinormoralweaknessfromthepastactsofmen;andPelagiusconsistentlydeniedthewholedoctrineoforiginalsin.Andstillagain,itfollowsfromthesameassumptionofabilitythatmanhasnoneedofsupernaturalassistanceinhisstrivingtoobeyrighteousness;andPelagiusconsistentlydeniedboththeneedandrealityofdivinegraceinthesenseofaninwardhelp(andespeciallyofaprevenienthelp)toman'sweakness.

Itwasuponthislastpointthatthegreateststresswaslaidinthecontroversy,andAugustinewasmostofalldisturbedthatthusGod'sgracewasdeniedandopposed.NodoubtthePelagiansspokeconstantlyof'grace,'buttheymeantbythistheprimalendowmentofmanwithfreewill,andthesubsequentaidgivenhiminordertoitsproperusebytherevelationofthelawandtheteachingofthegospel,and,aboveall,bytheforgivenessofpastsinsinChristandbyChrist'sholyexample.15Anythingfurtherthanthisexternalhelptheyutterlydenied;andtheydeniedthatthisexternalhelpitselfwasabsolutelynecessary,affirmingthatitonlyrenderediteasierformantodowhatotherwisehehadplenaryabilityfordoing.Chronologically,thiscontentionseemstohaveprecededtheassertionwhichmustlogicallylieatitsbase,ofthefreedomofmanfromanytaint,corruption,orweaknessduetosin.Itwasinorderthattheymightdenythatmanneededhelp,thattheydeniedthatAdam'ssinhadanyfurthereffectonhisposteritythanmightarisefromhisbadexample.'Beforetheactionofhisownproperwill,'saidPelagiusplainly,'thatonlyisinmanwhichGodmade.'16'Asweareprocreatedwithoutvirtue,'hesaid,'soalsowithoutvice.'17Inaword,'Nothingthatisgoodandevil,onaccountofwhichweareeitherpraiseworthyorblameworthy,isbornwithus—itisratherdonebyus;forwearebornwithcapacityforeither,butprovidedwithneither.'18Sohislaterfollower,Julian,plainlyassertshis'faiththatGodcreatesmenobnoxioustonosin,butfullof

naturalinnocence,andwithcapacityforvoluntaryvirtues.'19Sointrenchedisfreewillinnature,that,accordingtoJulian,itis'justascompleteaftersinsasitwasbeforesins;'20andwhatthismeansmaybegatheredfromPelagius'definitioninthe'ConfessionofFaith,'thathesenttoInnocent:'Wesaythatmanisalwaysablebothtosinandnottosin,soasthatwemayconfessthatwehavefreewill.'Thatsininsuchcircumstanceswassocommonastobewell-nighuniversal,wasaccountedforbythebadexampleofAdamandthepowerofhabit,thelatterbeingsimplytheresultofimitationoftheformer.'Nothingmakeswell-doingsohard,'writesPelagiustoDemetrias,'asthelongcustomofsinswhichbeginsfromchildhoodandgraduallybringsusmoreandmoreunderitspoweruntilitseemstohaveinsomedegreetheforceofnature(vimnaturae).'Heisevenreadytoallowfortheforceofhabitinabroadway,ontheworldatlarge;andsodividesallhistoryintoprogressiveperiods,markedbyGod's(external)grace.Atfirstthelightofnaturewassostrongthatmenbyitalonecouldliveinholiness.Anditwasonlywhenmen'smannersbecamecorruptandtarnishednaturebegantobeinsufficientforholyliving,thatbyGod'sgracetheLawwasgivenasanadditiontomerenature;andbyit'theoriginallustrewasrestoredtonatureafteritsblushhadbeenimpaired.'Andsoagain,afterthehabitofsinningoncemoreprevailedamongmen,and'thelawbecameunequaltothetaskofcuringit,'21Christwasgiven,furnishingmenwithforgivenessofsins,exhortationstoimitationoftheexampleandtheholyexampleitself.22Butthoughthusaprogressivedeteriorationwasconfessed,andsuchadeteriorationasrendereddesirableatleasttwosupernaturalinterpositions(inthegivingofthelawandthecomingofChrist),yetnocorruptionofnature,evenbygrowinghabit,isreallyallowed.Itwasonlyanever-increasingfacilityinimitatingvicewhicharosefromsolongaschoolinginevil;andallthatwasneededtorescuemenfromitwasanewexplanationofwhatwasright(inthelaw),or,atthemost,theencouragementofforgivenessforwhatwasalreadydone,andaholyexample(inChrist)forimitation.Pelagiusstillassertedourcontinuouspossessionof'afreewillwhichisunimpairedforsinningandfornotsinning;'andJulian,that'ourfreewillisjustasfullaftersinsasitwasbeforesins;'althoughAugustinedoesnotfailtotwithimwithachargeofinconsistency.23

ThepeculiarindividualismofthePelagianviewoftheworldcomesoutstronglyintheirfailuretoperceivetheeffectofhabitonnatureitself.Justastheyconceivedofvirtueasacomplexofvirtuousacts,sotheyconceivedofsinexclusivelyasanact,orseriesofdisconnectedacts.Theyappearnottohaverisenabovetheessentiallyheathenviewwhichhadnonotionofholinessapartfromaseriesofactsofholiness,orofsinapartfromalikeseriesofsinfulacts.24Thusthewillwasisolatedfromitsacts,andtheactsfromeachother,andallorganicconnectionorcontinuityoflifewasnotonlyoverlookedbutdenied.25Aftereachactofthewill,manstoodexactlywherehedidbefore:indeed,thisconceptionscarcelyallowsfortheexistenceofa'man'—onlyawillingmachineisleft,ateachclickoftheactionofwhichthespringregainsitsoriginalposition,andisequallyreadyasbeforetoreperformitsfunction.Insuchaconceptiontherewasnoplaceforcharacter:freedomofwillwasall.Thusitwasnotanunnaturalmistakewhichtheymade,whentheyforgotthemanaltogether,andattributedtothefacultyoffreewill,underthenameof'possibilitas'or'posse,'theabilitythatbelongedrathertothemanwhosefacultyitis,andwhoisproperlyresponsiblefortheusehemakesofit.Hereliestheessentialerroroftheirdoctrineoffreewill:theylookeduponfreedominitsformonly,andnotinitsmatter;and,keepingmaninperpetualandhopelessequilibriumbetweengoodandevil,theypermittednogrowthofcharacterandnoadvantagetohimselftobegainedbymaninhissuccessivechoicesofgood.Itneednotsurpriseusthatthetypeofthoughtwhichthusdissolvedtheorganismofthemanintoacongeriesofdisconnectedvoluntaryacts,failedtocomprehendthesolidarityoftherace.TothePelagian,Adamwasaman,nothingmore;anditwassimplyunthinkablethatanyactofhisthatlefthisownsubsequentactsuncommitted,couldentailsinandguiltuponothermen.Thesamealembicthatdissolvedtheindividualintoasuccessionofvoluntaryacts,couldnotfailtoseparatetheraceintoaheapofunconnectedunits.Ifsin,asJuliandeclared,isnothingbutwill,andthewillitselfremainedintactaftereachact,howcouldtheindividualactofanindividualwillconditiontheactsofmenasyetunborn?By'imitation'ofhisactalonecould(undersuchaconception)othermenbeaffected.Andthiscarriedwithitthecorrespondingviewofman'srelationtoChrist.Hecouldforgiveusthesinswehadcommitted;Hecouldteachusthetrueway;Hecouldsetusaholyexample;andHecouldexhortusto

itsimitation.ButHecouldnottouchustoenableustowillthegood,withoutdestroyingtheabsoluteequilibriumofthewillbetweengoodandevil;andtodestroythiswastodestroyitsfreedom,whichwasthecrowninggoodofourdivinelycreatednature.SurelythePelagiansforgotthatmanwasnotmadeforwill,butwillforman.

Indefendingtheirtheory,aswearetoldbyAugustine,therewerefiveclaimsthattheyespeciallymadeforit.26Itallowedthemtopraiseaswastheirdue,thecreaturethatGodhadmade,themarriagethatHehadinstituted,thelawthatHehadgiven,thefreewillwhichwasHisgreatestendowmenttoman,andthesaintswhohadfollowedHiscounsels.Bythistheymeantthattheyproclaimedthesinlessperfectionofhumannatureineverymanashewasbroughtintotheworld,andopposedthistothedoctrineoforiginalsin;thepurityandholinessofmarriageandthesexualappetites,andopposedthistothedoctrineofthetransmissionofsin;theabilityofthelaw,aswellasandapartfromthegospel,tobringmenintoeternallife,andopposedthistothenecessityofinnergrace;theintegrityoffreewilltochoosethegood,andopposedthistothenecessityofdivineaid;andtheperfectionofthelivesofthesaints,andopposedthistothedoctrineofuniversalsinfulness.Otherquestions,concerningtheoriginofsouls,thenecessityofbaptismforinfants,theoriginalimmortalityofAdam,laymoreontheskirtsofthecontroversy,andwereratherconsequencesoftheirteachingthanpartsofit.Asitwasanobviousfactthatallmendied,theycouldnotadmitthatAdam'sdeathwasaconsequenceofsinlesttheyshouldbeforcedtoconfessthathissinhadinjuredallmen;theythereforeassertedthatphysicaldeathbelongedtotheverynatureofman,andthatAdamwouldhavediedevenhadhenotsinned.27So,asitwasimpossibletodenythattheChurcheverywherebaptizedinfants,theycouldnotrefusethembaptismwithoutconfessingthemselvesinnovatorsindoctrine;andthereforetheycontendedthatinfantswerenotbaptizedforforgivenessofsins,butinordertoattainahigherstateofsalvation.Finally,theyconceivedthatifitwasadmittedthatsoulsweredirectlycreatedbyGodforeachbirth,itcouldnotbeassertedthattheycameintotheworldsoiledbysinandundercondemnation;andthereforetheyloudlychampionedthistheoryoftheoriginofsouls.

TheteachingsofthePelagians,itwillbereadilyseen,easilyweldedthemselvesintoasystem,theessentialandformativeelementsofwhichwereentirelynewintheChristianChurch;andthisstartlinglynewreadingofman'scondition,powers,anddependenceforsalvation,itwas,thatbrokelikeathunderboltupontheWesternChurchattheopeningofthefifthcentury,andforcedhertoreconsider,fromthefoundations,herwholeteachingastomanandhissalvation.

PartII:TheExternalHistoryofthePelagianControversy

PelagiusseemstohavebeenalreadysomewhatsoftenedbyincreasingagewhenhecametoRomeabouttheopeningofthefifthcentury.Hewasalsoconstitutionallyaversetocontroversy;andalthoughinhiszealforChristianmorals,andinhisconvictionthatnomanwouldattempttodowhathewasnotpersuadedhehadnaturalpowertoperform,hediligentlypropagatedhisdoctrinesprivately,hewascarefultorousenoopposition,andwascontenttomakewhatprogresshecouldquietlyandwithoutopendiscussion.Hismethodsofworksufficientlyappearinthepagesofhis'CommentaryontheEpistlesofSaintPaul,'whichwaswrittenandpublishedduringtheseyears,andwhichexhibitslearningandasoberandcorrectbutsomewhatshallowexegeticalskill.Inthiswork,hemanagestogiveexpressiontoallthemainelementsofhissystem,butalwaysintroducesthemindirectly,notasthetrueexegesis,butbywayofobjectionstotheordinaryteaching,whichwereinneedofdiscussion.ThemostimportantfruitofhisresidenceinRomewastheconversiontohisviewsoftheAdvocateCoelestius,whobroughtthecourageofyouthandtheargumentativetrainingofalawyertothepropagationofthenewteaching.Itwasthroughhimthatitfirstbrokeoutintopubliccontroversy,andreceiveditsfirstecclesiasticalexaminationandrejection.FleeingfromAlaric'ssecondraidonRome,thetwofriendslandedtogetherinAfrica(A.D.411),whencePelagiussoonafterwardsdepartedforPalestine,leavingthebolderandmorecontentiousCoelestiusbehindatCarthage.HereCoelestiussoughtordinationasapresbyter.ButtheMilanesedeaconPaulinusstoodforwardinaccusationofhimasaheretic,andthematterwasbrought

beforeasynodunderthepresidencyofBishopAurelius.

Paulinus'chargeconsistedofsevenitems,whichassertedthatCoelestiustaughtthefollowingheresies:thatAdamwasmademortal,andwouldhavedied,whetherhesinnedordidnotsin;thatthesinofAdaminjuredhimselfalone,notthehumanrace;thatnew-bornchildrenareinthatstateinwhichAdamwasbeforehissin;thatthewholehumanracedoesnot,ontheonehand,dieonaccountofthedeathorthefallofAdam,nor,ontheother,riseagainonaccountoftheresurrectionofChrist;thatinfants,eventhoughnotbaptized,haveeternallife;thatthelawleadstothekingdomofheaveninthesamewayasthegospel;andthat,evenbeforetheLord'scoming,therehadbeenmenwithoutsin.Onlytwofragmentsoftheproceedingsofthesynodininvestigatingthischargehavecomedowntous;butitiseasytoseethatCoelestiuswascontumacious,andrefusedtorejectanyofthepropositionschargedagainsthim,excepttheonewhichhadreferencetothesalvationofinfantsthatdieunbaptized—thesoleonethatadmittedofsounddefence.Astouchingthetransmissionofsin,hewouldonlysaythatitwasanopenquestionintheChurch,andthathehadheardbothopinionsfromChurchdignitaries;sothatthesubjectneededinvestigation,andshouldnotbemadethegroundforachargeofheresy.Thenaturalresultwas,that,onrefusingtocondemnthepropositionschargedagainsthim,hewashimselfcondemnedandexcommunicatedbythesynod.SoonafterwardshesailedtoEphesus,whereheobtainedtheordinationwhichhesought.

MeanwhilePelagiuswaslivingquietlyinPalestine,whitherinthesummerof415ayoungSpanishpresbyter,PaulusOrosiusbyname,camewithlettersfromAugustinetoJerome,andwasinvited,neartheendofJulyinthatyear,toadiocesansynod,presidedoverbyJohnofJerusalem.TherehewasaskedaboutPelagiusandCoelestius,andproceededtogiveanaccountofthecondemnationofthelatteratthesynodofCarthage,andofAugustine'sliteraryrefutationoftheformer.Pelagiuswassentfor,andtheproceedingsbecameanexaminationintohisteachings.Thechiefmatterbroughtupwashisassertionofthepossibilityofmenlivingsinlesslyinthisworld;butthefavourofthebishoptowardshim,theintemperanceofOrosius,andthedifficultyof

communicationbetweenthepartiesarisingfromdifferenceoflanguage,combinedsotoclogproceedingsthatnothingwasdone;andthewholematter,asWesterninitsorigin,wasreferredtotheBishopofRomeforexaminationanddecision.

SoonafterwardstwoGallicbishops—HerosofArles,andLazarusofAix—whoweretheninPalestine,lodgedaformalaccusationagainstPelagiuswiththemetropolitan,EulogiusofCaesarea;andheconvenedasynodoffourteenbishopswhichmetatLydda(Diospolis),inDecemberofthesameyear(415),forthetrialofthecase.Perhapsnogreaterecclesiasticalfarcewaseverenactedthanthissynodexhibited.Whenthetimearrived,theaccuserswerepreventedfrombeingpresentbyillness,andPelagiuswasconfrontedonlybythewrittenaccusation.Thiswasbothunskilfullydrawn,andwaswritteninLatinwhichthesynoddidnotunderstand.Itwas,therefore,notevenconsecutivelyread,andwasonlyheadbyheadrenderedintoGreekbyaninterpreter.PelagiusbeganbyreadingaloudseveralletterstohimselffromvariousmenofreputationintheEpiscopate—amongthemafriendlynotefromAugustine.ThoroughlyacquaintedwithbothLatinandGreek,hewasenabledskillfullytothreadeverydifficulty,andpasssafelythroughtheordeal.Jeromecalledthisa'miserablesynod,'andnotunjustly:atthesametimeitissufficienttovindicatethehonestyandearnestnessofthebishops'intentions,thateveninsuchcircumstances,anddespitethemoreundevelopedopinionsoftheEastonthequestionsinvolved,Pelagiusescapedcondemnationonlybyacourseofmostingeniousdisingenuousness,andonlyatthecostbothofdisowningCoelestiusandhisteachings,ofwhichhehadbeentherealfather,andofleadingthesynodtobelievethathewasanathematizingtheverydoctrineswhichhewashimselfproclaiming.Thereisreallynopossibilityofdoubting,asanyonewillseewhoreadstheproceedingsofthesynod,thatPelagiusobtainedhisacquittalhereeitherbya'lyingcondemnationoratrickyinterpretation'ofhisownteachings;andAugustineisperfectlyjustifiedinassertingthatthe'heresywasnotacquitted,butthemanwhodeniedtheheresy,'andwhowouldhimselfhavebeenanathematizedhadhenotanathematizedtheheresy.

Howeverobtained,theacquittalofPelagiuswasyetanaccomplishedfact.Neitherhenorhisfriendsdelayedtomakethemostwidelyextendeduse

oftheirgoodfortune.Pelagiushimselfwasjubilant.AccountsofthesynodalproceedingsweresenttotheWest,notaltogetherfreefromuncandidalterations;andPelagiussoonputforthaworkInDefenceofFree-Will,inwhichhetriumphedinhisacquittaland'explainedhisexplanations'atthesynod.Norwerethechampionsoftheoppositeopinionidle.AssoonasthenewsarrivedinNorthAfrica,andbeforetheauthenticrecordsofthesynodhadreachedthatregion,thecondemnationofPelagiusandCoelestiuswasre-affirmedintwoprovincialsynods—one,consistingofsixty-eightbishops,metatCarthageaboutmidsummerof416;andtheother,consistingofaboutsixtybishops,metsoonafterwardsatMileve(Mila).ThusPalestineandNorthAfricawerearrayedagainstoneanother,anditbecameofgreatimportancetoobtainthesupportofthePatriarchalSeeofRome.Bothsidesmadetheattempt,butfortunefavoredtheAfricans.EachoftheNorth-AfricansynodssentasynodallettertoInnocentI.,thenBishopofRome,engaginghisassenttotheiraction:tothese,fivebishops,AureliusofCarthageandAugustineamongthem,addedathird'familiar'letteroftheirown,inwhichtheyurgeduponInnocenttoexamineintoPelagius'teaching,andprovidedhimwiththematerialonwhichhemightbaseadecision.ThelettersreachedInnocentintimeforhimtotakeadviceofhisclergy,andsendfavorablerepliesonJan.27,417.IntheseheexpressedhisagreementwiththeAfricandecisions,assertedthenecessityofinwardgrace,rejectedthePelagiantheoryofinfantbaptism,anddeclaredPelagiusandCoelestiusexcommunicateduntiltheyshouldreturntoorthodoxy.Inaboutsixweeksmorehewasdead:butZosimus,hissuccessor,wasscarcelyinstalledinhisplacebeforeCoelestiusappearedatRomeinpersontopleadhiscause;whileshortlyafterwardslettersarrivedfromPelagiusaddressedtoInnocent,andbyanartfulstatementofhisbeliefandarecommendationfromPraylus,latelybecomebishopofJerusaleminJohn'sstead,attemptingtoenlistRomeinhisfavour.Zosimus,whoappearstohavebeenaGreekandthereforeinclinedtomakelittleofthemeritsofthisWesterncontroversy,wentovertoCoelestiusatonce,uponhisprofessionofwillingnesstoanathematizealldoctrineswhichthepontificalseehadcondemnedorshouldcondemn;andwroteasharpandarrogantlettertoAfrica,proclaimingCoelestius'catholic,'andrequiringtheAfricanstoappearwithintwomonthsatRometoprosecutetheircharges,orelsetoabandon

them.OnthearrivalofPelagius'papers,thisletterwasfollowedbyanother(September,417),inwhichZosimus,withtheapprobationoftheclergy,declaredbothPelagiusandCoelestiustobeorthodox,andseverelyrebukedtheAfricansfortheirhastyjudgment.ItisdifficulttounderstandZosimus'actioninthismatter:neitheroftheconfessionspresentedbytheaccusedteachersoughttohavedeceivedhim,andifhewasseizingtheoccasiontomagnifytheRomansee,hismistakewasdreadful.Latein417,orearlyin418,theAfricanbishopsassembledatCarthage,innumbermorethantwohundred,andrepliedtoZosimusthattheyhaddecidedthatthesentencepronouncedagainstPelagiusandCoelestiusshouldremaininforceuntiltheyshouldunequivocallyacknowledgethat'weareaidedbythegraceofGod,throughChrist,notonlytoknow,buttodowhatisright,ineachsingleact,sothatwithoutgraceweareunabletohave,think,speak,ordoanythingpertainingtopiety.'ThisfirmnessmadeZosimuswaver.Heansweredswellinglybuttimidly,declaringthathehadmaturelyexaminedthematter,butithadnotbeenhisintentionfinallytoacquitCoelestius;andnowhehadleftallthingsintheconditioninwhichtheywerebefore,butheclaimedtherightoffinaljudgmenttohimself.Matterswerehasteningtoaconclusion,however,thatwouldleavehimnoopportunitytoescapefromthemortificationofanentirechangeoffront.Thisletterwaswrittenonthe21stofMarch,418;itwasreceivedinAfricaonthe29thofApril;andontheverynextdayanimperialdecreewasissuedfromRavennaorderingPelagiusandCoelestiustobebanishedfromRome,withallwhoheldtheiropinions;whileonthenextday,May1,aplenarycouncilofabouttwohundredbishopsmetatCarthage,andinninecanonscondemnedalltheessentialfeaturesofPelagianism.Whetherthissimultaneousactionwastheresultofskillfularrangement,canonlybeconjectured:itseffectwasinanycasenecessarilycrushing.Therecouldbenoappealfromthecivildecision,anditplayeddirectlyintothehandsoftheAfricandefinitionofthefaith.Thesynod'sninecanonspartnaturallyintothreetriads.Thefirstofthesedealswiththerelationofmankindtooriginalsin,andanathematizesinturnthosewhoassertthatphysicaldeathisanecessityofnature,andnotaresultofAdam'ssin;thosewhoassertthatnew-bornchildrenderivenothingoforiginalsinfromAdamtobeexpiatedbythelaverofregeneration;andthosewhoassertadistinctionbetweenthekingdomofheavenandeternallife,forentranceintotheformerofwhichalone

baptismisnecessary.Thesecondtriaddealswiththenatureofgrace,andanathematizesthosewhoassertthatgracebringsonlyremissionofpastsins,notaidinavoidingfutureones;thosewhoassertthatgraceaidsusnottosin,onlybyteachinguswhatissinful,notbyenablingustowillanddowhatweknowtoberight;andthosewhoassertthatgraceonlyenablesustodomoreeasilywhatweshouldwithoutitstillbeabletodo.Thethirdtriaddealswiththeuniversalsinfulnessoftherace,andanathematizesthosewhoassertthattheapostles'(IJohni.8)confessionofsinisdueonlytotheirhumility;thosewhosaythat'Forgiveusourtrespasses'intheLord'sPrayer,ispronouncedbythesaints,notforthemselves,butforthesinnersintheircompany;andthosewhosaythatthesaintsusethesewordsofthemselvesonlyoutofhumilityandnottruly.Hereweseeacarefultraversingofthewholegroundofthecontroversy,withaconsciousreferencetothethreechiefcontentionsofthePelagianteachers.

Theappealtothecivilpower,bywhomsoevermade,was,ofcourse,indefensible,althoughitaccordedwiththeopinionsoftheday,andwasentirelyapprovedbyAugustine.ButitwastheruinofthePelagiancause.Zosimusfoundhimselfforcedeithertogointobanishmentwithhiswards,ortodeserttheircause.Heappearsnevertohavehadanypersonalconvictionsonthedogmaticpointsinvolvedinthecontroversy,andso,allthemorereadily,yieldedtothenecessityofthemoment.HecitedCoelestiustoappearbeforeacouncilforanewexamination;butthatheresiarchconsultedprudence,andwithdrewfromthecity.Zosimus,possiblyintheefforttoappearaleaderinthecausehehadopposed,notonlycondemnedandexcommunicatedthemenwhomlessthansixmonthsbeforehehadpronounced'orthodox'aftera`matureconsiderationofthemattersinvolved,'but,inobediencetotheimperialdecree,issuedastringentpaperwhichcondemnedPelagiusandthePelagians,andaffirmedtheAfricandoctrinesastocorruptionofnature,truegrace,andthenecessityofbaptism.Tothisherequiredsubscriptionfromallbishopsasatestoforthodoxy.EighteenItalianbishopsrefusedtheirsignature,withJulianofEclanum,henceforthtobethechampionofthePelagianparty,attheirhead,andwerethereforedeposed,althoughseveralofthemafterwardsrecanted,andwererestored.InJulian,theheresyobtainedanadvocate,who,ifaughtcouldhavebeendoneforits

re-instatement,wouldsurelyhaveprovedsuccessful.Hewastheboldest,thestrongest,atoncethemostacuteandthemostweighty,ofallthedisputantsofhisparty.Buttheecclesiasticalstandingofthisheresywasalreadydetermined.ThepolicyofZosimus'testactwasimposedbyimperialauthorityonNorthAfricain419.TheexiledbishopsweredrivenfromConstantinoplebyAtticusin424;andtheyaresaidtohavebeencondemnedataCiliciansynodin423,andatanAntiochianonein424.ThustheEastitselfwaspreparingforthefinalactinthedrama.TheexiledbishopswerewithNestoriusatConstantinoplein429;andthatpatriarchunsuccessfullyintercededforthemwithCoelestine,thenBishopofRome.Theconjunctionwasominous.AndattheecumenicalsynodatEphesusin431,weagainfindthe'Coelestians'sidebysidewithNestorius,sharersinhiscondemnation.

ButPelagianismdidnotsodieasnottoleavealegacybehindit.'RemaindersofPelagianism'soonshowedthemselvesinSouthernGaul,whereabodyofmonasticleadersattemptedtofindamiddlegroundonwhichtheycouldstand,byallowingtheAugustineiandoctrineofassistinggrace,butretainingthePelagianconceptionofourself-determinationtogood.Wefirsthearofthemin428,throughlettersfromtwolaymen,ProsperandHilary,toAugustine,asmenwhoacceptedoriginalsinandthenecessityofgrace,butassertedthatmenbegantheirturningtoGod,andGodhelpedtheirbeginning.Theytaughtthatallmenaresinners,andthattheyderivetheirsinfromAdam;thattheycanbynomeanssavethemselves,butneedGod'sassistinggrace;andthatthisgraceisgratuitousinthesensethatmencannotreallydeserveit,andyetthatitisnotirresistible,norgivenalwayswithouttheoccasionofitsgifthavingbeendeterminedbymen'sattitudetowardsGod;sothat,thoughnotgivenonaccountofthemeritsofmen,itisgivenaccordingtothosemerits,actualorforeseen.TheleaderofthisnewmovementwasJohnCassian,apupilofChrysostom(towhomheattributedallthatwasgoodinhislifeandwill),andthefountain-headofGallicmonasticism;anditschiefchampionatasomewhatlaterdaywasFaustusofRhegium(Riez).

TheAugustineianoppositionwasatfirstledbythevigorouscontroversialist,ProsperofAquitaine,and,inthenextcentury,bythewise,moderate,andgoodCaesariusofArles,whobroughtthecontesttoa

conclusioninthevictoryofasoftenedAugustineianism.Alreadyin431aletterwasobtainedfromPopeCoelestine,designedtoclosethecontroversyinfavorofAugustineianism,andin496PopeGelasiuscondemnedthewritingsofFaustusinthefirstindexofforbiddenbooks;while,neartheendofthefirstquarterofthesixthcentury,PopeHormisdaswasappealedtoforarenewedcondemnation.Theendwasnowinsight.ThefamoussecondSynodofOrangemetunderthepresidencyofCaesariusatthatancienttownonthe3dofJuly,529,anddrewupaseriesofmoderatearticleswhichreceivedtheratificationofBonifaceII.inthefollowingyear.InthesearticlesthereisaffirmedananxiouslyguardedAugustineianism,asomewhatweakenedAugustineianism,butyetadistinctiveAugustineianism;and,sofarasaformalcondemnationcouldreach,semi-PelagianismwassuppressedbytheminthewholeWesternChurch.Butcouncilsandpopescanonlydecree;andCassianandVincentandFaustus,despiteCaesariusandBonifaceandGregory,retainedaninfluenceamongtheircountrymenwhichneverdiedaway.

PartIII:Augustine'sPartinTheControversy

Bothbynatureandbygrace,Augustinewasformedtobethechampionoftruthinthiscontroversy.Ofanaturallyphilosophicaltemperament,hesawintothespringsoflifewithavividnessofmentalperceptiontowhichmostmenarestrangers;andhisownexperiencesinhislonglifeofresistanceto,andthenofyieldingto,thedrawingsofGod'sgrace,gavehimaclearapprehensionofthegreatevangelicprinciplethatGodseeksmen,notmenGod,suchasnosophistrycouldcloud.Howevermuchhisphilosophyortheologymightundergochangeinotherparticulars,therewasoneconvictiontoodeeplyimprinteduponhisheartevertofadeoralter—theconvictionoftheineffablenessofGod'sgrace.Grace—man'sabsolutedependenceonGodasthesourceofallgood—thiswasthecommon,nay,theformativeelement,inallstagesofhisdoctrinaldevelopment,whichwasmarkedonlybytheevergrowingconsistencywithwhichhebuilthistheologyaroundthiscentralprinciple.Alreadyin397—theyearafterhebecamebishop—wefindhimenunciatingwithadmirableclearnessalltheessentialelementsofhisteaching,ashe

afterwardsopposedthemtoPelagius.Itwasinevitable,therefore,thatalthoughhewasrejoicedwhenheheard,someyearslater,ofthezealouslaboursofthispiousmonkinRometowardsstemmingthetideofluxuryandsin,andesteemedhimforhisdevoutlife,andlovedhimforhisChristianactivity,heyetwasdeeplytroubledwhensubsequentrumoursreachedhimthathewas"disputingagainstthegraceofGod."Hetellsusoverandoveragain,thatthiswasathingnopiousheartcouldendure;andweperceivethat,fromthismoment,Augustinewasonlybidinghistime,andawaitingafittingopportunitytojoinissuewiththedenieroftheHolyofholiesofhiswhole,Iwillnotsaytheologymerely,butlife."AlthoughIwasgrievedbythis,"hesays,"anditwastoldmebymenwhomIbelieved,Iyetdesiredtohavesomethingofsuchsortfromhisownlipsorinsomebookofhis,sothat,ifIbegantorefuteit,hewouldnotbeabletodenyit."Thusheactuallyexcuseshimselffornotenteringintothecontroversyearlier.WhenPelagiuscametoAfrica,then,itwasalmostasifhehaddeliberatelysoughthisfate.Butcircumstancessecuredalullbeforethestorm.HevisitedHippo;butAugustinewasabsent,althoughhedidnotfailtoinformhimselfonhisreturnthatPelagiuswhiletherehadnotbeenheardtosay"anythingatallofthiskind."ThecontroversyagainsttheDonatistswasnowoccupyingalltheenergiesoftheAfricanChurch,andAugustinehimselfwasarulingspiritinthegreatconferencenowholdingatCarthagewiththem.Whilethere,hewassoimmersedinthisbusiness,that,althoughheonceortwicesawthefaceofPelagius,hehadnoconversationwithhim;andalthoughhisearswerewoundedbyacasualremarkwhichheheard,totheeffect"thatinfantswerenotbaptizedforremissionofsins,butforconsecrationtoChrist,"heallowedhimselftopassoverthematter,"becausetherewasnoopportunitytocontradictit,andthosewhosaiditwerenotsuchmenascouldcausehimsolicitudefortheirinfluence."

Itappearsfromthesefacts,givenusbyhimself,thatAugustinewasnotonlyreadyfor,butwaslookingfor,thecomingcontroversy.ItcanscarcelyhavebeenasurprisetohimwhenPaulinusaccusedCoelestius(412);and,althoughhewasnotamemberofthecouncilwhichcondemnedhim,itwasinevitablethatheshouldatoncetaketheleadingpartintheconsequentcontroversy.Coelestiusandhisfriendsdidnotsilentlysubmittothejudgmentthathadbeenpassedupontheirteaching:

theycouldnotopenlypropagatetheirheresy,buttheywerediligentinspreadingtheirplaintsprivatelyandbysubterraneouswhispersamongthepeople.ThiswasmetbytheCatholicsinpublicsermonsandfamiliarcolloquiesheldeverywhere.Butthiswiserulewasobserved—tocontendagainsttheerroneousteachings,buttokeepsilenceastotheteachers,thatso(asAugustineexplains)"themenmightratherbebroughttoseeandacknowledgetheirerrorthroughfearofecclesiasticaljudgmentthanbepunishedbytheactualjudgment."Augustinewasabundantintheseorallabours;andmanyofhissermonsdirectedagainstPelagianerrorhavecomedowntous,althoughitisoftenimpossibletobesureastotheirdate.Foroneofthem(170)hetookhistextfromPhil.iii.6-16,"astouchingtherighteousnesswhichisbythelawblameless;howbeitwhatthingsweregaintome,thosehaveIcountedlossforChrist."Hebeginsbyaskinghowtheapostlecouldcounthisblamelessconversationaccordingtotherighteousnesswhichisfromthelawasdungandloss,andthenproceedstoexplainthepurposeforwhichthelawwasgiven,ourstatebynatureandunderlaw,andthekindofblamelessnessthatthelawcouldproduce,endingbyshowingthatmancanhavenorighteousnessexceptfromGod,andnoperfectrighteousnessexceptinheaven.Threeothers(174,175,176)hadastheirtextITim.i.15,16,anddevelopeditsteaching,thattheuniversalsinoftheworldanditshelplessnessinsinconstitutedthenecessityoftheincarnation;andespeciallythatthenecessityofChrist'sgraceforsalvationwasjustasgreatforinfantsasforadults.Muchisveryforciblysaidinthesesermonswhichwasafterwardsincorporatedinhistreatises."Therewasnoreason,"heinsists,"forthecomingofChristtheLordexcepttosavesinners.Takeawaydiseases,takeawaywounds,andthereisnoreasonformedicine.IfthegreatPhysiciancamefromheaven,agreatsickmanwaslyingillthroughthewholeworld.Thatsickmanisthehumanrace"(175,1)."Hewhosays,`Iamnotasinner,'or`Iwasnot,'isungratefultotheSaviour.NooneofmeninthatmassofmortalswhichflowsdownfromAdam,nooneatallofmenisnotsick:nooneishealedwithoutthegraceofChrist.WhydoyouaskwhetherinfantsaresickfromAdam?Forthey,too,arebroughttothechurch;and,iftheycannotrunthitherontheirownfeet,theyrunonthefeetofothersthattheymaybehealed.MotherChurchaccommodatesothers'feettothemsothattheymaycome,others'heartsothattheymaybelieve,others'tonguesothatthey

mayconfess;and,sincetheyaresickbyanother'ssin,sowhentheyarehealedtheyaresavedbyanother'sconfessionintheirbehalf.Let,then,noonebuzzstrangedoctrinestoyou.ThistheChurchhasalwayshad,hasalwaysheld;thisshehasreceivedfromthefaithoftheelders;thisshewillperseveringlyguarduntiltheend.Sincethewholehavenoneedofaphysician,butonlythesick,whatneed,then,hastheinfantofChrist,ifheisnotsick?Ifheiswell,whydoesheseekthephysicianthroughthosewholovehim?If,wheninfantsarebrought,theyaresaidtohavenosinofinheritance(peccatumpropaginis)atall,andyetcometoChrist,whyisitnotsaidinthechurchtothosethatbringthem,`taketheseinnocentshence;thephysicianisnotneededbythewell,butbythesick;Christcamenottocallthejust,butsinners'?Itneverhasbeensaid,anditneverwillbesaid.Leteachonetherefore,brethren,speakforhimwhocannotspeakforhimself.Itismuchthecustomtointrusttheinheritanceoforphanstothebishops;howmuchmorethegraceofinfants!Thebishopprotectstheorphanlestheshouldbeoppressedbystrangers,hisparentsbeingdead.Lethimcryoutmorefortheinfantwho,hefears,willbeslainbyhisparents.WhocomestoChristhassomethinginhimtobehealed;andhewhohasnot,hasnoreasonforseekingthephysician.Letparentschooseoneoftwothings:letthemeitherconfessthatthereissintobehealedintheirinfants,orletthemceasebringingthemtothephysician.Thisisnothingelsethantowishtobringawellpersontothephysician.Whydoyoubringhim?Tobebaptized.Whom?Theinfant.Towhomdoyoubringhim?ToChrist.ToHim,ofcourse,whocameintotheworld?Certainly,hesays.WhydidHecomeintotheworld?Tosavesinners.Thenhewhomyoubringhasinhimthatwhichneedssaving?"Soagain:"HewhosaysthattheageofinfancydoesnotneedJesus'salvation,saysnothingelsethanthattheLordChristisnotJesustofaithfulinfants;i.e.,toinfantsbaptizedinChrist.ForwhatisJesus?Jesusmeanssaviour.HeisnotJesustothosewhomHedoesnotsave,whodonotneedtobesaved.Now,ifyourheartscanbearthatChristisnotJesustoanyofthebaptized,Idonotknowhowyoucanbeacknowledgedtohavesoundfaith.Theyareinfants,buttheyaremademembersofHim.Theyareinfants,buttheyreceiveHissacraments.Theyareinfants,buttheybecomepartakersofHistable,sothattheymayhavelife."Thepreveniencyofgraceisexplicitlyassertedinthesesermons.Inonehesays,"Zaccheuswasseen,andsaw;butunlesshehadbeenseen,hewould

nothaveseen.For`whomHepredestinated,themalsoHecalled.'Inorderthatwemaysee,weareseen;thatwemaylove,weareloved.`MyGod,mayHispitypreventme!'"Andinanother,atmorelength:"Hiscallinghasprecededyou,sothatyoumayhaveagoodwill.Cryout,`MyGod,letThymercypreventme'(Ps.lviii.11.).Thatyoumaybe,thatyoumayfeel,thatyoumayhear,thatyoumayconsent,Hismercypreventsyou.Itpreventsyouinallthings;anddoyoutoopreventHisjudgmentinsomething.Inwhat,doyousay?Inwhat?InconfessingthatyouhaveallthesethingsfromGod,whateveryouhaveofgood;andfromyourselfwhateveryouhaveofevil"(176,5)."WeowethereforetoHimthatweare,thatwearealive,thatweunderstand:thatwearemen,thatwelivewell,thatweunderstandaright,weowetoHim.Nothingisoursexceptthesinthatwehave.Forwhathavewethatwedidnotreceive?"(ICor.ix.7)(176,6).

Itwasnotlong,however,beforethecontroversywasdrivenoutoftheregionofsermonsintothatofregulartreatises.TheoccasionforAugustine'sfirstappearanceinawrittendocumentbearingonthecontroversy,wasgivenbycertainquestionswhichweresenttohimforanswerby"thetribuneandnotary"Marcellinus,withwhomhehadcementedhisintimacyatCarthage,thepreviousyear,whenthisnotableofficialwaspresiding,bytheemperor'sorders,overthegreatconferenceofthecatholicsandDonatists.ThemerefactthatMarcellinus,stillatCarthage,whereCoelestiushadbeenbroughttotrial,wrotetoAugustineatHippoforwrittenanswerstoimportantquestionsconnectedwiththePelagianheresy,speaksvolumesfortheprominentpositionhehadalreadyassumedinthecontroversy.Thequestionsthatweresent,concernedtheconnectionofdeathwithsin,thetransmissionofsin,thepossibilityofasinlesslife,andespeciallyinfants'needofbaptism.Augustinewasimmersedinabundantlabourswhentheyreachedhim:buthecouldnotresistthisappeal,andthatthelessasthePelagiancontroversyhadalreadygrowntoaplaceofthefirstimportanceinhiseyes.Theresultwashistreatise,OntheMeritsandRemissionofSinsandontheBaptismofInfants,consistingoftwobooks,andwrittenin412.Thefirstbookofthisworkisanargumentfororiginalsin,drawnfromtheuniversalreignofdeathintheworld(2-8),fromtheteachingofRom.v.12-21(9-20),andchieflyfromthebaptismofinfants(21-70).It

opensbyexplodingthePelagiancontentionthatdeathisofnature,andAdamwouldhavediedevenhadhenotsinned,byshowingthatthepenaltythreatenedtoAdamincludedphysicaldeath(Gen.iii.19),andthatitisduetohimthatwealldie(Rom.viii.10,11;ICor.xv.21)(2-8).ThenthePelagianassertionthatweareinjuredinAdam'ssinonlybyitsbadexample,whichweimitate,notbyanypropagationfromit,istestedbyanexpositionofRom.v.12sq.(9-20).Andthenthemainsubjectofthebookisreached,andthewritersharplypressesthePelagianswiththeuniversalandprimevalfactofthebaptismofinfants,asaproofoforiginalsin(21-70).Hetracksoutalltheirsubterfuges—showingtheabsurdityoftheassertionsthatinfantsarebaptizedfortheremissionofsinsthattheyhavethemselvescommittedsincebirth(22),orinordertoobtainahigherstageofsalvation(23-28),orbecauseofsincommittedinsomepreviousstateofexistence(31-33).Thenturningtothepositiveside,heshowsatlengththattheScripturesteachthatChristcametosavesinners,thatbaptismisfortheremissionofsins,andthatallthatpartakeofitareconfessedlysinners(34sq.);thenhepointsoutthatJohnii.7,8,onwhichthePelagiansrelied,cannotbeheldtodistinguishbetweenordinarysalvationandahigherform,underthenameof"thekingdomofGod"(58sq.);andheclosesbyshowingthattheverymannerinwhichbaptismwasadministered,withitsexorcismandexsufflation,impliedtheinfanttobeasinner(63),andbysuggestingthatthepeculiarhelplessnessofinfancy,sodifferentnotonlyfromtheearliestageofAdam,butalsofromthatofmanyyounganimals,maypossiblybeitselfpenal(64-69).Thesecondbooktreats,withsimilarfulness,thequestionoftheperfectionofhumanrighteousnessinthislife.Afteranexordiumwhichspeaksofthewillanditslimitations,andoftheneedofGod'sassistinggrace(1-6),thewriterraisesfourquestions.First,whetheritmaybesaidtobepossible,byGod'sgrace,foramantoattainaconditionofentiresinlessnessinthislife(7).Thisheanswersintheaffirmative.Secondly,heasks,whetheranyonehaseverdonethis,ormayeverbeexpectedtodoit,andanswersinthenegativeonthetestimonyofScripture(8-25).Thirdly,heaskswhynot,andrepliesbrieflybecausemenareunwilling,explainingatlengthwhathemeansbythis(26-33).Finally,heinquireswhetheranymanhaseverexisted,existsnow,orwilleverexist,entirelywithoutsin—thisquestiondifferingfromthesecondinasmuchasthataskedaftertheattainmentinthislifeofastateinwhich

sinningshouldcease,whilethisseeksamanwhohasneverbeenguiltyofsin,implyingtheabsenceoforiginalaswellasofactualsin.Afteransweringthisinthenegative(34),Augustinediscussesanewthequestionoforiginalsin.Hereafterexpoundingfromthepositiveside(35-38)theconditionofmaninparadise,thenatureofhisprobation,andofthefallanditseffectsbothonhimandhisposterity,andthekindofredemptionthathasbeenprovidedintheincarnation,heproceedstoanswercertaincavils(39sq.),suchas,"Whyshouldchildrenofbaptizedpeopleneedbaptism?"-"Howcanasinberemittedtothefatherandheldagainstthechild?"-"IfphysicaldeathcomesfromAdam,oughtwenottobereleasedfromitonbelievinginChrist?"-andconcludeswithanexhortationtoholdfasttotheexacttruth,turningneithertotherightnorleft—neithersayingthatwehavenosin,norsurrenderingourselvestooursin(57sq.).

Afterthesebookswerecompleted,AugustinecameintopossessionofPelagius'CommentaryonPaul'sEpistles,whichwaswrittenwhilehewaslivinginRome(before410),andfoundittocontainsomeargumentsthathehadnottreated—sucharguments,hetellsus,ashehadnotimaginedcouldbeheldbyanyone.Unwillingtore-openhisfinishedargument,henowbeganalongsupplementarylettertoMarcellinus,whichheintendedtoserveasathirdandconcludingbooktohiswork.Hewassometimeincompletingthisletter.Hehadaskedtohavetheformertwobooksreturnedtohim;anditisacuriousindicationofhisoverworkedstateofmind,thatheforgotwhathewantedwiththem:hevisitedCarthagewhiletheletterwasinhand,andsawMarcellinuspersonally;andevenafterhisreturntoHippo,itdraggedalong,amidmanydistractions,slowlytowardscompletion.Meanwhile,alongletterwaswrittentoHonoratus,inwhichasectiononthegraceoftheNewTestamentwasincorporated.Atlengththepromisedsupplementwascompleted.ItwasprofessedlyacriticismofPelagius'Commentary,andthereforenaturallymentionedhisname;butAugustineevengoesoutofhiswaytospeakashighlyofhisopponentashecan,-althoughitisapparentthathisesteemisnotveryhighforhisstrengthofmind,andisevenlesshighforthemoralqualitythatledtohisodd,obliquewayofexpressinghisopinions.ThereisevenahalfsarcasminthewayhespeaksofPelagius'careandcircumspection,whichwascertainlyjustifiedbythe

event.Theletteropensbystatingandcriticisinginaveryacuteandtellingdialectic,thenewargumentsofPelagius,whichweresuchasthefollowing:"IfAdam'ssininjuredeventhosewhodonotsin,Christ'srighteousnessoughtlikewisetoprofiteventhosewhodonotbelieve"(2-4);"Nomancantransmitwhathehasnot;andhence,ifbaptismcleansesfromsin,thechildrenofbaptizedparentsoughttobefreefromsin;""Godremitsone'sownsins,andcanscarcely,therefore,imputeanother'stous;andifthesouliscreated,itwouldcertainlybeunjusttoimputeAdam'saliensintoit"(5).Thestressoftheletter,however,islaidupontwocontentions—1.ThatwhateverelsemaybeambiguousintheScriptures,theyareperfectlyclearthatnomancanhaveeternallifeexceptinChrist,whocametocallsinnerstorepentance(7);and2.Thatoriginalsinininfantshasalwaysbeen,intheChurch,oneofthefixedfacts,tobeusedasabasisofargument,inordertoreachthetruthinothermatters,andhasneveritselfbeencalledinquestionbefore(10-14).Atthispoint,thewriterreturnstothesecondandthirdofthenewargumentsofPelagiusmentionedabove,anddiscussesthemmorefully(15-20),closingwitharecapitulationofthethreegreatpointsthathadbeenraised;viz.,thatbothdeathandsinarederivedfromAdam'ssinbyallhisposterity;thatinfantsneedsalvation,andhencebaptism;andthatnomaneverattainsinthislifesuchastateofholinessthathecannottrulypray,"Forgiveusourtrespasses."

Augustinewasnowtolearnthatoneserviceoftenentailsanother.Marcellinuswrotetosaythathewaspuzzledbywhathadbeensaidinthesecondbookofthiswork,astothepossibilityofman'sattainingtosinlessnessinthislife,whileyetitwasassertedthatnomaneverhadattained,oreverwouldattain,it.How,heasked,canthatbesaidtobepossiblewhichis,andwhichwillremain,unexampled?Inreply,Augustinewrote,duringthissameyear(412),andsenttohisnoblefriend,anotherwork,whichhecallsOntheSpiritandtheLetter,fromtheprominencewhichhegivesinittothewordsof2Cor.iii.6.Hedidnotcontenthimselfwithasimple,directanswertoMarcellinus'question,butgoesatlengthintoaprofounddisquisitionintotherootsofthedoctrine,andthusgivesus,notamereexplanationofaformercontention,butanewtreatiseonanewsubject—theabsolutenecessityofthegraceofGodforanygoodliving.Hebeginsbyexplainingto

Marcellinusthathehasaffirmedthepossibilitywhiledenyingtheactualityofasinlesslife,onthegroundthatallthingsarepossibletoGod—eventhepassageofacamelthroughtheeyeofaneedle,whichneverthelesshasneveroccurred(1,2).For,inspeakingofman'sperfection,wearespeakingreallyofaworkofGod—andonewhichisnonethelessHisworkbecauseitiswroughtthroughtheinstrumentalityofman,andintheuseofhisfreewill.TheScriptures,indeed,teachthatnomanliveswithoutsin,butthisisonlytheproclamationofamatteroffact;andalthoughitisthuscontrarytofactandScripturetoassertthatmenmaybefoundthatlivesinlessly,yetsuchanassertionwouldnotbefatalheresy.Whatisunbearable,isthatmenshouldassertittobepossibleforman,unaidedbyGod,toattainthisperfection.ThisistospeakagainstthegraceofGod:itistoputinman'spowerwhatisonlypossibletothealmightygraceofGod(3,4).Nodoubt,eventhesemendonot,insomanywords,excludetheaidofgraceinperfectinghumanlife—theyaffirmGod'shelp;buttheymakeitconsistinHisgifttomanofaperfectlyfreewill,andinHisadditiontothisofcommandmentsandteachingswhichmakeknowntohimwhatheistoseekandwhattoavoid,andsoenablehimtodirecthisfreewilltowhatisgood.What,however,doessucha"grace"amountto?(5).Manneedssomethingmorethantoknowtherightway:heneedstoloveit,orhewillnotwalkinit;andallmereteaching,whichcandonothingmorethanbringusknowledgeofwhatweoughttodo,isbuttheletterthatkilleth.Whatweneedissomeinward,Spirit-givenaidtothekeepingofwhatbythelawweknowoughttobekept.Mereknowledgeslays:whiletoleadaholylifeisthegiftofGod—notonlybecauseHehasgivenuswill,noronlybecauseHehastaughtustherightway,butbecausebytheHolySpiritHeshedsloveabroadintheheartsofallthosewhomHehaspredestinated,andwillcallandjustifyandglorify(Rom.viii.29,30).Toprovethis,hestatestobetheobjectofthepresenttreatise;andafterinvestigatingthemeaningof2Cor.iii.6,andshowingthat"theletter"theremeansthelawasasystemofprecepts,whichrevealssinratherthantakesitaway,pointsoutthewayratherthangivesstrengthtowalkinit,andthereforeslaysthesoulbyshuttingitupundersin—while"theSpirit"isGod'sHolyGhostwhoisshedabroadinourheartstogiveusstrengthtowalkaright—heundertakestoprovethispositionfromtheteachingsoftheEpistletotheRomansatlarge.Thiscontention,itwillbeseen,cutattheveryrootsof

Pelagianism:ifallmereteachingslaysthesoul,asPaulasserts,thenallthatwhattheycalled"grace"could,whenalone,do,wastodestroy;andtheupshotof"helping"manbysimplygivinghimfreewill,andpointingoutthewaytohim,wouldbethelossofthewholerace.Notthatthelawissin:Augustineteachesthatitisholyandgood,andGod'sinstrumentinsalvation.Notthatfreewillisdoneaway:itisbyfreewillthatmenareledintoholiness.Butthepurposeofthelaw(heteaches)istomakemensofeeltheirlostestateastoseekthehelpbywhichalonetheymaybesaved;andwillisonlythenliberatedtodogoodwhengracehasmadeitfree."Whatthelawofworksenjoinsbymenace,thatthelawoffaithsecuresbyfaith.Whatthelawofworksdoesistosay,`DowhatIcommandthee;'butbythelawoffaithwesaytoGod,`Givemewhatthoucommandest.'"(22).Inthemidstofthisargument,AugustineisledtodiscussthedifferentiatingcharacteristicsoftheOldandNewTestaments;andheexpoundsatlength(33-42)thepassageinJer.xxxi.31-34,showingthat,intheprophet'sview,thedifferencebetweenthetwocovenantsisthatintheOld,thelawisanexternalthingwrittenonstones;whileintheNew,itiswritteninternallyontheheart,sothatmennowwishtodowhatthelawprescribes.Thiswritingontheheartisnothingelse,heexplains,thanthesheddingabroadbytheHolySpiritofloveinourhearts,sothatweloveGod'swill,andthereforefreelydoit.Towardstheendofthetreatise(50-61),hetreatsinanabsorbinglyinterestingwayofthemutualrelationsoffreewill,faith,andgrace,contendingthatallco-existwithoutthevoidingofany.Itisbyfreewillthatwebelieve;butitisonlyasgracemovesus,thatweareabletouseourfreewillforbelieving;anditisonlyafterwearethusledbygracetobelieve,thatweobtainallothergoods.Inprosecutingthisanalysis,Augustineisledtodistinguishverysharplybetweenthefacultyanduseoffreewill(58),aswellasbetweenabilityandvolition(53).Faithisanactofthemanhimself;butonlyasheisgiventhepowerfromonhightowilltobelieve,willhebelieve(57,60).

Bythiswork,Augustinecompleted,inhistreatmentofPelagianism,thecircleofthattriadofdoctrineswhichhehimselflookeduponasmostendangeredbythisheresy,-originalsin,theimperfectionofhumanrighteousness,thenecessityofgrace.Inhismind,thelastwasthekernelofthewholecontroversy;andthiswasasubjectwhichhecouldneverapproachwithoutsomeheightenedfervour.Thisaccountsforthegreat

attractivenessofthepresentwork—throughthewholefabricofwhichrunsthegoldenthreadofthepraiseofGod'sineffablegrace.InCanonBright'sopinion,it"perhaps,nexttothe`Confessions,'tellsusmostofthethoughtsofthat`rich,profound,andaffectionatemind'onthesoul'srelationstoitsGod."

Afterthepublicationofthesetreatises,thecontroversycertainlydidnotlull;butitrelapsedfornearlythreeyearsagain,intolesspubliccourses.Meanwhile,Augustinewasbusy,amongothermostdistractingcares(Ep.145,1),stilldefendingthegraceofGod,bylettersandsermons.Afairillustrationofhisstateofmindatthistime,maybeobtainedfromhislettertoAnastasius(145),whichassuredlymusthavebeenwrittensoonafterthetreatiseOntheSpiritandtheLetter.Throughoutthisletter,thereareadumbrationsofthesametrainofthoughtthatfilledthistreatise;andthereisonepassagewhichmayalmostbetakenasasummaryofit.Augustineissowearyofthevexatiouscaresthatfilledhislife,thatheisreadytolongfortheeverlastingrest,andyetbewailstheweaknesswhichallowedthesweetnessofexternalthingsstilltoinsinuateitselfintohisheart.Victoryover,andemancipationfrom,this,heasserts,"cannot,withoutGod'sgrace,beachievedbythehumanwill,whichisbynomeanstobecalledfreesolongasitissubjecttoenslavinglusts."Thenheproceeds:"Thelaw,therefore,byteachingandcommandingwhatcannotbefulfilledwithoutgrace,demonstratestomanhisweakness,inorderthattheweakness,thusproved,mayresorttotheSaviour,bywhosehealingthewillmaybeabletodowhatitfoundimpossibleinitsweakness.So,then,thelawbringsustofaith,faithobtainstheSpiritinfullermeasure,theSpiritshedsloveabroadinus,andlovefulfilsthelaw.Forthisreasonthelawiscalledaschoolmaster,underwhosethreateningandseverity`whosoevershallcallonthenameoftheLordshallbedelivered.'But`howshalltheycallonHiminwhomtheyhavenotbelieved?'Wherefore,thattheletterwithouttheSpiritmaynotkill,thelife-givingSpiritisgiventothosethatbelieveandcalluponHim;buttheloveofGodispouredoutintoourheartsbytheHolySpiritwhoisgiventous,sothatthewordsofthesameapostle,`Loveisthefulfillingofthelaw,'mayberealized.Thusthelawisgoodtohimthatusesitlawfully;andheusesitlawfully,who,understandingwhereforeitwasgiven,betakeshimself,underthepressureofitsthreatening,toliberatinggrace.

Whoeverungratefullydespisesthisgracebywhichtheungodlyisjustified,andtrustsinhisownstrengthforfulfillingthelaw,beingignorantofGod'srighteousness,andgoingabouttoestablishhisownrighteousness,isnotsubmittinghimselftotherighteousnessofGod;andthereforethelawismadetohimnotahelptopardon,butthebondofguilt;notbecausethelawisevil,butbecause`sin,'asitiswritten,`worksdeathtosuchpersonsbythatwhichisgood.'Forbythecommandment,hesinsmoregrievously,who,bythecommandment,knowshowevilarethesinswhichhecommits."AlthoughAugustinestatesclearlythatthisletteriswrittenagainstthose"whoarrogatetoomuchtothehumanwill,imaginingthat,thelawbeinggiven,thewillis,ofitsownstrength,sufficienttofulfilthelaw,thoughnotassistedbyanygraceimpartedbytheHolyGhost,inadditiontoinstructioninthelaw,"-herefrainsstillfrommentioningthenamesoftheauthorsofthisteaching,evidentlyoutofalingeringtendernessinhistreatmentofthem.ThiswillhelpustoexplainthecourtesyofanotewhichhesenttoPelagiushimselfataboutthistime,inreplytoaletterhehadreceivedsometimebeforefromhim;ofwhichPelagiusafterwards(attheSynodofDiospolis)made,tosaytheleastofit,anungeneroususe.Thisnote,Augustinetellsus,waswrittenwith"temperedpraises"(wherefromweseehislesseningrespectfortheman),andsoastoadmonishPelagiustothinkrightlyconcerninggrace—sofarascouldbedonewithoutraisingthedregsofthecontroversyinaformalnote.ThisheaccomplishedbyprayingfromtheLordforhim,thosegoodthingsbywhichhemightbegoodforever,andmightliveeternallywithHimwhoiseternal;andbyaskinghisprayersinreturn,thathe,too,mightbemadebytheLordsuchasheseemedtosupposehealreadywas.HowAugustinecouldreallyintendtheseprayerstobeunderstoodasanadmonitiontoPelagiustolooktoGodforwhathewasseekingtoworkoutforhimself,isfullyillustratedbytheclosingwordsofthisalmostcontemporarylettertoAnastasius:"Pray,therefore,forus,"hewrites,"thatwemayberighteous—anattainmentwhollybeyondaman'sreach,unlessheknowrighteousness,andbewillingtopractiseit,butonewhichisimmediatelyrealizedwhenheisperfectlywilling;butthiscannotbeinhimunlessheishealedbythegraceoftheSpirit,andaidedtobeable."Thepointhadalreadybeenmadeinthecontroversy,that,bythePelagiandoctrine,somuchpowerwasattributedtothehumanwill,thatnooneoughttopray,"Leadusnotintotemptation,but

deliverusfromevil."

IfhewasanxioustoavoidpersonalcontroversywithPelagiushimselfinthehopethathemightevenyetbereclaimed,Augustinewasequallyanxioustoteachthetruthonallpossibleoccasions.Pelagiushadbeenintimate,whenatRome,withthepiousPaulinus,bishopofNola;anditwasunderstoodthattherewassometendencyatNolatofollowthenewteachings.Itwas,perhaps,aslateas414,whenAugustinemadereplyinalongletter,toarequestofPaulinus'foranexpositionofcertaindifficultScriptures,whichhadbeensenthimabout410.AmongthemwasRom.xi.28;and,inexplainingit,Augustinedidnotwithholdatolerablycompleteaccountofhisdoctrineofpredestination,involvingtheessenceofhiswholeteachingastograce:"Forwhenhehadsaid,`accordingtotheelectiontheyarebelovedfortheirfather'ssake,'headded,`forthegiftsandcallingofGodarewithoutrepentance.'Youseethatthosearecertainlymeantwhobelongtothenumberofthepredestinated....`Manyindeedarecalled,butfewchosen;'butthosewhoareelect,thesearecalled`accordingtoHispurpose;'anditisbeyonddoubtthatinthemGod'sforeknowledgecannotbedeceived.TheseHeforeknewandpredestinatedtobeconformedtotheimageofHisSon,inorderthatHemightbethefirstbornamongmanybrethren.But`whomHepredestinated,themHealsocalled.'Thiscallingis`accordingtoHispurpose,'thiscallingis`withoutrepentance,'"etc.,quotingRom.v.28-31.Thencontinuing,hesays,"Thosearenotinthisvocation,whodonotpersevereuntotheendinthefaiththatworkethbylove,althoughtheywalkinitalittlewhile....Butthereasonwhysomebelongtoit,andsomedonot,caneasilybehidden,butcannotbeunjust.ForisthereinjusticewithGod?Godforbid!Forthisbelongstothosehighjudgmentswhich,sotosay,terrifiedthewonderingapostletolookupon."

Amongthemostremarkableofthecontroversialsermonsthatwerepreachedaboutthistime,especialmentionisduetotwothatweredeliveredatCarthage,midsummerof413.TheformerofthesewaspreachedonthefestivalofJohntheBaptist'sbirth(June24),andnaturallytooktheforerunnerforitssubject.ThenativityofJohnsuggestingthenativityofChrist,thepreacherspokeofthemarveloftheincarnation.Hewhowasinthebeginning,andwastheWordofGod,and

wasHimselfGod,andwhomadeallthings,andinwhomwaslife,eventhisone"cametous.Towhom?Totheworthy?Nay,buttotheunworthy!ForChristdiedfortheungodly,andfortheunworthy,thoughHewasworthy.WeindeedwereunworthywhomHepitied;butHewasworthywhopitiedus,towhomwesay,`ForThypity'ssake,Lord,freeus!'Notforthesakeofourprecedingmerits,but`forThypity'ssake,Lord,freeus;'and`forThyname'ssakebepropitioustooursins,'notforourmerit'ssake....Forthemeritofsinsis,ofcourse,notreward,butpunishment."Hethendweltuponthenecessityoftheincarnation,andthenecessityofamediatorbetweenGodand"thewholemassofthehumanracealienatedfromHimbyAdam."ThenquotingICor.iv.7,heassertsthatitisnotourvaryingmerits,butGod'sgracealone,thatmakesusdiffer,andthatweareallalike,greatandsmall,oldandyoung,savedbyoneandthesameSaviour."Whatthen,someonesays,"hecontinues,"eventheinfantneedsaliberator?Certainlyheneedsone.Andthewitnesstoitisthemotherthatfaithfullyrunstochurchwiththechildtobebaptized.ThewitnessisMotherChurchherself,whoreceivesthechildforwashing,andeitherfordismissinghim[fromthislife]freed,ornurturinghiminpiety....Lastofall,thetearsofhisownmiseryarewitnessinthechildhimself....Recognizethemisery,extendthehelp.Letallputonbowelsofmercy.Byasmuchastheycannotspeakforthemselves,bysomuchmorepityinglyletusspeakforthelittleones,"-andthenfollowsapassagecallingontheChurchtotakethegraceofinfantsintheirchargeasorphanscommittedtotheircare,whichisinsubstancerepeatedfromaformersermon.ThespeakerproceededtoquoteMatt.i.21,andapplyit.IfJesuscametosavefromsins,andinfantsarebroughttoHim,itistoconfessthatthey,too,aresinners.Then,shalltheybewithheldfrombaptism?"Certainly,ifthechildcouldspeakforhimself,hewouldrepelthevoiceofopposition,andcryout,`GivemeChrist'slife!InAdamIdied:givemeChrist'slife;inwhosesightIamnotclean,evenifIamaninfantwhoselifehasbeenbutonedayintheearth.'""Nowaycanbefound,"addsthepreacher,"ofcomingintothelifeofthisworldexceptbyAdam;nowaycanbefoundofescapingpunishmentinthenextworldexceptbyChrist.Whydoyoushutuptheonedoor?"EvenJohntheBaptisthimselfwasborninsin;andabsolutelynoonecanbefoundwhowasbornapartfromsin,untilyoufindonewhowasbornapartfromAdam."`Byonemansinenteredinto

theworld,andbysin,death;andsoitpassedthroughuponallmen.'Iftheseweremywords,couldthissentimentbeexpressedmoreexpressly,moreclearly,morefully?"

Threedaysafterwards,ontheinvitationoftheBishopofCarthage,AugustinepreachedasermonprofessedlydirectedagainstthePelagians,whichtakesupthethreadshintedatintheformerdiscourse,anddevelopsafullpolemicwithreferencetothebaptismofinfants.Hebegan,formallyenough,withthedeterminationofthequestionindispute.ThePelagiansconcedethatinfantsshouldbebaptized.Theonlyquestionis,forwhataretheybaptized?Wesaythattheywouldnototherwisehavesalvationandeternallife;buttheysayitisnotforsalvation,notforeternallife,butforthekingdomofGod...."Thechild,theysay,althoughnotbaptized,bythedesertofhisinnocence,inthathehasnosinatall,eitheractualororiginal,eitherfromhimselforcontractedfromAdam,necessarilyhassalvationandeternallifeevenifnotbaptized;butistobebaptizedforthisreason—thathemayenterintothekingdomofGod,i.e.,intothekingdomofheaven."Hethenshowsthatthereisnoeternallifeoutsidethekingdomofheaven,nomiddleplacebetweentherightandlefthandofthejudgeatthelastday,andthat,therefore,toexcludeonefromthekingdomofGodistoconsignhimtothepainsofeternalfire;while,ontheotherside,nooneascendsintoheavenunlesshehasbeenmadeamemberofChrist,andthiscanonlybebyfaith—which,inaninfant'scase,isprofessedbyanotherinhisstead.Hethentreats,atlength,someofthepuzzlingquestionswithwhichthePelagianswerewonttotrythecatholics;andthenbreakingoffsuddenly,hetookavolumeinhishands."Iaskyou,"hesaid,"tobearwithmealittle:Iwillreadsomewhat.ItisSt.CyprianwhomIholdinmyhand,theancientbishopofthissee.Whathethoughtofthebaptismofinfants—nay,whathehasshownthattheChurchalwaysthought—learninbrief.Foritisnotenoughforthemtodisputeandargue,Iknownotwhatimpiousnovelties:theyeventrytochargeuswithassertingsomethingnovel.ItisonthisaccountthatIreadhereSt.Cyprian,inorderthatyoumayperceivethattheorthodoxunderstandingandcatholicsenseresideinthewordswhichIhavebeenjustnowspeakingtoyou.Hewasaskedwhetheraninfantoughttobebaptizedbeforehewaseightdaysold,seeingthatbytheancientlawnoinfantwasallowedtobecircumcised

unlesshewaseightdaysold.Aquestionarosefromthisastothedayofbaptism—forconcerningtheoriginofsintherewasnoquestion;andthereforefromthisthingofwhichtherewasnoquestion,thatquestionthathadarisenwassettled."AndthenhereadtothemthepassageoutofCyprian'slettertoFidus,whichdeclaredthathe,andallthecouncilwithhim,unanimouslythoughtthatinfantsshouldbebaptizedattheearliestpossibleage,lesttheyshoulddieintheirinheritedsin,andsopassintoeternalpunishment.Thesermonclosedwithatenderwarningtotheteachersofthesestrangedoctrines:hemightcallthemhereticswithtruth,buthewillnot;lettheChurchseekstilltheirsalvation,andnotmournthemasdead;letthembeexhortedasfriends,notstrivenwithasenemies."Theydisparageus,"hesays,"wewillbearit;letthemnotdisparagetherule[offaith],letthemnotdisparagethetruth;letthemnotcontradicttheChurch,whichlabourseverydayfortheremissionofinfants'originalsin.Thisthingissettled.Theerrantdisputermaybebornewithinotherquestionsthathavenotbeenthoroughlycanvassed,thatarenotyetsettledbythefullauthorityoftheChurch—theirerrorshouldbebornewith:itoughtnottoextendsofar,thattheyendeavourtoshakeeventheveryfoundationoftheChurch!"Hehintsthatalthoughthepatiencehithertoexhibitedtowardsthemis"perhapsnotblameworthy,"yetpatiencemayceasetobeavirtue,andbecomeculpablenegligence:inthemeantime,however,hebegsthatthecatholicsshouldcontinueamicable,fraternal,placid,loving,longsuffering.

Augustinehimselfgivesusaviewoftheprogressofthecontroversyatthistimeinaletterwrittenin414.ThePelagianshadeverywherescatteredtheseedsoftheirnewerror;andalthoughsome,byhisministryandthatofhisbrotherworkers,had,"byGod'smercy,"beencuredoftheirpest,yettheystillexistedinAfrica,especiallyaboutCarthage,andwereeverywherepropagatingtheiropinionsinsubterraneouswhispers,forfearofthejudgmentoftheChurch.Wherevertheywerenotrefuted,theywereseducingotherstotheirfollowing;andtheyweresospreadabroadthathedidnotknowwheretheywouldbreakoutnext.Nevertheless,hewasstillunwillingtobrandthemasheretics,andwasmoredesirousofhealingthemassickmembersoftheChurchthanofcuttingthemofffinallyastoodiseasedforcure.JeromealsotellsusthatthepoisonwasspreadinginboththeEastandtheWest,andmentions

particularlyasseatswhereitshoweditselftheislandsofRhodesandSicily.OfRhodesweknownothingfurther;butfromSicilyanappealcametoAugustinein414fromoneHilary,settingforththattherewerecertainChristiansaboutSyracusewhotaughtstrangedoctrines,andbeseechingAugustinetohelphimindealingwiththem.Thedoctrineswereenumeratedasfollows:"Theysay(1)thatmancanbewithoutsin,(2)andcaneasilykeepthecommandmentsofGodifhewill;(3)thatanunbaptizedinfant,ifheiscutoffbydeath,cannotjustlyperish,sinceheisbornwithoutsin;(4)thatarichmanthatremainsinhisrichescannotenterthekingdomofGod,excepthesellallthathehas;...(5)thatweoughtnottoswearatall;"(6)and,apparently,thattheChurchistobeinthisworldwithoutspotorblemish.AugustinesuspectedthattheseSiciliandisturbanceswereinsomewaytheworkofCoelestius,andthereforeinhisanswerinformshiscorrespondentofwhathadbeendoneattheSynodofCarthage(412)againsthim.ThelongletterthathesentbackfollowstheinquiriesintheordertheywereputbyHilary.Tothefirsthereplies,insubstance,ashehadtreatedthesamematterinthesecondbookofthetreatise,OntheMeritsandForgivenessofSins,thatitwasopposedtoScripture,butwaslessaheresythanthewhollyunbearableopinionthatthisstateofsinlessnesscouldbeattainedwithoutGod'shelp."ButwhentheysaythatfreewillsufficestomanforfulfillingthepreceptsoftheLord,eventhoughunaidedtogoodworksbyGod'sgraceandthegiftoftheHolySpirit,itistobealtogetheranathematizedanddetestedwithallexecrations.ForthosewhoassertthisareinwardlyalienfromGod'sgrace,becausebeingignorantofGod'srighteousness,liketheJewsofwhomtheapostlespeaks,andwishingtoestablishtheirown,theyarenotsubjecttoGod'srighteousness,sincethereisnofulfilmentofthelawexceptlove;andofcoursetheloveofGodisshedabroadinourhearts,notbyourselves,norbytheforceofourownwill,butbytheHolyGhostwhoisgiventous."Dealingnextwiththesecondpoint,hedriftsintothematterhehadmorefullydevelopedinhisworkOntheSpiritandtheLetter."FreewillavailsforGod'sworks,"hesays,"ifitbedivinelyaided,andthiscomesbyhumbleseekinganddoing;butwhendesertedbydivineaid,nomatterhowexcellentmaybeitsknowledgeofthelaw,itwillbynomeanspossesssolidityofrighteousness,butonlytheinflationofungodlyprideanddeadlyarrogance.ThisistaughtusbythatsameLord'sPrayer;foritwouldbean

emptythingforustoaskGod`Leadusnotintotemptation,'ifthematterwassoplacedinourpowerthatwewouldavailforfulfillingitwithoutanyaidfromHim.Forthisfreewillisfreeinproportionasitissound,butitissoundinproportionasitissubjecttodivinepityandgrace.Foritfaithfullyprays,saying,`DirectmywaysaccordingtoThyword,andletnoiniquityreignoverme.'Forhowisthatfreeoverwhichiniquityreigns?Butseewhoitisthatisinvokedbyit,inorderthatitmaynotreignoverit.Foritsaysnot,`Directmywaysaccordingtofreewillbecausenoiniquityshallruleoverme,'but`DirectmywaysaccordingtoThyword,andletnoiniquityruleoverme.'Itisaprayer,notapromise;itisaconfession,notaprofession;itisawishforfullfreedom,notaboastofpersonalpower.Foritisnoteveryone`whoconfidesinhisownpower,'but`everyonewhocallsonthenameofGod,thatshallbesaved.'`ButhowshalltheycalluponHim,'hesays,`inwhomtheyhavenotbelieved?'Accordingly,then,theywhorightlybelieve,believeinordertocallonHiminwhomtheyhavebelieved,andtoavailfordoingwhattheyreceiveinthepreceptsofthelaw;sincewhatthelawcommands,faithpraysfor.""God,therefore,commandscontinence,andgivescontinence;Hecommandsbythelaw,Hegivesbygrace;Hecommandsbytheletter,Hegivesbythespirit:forthelawwithoutgracemakesthetransgressiontoabound,andtheletterwithoutthespiritkills.Hecommandsforthisreason—thatwewhohaveendeavouredtodowhatHecommands,andarewornoutinourweaknessunderthelaw,mayknowhowtoaskfortheaidofgrace;andifwehavebeenabletodoanygoodwork,thatwemaynotbeungratefultoHimwhoaidsus."TheanswertothethirdpointtraversesthegroundthatwasfullycoveredinthefirstbookofthetreatiseOntheMeritsandForgivenessofSins,beginningbyopposingthePelagianstoPaulinRom.v.12-19:"Butwhentheysaythataninfant,cutoffbydeath,unbaptized,cannotperishsinceheisbornwithoutsin—itisnotthisthattheapostlesays;andIthinkthatitisbettertobelievetheapostlethanthem."Thefourthandfifthquestionswerenewinthiscontroversy;anditisnotcertainthattheybelongproperlytoit,thoughthelegalisticasceticismofthePelagianleadersmaywellhavegivenrisetoademandonallChristianstosellwhattheyhad,andgivetothepoor.Thisoneofthepoints,Augustinetreatsatlength,pointingoutthatmanyofthesaintsofoldwererich,andthattheLordandHisapostlesalwayssospeakthattheircounselsavailtotherightuse,notthedestruction,of

wealth.Christiansoughtsotoholdtheirwealththattheyarenotheldbyit,andbynomeanspreferittoChrist.Equalgoodsenseandmildnessareshowninhistreatmentofthequestionconcerningoaths,whichhepointsoutwereusedbytheLordandHisapostles,butadvisestobeusedaslittleaspossiblelestbythecustomoffrequentoathswelearntoswearlightly.ThequestionastotheChurch,hepassesoverashavingbeensufficientlytreatedinthecourseofhispreviousremarks.

TothenumberofthosewhohadbeenrescuedfromPelagianismbyhisefforts,Augustinewasnowtohavethepleasureofaddingtwoothers,inwhomheseemstohavetakenmuchdelight.TimasiusandJamesweretwoyoungmenofhonorablebirthandliberaleducation,whohad,bytheexhortationofPelagius,beenmovedtogiveupthehopethattheyhadinthisworld,andenterupontheserviceofGodinanasceticlife.Naturally,theyhadturnedtohimforinstruction,andhadreceivedabooktowhichtheyhadgiventheirstudy.TheymetsomewherewithsomeofAugustine'swritings,however,andweredeeplyaffectedbywhathesaidastograce,andnowbegantoseethattheteachingofPelagiusopposedthegraceofGodbywhichmanbecomesaChristian.Theygavetheirbook,therefore,toAugustine,sayingthatitwasPelagius',andaskinghimforPelagius'sake,andforthesakeofthetruth,toanswerit.Thiswasdone,andtheresultingbook,OnNatureandGrace,senttotheyoungmen,whoreturnedaletterofthanksinwhichtheyprofessedtheirconversionfromtheirerror.Inthisbook,too,whichwaswrittenin415,AugustinerefrainedfrommentioningPelagiusbyname,feelingitbettertosparethemanwhilenotsparinghiswritings.Buthetellsus,that,onreadingthebookofPelagiustowhichitwasananswer,itbecamecleartohimbeyondanydoubtthathisteachingwasdistinctlyanti-Christian;andwhenspeakingofhisownbookprivatelytoafriend,heallowshimselftocallit"aconsiderablebookagainsttheheresyofPelagius,whichhehadbeenconstrainedtowritebysomebrethrenwhomhehadpersuadedtoadopthisfatalerror,denyingthegraceofChrist."Thushisattitudetowardsthepersonsofthenewteacherswasbecomingevermoreandmorestrained,indespiteofhisfullrecognitionoftheexcellentmotivesthatmightliebehindtheir"zealnotaccordingtoknowledge."ThistreatiseopenswitharecognitionofthezealofPelagius,which,asitburnsmostardentlyagainstthosewho,whenreprovedforsin,takerefugein

censuringtheirnature,AugustinecompareswiththeheathenviewasexpressedinSallust'ssaying,"thehumanracefalselycomplainsofitsownnature,"andwhichhechargeswithnotbeingaccordingtoknowledge,andproposestoopposebyanequalzealagainstallattemptstorenderthecrossofChristofnoneeffect.Hethengivesabriefbutexcellentsummaryofthemoreimportantfeaturesofthecatholicdoctrineconcerningnatureandgrace(2-7).OpeningtheworkofPelagius,whichhadbeenplacedinhishands,heexamineshisdoctrineofsin,itsnatureandeffects.Pelagius,hepointsout,drawsadistinction,soundenoughinitself,betweenwhatis"possible"andwhatis"actual,"butappliesitunsoundlytosin,whenhesaysthateverymanhasthepossibilityofbeingwithoutsin(8-9),andthereforewithoutcondemnation.Notso,saysAugustine;aninfantwhodiesunbaptizedhasnopossibilityofsalvationopentohim;andthemanwhohaslivedanddiedinalandwhereitwasimpossibleforhimtohearthenameofChrist,hashadnopossibilityopentohimofbecomingrighteousbynatureandfreewill.Ifthisbenotso,Christisdeadinvain,sinceallmenthenmighthaveaccomplishedtheirsalvation,evenifChristhadneverdied(10).Pelagius,moreover,heshows,exhibitsatendencytodenythesinfulcharacterofallsinsthatareimpossibletoavoid,andsotreatsofsinsofignoranceastoshowthatheexcusesthem(13-19).Whenhearguesthatnosin,becauseitisnotasubstance,canchangenature,whichisasubstance,AugustinerepliesthatthisdestroystheSaviour'swork—forhowcanHesavefromsinsifsinsdonotcorrupt?And,again,ifanactcannotinjureasubstance,howcanabstentionfromfood,whichisamereact,killthebody?Inthesamewaysinisnotasubstance;butGodisasubstance—yea,theheightofsubstance,andonlytruesustenanceofthereasonablecreature;andtheconsequenceofdeparturefromHimistothesoulwhatrefusaloffoodistothebody(22).ToPelagius'assertionthatsincannotbepunishedbymoresin,Augustinerepliesthattheapostlethinksdifferently(Rom.i.21-31).Thenputtinghisfingeronthemainpointincontroversy,hequotestheScripturesasdeclaringthepresentconditionofmantobethatofspiritualdeath."Thetruththendesignatesasdeadthosewhomthismandeclarestobeunabletobedamagedorcorruptedbysin—because,forsooth,hehasdiscoveredsintobenosubstance!"(25).Itwasbyfreewillthatmanpassedintothisstateofdeath;butadeadmanneedssomethingelsetorevivehim—heneeds

nothinglessthanaVivifier.Butofvivifyinggrace,Pelagiusknewnothing;andbyknowingnothingofaVivifier,heknowsnothingofaSaviour;butratherbymakingnatureofitselfabletobesinless,heglorifiestheCreatorattheexpenseoftheSaviour(39).NextisexaminedPelagius'contentionthatmanysaintsareenumeratedintheScripturesashavinglivedsinlesslyinthisworld.WhiledecliningtodiscussthequestionoffactastotheVirginMary(42),AugustineopposestotherestthedeclarationofJohninIJohni.8,asfinal,butstillpausestoexplainwhytheScripturesdonotmentionthesinsofall,andtocontendthatallwhoeverweresavedundertheOldTestamentortheNew,weresavedbythesacrificialdeathofChrist,andbyfaithinHim(40-50).Thuswearebrought,asAugustinesays,tothecoreofthequestion,whichconcerns,notthefactofsinlessnessinanyman,butman'sabilitytobesinless.ThisabilityPelagiusaffirmsofallmen,andAugustinedeniesofall"unlesstheyarejustifiedbythegraceofGodthroughourLordJesusChristandHimcrucified"(51).Thus,thewholediscussionisaboutgrace,whichPelagiusdoesnotadmitinanytruesense,butplacesonlyinthenaturethatGodhasmade(52).WearenextinvitedtoattendtoanotherdistinctionofPelagius',inwhichhediscriminatessharplybetweenthenaturethatGodhasmade,thecrownofwhichisfreewill,andtheusethatmanmakesofthisfreewill.Theendowmentoffreewillisa"capacity;"itis,becausegivenbyGodinourmaking,anecessityofnature,andnotinman'spowertohaveornothave.Itistherightuseofitonly,whichmanhasinhispower.Thisanalysis,Pelagiusillustratesatlength,byappealingtothedifferencebetweenthepossessionanduseofthevariousbodilysenses.Theabilitytosee,forinstance,hesays,isanecessityofournature;wedonotmakeit,wecannothelphavingit;itisoursonlytouseit.Augustinecriticisesthispresentationofthematterwithgreatsharpness(althoughheisnotaversetotheanalysisitself)—showingtheinapplicabilityoftheillustrationsused—for,heasks,isitnotpossibleforustoblindourselves,andsonolongerhavetheabilitytosee?andwouldnotmanyamanliketocontrolthe"use"ofhis"capacity"tohearwhenascreechysawisintheneighbourhood?(55);andaswellthefalsityofthecontentionillustrated,sincePelagiushasignoredthefall,and,evenwerethatnotso,hassoignoredtheneedofGod'saidforallgood,inanystateofbeing,astodenyit(56).Moreover,itisaltogetherafallacy,Augustineargues,tocontendthatmenhavethe"ability"tomake

everyusewecanconceiveofourfaculties.Wecannotwishforunhappiness;GodcannotdenyHimself(57);andjustso,inacorruptnature,themerepossessionofafacultyofchoicedoesnotimplytheabilitytousethatfacultyfornotsinning."Ofaman,indeed,whohashislegsstrongandsound,itmaybesaidadmissiblyenough,`whetherhewillornot,hehasthecapacityofwalking;'butifhislegsbebroken,howevermuchhemaywish,hehasnotthe`capacity.'Thenatureofwhichourauthorspeaksiscorrupted"(57).What,then,canhemeanbysayingthat,whetherwewillornot,wehavethecapacityofnotsinning—astatementsooppositetoPaul'sinRom.vii.15?SomespaceisnextgiventoanattemptedrebuttalbyPelagiusofthetestimonyofGal.v.17,onthegroundthatthe"flesh"theredoesnotrefertothebaptized(60-70);andthenthepassagesareexaminedwhichPelagiushadquotedagainstAugustineoutofearlierwriters—Lactantius(71),Hilary(72),Ambrose(75),JohnofConstantinople(76),Xystus—ablunderofPelagius,whoquotedfromaPythagoreanphilosopher,mistakinghimfortheRomanbishopSixtus(57),Jerome(78),andAugustinehimself(80).Allthesewriters,Augustineshows,admittedtheuniversalsinfulnessofman—andespeciallyhehimselfhadconfessedthenecessityofgraceintheimmediatecontextofthepassagequotedbyPelagius.Thetreatisecloses(82sq.)withanoblepanegyriconthatlovewhichGodshedsabroadintheheart,bytheHolyGhost,andbywhichalonewecanbemadekeepersofthelaw.

ThetreatiseOnNatureandGracewasasyetunfinished,whentheover-busyscriptoriumatHippowasinvadedbyanotheryoungmanseekinginstruction.ThistimeitwasazealousyoungpresbyterfromtheremotestpartofSpain,"fromtheshoreoftheocean,"—PaulusOrosiusbyname,whosepioussoulhadbeenafflictedwithgrievouswoundsbythePriscillianistandOrigenistheresiesthathadbrokenoutinhiscountry,andwhohadcomewitheagerhastetoAugustine,onhearingthathecouldgetfromhimtheinstructionwhichheneededforconfutingthem.Augustineseemstohavegivenhimhisheartatonce;and,feelingtoolittleinformedastothespecialheresieswhichhewishedtobepreparedtocontrovert,persuadedhimtogoontoPalestinetobetaughtbyJerome,andgavehimintroductionswhichdescribedhimasone"whoisinthebondofcatholicpeaceabrother,inpointofageason,andin

honourafellow-presbyter—amanofquickunderstanding,readyspeech,andburningzeal."HisdeparturetoPalestinegaveAugustineanopportunitytoconsultwithJeromeontheonepointthathadbeenraisedinthePelagiancontroversyonwhichhehadnotbeenabletoseelight.ThePelagianshadearlyargued,that,ifsoulsarecreatedanewformenattheirbirth,itwouldbeunjustinGodtoimputeAdam'ssintothem.AndAugustinefoundhimselfunableeithertoprovethatsoulsaretransmitted(traduced,asthephraseis),ortoshowthatitwouldnotinvolveGodininjusticetomakeasoulonlytomakeitsubjecttoasincommittedbyanother.Jeromehadalreadyputhimselfonrecordasabelieverinbothoriginalsinandthecreationofsoulsatthetimeofbirth.Augustinefearedthelogicalconsequencesofthisassertion,andyetwasunabletorefuteit.Hethereforeseizedthisoccasiontosendalongtreatiseontheoriginofthesoultohisfriend,withtherequestthathewouldconsiderthesubjectanew,andanswerhisdoubts.Inthistreatisehestatedthathewasfullypersuadedthatthesoulhadfallenintosin,butbynofaultofGodorofnature,butofitsownfreewill;andaskedwhencouldthesoulofaninfanthavecontractedtheguilt,which,unlessthegraceofChristshouldcometoitsrescuebybaptism,wouldinvolveitincondemnation,ifGod(asJeromeheld,andashewaswillingtoholdwithhim,ifthisdifficultycouldbeclearedup)makeseachsoulforeachindividualatthetimeofbirth?Heprofessedhimselfembarrassedonsuchasuppositionbythepenalsufferingsofinfants,thepainstheyenduredinthislife,andmuchmorethedangertheyareinofeternaldamnation,intowhichtheyactuallygounlesssavedbybaptism.Godisgood,just,omnipotent:how,then,canweaccountforthefactthat"inAdamalldie,"ifsoulsarecreatedafreshforeachbirth?"Ifnewsoulsaremadeformen,"heaffirms,"individuallyattheirbirth,Idonotsee,ontheonehand,thattheycouldhaveanysinwhileyetininfancy;nordoIbelieve,ontheotherhand,thatGodcondemnsanysoulwhichHeseestohavenosin;""andyet,whoeversaysthatthosechildrenwhodepartoutofthislifewithoutpartakingofthesacramentofbaptism,shallbemadealiveinChrist,certainlycontradictstheapostolicdeclaration,"and"hethatisnotmadealiveinChristmustnecessarilyremainunderthecondemnationofwhichtheapostlesaysthatbytheoffenceofone,judgmentcameuponallmentocondemnation.""Wherefore,"headdstohiscorrespondent,"ifthatopinionofyoursdoesnotcontradictthisfirmlygroundedarticleoffaith,

letitbeminealso;butifitdoes,letitnolongerbeyours."Sofarasobtaininglightwasconcerned,Augustinemighthavesparedhimselfthepainofthiscomposition:Jeromesimplyansweredthathehadnoleisuretoreplytothequestionssubmittedtohim.ButOrosius'missiontoPalestinewasbigwithconsequences.Oncethere,hebecametheaccuserofPelagiusbeforeJohnofJerusalem,andtheoccasion,atleast,ofthetrialsofPelagiusinPalestineduringthesummerandwinterof415whichissuedsodisastrously,andusheredinanewphaseoftheconflict.

Meanwhile,however,AugustinewasignorantofwhatwasgoingonintheEast,andhadhisminddirectedagaintoSicily.AboutayearhadpassedsincehehadsentthitherhislonglettertoHilary.NowhisconjecturethatCoelestiuswasinsomewayatthebottomoftheSicilianoutbreak,receivedconfirmationfromapaperwhichcertaincatholicbrethrenbroughtoutofSicily,andwhichwashandedtoAugustinebytwoexiledSpanishbishops,EutropiusandPaul.Thispaperborethetitle,DefinitionsAscribedtoCoelestius,andpresentedinternalevidence,instyleandthought,ofbeingcorrectlysoascribed.Itconsistedofthreeparts,inthefirstofwhichwerecollectedaseriesofbriefandcompressed"definitions,"or"ratiocinations"asAugustinecallsthem,inwhichtheauthortriestoplacethecatholicsinalogicaldilemma,andtoforcethemtoadmitthatmancanliveinthisworldwithoutsin.Inthesecondpart,headducedcertainpassagesofScriptureindefenceofhisdoctrine.Inthethirdpart,heundertooktodealwiththetextsthathadbeenquotedagainsthiscontention,not,however,byexaminingintotheirmeaning,orseekingtoexplaintheminthesenseofhistheory,butsimplybymatchingthemwithotherswhichhethoughtmadeforhim.Augustineatonce(abouttheendof415)wroteatreatiseinanswertothis,whichbearsthetitleofOnthePerfectionofMan'sRighteousness.Thedistributionofthematterinthisworkfollowsthatofthetreatisetowhichitisananswer.Firstofall(1-16),the"ratiocinations"aretakenuponebyoneandbrieflyanswered.Astheyallconcernsin,andhavefortheirobjecttoprovethatmancannotbeaccountedasinnerunlessheisable,inhisownpower,whollytoavoidsin—thatis,toprovethataplenarynaturalabilityisthenecessarybasisofresponsibility—Augustinearguespercontrathatmancanentailasinfulnessonhimselfforwhichandforthedeedsofwhichheremainsresponsible,thoughheisnolongerabletoavoidsin;

thusadmittingthatfortherace,plenaryabilitymuststandattherootofsinfulness.Next(17-22)hediscussesthepassageswhichCoelestiushadadvancedindefenceofhisteachings,viz.,(1)passagesinwhichGodcommandsmentobewithoutsin,whichAugustinemeetsbysayingthatthepointis,whetherthesecommandsaretobefulfilledwithoutGod'said,inthebodyofthisdeath,whileabsentfromtheLord(17-20);and(2)passagesinwhichGoddeclaresthatHiscommandmentsarenotgrievous,whichAugustinemeetsbyexplainingthatallGod'scommandmentsarefulfilledonlybyLove,whichfindsnothinggrievous;andthatthisloveisshedabroadinourheartsbytheHolyGhost,withoutwhomwehaveonlyfear,towhichthecommandmentsarenotonlygrievous,butimpossible.Lastly,AugustinepatientlyfollowsCoelestiusthroughhisodd"oppositionsoftexts,"explainingcarefullyallthathehadadduced,inanorthodoxsense(23-42).Inclosing,hetakesupCoelestius'statement,that"itisquitepossibleformannottosineveninword,ifGodsowill,"pointingouthowheavoidssaying"ifGodgivehimHishelp,"andthenproceedstodistinguishcarefullybetweenthedifferingassertionsofsinlessnessthatmaybemade.Tosaythatanymaneverlived,orwilllive,withoutneedingforgiveness,istocontradictRom.v.12,andmustimplythathedoesnotneedaSaviour,againstMatt.ix.12,13.Tosaythatafterhissinshavebeenforgiven,anyonehaseverremainedwithoutsin,contradictsIJohni.8andMatt.vi.12.Yet,ifGod'shelpbeallowed,thiscontentionisnotsowickedastheother;andthegreatheresyistodenythenecessityofGod'sconstantgrace,forwhichwepraywhenwesay,"Leadusnotintotemptation."

Tidingswerenow(416)beginningtoreachAfricaofwhatwasdoingintheEast.Therewasdiligentlycirculatedeverywhere,andcameintoAugustine'shands,anepistleofPelagius'own"filledwithvanity,"inwhichheboastedthatfourteenbishopshadapprovedhisassertionthat"mancanlivewithoutsin,andeasilykeepthecommandmentsifhewishes,"andhadthus"shutthemouthofoppositioninconfusion,"and"brokenupthewholebandofwickedconspiratorsagainsthim."Soonafterwardsacopyofan"apologeticalpaper,"inwhichPelagiususedtheauthorityofthePalestinianbishopsagainsthisadversaries,notaltogetherwithoutdisingenuousness,wassentbyhimtoAugustinethroughthehandsofacommonacquaintance,Charusbyname.Itwas

notaccompanied,however,byanyletterfromPelagius;andAugustinewiselyrefrainedfrommakingpublicuseofit.TowardsmidsummerOrosiuscamewithmoreauthenticinformation,andbearinglettersfromJeromeandHerosandLazarus.Itwasapparentlybeforehiscomingthatacontroversialsermonwaspreached,onlyafragmentofwhichhascomedowntous.Sofaraswecanlearnfromtheextantpart,itssubjectseemstohavebeentherelationofprayertoPelagianism;andwhatwehave,openswithastrikinganecdote:"Whenthesetwopetitions-`Forgiveusourdebtsaswealsoforgiveourdebtors,'and`Leadusnotintotemptation'-areobjectedtothePelagians,whatdoyouthinktheyreply?Iwashorrified,mybrethren,whenIheardit.Ididnot,indeed,hearitwithmyownears;butmyholybrotherandfellow-bishopUrbanus,whousedtobepresbyterhere,andnowisbishopofSicca,"whenhewasinRome,andwasarguingwithonewhoheldtheseopinions,pressedhimwiththeweightoftheLord'sPrayer,and"whatdoyouthinkherepliedtohim?`WeaskGod,'hesaid,`nottoleadusintotemptation,lestweshouldsuffersomethingthatisnotinourpower—lestIshouldbethrownfrommyhorse;lestIshouldbreakmyleg;lestarobbershouldslayme,andthelike.Forthesethings,'hesaid,`arenotinmypower;butforovercomingthetemptationsofmysins,IbothhaveabilityifIwishtouseit,andamnotabletoreceiveGod'shelp.'Yousee,brethren,"thegoodbishopadds,"howmalignantthisheresyis:youseehowithorrifiesallofyou.Haveacarethatyoubenottakenbyit."HethenpressesthegeneraldoctrineofprayerasprovingthatallgoodthingscomefromGod,whoseaidisalwaysnecessarytous,andisalwaysattainablebyprayer;andclosesasfollows:"Consider,then,thesethings,mybrethren,whenanyonecomestoyouandsaystoyou,`What,then,arewetodoifwehavenothinginourpower,unlessGodgivesallthings?Godwillnotthencrownus,butHewillcrownHimself.'Youalreadyseethatthiscomesfromthatvein:itisavein,butithaspoisoninit;itisstrickenbytheserpent;itisnotsound.ForwhatSatanisdoingto-dayisseekingtocastoutfromtheChurchbythepoisonofheretics,justasheoncecastoutfromParadisebythepoisonoftheserpent.Letnoonetellyouthatthisonewasacquittedbythebishops:therewasanacquittal,butitwashisconfession,sotospeak,hisamendment,thatwasacquitted.Forwhathesaidbeforethebishopsseemedcatholic;butwhathewroteinhisbooks,thebishopswhopronouncedtheacquittalwereignorantof.And

perchancehewasreallyconvincedandamended.Forweoughtnottodespairofthemanwhoperchancepreferredtobeunitedtothecatholicfaith,andfledtoitsgraceandaid.Perchancethiswaswhathappened.But,inanyevent,itwasnottheheresythatwasacquitted,butthemanwhodeniedtheheresy."

ThecomingofOrosiusmusthavedispelledanylingeringhopethatthemeaningofthecouncil'sfindingwasthatPelagiushadreallyrecanted.CouncilswereimmediatelyassembledatCarthageandMileve,andthedocumentswhichOrosiushadbroughtwerereadbeforethem.WeknownothingoftheirproceedingsexceptwhatwecangatherfromtheletterswhichtheysenttoInnocentatRome,seekinghisaidintheircondemnationoftheheresynowsonearlyapprovedinPalestine.Tothesetwoofficialletters,Augustine,incompanywithfourotherbishops,addedathirdprivateletter,inwhichtheytookcarethatInnocentshouldbeinformedonallthepointsnecessarytohisdecision.ThisimportantletterbeginsalmostabruptlywithacharacterizationofPelagianismasinimicaltothegraceofGod,andhasgraceforitssubjectthroughout.ItaccountsfortheactionofthePalestiniansynod,asgrowingoutofamisunderstandingofPelagius'words,inwhichheseemedtoacknowledgegrace,whichthesecatholicbishopsunderstoodnaturallytomeanthatgraceofwhichtheyreadintheScriptures,andwhichtheywereaccustomedtopreachtotheirpeople—thegracebywhichwearejustifiedfrominiquity,andsavedfromweakness;whilehemeantnothingmorethanthatbywhichwearegivenfreewillatourcreation."Forifthesebishopshadunderstoodthathemeantonlythatgracewhichwehaveincommonwiththeungodlyandwithall,alongwithwhomwearemen,whilehedeniedthatbywhichweareChristiansandthesonsofGod,theynotonlycouldnothavepatientlylistenedtohim—theycouldnotevenhavebornehimbeforetheireyes."Theletterthenproceedstopointoutthedifferencebetweengraceandnaturalgifts,andbetweengraceandthelaw,andtotraceoutPelagius'meaningwhenhespeaksofgrace,andwhenhecontendsthatmancanbesinlesswithoutanyreallyinwardaid.ItsuggeststhatPelagiusbesentfor,andthoroughlyexaminedbyInnocent,orthatheshouldbeexaminedbyletterorinhiswritings;andthathebenotcleareduntilheunequivocallyconfessedthegraceofGodinthecatholicsense,andanathematizedthefalseteachingsinthebooks

attributedtohim.ThebookofPelagiuswhichwasansweredinthetreatiseOnNatureandGracewasenclosed,withthisletter,withthemostimportantpassagesmarked:anditwassuggestedthatmorewasinvolvedinthematterthanthefateofonesingleman,Pelagius,who,perhaps,wasalreadybroughttoabettermind;thefateofmultitudesalreadyledastray,oryettobedeceivedbythesefalseviews,wasindanger.

Ataboutthissametime(417),thetirelessbishopsentashortlettertoaHilary,whoseemstobeHilaryofNorbonne,whichisinterestingfromitsundertakingtoconveyacharacterizationofPelagianismtoonewhowasasyetignorantofit.ItthusbringsoutwhatAugustineconceivedtobeitsessentialfeatures."Anefforthasbeenmade,"weread,"toraiseacertainnewheresy,inimicaltothegraceofChrist,againsttheChurchofChrist.ItisnotyetopenlyseparatedfromtheChurch.ItistheheresyofmenwhodaretoattributesomuchpowertohumanweaknessthattheycontendthatthisonlybelongstoGod'sgrace—thatwearecreatedwithfreewillandthepossibilityofnotsinning,andthatwereceiveGod'scommandmentswhicharetobefulfilledbyus;but,forkeepingandfulfillingthesecommandments,wedonotneedanydivineaid.Nodoubt,theremissionofsinsisnecessaryforus;forwehavenopowertorightwhatwehavedonewronginthepast.Butforavoidingandovercomingsinsinthefuture,forconqueringalltemptationswithvirtue,thehumanwillissufficientbyitsnaturalcapacitywithoutanyaidofGod'sgrace.AndneitherdoinfantsneedthegraceoftheSaviour,soastobeliberatedbyitthroughHisbaptismfromperdition,seeingthattheyhavecontractednocontagionofdamnationfromAdam."HeengagesHilaryinthedestructionofthisheresy,whichoughttobe"concordantlycondemnedandanathematizedbyallwhohavehopeinChrist,"asa"pestiferousimpiety,"andexcuseshimselffornotundertakingitsfullrefutationinabriefletter.Amuchmoreimportantletterwassentoff,ataboutthesametime,toJohnofJerusalem,whohadconductedthefirstPalestinianexaminationofPelagius,andhadborneaprominentpartinthesynodatDiospolis.HesentwithitacopyofPelagius'bookwhichhehadexaminedinhistreatiseOnNatureandGrace,aswellasacopyofthatreplyitself,andaskedJohntosendhimanauthenticcopyoftheproceedingsatDiospolis.Hetookthisoccasionseriouslytowarnhis

brotherbishopagainstthewilesofPelagius,andbeggedhim,ifhelovedPelagius,toletmenseethathedidnotsolovehimastobedeceivedbyhim.Hepointedoutthatinthebooksentwiththeletter,PelagiuscallednothingthegraceofGodexceptnature;andthatheaffirmed,andevenvehementlycontended,thatbyfreewillalone,humannaturewasabletosufficeforitselfforworkingrighteousnessandkeepingallGod'scommandments;whenceanyonecouldseethatheopposedthegraceofGodofwhichtheapostlesspokeinRom.vii.24,25,andcontradicted,aswell,alltheprayersandbenedictionsoftheChurchbywhichblessingsweresoughtformenfromGod'sgrace."IfyoulovePelagius,then,"hecontinued,"lethim,too,loveyouashimself—nay,morethanhimself;andlethimnotdeceiveyou.ForwhenyouhearhimconfessthegraceofGodandtheaidofGod,youthinkhemeanswhatyoumeanbyit.ButlethimbeopenlyaskedwhetherhedesiresthatweshouldprayGodthatwesinnot;whetherheproclaimstheassistinggraceofGod,withoutwhichwewoulddomuchevil;whetherhebelievesthatevenchildrenwhohavenotyetbeenabletodogoodorevilarenevertheless,onaccountofonemanbywhomsinenteredintotheworld,sinnersinhim,andinneedofbeingdeliveredbythegraceofChrist."Ifheopenlydeniessuchthings,Augustinewouldbepleasedtohearofit.

ThusweseethegreatbishopsittinginhislibraryatHippo,placinghishandsonthetwoendsoftheworld.Thatnothingmaybelackingtothepictureofhisuniversalactivity,wehaveanotherletterfromhim,comingfromaboutthissametime,thatexhibitshiscarefortheindividualswhohadplacedthemselvesinsomesortunderhistutelage.AmongtherefugeesfromRomeintheterribletimeswhenAlaricwasasecondtimethreateningthecity,wasafamilyofnoblewomen—Proba,Juliana,andDemetrias,-grandmother,mother,anddaughter—who,findinganasyluminAfrica,gavethemselvestoGod'sservice,andsoughtthefriendshipandcounselofAugustine.In413thegranddaughter"tooktheveil"undercircumstancesthatthrilledtheChristianworld,andbroughtoutlettersofcongratulationandadvicefromAugustineandJerome,andalsofromPelagius.ThisletterofPelagiusseemsnottohavefallenintoAugustine'swayuntilnow(416):hewassodisturbedbyitthathewrotetoJulianaalongletterwarningheragainstitsevilcounsels.Itwassoshrewdlyphrased,that,atfirstsight,AugustinewashimselfalmostpersuadedthatitdidsomehowacknowledgethegraceofGod;butwhenhecompareditwithothersofPelagius'writings,hesawthathere,too,hewasusingambiguousphrasesinanon-naturalsense.Theobjectofhisletter(inwhichAlypiusisconjoined,asjointauthor)toJulianaistowarnherandherholydaughteragainstallopinionsthatopposedthegraceofGod,andespeciallyagainstthecovertteachingoftheletterofPelagiustoDemetrias."Inthisbook,"hesays,"wereitlawfulforsuchanonetoreadit,avirginofChristwouldreadthatherholinessandallherspiritualrichesaretospringfromnoothersourcethanherself;andthusbeforesheattainstotheperfectionofblessedness,shewouldlearn-whichmayGodforbid!-tobeungratefultoGod."Then,afterquotingthewordsofPelagius,inwhichhedeclaresthat"earthlyrichescamefromothers,butyourspiritualrichesnoonecanhaveconferredonyoubutyourself;forthese,then,youarejustlypraised,fortheseyouaredeservedlytobepreferredtoothers—fortheycanexistonlyfromyourselfandinyourself,"hecontinues:"Farbeitfromanyvirgintolistentostatementslikethese.EveryvirginofChristunderstandstheinnatepovertyofthehumanheart,andthereforedeclinestobeadornedotherwisethanbythegiftsofherspouse....Lethernotlistentohimwhosays,`Noonecanconferthemonyoubutyourself,andtheycannotexistexceptfromyouandinyou:'but

tohimwhosays,`Wehavethistreasureinearthenvessels,thattheexcellencyofthepowermaybeofGod,andnotofus.'Andbenotsurprisedthatwespeakofthesethingsasyours,andnotfromyou;forwespeakofdailybreadas`ours,'butyetadd`giveittous,'lestitshouldbethoughtitwasfromourselves."Again,hewarnsherthatgraceisnotmereknowledgeanymorethanmerenature;andthatPelagius,evenwhenusingtheword"grace,"meansnoinwardorefficientaid,butmerenatureorknowledgeorforgivenessofpastsins;andbeseecheshernottoforgettheGodofallgracefromwhom(Wisdomi.20,21)Demetriashadthatveryvirgincontinencewhichwassojustlyherboast.

Withtheopeningof417,cametheanswersfromInnocenttotheAfricanletters.Andalthoughtheyweremarredbymuchboastfullanguageconcerningthedignityofhissee,whichcouldnotbutbedistastefultotheAfricans,theyadmirablyservedtheirpurposeinthesatisfactorymannerinwhichthey,ontheonehand,assertedthenecessityofthe"dailygrace,andhelpofGod,"forourgoodliving,and,ontheother,determinedthatthePelagianshaddeniedthisgrace,anddeclaredtheirleadersPelagiusandCoelestiusdeprivedofthecommunionoftheChurchuntiltheyshould"recovertheirsensesfromthewilesoftheDevilbywhomtheyareheldcaptiveaccordingtohiswill."AugustinemaybepardonedforsupposingthatacondemnationpronouncedbytwoprovincialsynodsinAfrica,andheartilyconcurredinbytheRomanbishop,whohadalreadyatJerusalembeenrecognizedasinsomesortthefitarbiterofthisWesterndispute,shouldsettlethematter.IfPelagiushadbeenbeforejubilant,Augustinefoundthisasuitabletimeforhisrejoicing.

AboutthesametimewithInnocent'sletters,theofficialproceedingsofthesynodofDiospolisatlastreachedAfrica,andAugustinelostnotime(earlyin417)inpublishingafullaccountandexaminationofthem,thusprovidinguswiththatinestimableboon,afullcontemporaryhistoryofthechiefeventsconnectedwiththecontroversyuptothistime.Thistreatise,whichisaddressedtoAurelius,bishopofCarthage,openswithabriefexplanationofAugustine'sdelayheretofore,indiscussingPelagius'defenceofhimselfinPalestine,asduetohisnothavingreceivedtheofficialcopyoftheProceedingsoftheCouncilatDiospolis(1-2a).ThenAugustineproceedsatoncetodiscussatlengththedoingsofthesynod,

pointbypoint,followingtheofficialrecordstepbystep(2b-45).Hetreatsatlargehereelevenitemsintheindictment,withPelagius'answersandthesynod'sdecision,showingthatinallofthemPelagiuseitherexplainedawayhisheresy,takingadvantageoftheignoranceofthejudgesofhisbooks,orelseopenlyrepudiatedoranathematizedit.Whenthetwelfthitemoftheindictmentwasreached(41b-43),Augustineshowsthatthesynodwassoindignantatitscharacter(itchargedPelagiuswithteachingthatmencannotbesonsofGodunlesstheyaresinless,andwithcondoningsinsofignorance,andwithassertingthatchoiceisnotfreeifitdependsonGod'shelp,andthatpardonisgivenaccordingtomerit),that,withoutwaitingforPelagius'answer,itcondemnedthestatement,andPelagiusatoncerepudiatedandanathematizedit(43).Howcouldthesynodactinsuchcircumstances,heasks,exceptbyacquittingthemanwhocondemnedtheheresy?Afterquotingthefinaljudgmentofthesynod(44),Augustinebrieflycharacterizesitanditseffect(45)asbeingindeedallthatcouldbeaskedofthejudges,butofnomoralweighttothosebetteracquaintedthantheywerewithPelagius'characterandwritings.Inaword,theyapprovedhisanswerstothem,asindeedtheyoughttohavedone;buttheybynomeansapproved,butboththeyandhecondemned,hisheresiesasexpressedinhiswritings.Tothisstatement,AugustineappendsanaccountoftheoriginofPelagianism,andofhisrelationstoitfromthebeginning,whichhastheveryhighestvalueashistory(46-49);andthenspeaksofthecharacteranddoubtfulpracticesofPelagius(50-58),returningattheend(59-65)toathoroughcanvassofthevalueoftheacquittalwhichheobtainedbysuchdoubtfulpracticesatthesynod.HecloseswithanindignantaccountoftheoutrageswhichthePelagianshadperpetratedonJerome(66).

Thisvaluabletreatiseisnot,however,theonlyaccountofthehistoricaloriginofPelagianismthatwehave,fromAugustine'shands.SoonafterthedeathofInnocent(March12,417),hefoundoccasiontowriteaverylonglettertothevenerablePaulinusofNola,inwhichhesummarizedboththehistoryofandtheargumentsagainstthis"worldlyphilosophy."HebeginsbysayingthatheknowsPaulinushaslovedPelagiusasaservantofGod,butisignorantinwhatwayhenowloveshim.Forhehimselfnotonlyhaslovedhim,butloveshimstill,butindifferentways.

Oncehelovedhimasapparentlyabrotherinthetruefaith:nowheloveshiminthelongingthatGodwillbyHismercyfreehimfromhisnoxiousopinionsagainstGod'sgrace.Heisnotmerelyfollowingreportinsospeakingofhim:nodoubtreportdidforalongtimerepresentthisofhim,buthegavethelessheedtoitbecausereportisaccustomedtolie.Butabookofhisatlastcameintohishands,whichleftnoroomfordoubt,sinceinitheassertedrepeatedlythatGod'sgraceconsistedofthegifttomanofthecapacitytowillandact,andthusreducedittowhatiscommontopagansandChristians,totheungodlyandgodly,tothefaithfulandinfidels.HethengivesabriefaccountofthemeasuresthathadbeentakenagainstPelagius,andpassesontoatreatmentofthemainmattersinvolvedinthecontroversy—allofwhichgatheraroundtheonemagicwordof"thegraceofGod."Hearguesfirstthatwearealllost—inonemassandconcretionofperdition—andthatGod'sgracealonemakesustodiffer.Itisthereforefollytotalkofdeservingthebeginningsofgrace.Norcanafaithfulmansaythathemeritsjustificationbyhisfaith,althoughitisgiventofaith;foratoncehehearsthewords,"whathastthouthatthoudidstnotreceive?"andlearnsthateventhedeservingfaithisthegiftofGod.Butif,peeringintoGod'sinscrutablejudgments,wegofarther,andaskwhy,fromthemassofAdam,allofwhichundoubtedlyhasfallenfromoneintocondemnation,thisvesselismadeforhonor,thatfordishonor—wecanonlysaythatwedonotknowmorethanthefact;andGod'sreasonsarehidden,butHisactsarejust.CertainitisthatPaulteachesthatalldieinAdam;andthatGodfreelychooses,byasovereignelection,someoutofthatsinfulmass,toeternallife;andthatHeknewfromthebeginningtowhomHewouldgivethisgrace,andsothenumberofthesaintshasalwaysbeenfixed,towhomhegivesinduetimetheHolyGhost.Others,nodoubt,arecalled;butnoothersareelect,or"calledaccordingtohispurpose."Onnootherbodyofdoctrines,canitbepossiblyexplainedthatsomeinfantsdieunbaptized,andarelost.IsGodunjusttopunishinnocentchildrenwitheternalpains?AndaretheynotinnocentiftheyarenotpartakersofAdam'ssin?Andcantheybesavedfromthat,savebytheundeserved,andthatisthegratuitous,graceofGod?TheaccountoftheProceedingsatthePalestiniansynodisthentakenup,andPelagius'positioninhislatestwritingsisquotedandexamined."Butwhysaymore?"headds...."Oughttheynot,sincetheycallthemselvesChristians,tobemorecarefulthantheJewsthattheydo

notstumbleatthestoneofoffence,whiletheysubtlydefendnatureandfreewilljustlikephilosophersofthisworldwhovehementlystrivetobethought,ortothinkthemselves,toattainforthemselvesahappylifebytheforceoftheirownwill?Letthemtakecare,then,thattheydonotmakethecrossofChristofnoneeffectbythewisdomofword(ICor.i.17),andthusstumbleattherockofoffence.Forhumannature,evenifithadremainedinthatintegrityinwhichitwascreated,couldbynomeanshaveserveditsownCreatorwithoutHisaid.Sincethen,withoutGod'sgraceitcouldnotkeepthesafetyithadreceived,howcanitwithoutGod'sgracerepairwhatithaslost?"WiththisprofoundviewoftheDivineimmanence,andofthenecessityofHismovinggraceinalltheactsofallhiscreatures,asoveragainsttheheathen-deisticviewofPelagius,Augustinetouchedinrealitythedeepestpointinthewholecontroversy,andillustratedtheessentialharmonyofalltruth.

Thesharpestperiodofthewholeconflictwasnowdrawingon.Innocent'sdeathbroughtZosimustothechairoftheRomanSee,andtheeffortswhichhemadetore-instatePelagiusandCoelestiusnowbegan(September,417).HowlittletheAfricanswerelikelytoyieldtohisremarkabledemands,maybeseenfromasermonwhichAugustinepreachedonthe23dofSeptember,whileZosimus'letter(writtenonthe21stofSeptember)wasonitswaytoAfrica.ThepreachertookhistextfromJohnvi.54-66."Wehearhere,"hesaid,"thetrueMaster,theDivineRedeemer,thehumanSaviour,commendingtousourransom,Hisblood.HecallsHisbodyfood,andHisblooddrink;and,incommendingsuchfoodanddrink,Hesays,`UnlessyoueatMyflesh,anddrinkMyblood,yeshallhavenolifeinyou.'What,then,isthiseatinganddrinking,buttolive?Eatlife,drinklife;youshallhavelife,andlifeiswhole.Thiswillcome—thatis,thebodyandbloodofChristwillbelifetoeveryone—ifwhatistakenvisiblyinthesacramentisinrealtruthspirituallyeatenandspirituallydrunk.ButthatHemightteachusthateventobelieveinHimisofgift,notofmerit,Hesaid,`NoonecomestoMe,excepttheFatherwhosentMedrawhim.'Drawhim,notleadhim.Thisviolenceisdonetotheheart,nottheflesh.Whydoyoumarvel?Believe,andyoucome;love,andyouaredrawn.Thinknotthatthisisharshandinjuriousviolence;itissoft,itissweet;itissweetnessitselfthatdrawsyou.Isnotthesheepdrawnwhenthesucculentherbageis

showntohim?AndIthinkthatthereisnocompulsionofthebody,butanassemblingofthedesire.So,too,doyoucometoChrist;wishnottoplanalongjourney—whenyoubelieve,thenyoucome.FortoHimwhoiseverywhere,onecomesbyloving,notbytakingavoyage.Nodoubt,ifyoucomenot,itisyourwork;butifyoucome,itisGod'swork.Andevenafteryouhavecome,andarewalkingintherightway,becomenotproud,lestyouperishfromit:`happyarethosethatconfideinHim,'notinthemselves,butinHim.Wearesavedbygrace,notofourselves:itisthegiftofGod.WhydoIcontinuallysaythistoyou?Itisbecausetherearemenwhoareungratefultograce,andattributemuchtounaidedandwoundednature.Itistruethatmanreceivedgreatpowersoffreewillathiscreation;buthelostthembysinning.Hehasfallenintodeath;hehasbeenmadeweak;hehasbeenlefthalfdeadintheway,byrobbers;thegoodSamaritanhasliftedhimupuponhisass,andbornehimtotheinn.Whyshouldweboast?ButIamtoldthatitisenoughthatsinsareremittedinbaptism.Butdoestheremovalofsintakeawayweaknesstoo?What!willyounotseethatafterpouringtheoilandthewineintothewoundsofthemanlefthalfdeadbytherobbers,hemuststillgototheinnwherehisweaknessmaybehealed?Nay,solongasweareinthislifewebearafragilebody;itisonlyafterweareredeemedfromcorruptionthatweshallfindnosin,andreceivethecrownofrighteousness.Grace,thatwashiddenintheOldTestament,isnowmanifesttothewholeworld.EventhoughtheJewmaybeignorantofit,whyshouldChristiansbeenemiesofgrace?whypresumptuousofthemselves?whyungratefultograce?For,whydidChristcome?Wasnotnaturealreadyhere—thatverynaturebythepraiseofwhichyouarebeguiled?Wasnotthelawhere?Buttheapostlesays,`Ifrighteousnessisofthelaw,thenisChristdeadinvain.'Whattheapostlesaysofthelaw,thatwesaytothesemenaboutnature:ifrighteousnessisbynature,thenChristisdeadinvain.WhatthenwassaidoftheJews,thisweseerepeatedinthesemen.TheyhaveazealforGod:IbearthemwitnessthattheyhaveazealforGod,butnotaccordingtoknowledge.For,beingignorantofGod'srighteousness,andwishingtoestablishtheirown,theyarenotsubjecttotherighteousnessofGod.Mybrethren,sharemycompassion.Whereyoufindsuchmen,wishnoconcealment;lettherebenoperversepityinyou:whereyoufindthem,wishnoconcealmentatall.Contradictandrefute,resist,orpersuadethemtous.Foralreadytwocouncilshave,inthis

cause,sentletterstotheApostolicSee,whencealsorescriptshavecomeback.Thecauseisended:wouldthattheerrormightsomedayend!Thereforeweadmonishsothattheymaytakenotice,weteachsothattheymaybeinstructed,wepraysothattheirwaybechanged."Hereiscertainlytendernesstothepersonsoftheteachersoferror;readinesstoforgive,andreadinesstogoallproperlengthsinrecoveringthemtothetruth.Buthereisalsoabsolutefirmnessastothetruthitself,andamanifestoastopolicy.Certainly,onthelinesofthepolicyhereindicated,theAfricansfoughtoutthecomingcampaign.Theymetincouncilattheendofthisyear,orearlyinthenext(418);andformallyrepliedtoZosimus,thatthecausehadbeentried,andwasfinished,andthatthesentencethathadbeenalreadypronouncedagainstPelagiusandCoelestiusshouldremaininforceuntiltheyshouldunequivocallyacknowledgethat"weareaidedbythegraceofGodthroughChrist,notonlytoknow,buttodo,whatisright,andthatineachsingleact;sothatwithoutgraceweareunabletohave,think,speak,ordoanythingbelongingtopiety."AswemayseeAugustine'shandinthis,so,doubtless,wemayrecognizeitinthatremarkablepieceofengineeringwhichcrushedZosimus'planswithinthenextfewmonths.Thereis,indeed,nodirectproofthatitwasduetoAugustine,ortotheAfricansunderhisleading,ortotheAfricansatall,thattheStateinterferedinthematter;itisevenindoubtwhethertheactionoftheEmpirewasputforthasarescript,orasaself-moveddecree:butsurelyitisdifficulttobelievethatsuchacoupdethÈ,trecouldhavebeenpreparedforZosimusbychance;andasitiswellknown,boththatAugustinebelievedintherighteousnessofcivilpenaltyforheresy,andinvokeditonotheroccasions,anddefendedanduseditonthis,andthathehadinfluentialfriendsatcourtwithwhomhewasincorrespondence,itseems,oninternalgrounds,altogetherprobablethathewastheDeusexmachin,wholetloosethethundersofecclesiasticalandcivilenactmentsimultaneouslyonthepoorPope'sdevotedhead.

The"greatAfricanCouncil"metatCarthage,onthe1stofMay,418;and,afteritsdecreeswereissued,AugustineremainedatCarthage,andwatchedtheeffectofthecombinationofwhichhewasprobablyoneofthemovingcauses.Hehadnowanopportunitytobetakehimselfoncemoretohispen.WhilestillatCarthage,atshortnotice,andinthemidst

ofmuchdistraction,hewrotealargework,intwobookswhichhavecomedowntousundertheseparatetitlesofOntheGraceofChrist,andOnOriginalSin,attheinstanceofanotherofthoseasceticfamilieswhichformedsomarkedafeatureinthosetroubledtimes.PinianusandMelania,thedaughterofAlbina,werehusbandandwife,who,leavingRomeamidthewarswithAlaric,hadlivedincontinenceinAfricaforsometime,butnowinPalestinehadseparated,hetobecomeheadofamonastery,andsheaninmateofaconvent.WhileinAfrica,theyhadlivedatSagasteunderthetutelageofAlypius,andintheenjoymentofthefriendshipandinstructionofAugustine.AfterretiringtoBethlehem,liketheotherholyasceticswhomhehadknowninAfrica,theykeptuptheirrelationswithhim.Liketheothers,also,theybecameacquaintedwithPelagiusinPalestine,andwerewell-nighdeceivedbyhim.TheywrotetoAugustinethattheyhadbeggedPelagiustocondemninwritingallthathadbeenallegedagainsthim,andthathehadrepliedinthepresenceofthemall,that"heanathematizedthemanwhoeitherthinksorsaysthatthegraceofGodwherebyChristJesuscameintotheworldtosavesinnersisnotnecessary,notonlyforeveryhourandforeverymoment,butalsoforeveryactofourlives,"andassertedthat"thosewhoendeavortodisannulitareworthyofeverlastingpunishment."Moreover,theywrotethatPelagiushadreadtothem,outofhisbookthathehadsenttoRome,hisassertion"thatinfantsoughttobebaptizedwiththesameformulaofsacramentalwordsasadults."TheywrotethattheyweredelightedtohearthesewordsfromPelagius,astheyseemedexactlywhattheyhadbeendesirousofhearing;andyettheypreferredconsultingAugustineaboutthem,beforetheywerefullycommittedregardingthem.Itwasinanswertothisappeal,thatthepresentworkwaswritten;thetwobooksofwhichtakeupthetwopointsinPelagius'asseveration—thethemeofthefirstbeing"theassistanceoftheDivinegracetowardsourjustification,bywhichGodco-operatesinallthingsforgoodtothosewholoveHim,andwhomHefirstloved,givingtothemthatHemayreceivefromthem,"-whilethesubjectofthesecondis"thesinwhichbyonemanhasenteredtheworldalongwithdeath,andsohaspasseduponallmen."

Thefirstbook,OntheGraceofChrist,beginsbyquotingandexaminingPelagius'anathemaofallthosewhodenythatgraceisnecessaryforeveryaction(2sq.).Augustineconfessesthatthiswoulddeceiveallwhowere

notfortifiedbyknowledgeofPelagius'writings;butassertsthatinthelightofthemitisclearthathemeansthatgraceisalwaysnecessary,becauseweneedcontinuallytoremembertheforgivenessofoursins,theexampleofChrist,theteachingofthelaw,andthelike.Thenheenters(4sq.)uponanexaminationofPelagius'schemeofhumanfaculties,andquotesatlengthhisaccountofthemgiveninhisbook,InDefenceofFreeWill,whereinhedistinguishesbetweenthepossibilitas(posse),voluntas(velle),andactio(esse),anddeclaresthatthefirstonlyisfromGodandreceivesaidfromGod,whiletheothersareentirelyours,andinourownpower.AugustineopposestothisthepassageinPhil.ii.12,13(6),andthencriticises(7sq.)Pelagius'ambiguousacknowledgmentthatGodistobepraisedforman'sgoodworks,"becausethecapacityforanyactiononman'spartisfromGod,"bywhichhereducesallgracetotheprimevalendowmentofnaturewith"capacity"(possibilitas,posse),andthehelpaffordeditbythelawandteaching.Augustinepointsoutthedifferencebetweenlawandgrace,andthepurposeoftheformerasapedagoguetothelatter(9sq.),andthenrefutesPelagius'furtherdefinitionofgraceasconsistinginthepromiseoffuturegloryandtherevelationofwisdom,byanappealtoPaul'sthornintheflesh,andhisexperienceunderitsdiscipline(11sq.).Pelagius'illustrationsfromoursenses,ofhistheoryofnaturalfaculty,arethensharplytested(16);andthecriticismonthewholedoctrineisthenmadeandpressed(17sq.),thatitmakesGodequallysharerinourblameforevilactsasinourpraiseforgoodones,sinceifGoddoeshelp,andHishelpisonlyHisgifttousofabilitytoactineitherpart,thenHehasequallyhelpedtotheevildeedsastothegood.Theassertionthatthis"capacityofeitherpart"isthefecundrootofbothgoodandevilisthencriticised(19sq.),andopposedtoMatt.vii.i8,withtheresultofestablishingthatwemustseektworootsinourdispositionsforsodiverseresults—covetousnessforevil,andloveforgood—notasinglerootforbothinnature.Man's"capacity,"itisargued,istherootofnothing;butitiscapableofbothgoodandevilaccordingtothemovingcause,which,inthecaseofevil,isman-originated,while,inthecaseofgood,itisfromGod(21).Next,Pelagius'assertionthatgraceisgivenaccordingtoourmerits(23sq.)istakenupandexamined.Itisshown,that,despitehisanathema,Pelagiusholdstothisdoctrine,andinsoextremeaformasexplicitlytodeclarethatmancomesandcleavestoGodbyhisfreedomofwillalone,andwithoutGod'said.Heshowsthatthe

Scripturesteachjusttheopposite(24-26);andthenpointsouthowPelagiushasconfoundedthefunctionsofknowledgeandlove(27sq.),andhowheforgetsthatwecannothavemeritsuntilweloveGod,whileJohncertainlyassertsthatGodlovedusfirst(IJohniv.10).Therepresentationthatwhatgracedoesistorenderobedienceeasier(28-30),andthetwinviewthatprayerisonlyrelativelynecessary,arenextcriticised(32).ThatPelagiusneveracknowledgesrealgrace,isthendemonstratedbyadetailedexaminationofallthathehadwrittenonthesubject(31-45).Thebookcloses(46-80)withafullrefutationofPelagius'appealtoAmbrose,asifhesupportedhim;andexhibitionofAmbrose'scontrarytestimonyastograceanditsnecessity.

Theobjectofthesecondbook-OnOriginalSin-istoshow,that,inspiteofPelagius'admissionsastothebaptismofinfants,heyetdeniesthattheyinheritoriginalsinandcontendsthattheyarebornfreefromcorruption.ThebookopensbypointingoutthatthereisnoquestionastoCoelestius'teachinginthismatter(2-8),asheatCarthagerefusedtocondemnthosewhosaythatAdam'ssininjurednoonebuthimself,andthatinfantsareborninthesamestatethatAdamwasinbeforethefall,andopenlyassertedatRomethatthereisnosinextraduce.AsforPelagius,heissimplymorecautiousandmendaciousthanCoelestius:hedeceivedtheCouncilatDiospolis,butfailedtodeceivetheRomans(5-13),and,asamatteroffact(14-18),teachesexactlywhatCoelestiusdoes.Insupportofthisassertion,Pelagius'DefenceofFreeWillisquoted,whereinheassertsthatwearebornneithergoodnorbad,"butwithacapacityforeither,"and"aswithoutvirtue,sowithoutvice;andprevioustotheactionofourownproperwill,thatthataloneisinmanwhichGodhasformed"(14).AugustinealsoquotesPelagius'explanationofhisanathemaagainstthosewhosayAdam'ssininjuredonlyhimself,asmeaningthathehasinjuredmanbysettingabad"example,"andhisevenmoresinuousexplanationofhisanathemaagainstthosewhoassertthatinfantsareborninthesameconditionthatAdamwasinbeforehefell,asmeaningthattheyareinfantsandhewasaman!(16-18).Withthisintroductiontothem,AugustinenexttreatsofPelagius'subterfuges(19-25),andthenanimadvertsontheimportanceoftheissue(26-37),pointingoutthatPelagianismisnotamereerror,butadeadlyheresy,andstrikesattheverycentreofChristianity.Acounterargumentofthe

Pelagiansisthenanswered(38-45),"Doesnotthedoctrineoforiginalsinmakemarriageanevilthing?"No,saysAugustine,marriageisordainedbyGod,andisgood;butitisadiseasedgood,andhencewhatisbornofitisagoodnaturemadebyGod,butthisgoodnatureinadiseasedcondition—theresultoftheDevil'swork.Hence;ifitbeaskedwhyGod'sgiftproducesanythingfortheDeviltotakepossessionof,itistobeansweredthatGodgiveshisgiftsliberally(Matt.v.45),andmakesmen;buttheDevilmakesthesemensinners(46).Finally,asAmbrosehadbeenappealedtointheformerbook,soattheendofthisitisshownthatheopenlyproclaimedthedoctrineoforiginalsin,andheretoo,beforePelagius,condemnedPelagius(47sq.).

WhatAugustinemeansbywritingtoPinianusandhisfamilythathewasmoreoppressedbyworkatCarthagethananywhereelse,mayperhapsbeillustratedfromhisdiligenceinpreachingwhileinthatcapital.Heseemstohavebeenalmostconstantlyinthepulpit,duringthisperiod"ofthesharpestconflictwiththem,"preachingagainstthePelagians.Thereisoneseriesofhissermons,oftheexactdatesofwhichwecanbeprettysure,whichmaybeadvertedtohere—Sermons151and152,preachedearlyinOctober,418;Sermon155onOct.14,156onOct.17,and26onOct.18;thusfollowingoneanotheralmostwiththeregularityofthedays.ThefirstofthesewasbasedonRom.vii.15-25,whichhedeclarestocontaindangerouswordsifnotproperlyunderstood;formenarepronetosin,andwhentheyheartheapostlesospeakingtheydoevil,andthinktheyarelikehim.Theyaremeanttoteachus,however,thatthelifeofthejustinthisbodyisawar,notyetatriumph:thetriumphwillcomeonlywhendeathisswallowedupinvictory.Itwould,nodoubt,bebetternottohaveanenemythaneventoconquer.Itwouldbebetternottohaveevildesires:butwehavethem;therefore,letusnotgoafterthem.Iftheyrebelagainstus,letusrebelagainstthem;iftheyfight,letusfight;iftheybesiege,letusbesiege:letuslookonlytothis,thattheydonotconquer.Withsomeevildesiresweareborn:otherswemake,bybadhabit.Itisonaccountofthosewithwhichweareborn,thatinfantsarebaptized;thattheymaybefreedfromtheguiltofinheritance,notfromanyevilofcustom,which,ofcourse,theyhavenot.Anditisonaccountofthese,too,thatourwarmustbeendless:theconcupiscencewithwhichweareborncannotbedoneawayaslongaswelive;itmaybediminished,butnot

doneaway.Neithercanthelawfreeus,foritonlyrevealsthesintoourgreaterapprehension.Where,then,ishope,saveinthesuperabundanceofgrace?Thenextsermon(152)takesupthewordsinRom.viii.1-4,andpointsoutthattheinwardaidoftheSpiritbringsallthehelpweneed."We,likefarmersinthefield,workfromwithout:but,iftherewerenoonewhoworkedfromwithin,theseedwouldnottakerootintheground,norwouldthesproutariseinthefield,norwouldtheshootgrowstrongandbecomeatree,norwouldbranchesandfruitandleavesbeproduced.ThereforetheapostledistinguishesbetweentheworkoftheworkmenandoftheCreator(ICor.iii.6,7).IfGodgivenottheincrease,emptyisthissoundwithinyourears;butifhegives,itavailssomewhatthatweplantandwater,andourlaborisnotinvain."Hethenappliesthistotheindividual,strivingagainsthislusts;warnsagainstManicheanerror;anddistinguishesbetweenthethreelaws—thelawofsin,thelawoffaith,andthelawofdeeds—defendingthelatter,thelawofMoses,againsttheManicheans;andthenhecomestothewordsofthetext,andexplainsitschiefphrases,closingthus:"WhatotherdowereadherethanthatChristisasacrificeforsin?...Beholdbywhat`sin'hecondemnedsin:bythesacrificewhichhemadeforsins,hecondemnedsin.ThisisthelawoftheSpiritoflifewhichhasfreedyoufromthelawofsinanddeath.Forthatotherlaw,thelawoftheletter,thelawthatcommands,isindeedgood;`thecommandmentisholyandjustandgood:'but`itwasweakbytheflesh,'andwhatitcommandeditcouldnotbringaboutinus.Thereforethereisonelaw,asIbeganbysaying,thatrevealssintoyou,andanotherthattakesitaway:thelawoftheletterrevealssin,thelawofgracetakesitaway."Sermon155coversthesameground,andmore,takingthebroadertext,Rom.viii.1-11,andfullydevelopingitsteaching,especiallyasdiscriminatingbetweenthelawofsinandthelawofMosesandthelawoffaith;thelawofMosesbeingtheholylawofGodwrittenwithHisfingeronthetablesofstone,whilethelawoftheSpiritoflifeisnothingotherthanthesamelawwrittenintheheart,astheprophet(Jer.xxx.1,33)clearlydeclares.Sowritten,itdoesnotterrifyfromwithout,butsoothesfromwithin.Greatcareisalsotaken,lestbysuchphrasesas,"walkintheSpirit,notintheflesh,""whoshalldelivermefromthebodyofthisdeath?"ahatredofthebodyshouldbebegotten."Thusyoushallbefreedfromthebodyofthisdeath,notbyhavingnobody,butbyhavinganotheroneanddyingnomore.If,indeed,hehadnotadded,`ofthisdeath,'

perchanceanerrormighthavebeensuggestedtothehumanmind,anditmighthavebeensaid,`YouseethatGoddoesnotwishustohaveabody.'ButHesays,`thebodyofthisdeath.'Takeawaydeath,andthebodyisgood.Letourlastenemy,death,betakenaway,andmydearfleshwillbemineforeternity.Fornoonecanever`hatehisownflesh.'Althoughthe`spiritlustsagainsttheflesh,andthefleshagainstthespirit,'althoughthereisnowabattleinthishouse,yetthehusbandisseekingbyhisstrifenottheruinof,butconcordwith,hiswife.Farbeit,farbeit,mybrethren,thatthespiritshouldhatethefleshinlustingagainstit!Ithatesthevicesoftheflesh;ithatesthewisdomoftheflesh;ithatesthecontentionofdeath.Thiscorruptionshallputonincorruption—thismortalshallputonimmortality;itissownanaturalbody;itshallriseaspiritualbody;andyoushallseefullandperfectconcord—youshallseethecreaturepraisetheCreator."Oneofthespecialinterestsofsuchpassagesistoshow,that,evenatthisearlydate,AugustinewascarefultoguardhishearersfromManicheanerrorwhileproclaimingoriginalsin.Oneofthesermonswhich,probably,waspreachedaboutthistime(153),isevenentitled,"AgainsttheManicheansopenly,buttacitlyagainstthePelagians,"andbearswitnesstotheearlydevelopmentofthemethodthathewassomewhatlatertouseeffectivelyagainstJulian'schargesofManicheanismagainstthecatholics.Threedaysafterwards,Augustinepreachedonthenextfewverses,Rom.viii.12-17,butcanscarcelybesaidtohaverisentotheheightofitsgreatargument.Thegreaterpartofthesermonisoccupiedwithadiscussionofthelaw,whyitwasgiven,howitislegitimatelyused,anditsusefulnessasapedagoguetobringustoChrist;thenoftheneedofamediator;andthen,ofwhatitistoliveaccordingtotheflesh,whichincludeslivingaccordingtomerelyhumannature;andtheneedofmortifyingthefleshinthisworld.Allthis,ofcourse,gavefullopportunityforopposingtheleadingPelagianerrors;andthesermonisbroughttoaclosebyadirectpolemicagainsttheirassertionthatthefunctionofgraceisonlytomakeitmoreeasytodowhatisright."Withthesailmoreeasily,withtheoarwithmoredifficulty:neverthelessevenwiththeoarwecango.Onabeastmoreeasily,onfootwithmoredifficulty:neverthelessprogresscanbemadeonfoot.Itisnottrue!ForthetrueMasterwhoflattersnoone,whodeceivesnoone—thetruthfulTeacherandverySaviourtowhomthemostgrievouspedagoguehasledus—whenhewasspeakingaboutgoodworks,i.e.,aboutthefruits

ofthetwigsandbranches,didnotsay,`Withoutme,indeed,youcandosomething,butyouwilldoitmoreeasilywithme;'Hedidnotsay,`Youcanmakeyourfruitwithoutme,butmorerichlywithme.'Hedidnotsaythis!ReadwhatHesaid:itistheholygospel—bowtheproudnecks!Augustinedoesnotsaythis:theLordsaysit.WhatsaystheLord?`Withoutmeyoucandonothing!'"Ontheverynextday,hewasagaininthepulpit,andtakingforhistextchieflytheninety-fourthPsalm.Thepreacherbeganbyquotingthesixthverse,andlayingstressonthewords"ourMaker."`NoChristian,'hesaid,`doubtedthatGodhadmadehim,andthatinsuchasensethatGodcreatednotonlythefirstman,fromwhomallhavedescended,butthatGodto-daycreateseveryman—asHesaidtooneofHissaints,"BeforethatIformedtheeinthewomb,Iknewthee."AtfirstHecreatedmanapartfromman;nowHecreatesmanfromman:nevertheless,whethermanapartfromman,ormanfromman,"itisHethatmadeus,andnotweourselves."NorhasHemadeusandthendesertedus;Hehasnotcaredtomakeus,andnotcaredtokeepus.WillHewhomadeuswithoutbeingasked,desertuswhenHeisbesought?Butisitnotjustasfoolishtosay,assomesayorarereadytosay,thatGodmadethemmen,buttheymakethemselvesrighteous?Why,then,dowepraytoGodtomakeusrighteous?Thefirstmanwascreatedinanaturethatwaswithoutfaultorflaw.Hewasmaderighteous:hedidnotmakehimselfrighteous;whathedidforhimselfwastofallandbreakhisrighteousness.ThisGoddidnotdo:Hepermittedit,asifHehadsaid,"LethimdesertMe;lethimfindhimself;andlethismiseryprovethathehasnoabilitywithoutMe."InthiswayGodwishedtoshowmanwhatfreewillwasworthwithoutGod.OevilfreewillwithoutGod!Behold,manwasmadegood;andbyfreewillmanwasmadeevil!Whenwilltheevilmanmakehimselfgoodbyfreewill?Whengood,hewasnotabletokeephimselfgood;andnowthatheisevil,ishetomakehimselfgood?Nay,behold,Hethatmadeushasalsomadeus"Hispeople"(Ps.xciv.7).Thisisadistinguishinggift.Natureiscommontoall,butgraceisnot.Itisnottobeconfoundedwithnature;butifitwere,itwouldstillbegratuitous.Forcertainlynoman,beforeheexisted,deservedtocomeintoexistence.AndyetGodhasmadehim,andthatnotlikethebeastsorastockorastone,butinHisownimage.Whohasgiventhisbenefit?Hegaveitwhowasinexistence:hereceiveditwhowasnot.AndonlyHecoulddothis,whocallsthethingsthatarenotasthoughtheywere:of

whomtheapostlesaysthat"Hechoseusbeforethefoundationoftheworld."Wehavebeenmadeinthisworld,andyettheworldwasnotwhenwewerechosen.Ineffable!wonderful!Theyarechosenwhoarenot:neitherdoesHeerrinchoosing,norchooseinvain.Hechooses,andhaselectwhomHeistocreatetobechosen:HehastheminHimself;notindeedinHisnature,butinHisprescience.Letusnot,then,gloryinourselves,ordisputeagainstgrace.Ifwearemen,Hemadeus.Ifwearebelievers,Hemadeusthistoo.HewhosenttheLambtobeslainhas,outofwolves,madeussheep.Thisisgrace.Anditisanevengreatergracethanthatgraceofnaturebywhichwewereallmademen.'"Iamcontinuallyendeavouringtodiscusssuchthingsasthese,"saidthepreacher,"againstanewheresywhichisattemptingtorise;becauseIwishyoutobefixedinthegood,untouchedbytheevil....For,disputingagainstgraceinfavoroffreewill,theybecameanoffencetopiousandcatholicears.Theybegantocreatehorror;theybegantobeavoidedasafixedpest;itbegantobesaidofthem,thattheyarguedagainstgrace.Andtheyfoundsuchadeviceasthis:`BecauseIdefendman'sfreewill,andsaythatfreewillissufficientinorderthatImayberighteous,'saysone,`IdonotsaythatitiswithoutthegraceofGod.'Theearsofthepiousareprickedup,andhewhohearsthis,alreadybeginstorejoice:`ThanksbetoGod!HedoesnotdefendfreewillwithoutthegraceofGod!Thereisfreewill,butitavailsnothingwithoutthegraceofGod'If,then,theydonotdefendfreewillwithoutthegraceofGod,whatevildotheysay?Expoundtous,Oteacher,whatgraceyoumean?`WhenIsay,'hesays,`thefreewillofman,youobservethatIsay"ofman"?'Whatthen?`Whocreatedman?'God.`Whogavehimfreewill?'God.`If,then,Godcreatedman,andGodgavemanfreewill,whatevermanisabletodobyfreewill,towhosegracedoesheoweit,excepttoHiswhomadehimwithfreewill?'Andthisiswhattheythinktheysaysoacutely!Yousee,nevertheless,mybrethren,howtheypreachthatgeneralgracebywhichwewerecreatedandbywhichwearemen;and,ofcourse,wearemenincommonwiththeungodly,andareChristiansapartfromthem.ItisthisgracebywhichweareChristians,thatwewishthemtopreach,thisthatwewishthemtoacknowledge,thisthatwewish—ofwhichtheapostlesays,`IdonotmakevoidthegraceofGod,forifrighteousnessisbythelaw,Christisdeadinvain.'"Thenthetruefunctionofthelawisexplained,asarevealerofoursinfulness,andapedagoguetoleadusto

Christ:theManicheanviewoftheOldTestamentlawisattacked,butitsinsufficiencyforsalvationispointedout;andsowearebroughtbacktothenecessityofgrace,whichisillustratedfromthestoryoftheraisingofthedeadchildin2Kingsiv.18-37—thedeadchildbeingAdam;theineffectivestaff(bywhichweoughttowalk),thelaw;butthelivingprophet,Christwithhisgrace,whichwemustpreach."Thepropheticstaffwasnotenoughforthedeadboy:woulddeadnatureitselfhavebeenenough?Eventhis,bywhichwearemade,althoughwenowherereadofitunderthisname,wenevertheless,becauseitisgivengratuitously,confesstobegrace.Butweshowtoyouagreatergracethanthis,bywhichweareChristians....ThisisthegracebyJesusChristourLord:itwasHethatmadeus—bothbeforewewereatall,itwasHethatmadeus,andnow,afterwearemade,itisHethathasmadeusallrighteous—andnotweourselves."TherewasbutonemassofperditionfromAdam,towhichnothingwasduebutpunishment;andfromthatmassvesselshavebeenmadeuntohonor."Rejoicebecauseyouhaveescaped;youhaveescapedthedeaththatwasdue—youhavereceivedthelifethatwasnotdue.`But,'youask,`whydidHemakemeuntohonor,andanotheruntodishonor?'Willyouwhowillnotheartheapostlesaying,`Oman,whoartthouthatrepliestagainstGod?'hearAugustine?...Doyouwishtodisputewithme?Nay,wonderwithme,andcryoutwithme,`Ohthedepthoftheriches!'Letusbothbeafraid—letusbothcryout,`Ohthedepthoftheriches!'Letusbothagreeinfear,lestweperishinerror."

Augustinewasnotlessbusywithhispen,duringthesemonths,thanwithhisvoice.Quiteaseriesoflettersbelongtothelasthalfof418,inwhichhearguestohisdistantcorrespondentsonthesamethemeswhichhewassoiterantlytryingtomakecleartohisCarthaginianauditors.Oneofthemostinterestingofthesewaswrittentoafellow-bishop,Optatus,ontheoriginofthesoul.Optatus,likeJerome,hadexpressedhimselfasfavoringthetheoryofaspecialcreationofeachatbirth;andAugustine,inthisletterasinthepapersenttoJerome,laysgreatstressonsoholdingourtheoriesonsoobscureamatterastoconformtotheindubitablefactofthetransmissionofsin.Thisfact,suchpassagesasICor.xv.21sq.,Rom.v.12sq.,makecertain;andinstatingthis,AugustinetakestheopportunitytooutlinethechiefcontentsofthecatholicfaithoveragainstthePelagiandenialoforiginalsinandgrace:thatallareborn

underthecontagionofdeathandinthebondofguilt;thatthereisnodeliveranceexceptintheoneMediator,ChristJesus;thatbeforeHiscomingmenreceivedhimaspromised,nowasalreadycome,butwiththesamefaith;thatthelawwasnotintendedtosave,buttoshutupundersinandsoforceusbackupontheoneSaviour;andthatthedistributionofgraceissovereign.AugustinepriesintoGod'ssovereigncounselssomewhatmorefreelyherethanisusualwithhim."Butwhythosealsoarecreatedwho,theCreatorforeknew,wouldbelongtodamnation,nottograce,theblessedapostlementionswithasmuchsuccinctbrevityasgreatauthority.ForhesaysthatGod,`wishingtoshowHiswrathanddemonstrateHispower,'etc.(Rom.ix.22).Justly,however,wouldheseemunjustinformingvesselsofwrathforperdition,ifthewholemassfromAdamwerenotcondemned.That,therefore,theyaremadeonbirthvesselsofanger,belongstothepunishmentduetothem;butthattheyaremadebyre-birthvesselsofmercy,belongstothegracethatisnotduetothem.God,therefore,showshiswrath—not,ofcourse,perturbationofmind,suchasiscalledwrathamongmen,butajustandfixedvengeance....Heshowsalsohispower,bywhichhemakesagooduseofevilmen,andendowsthemwithmanynaturalandtemporalgoods,andbendstheireviltoadmonitionandinstructionofthegoodbycomparisonwithit,sothatthesemaylearnfromthemtogivethankstoGodthattheyhavebeenmadetodifferfromthem,notbytheirowndesertswhichwereoflikekindinthesamemass,butbyHispity....Butbycreatingsomanytobebornwho,Heforeknew,wouldnotbelongtohisgrace,sothattheyaremorebyanincomparablemultitudethanthosewhomhedeignedtopredestinateaschildrenofthepromiseintothegloryofHisKingdom—HewishedtoshowbythisverymultitudeoftherejectedhowentirelyofnomomentitistothejustGodwhatisthemultitudeofthosemostjustlycondemned.Andthathencealsothosewhoareredeemedfromthiscondemnationmayunderstand,thatwhattheyseerenderedtosogreatapartofthemasswasthedueofthewholeofit—notonlyofthosewhoaddmanyotherstooriginalsin,bythechoiceofanevilwill,butaswellofsomanychildrenwhoaresnatchedfromthislifewithoutthegraceoftheMediator,boundbynobondexceptthatoforiginalsinalone."Withrespecttothequestionmoreimmediatelyconcerningwhichtheletterwaswritten,Augustineexplainsthatheiswillingtoaccepttheopinionthatsoulsarecreatedformenastheyareborn,ifonlyitcanbemade

plainthatitisconsistentwiththeoriginalsinthattheScripturessoclearlyteach.InthepapersenttoJerome,thedifficultiesofcreationismaresufficientlyurged;thisletterisinterestingonaccountofitsstatementofsomeofthedifficultiesoftraducianismalso—thusevidencingAugustine'sclearviewofthepeculiarcomplexityoftheproblem,andjustifyinghisattitudeofbalanceanduncertaintybetweenthetwotheories.`Thehumanunderstanding,'hesays,`canscarcelycomprehendhowasoularisesfromaparent'ssoulintheoffspring;oristransmittedtotheoffspringasacandleislightedfromacandleandthenceanotherfirecomesintoexistencewithoutlosstotheformerone.Isthereanincorporealseedforthesoul,whichpasses,bysomehiddenandinvisiblechannelofitsown,fromthefathertothemother,whenitisconceivedinthewoman?Or,evenmoreincredible,doesitlieenfoldedandhiddenwithinthecorporealseed?'Heislostinwonderoverthequestionwhether,whenconceptiondoesnottakeplace,theimmortalseedofanimmortalsoulperishes;or,doestheimmortalityattachitselftoitonlywhenitlives?Heevenexpressesthedoubtwhethertraducianismwillexplainwhatitiscalledintoexplain,muchbetterthancreationism;inanycase,whodeniesthatGodisthemakerofeverysoul?Isaiah(lvii.16)says,"Ihavemadeeverybreath;"andtheonlyquestionthatcanariseisastomethod—whetherHe"makeseverybreathfromtheonefirstbreath,justasHemakeseverybodyofmanfromtheonefirstbody;orwhetherhemakesnewbodiesindeed,fromtheonebody,butnewsoulsoutofnothing."CertainlynothingbutScripturecandeterminesuchaquestion;butwheredotheScripturesspeakunambiguouslyuponit?ThepassagestowhichthecreationistspointonlyaffirmtheadmittedfactthatGodmakesthesoul;andthetraducianistsforgetthattheword"soul"intheScripturesisambiguous,andcanmean"man,"andevena"deadman."Whatmorecanbedone,then,thantoassertwhatiscertain,viz.,thatsinispropagated,andleavewhatisuncertaininthedoubtinwhichGodhaschosentoplaceit?

ThisletterwaswrittennotlongaftertheissueofZosimus'Tractoria,demandingthesignatureofalltoAfricanorthodoxy;andAugustinesendsOptatus"copiesoftherecentletterswhichhavebeensentforthfromtheRomansee,whetherspeciallytotheAfricanbishopsorgenerallytoallbishops,"onthePelagiancontroversy,"lestperchancetheyhadnot

yetreached"hiscorrespondent,who,itisveryevident,hewasanxiousshouldthoroughlyrealize"thattheauthors,orcertainlythemostenergeticandnotedteachers,"ofthesenewheresies,"hadbeencondemnedinthewholeChristianworldbythevigilanceofepiscopalcouncilsaidedbytheSaviourwhokeepsHisChurch,aswellasbytwovenerableoverseersoftheApostolicalsee,PopeInnocentandPopeZosimus,unlesstheyshouldshowrepentancebybeingconvincedandreformed."TothiszealweoweitthatthelettercontainsanextractfromZosimus'Tractoria,oneofthetwobrieffragmentsofthatdocumentthathavereachedourday.

TherewasanotherecclesiasticinRome,besidesZosimus,whowasstronglysuspectedoffavoringthePelagians—thepresbyterSixtus,whoafterwardsbecamePopeSixtusIII.ButwhenZosimussentforthhiscondemnationofPelagianism,SixtussentalsoashortlettertoAfricaaddressedtoAureliusofCarthage,which,thoughbrief;indicatedaconsiderablevigoragainsttheheresywhichhewascommonlybelievedtohavebeforedefended,andwhichclaimedhimasitsown.Somemonthsafterwards,hesentanothersimilar,butlonger,lettertoAugustineandAlypius,morefullyexpoundinghisrejectionof"thefataldogma"ofPelagius,andhisacceptanceof"thatgraceofGodfreelygivenbyHimtosmallandgreat,towhichPelagius'dogmawasdiametricallyopposed."Augustinewasoverjoyedwiththesedevelopments.HequicklyrepliedinashortletterinwhichheexpressesthedelighthehasinlearningfromSixtus'ownhandthatheisnotadefenderofPelagius,butapreacherofgrace.Andcloseupontheheelsofthishesentanothermuchlongerletter,inwhichhediscussesthesubtlerargumentsofthePelagianswithananxiouscarethatseemstobearwitnesstohisdesiretoconfirmandsupporthiscorrespondentinhisnewopinions.BothletterstestifytoAugustine'sapprovalofthepersecutingmeasureswhichhadbeeninstitutedbytheRomanseeinobediencetotheemperor;andurgeonSixtushisdutynotonlytobringtheopenhereticstodeservedpunishment,buttotrackoutthosewhospreadtheirpoisonsecretly,andeventorememberthosewhomhehadformerlyheardannouncingtheerrorbeforeithadbeencondemned,andwhowerenowsilentthroughfear,andtobringthemeithertoopenrecantationoftheirformerbeliefs,ortopunishment.Itispleasantertorecallourthoughtstothedialecticof

theseletters.Thegreaterpartofthesecondisgiventoadiscussionofthegratuitousnessofgrace,which,justbecausegrace,isgiventonoprecedingmerits.ManysubtleobjectionstothisdoctrinewerebroughtforwardbythePelagians.Theysaidthat"freewillwastakenawayifweassertedthatmandidnothaveevenagoodwillwithouttheaidofGod;"thatwemade"Godanaccepterofpersons,ifwebelievedthatwithoutanyprecedingmeritsHehadmercyonwhomHewould,andwhomHewouldHecalled,andwhomHewouldHemadereligious;"that"itwasunjust,inoneandthesamecase,todeliveroneandpunishanother;"that,ifsuchadoctrineispreached,"menwhodonotwishtoliverightlyandfaithfully,willexcusethemselvesbysayingthattheyhavedonenothingevilbylivingill,sincetheyhavenotreceivedthegracebywhichtheymightlivewell;"thatitisapuzzle"howsincanpassovertothechildrenofthefaithful,whenithasbeenremittedtotheparentsinbaptism;"that"childrenrespondtrulybythemouthoftheirsponsorsthattheybelieveinremissionofsins,butnotbecausesinsareremittedtothem,butbecausetheybelievethatsinsareremittedinthechurchorinbaptismtothoseinwhomtheyarefound,nottothoseinwhomtheydonotexist,"andconsequentlytheysaidthat"theywereunwillingthatinfantsshouldbesobaptizeduntoremissionofsinsasifthisremissiontookplaceinthem,"for(theycontend)"theyhavenosin;buttheyaretobebaptized,althoughwithoutsin,withthesameriteofbaptismthroughwhichremissionofsinstakesplaceinanythataresinners."ThislastobjectionisespeciallyinterestingbecauseitfurnishesuswiththereplywhichthePelagiansmadetotheargumentthatAugustinesostronglypressedagainstthemfromtheveryactandritualofbaptism,asimplyingremissionofsins.Hisrejoindertoithereistopointtotheotherpartsofthesameritual,andtoaskwhy,then,infantsareexorcisedandexsufflatedinbaptism."For,itcannotbedoubtedthatthisisdonefictitiously,iftheDevildoesnotruleoverthem;butifherulesoverthem,andtheyarethereforenotfalselyexorcisedandexsufflated,whydoesthatprinceofsinnersruleoverthemexceptbecauseofsin?"Onthefundamentalmatterofthegratuitousnessofgrace,thisletterisveryexplicit."Ifweseekforthedeservingofhardening,weshallfindit....Butifweseekforthedeservingofpity,weshallnotfindit;forthereisnone,lestgracebemadeavanityifitisnotgivengratis,butrenderedtomerits.But,shouldwesaythatfaithprecededandinitthereisdesertofgrace,

whatdesertdidmanhavebeforefaiththatheshouldreceivefaith?For,whatdidhehavethathedidnotreceive?andifhereceivedit,whydoeshegloryasifhereceiveditnot?Forasmanwouldnothavewisdom,understanding,prudence,fortitude,knowledge,piety,fearofGod,unlesshehadreceived(accordingtotheprophet)thespiritofwisdomandunderstanding,ofprudenceandfortitude,ofknowledgeandpietyandthefearofGod;ashewouldnothavejustice,love,continence,exceptthespiritwasreceivedofwhomtheapostlesays,`Foryoudidnotreceivethespiritoffear,butofvirtue,andlove,andcontinence:'sohewouldnothavefaithunlesshereceivedthespiritoffaithofwhomthesameapostlesays,`Havingthenthesamespiritoffaith,accordingtowhatiswritten,"Ibelievedandthereforespoke,"wetoobelieveandthereforespeak.'ButthatHeisnotreceivedbydesert,butbyHismercywhohasmercyonwhomHewill,ismanifestlyshownwherehesaysofhimself,`Ihaveobtainedmercytobefaithful.'""Ifweshouldsaythatthemeritofprayerprecedes,thatthegiftofgracemayfollow,...evenprayeritselfisfoundamongthegiftsofgrace"(Rom.viii.26)."Itremains,then,thatfaithitself,whenceallrighteousnesstakesbeginning;...itremains,Isay,thatevenfaithitselfisnottobeattributedtothehumanwillwhichtheyextol,nortoanyprecedingmerits,sincefromitbeginwhatevergoodthingsaremerits:butitistobeconfessedtobethegratuitousgiftofGod,sinceweconsiderittruegrace,thatis,withoutmerits,inasmuchaswereadinthesameepistle,`Goddividesoutthemeasureoffaithtoeach'(Rom.xii.3).Now,goodworksaredonebyman,butfaithiswroughtinman,andwithoutitthesearenotdonebyanyman.Forallthatisnotoffaithissin"(Rom.xiv.23.

BythesamemessengerwhocarriedthisimportantlettertoSixtus,AugustinesentalsoalettertoMercator,anAfricanlaymanwhowasthenapparentlyatRome,butwhowasafterwards(in429)torenderservicebyinstructingtheEmperorTheodosiusastothenatureandhistoryofPelagianism,andsopreventingtheappealofthePelagianstohimfrombeinggranted.Nowheappearsasaninquirer:Augustine,whileatCarthage,hadreceivedaletterfromhiminwhichhehadconsultedhimoncertainquestionsthatthePelagianshadraised,butinsuchamannerastoindicatehisoppositiontothem.Pressofbusinesshadcompelledthepostponementofthereplyuntilthislaterdate.Oneofthequestionsthat

MercatorhadputconcernedthePelagianaccountofinfantssharingintheonebaptismuntoremissionofsins,whichwehaveseenAugustineansweringwhenwritingtoSixtus.Inthisletterhereplies:"Letthem,then,heartheLord(Johniii.36).Infants,therefore,whomadebelieversbyothers,bywhomtheyarebroughttobaptism,are,ofcourse,unbelieversbyothers,iftheyareinthehandsofsuchasdonotbelievethattheyshouldbebrought,inasmuchastheybelievetheyarenothingprofited;andaccordingly,iftheybelievebybelievers,andhaveeternallife,theyareunbelieversbyunbelievers,andshallnotseelife,butthewrathofGodabidethonthem.Foritisnotsaid,`itcomesonthem,'but`itabidethonthem,'becauseitwasonthemfromthebeginning,andwillnotbetakenfromthemexceptbythegraceofGodthroughJesusChrist,ourLord....Therefore,whenchildrenarebaptized,theconfessionismadethattheyarebelievers,anditisnottobedoubtedthatthosewhoarenotbelieversarecondemned:letthem,then,daretosaynow,iftheycan,thattheycontractnoevilfromtheirorigintobecondemnedbythejustGod,andhavenocontagionofsin."TheothermatteronwhichMercatorsoughtlightconcernedthestatementthatuniversaldeathproveduniversalsin:hereportedthatthePelagiansrepliedthatnotevendeathwasuniversal—thatEnoch,forinstance,andElijah,hadnotdied.Augustineaddsthosewhoaretobefoundlivingatthesecondadvent,whoarenottodie,butbe"changed;"andrepliesthatRom.v.12isperfectlyexplicitthatthereisnodeathintheworldexceptthatwhichcomesfromsin,andthatGodaSaviour,andwecannotatall"denythatHeisabletodothat,now,inanythathewishes,withoutdeath,whichweundoubtinglybelieveistobedoneinsomanyafterdeath."HeaddsthatthedifficultquestionisnotwhyEnochandElijahdidnotdie,ifdeathisthepunishmentofsin;butwhy,suchbeingthecase,thejustifiedeverdie;andherefershiscorrespondenttohisbookOntheBaptismofInfantsforaresolutionofthisgreaterdifficulty.

Itwasprobablyattheveryendof418thatAugustinewrotealetterofsomelengthtoAsellicus,inreplytoonewhichhehadwrittenon"avoidingthedeceptionofJudaism,"totheprimateoftheBizaceneprovince,andwhichthatecclesiastichadsenttoAugustineforanswering.HediscussesinthisthelawoftheOldTestament.HeopensbypointingoutthattheapostleforbidsChristianstoJudaize(Gal.ii.14-16),and

explainsthatitisnotmerelytheceremoniallawthatwemaynotdependupon,"butalsowhatissaidinthelaw,`Thoushaltnotcovet'(whichnoone,ofcourse,doubtsistobesaidtoChristianstoo),doesnotjustifyman,exceptbyfaithinJesusChristandthegraceofGodthroughJesusChristourLord."Hethenexpoundstheuseofthelaw:"This,then,istheusefulnessofthelaw:thatitshowsmantohimself,sothathemayknowhisweakness,andseehow,bytheprohibition,carnalconcupiscenceisratherincreasedthanhealed....Theuseofthelawis,thus,toconvincemanofhisweakness,andforcehimtoimplorethemedicineofgracethatisinChrist.""Sincethesethingsareso,"headds,"thosewhorejoicethattheyareIsraelitesaftertheflesh,andgloryinthelawapartfromthegraceofChrist,thesearethoseconcerningwhomtheapostlesaidthat`beingignorantofGod'srighteousness,andwishingtoestablishtheirown,theyarenotsubjecttoGod'srighteousness;'sincehecalls`God'srighteousness'thatwhichisfromGodtoman;and`theirown,'whattheythinkthatthecommandmentssufficeforthemtodowithoutthehelpandgiftofHimwhogavethelaw.Buttheyarelikethosewho,whiletheyprofesstobeChristians,soopposethegraceofChrist,thattheysupposethattheyfulfilthedivinecommandsbyhumanpowers,and,`wishingtoestablishtheirown,'are`notsubjecttotherighteousnessofGod,'andso,notindeedinname,butyetinerror,Judaize.ThissortofmenfoundheadsforthemselvesinPelagiusandCoelestius,themostacuteassertersofthisimpiety,whobyGod'srecentjudgment,throughhisdiligentandfaithfulservants,havebeendeprivedevenofcatholiccommunion,and,onaccountofanimpenitentheart,persiststillintheircondemnation."

Atthebeginningof419,aconsiderableworkwaspublishedbyAugustineononeofthemoreremotecorollarieswhichthePelagiansdrewfromhisteachings.Ithadcometohisears,thattheyassertedthathisdoctrinecondemnedmarriage:"ifonlysinfuloffspringcomefrommarriage,"theyasked,"isnotmarriageitselfmadeasinfulthing?"ThebookwhichAugustinecomposedinanswertothisquery,hededicatedto,andsentalongwithanexplanatoryletterto,theComesValerius,atrustedservantoftheEmperorHonorius,andoneofthemoststeadyopponentsatcourtofthePelagianheresy.Augustineexplainswhyhehasdesiredtoaddressthebooktohim:first,becauseValeriuswasastrikingexampleofthosecontinenthusbandsofwhichthatagefurnishesuswithmanyinstances,

and,therefore,thediscussionwouldhaveespecialinterestforhim;secondly,becauseofhiseminenceasanopponentofPelagianism;and,thirdly,becauseAugustinehadlearnedthathehadreadaPelagiandocumentinwhichAugustinewaschargedwithcondemningmarriagebydefendingoriginalsin.ThebookinquestionisthefirstbookofthetreatiseOnMarriageandConcupiscence.Itis,naturally,tinged,orratherstained,withtheprevalentasceticnotionsoftheday.Itsdoctrineisthatmarriageisgood,andGodisthemakeroftheoffspringthatcomesfromit,althoughnowtherecanbenobegettingandhencenobirthwithoutsin.Sinmadeconcupiscence,andnowconcupiscenceperpetuatessinners.Thespecificobjectofthework,asitstatesititself,is"todistinguishbetweentheevilofcarnalconcupiscence,fromwhichman,whoisborntherefrom,contractsoriginalsin,andthegoodofmarriage"(I.1).Afterabriefintroduction,inwhichheexplainswhyhewrites,andwhyheaddresseshisbooktoValerius(1-2),Augustinepointsoutthatconjugalchastity,likeitshighersister-graceofcontinence,isGod'sgift.Thuscopulation,butonlyforthepropagationofchildren,hasdivineallowance(3-5).Lust,or"shamefulconcupiscence,"however,heteaches,isnotoftheessence,butonlyanaccident,ofmarriage.ItdidnotexistinEden,althoughtruemarriageexistedthere;butarosefrom,andthereforeonlyafter,sin(6-7).Itsadditiontomarriagedoesnotdestroythegoodofmarriage:itonlyconditionsthecharacteroftheoffspring(8).Henceitisthattheapostleallowsmarriage,butforbidsthe"diseaseofdesire"(1Thess.iv.3-5);andhencetheOld-Testamentsaintswereevenpermittedmorethanonewife,because,bymultiplyingwives,itwasnotlust,butoffspring,thatwasincreased(9-10).Nevertheless,fecundityisnottobethoughttheonlygoodofmarriage:truemarriagecanexistwithoutoffspring,andevenwithoutcohabitation(11-13),andcohabitationisnow,undertheNewTestament,nolongeradutyasitwasundertheOldTestament(14-15),buttheapostlepraisescontinenceaboveit.Wemust,then,distinguishbetweenthegoodsofmarriage,andseekthebest(16-19).Butthusitfollowsthatitisnotduetoanyinherentandnecessaryevilinmarriage,butonlytothepresence,now,ofconcupiscenceinallcohabitation,thatchildrenarebornundersin,eventhechildrenoftheregenerate,justasfromtheseedofolivesonlyoleastersgrow(20-24).Andyetagain,concupiscenceisnotitselfsinintheregenerate;itisremittedasguiltinbaptism:butitisthedaughterof

sin,anditisthemotherofsin,andintheunregenerateitisitselfsin,astoyieldtoitiseventotheregenerate(25-39).Finally,assooften,thetestimonyofAmbroseisappealedto,anditisshownthathetooteachesthatallbornfromcohabitationarebornguilty(40).Inthisbook,AugustinecertainlyseemstoteachthatthebondofconnectionbywhichAdam'ssinisconveyedtohisoffspringisnotmeredescent,orheredity,ormereinclusioninhim,inarealisticsense,aspartakersofthesamenumericalnature,butconcupiscence.Withoutconcupiscenceintheactofgeneration,theoffspringwouldnotbeapartakerofAdam'ssin.Thishehadtaughtalsopreviously,as,e.g.,inthetreatiseOnOriginalSin,fromwhichafewwordsmaybeprofitablyquotedassuccinctlysumminguptheteachingofthisbookonthesubject:"Itis,then,manifest,thatthatmustnotbelaidtotheaccountofmarriage,intheabsenceofwhichevenmarriagewouldstillhaveexisted....Such,however,isthepresentconditionofmortalmen,thattheconnubialintercourseandlustareatthesametimeinaction....Henceitfollowsthatinfants,althoughincapableofsinning,areyetnotbornwithoutthecontagionofsin,...not,indeed,becauseofwhatislawful,butonaccountofthatwhichisunseemly:for,fromwhatislawful,natureisborn;fromwhatisunseemly,sin"(42).

Towardstheendofthesameyear(419),Augustinewasledtotakeupagainthevexedquestionoftheoriginofthesoul—bothinanewlettertoOptatus,bythezealofthesamemonk,Renatus,whohadformerlybroughtOptatus'inquiriestohisnotice—inanelaboratetreatiseentitledOntheSoulanditsOrigin,bywayofreplytoarashadventureofayoungmannamedVincentiusVictor,whoblamedhimforhisuncertaintyonsuchasubject,andattemptedtodetermineallthepuzzlesofthequestion,though,asAugustineinsists,onassumptionsthatwerepartlyPelagianandpartlyworse.OptatushadwritteninthehopethatAugustinehadheardbythistimefromJerome,inreplytothetreatisehehadsenthimonthissubject.Augustine,inansweringhisletter,expresseshissorrowthathehasnotyetbeenworthyofananswerfromJerome,althoughfiveyearshadpassedawaysincehewrote,buthiscontinuedhopethatsuchananswerwillinduetimecome.Forhimself,heconfessesthathehasnotyetbeenabletoseehowthesoulcancontractsinfromAdamandyetnotitselfbecontractedfromAdam;andheregretsthat

Optatus,althoughholdingthatGodcreateseachsoulforitsbirth,hasnotsenthimtheproofsonwhichhedependsforthatopinion,normetitsobviousdifficulties.HerebukesOptatusforconfoundingthequestionofwhetherGodmakesthesoul,withtheentirelydifferentoneofhowhemakesit,whetherexpropagineorsivepropagine.NoonedoubtsthatGodmakesthesoul,asnoonedoubtsthatHemakesthebody.Butwhenweconsiderhowhemakesit,sobrietyandvigilancebecomenecessarylestweshouldunguardedlyfallintothePelagianheresy.Augustinedefendshisattitudeofuncertainty,andenumeratesthepointsastowhichhehasnodoubt:viz.,thatthesoulisspirit,notbody;thatitisrationalorintellectual;thatitisnotofthenatureofGod,butissofaramortalcreaturethatitiscapableofdeteriorationandofalienationfromthelifeofGod,andsofarimmortalthatafterthislifeitlivesoninblissorpunishmentforever;thatitwasnotincarnatedbecauseof,oraccordingto,precedingdesertsacquiredinapreviousexistence,yetthatitisunderthecurseofsinwhichitderivesfromAdam,andthereforeinallcasesalikeneedsredemptioninChrist.

Thewholesubjectofthenatureandoriginofthesoul,however,ismostfullydiscussedinthefourbookswhicharegatheredtogetherunderthecommontitleofOntheSoulanditsOrigin.VincentiusVictorwasayounglaymanwhohadrecentlybeenconvertedfromtheRogatianheresy;onbeingshownbyhisfriendPeter,apresbyter,asmallworkofAugustine'sontheoriginofthesoul,heexpressedsurprisethatsogreatamancouldprofessignoranceonamattersointimatetohisverybeing,and,receivingencouragement,wroteabookforPeterinwhichheattackedandtriedtosolveallthedifficultiesofthesubject.Peterreceivedtheworkwithtransportsofdelightedadmiration;butRenatus,happeningthatway,lookeduponitwithdistrust,and,findingthatAugustinewasspokenofinitwithscantcourtesy,feltithisdutytosendhimacopyofit,whichhedidinthesummerof419.ItwasprobablynotuntillateinthefollowingautumnthatAugustinefoundtimetotakeupthematter;butthenhewrotetoRenatus,toPeter,andtwobookstoVictorhimself,anditisthesefourbookstogetherwhichconstitutethetreatisethathascomedowntous.ThefirstbookisalettertoRenatus,andisintroducedbyanexpressionofthankstohimforsendingVictor'sbook,andofkindlyfeelingtowardsandappreciationforthehigh

qualitiesofVictorhimself(1-3).ThenVictor'serrorsarepointedout—astothenatureofthesoul(4-9),includingcertainfar-reachingcorollariesthatflowfromthese(10-15),aswellas,astotheoriginofthesoul(16-30);andthelettercloseswithsomeremarksonthedangerofarguingfromthesilenceofScripture(31),ontheself-contradictionsofVictor(34),andontheerrorsthatmustbeavoidedinanytheoryoftheoriginofthesoulthathopestobeacceptable—towit,thatsoulsbecomesinfulbyanalienoriginalsin,thatunbaptizedinfantsneednosalvation,thatsoulssinnedinapreviousstate,andthattheyarecondemnedforsinswhichtheyhavenotcommittedbutwouldhavecommittedhadtheylivedlonger.ThesecondbookisalettertoPeter,warninghimoftheresponsibilitythatrestsonhimasVictor'strustedfriendandaclergyman,tocorrectVictor'serrors,andreprovinghimfortheuninstructeddelighthehadtakeninVictor'scrudities.ItopensbyaskingPeterwhatwastheoccasionofthegreatjoywhichVictor'sbookbroughthim?coulditbethathelearnedfromit,forthefirsttime,theoldandprimarytruthsitcontained?(2-3);orwasitduetothenewerrorsthatitproclaimed—sevenofwhichheenumerates?(4-16).Then,afteranimadvertingonthedilemmainwhichVictorstood,ofeitherbeingforcedtowithdrawhisviolentassertionofcreationism,orelseofmakingGodunjustinHisdealingswithnewsouls(17),hespeaksofVictor'sunjustifiabledogmatisminthematter(18-21),andcloseswithseverelysolemnwordstoPeteronhisresponsibilityinthepremises(22-23).Inthethirdandfourthbooks,whichareaddressedtoVictor,thepolemic,ofcourse,reachesitsheight.ThethirdbookisentirelytakenupwithpointingouttoVictor,asafathertoason,theerrorsintowhichhehasfallen,andwhich,inaccordancewithhisprofessionsofreadinessforamendment,heoughttocorrect.Elevenareenumerated:1.ThatthesoulwasmadebyGodoutofHimself(3-7);2.ThatGodwillcontinuouslycreatesoulsforever(8);3.Thatthesoulhasdesertofgoodbeforebirth(9);4.(contradictingly),Thatthesoulhasdesertofevilbeforebirth(10);5.Thatthesouldeservedtobesinfulbeforeanysin(11);6.Thatunbaptizedinfantsaresaved(12);7.ThatwhatGodpredestinatesmaynotoccur(13);8.ThatWisd.iv.1isspokenofinfants(14);9.ThatsomeofthemansionswiththeFatherareoutsideofGod'skingdom(15-17);10.ThatthesacrificeofChrist'sbloodmaybeofferedfortheunbaptized(18);11.Thattheunbaptizedmayattainattheresurrectioneventothekingdomofheaven(19).Thebookclosesby

remindingVictorofhisprofessionsofreadinesstocorrecthiserrors,andwarninghimagainsttheobstinacythatmakestheheretic(20-23).Thefourthbookdealswiththemorepersonalelementsofthecontroversy,anddiscussesthepointsinwhichVictorhadexpresseddissentfromAugustine.ItopenswithastatementofthetwogroundsofcomplaintthatVictorhadurgedagainstAugustine;viz.,thatherefusedtoexpressaconfidentopinionastotheoriginofthesoul,andthatheaffirmedthatthesoulwasnotcorporeal,butspirit(1-2).Thesetwocomplaintsarethentakenupatlength(2-16and17-37).Tothefirst,Augustinerepliesthatman'sknowledgeisatbestlimited,andoftenmostlimitedaboutthethingsnearesttohim;wedonotknowtheconstitutionofourbodies;and,abovemostothers,thissubjectoftheoriginofthesoulisoneonwhichnoonebutGodisacompetentwitness.Whoremembershisbirth?Whorememberswhatwasbeforebirth?ButthisisjustoneofthesubjectsonwhichGodhasnotspokenunambiguouslyintheScriptures.Woulditnotbebetter,then,forVictortoimitateAugustine'scautiousignorance,thanthatAugustineshouldimitateVictor'srashassertionoferrors?Thatthesoulisnotcorporeal,Augustineargues(18-35)fromtheScripturesandfromthephenomenaofdreams;andthenshows,inoppositiontoVictor'strichotomy,thattheScripturesteachtheidentityof"soul"and"spirit"(36-37).ThebookcloseswitharenewedenumerationofVictor'selevenerrors(38),andafinaladmonitiontohisrashness(39).ItispleasanttoknowthatAugustinefoundinthiscase,also,thatrighteousnessisthefruitofthefaithfulwoundsofafriend.Victoracceptedtherebuke,andprofessedhisbetterinstructionatthehandsofhismodestbutresistlessantagonist.

Thecontroversynowentereduponanewstage.AmongtheevictedbishopsofItalywhorefusedtosignZosimus'EpistolaTractoria,JulianofEclanumwaseasilythefirst,andatthispointheappearsasthechampionofPelagianism.ItwasasadfatethatarrayedthisbelovedsonofhisoldfriendagainstAugustine,justwhenthereseemedtobereasontohopethatthecontroversywasatanend,andthevictorywon,andtheplauditsoftheworldweregreetinghimasthesaviouroftheChurch.Butthenowfast-agingbishopwastofind,that,inthis"veryconfidentyoungman,"hehadyettomeetthemostpersistentandmostdangerousadvocateofthenewdoctrinesthathadarisen.Julianhadsent,atan

earlierperiod,twoletterstoZosimus,oneofwhichhascomedowntousasa"ConfessionofFaith,"andtheotherofwhichattemptedtoapproachAugustineianformsofspeechasmuchaspossible;theobjectofbothbeingtogainstandinggroundintheChurchfortheItalianPelagians.NowheappearsasaPelagiancontroversialist;andinoppositiontothebookOnMarriageandConcupiscence,whichAugustinehadsentValerius,hepublishedanextendedworkinfourthickbooksaddressedtoTurbantius.ExtractsfromthefirstofthesebooksweresentbysomeonetoValerius,andwereplacedbyhiminthehandsofAlypius,whowastheninItaly,fortransmissiontoAugustine.Meanwhile,aletterhadbeensenttoRomebyJulian,designedtostrengthenthecauseofPelagianismthere;andasimilarone,inthenamesoftheeighteenPelagianizingItalianbishops,wasaddressedtoRufus,bishopofThessalonica,andrepresentativeoftheRomanseeinthatportionoftheEasternEmpirewhichwasregardedasecclesiasticallyapartoftheWest,thedesignofwhichwastoobtainthepowerfulsupportofthisimportantmagnate,perhaps,also,arefugefrompersecutionwithinhisjurisdiction.ThesetwoletterscameintothebandsofthenewPope,Boniface,whogavethemalsotoAlypiusfortransmissiontoAugustine.Thusprovided,AlypiusreturnedtoAfrica.ThetacticsofallthesewritingsofJulianwereessentiallythesame;heattemptednotsomuchtodefendPelagianism,astoattackAugustineianism,andthusliterallytocarrythewarintoAfrica.HeinsistedthatthecorruptionofnaturewhichAugustinetaughtwasnothingelsethanManicheism;thatthesovereigntyofgrace,astaughtbyhim,wasonlytheattributionof"acceptanceofpersons,"andpartiality,toGod;andthathisdoctrineofpredestinationwasmerefatalism.Heaccusedtheanti-PelagiansofdenyingthegoodnessofthenaturethatGodhadcreated,ofthemarriagethatHehadordained,ofthelawthatHehadgiven,ofthefreewillthatHehadimplantedinman,aswellastheperfectionofHissaints.Heinsistedthatthisteachingalsodiddishonourtobaptismitselfwhichitprofessedsotohonour,inasmuchasitassertedthecontinuanceofconcupiscenceafterbaptism—andthustaughtthatbaptismdoesnottakeawaysins,butonlyshavesthemoffasoneshaveshisbeard,andleavestherootswhencethesinsmaygrowanew,andneedcuttingdownagain.HecomplainedbitterlyofthewayinwhichPelagianismhadbeencondemned—thatbishopshadbeencompelledtosignadefinitionofdogma,notincouncilassembled,butsittingathome;

andhedemandedarehearingofthewholecasebeforealawfulcouncil,lestthedoctrineoftheManicheesshouldbeforcedupontheacceptanceoftheworld.

AugustinefeltastrongdesiretoseethewholeworkofJulianagainsthisbookOnMarriageandConcupiscencebeforeheundertookareplytotheexcerptssenthimbyValerius;buthedidnotfeeljustifiedindelayingobediencetothatofficer'srequest,andsowroteatoncetwotreatises,oneananswertotheseexcerpts,forthebenefitofValerius,constitutingthesecondbookofhisOnMarriageandConcupiscence;andtheother,afarmoreelaborateexaminationoftheletterssentbyBoniface,whichbearsthetitle,AgainstTwoLettersofthePelagians.ThepurposeofthesecondbookofOnMarriageandConcupiscence,Augustinehimselfstates,initsintroductorysentences,tobe"toreplytothetauntsofhisadversarieswithallthetruthfulnessandscripturalauthorityhecouldcommand."Hebegins(2)byidentifyingthesourceoftheextractsforwardedtohimbyValerius,withJulian'sworkagainsthisfirstbook,andthenremarksuponthegarbledforminwhichheisquotedinthem(3-6),andpassesontostateandrefuteJulian'schargethatthecatholicshadturnedManicheans(7-9).Atthispoint,therefutationofJulianbeginsingoodearnest,andthemethodthatheproposestouseisstated;viz.,toadducetheadversestatements,andrefutethemonebyone(10).Beginningatthebeginning,hequotesfirstthetitleofthepapersenthim,whichdeclaresthatitisdirectedagainst"thosewhocondemnmatrimony,andascribeitsfruittotheDevil"(11),whichcertainly,saysAugustine,doesnotdescribehimorthecatholics.Thenexttwentychapters(10-30),accordingly,followingJulian'sorder,labourtoprovethatmarriageisgood,andordainedbyGod,butthatitsgoodincludesfecundityindeed,butnotconcupiscence,whicharosefromsin,andcontractssin.Itisnextargued,thatthedoctrineoforiginalsindoesnotimplyaneviloriginforman(31-51);andinthecourseofthisargument,thefollowingpropositionsareespeciallydefended:thatGodmakesoffspringforgoodandbadalike,justasHesendstherainandsunshineonjustandunjust(31-34);thatGodmakeseverythingtobefoundinmarriageexceptitsflaw,concupiscence(35-40);thatmarriageisnotthecauseoforiginalsin,butonlythechannelthroughwhichitistransmitted(41-47);andthattoassertthatevilcannotarisefromwhatisgoodleaves

usintheclutchesofthatveryManicheismwhichissounjustlychargedagainstthecatholics-for,ifevilbenoteternal,whatelsewastherefromwhichitcouldarisebutsomethinggood?(48-51).Inconcluding,Augustinerecapitulates,andarguesespecially,thatshamefulconcupiscenceisofsin,andtheauthorofsin,andwasnotinparadise(52-54);thatchildrenaremadebyGod,andonlymarredbytheDevil(55);thatJulian,inadmittingthatChristdiedforinfants,admitsthattheyneedsalvation(56);thatwhattheDevilmakesinchildrenisnotasubstance,butaninjurytoasubstance(57-58);andthattosupposethatconcupiscenceexistedinanyforminparadiseintroducesincongruitiesinourconceptionoflifeinthatabodeofprimevalbliss(59-60).

Thelongandimportanttreatise,AgainstTwoLettersofthePelagians,consistsoffourbooks,thefirstofwhichrepliestothelettersenttoRome,andtheotherthreetothatsenttoThessalonica.Afterashortintroduction,inwhichhethanksBonifaceforhiskindness,andgivesreasonswhyhereticalwritingsshouldbeanswered(1-3),Augustinebeginsatoncetorebutthecalumnieswhichtheletterbeforehimbringsagainstthecatholics(4-28).Theseareseveninnumber:1.Thatthecatholicsdestroyfreewill;towhichAugustinerepliesthatnoneare"forcedintosinbythenecessityoftheirflesh,"butallsinbyfreewill,thoughnomancanhavearighteouswillsavebyGod'sgrace,andthatitisreallythePelagiansthatdestroyfreewillbyexaggeratingit(4-8);2.ThatAugustinedeclaresthatsuchmarriageasnowexistsisnotofGod(9);3.ThatsexualdesireandintercoursearemadeadeviceoftheDevil,whichissheerManicheism(10-11);4.ThattheOld-Testamentsaintsaresaidtohavediedinsin(12);5.ThatPaulandtheotherapostlesareassertedtohavebeenpollutedbylustalltheirdays;Augustine'sanswertowhichincludesarunningcommentaryonRom.vii.7sq.,inwhich(correctinghisolderexegesis)heshowsthatPaulisgivinghereatranscriptofhisownexperienceasatypicalChristian(13-24);6.ThatChristissaidnottohavebeenfreefromsin(25);7.Thatbaptismdoesnotgivecompleteremissionofsins,butleavesrootsfromwhichtheymayagaingrow;towhichAugustinerepliesthatbaptismdoesremitallsins,butleavesconcupiscence,which,althoughnotsin,isthesourceofsin(26-28).Next,thepositivepartofJulian'sletteristakenup,andhisprofessionoffaithagainstthecatholicsexamined(29-41).Theseven

affirmationsthatJulianmakesherearedesignedastheobverseofthesevenchargesagainstthecatholics.Hebelieved:1.Thatfreewillisinallbynature,andcouldnotperishbyAdam'ssin(29);2.Thatmarriage,asnowexistent,wasordainedbyGod(30);3.ThatsexualimpulseandvirilityarefromGod,(31-35);4.ThatmenareGod'swork,andnooneisforcedtodogoodorevilunwillingly,butareassistedbygracetogood,andincitedbytheDeviltoevil(36-38);5.ThatthesaintsoftheOldTestamentwereperfectedinrighteousnesshere,andsopassedintoeternallife(39);6.ThatthegraceofChrist(ambiguouslymeant)isnecessaryforall,andallchildren-eventhoseofbaptizedparents-aretobebaptized(40);7.Andthatbaptismgivesfullcleansingfromallsins;towhichAugustinepointedlyasks,"Whatdoesitdoforinfants,then?"(41).ThebookconcludeswithananswertoJulian'sconclusion,inwhichhedemandsageneralcouncil,andchargesthecatholicswithManicheism.

Thesecond,third,andfourthbooksdealwiththelettertoRufusinasomewhatsimilarway,thesecondandthirdbooksbeingoccupiedwiththecalumniesbroughtagainstthecatholics,andthefourthwiththeclaimsmadebythePelagians.ThesecondbeginsbyrepellingthechargeofManicheismbroughtagainstthecatholics(1-4),towhichthepointedremarkisadded,thatthePelagianscannothopetoescapecondemnationbecausetheyarewillingtocondemnanotherheresy;andthendefends(withlesssuccess)theRomanclergyagainstthechargeofprevaricationintheirdealingwiththePelagians(5-8),inthecourseofwhichallthatcanbesaidindefenceofZosimus'waveringpolicyissaidwellandstrongly.Nextthechargesagainstcatholicteachingaretakenupandanswered(9-16),especiallythetwoimportantaccusationsthattheymaintainfateunderthenameofgrace(9-12),andthattheymakeGodan"accepterofpersons"(13-16).Augustine'srepliestothesechargesareineverywayadmirable.Thechargeof"fate"restssolelyonthecatholicdenialthatgraceisgivenaccordingtoprecedingmerits;butthePelagiansdonotescapethesamechargewhentheyacknowledgethatthe"fates"ofbaptizedandunbaptizedinfantsdodiffer.Itis,intruth,notaquestionof"fate,"butofgratuitousbounty;and"itisnotthecatholicsthatassertfateunderthenameofgrace,butthePelagiansthatchoosetocalldivinegracebythenameof`fate'"(12).Asto"acceptanceofpersons,"wemustdefinewhatwemeanbythat.Godcertainlydoesnotacceptone's

"person"aboveanother's;HedoesnotgivetooneratherthantoanotherbecauseHeseessomethingtopleaseHiminoneratherthananother:quitetheopposite.HegivesofHisbountytoonewhilegivingalltheirduetoall,asintheparable(Matt.xx.9sq.)ToaskwhyHedoesthis,istoaskinvain:theapostleanswersbynotanswering(Rom.ix.);andbeforethedumbinfants,whoareyetmadetodiffer,allobjectiontoGodisdumb.Fromthispoint,thebookbecomesanexaminationofthePelagiandoctrineofprevenientmerit(17-23),concludingthatGodgivesallbygracefromthebeginningtotheendofeveryprocessofdoinggood.1.Hecommandsthegood;2.Hegivesthedesiretodoit;and,3.Hegivesthepowertodoit:andall,ofHisgratuitousmercy.ThethirdbookcontinuesthediscussionofthecalumniesofthePelagiansagainstthecatholics,andenumeratesandanswerssixofthem:viz.,thatthecatholicsteach,1.ThattheOld-Testamentlawwasgiven,nottojustifytheobedient,buttoserveascauseofgreatersin(2-3);2.Thatbaptismdoesnotgiveentireremissionofsins,butthebaptizedarepartlyGod'sandpartlytheDevil's(4-5);3.ThattheHolyGhostdidnotassistvirtueintheOldTestament(6-13);4.ThattheBiblesaintswerenotholy,butonlylesswickedthanothers(14-15);5.ThatChristwasasinnerbynecessityofHisflesh(doubtless,Julian'sinferencefromthedoctrineofrace-sin)(16);6.ThatmenwillbegintofulfilGod'scommandmentsonlyaftertheresurrection(17-23).Augustineshowsthatatthebasisofallthesecalumnieslieseithermisapprehensionormisrepresentation;and,inconcludingthebook,enumeratesthethreechiefpointsinthePelagianheresy,withthefiveclaimsgrowingoutofthem,ofwhichtheymostboasted,andthenelucidatesthemutualrelationsofthethreeparties,catholics,Pelagians,andManicheans,withreferencetothesepoints,showingthatthecatholicsstandasunderfromboththeothers,andcondemnboth(24-27).Thisconclusionisreallyapreparationforthefourthbook,whichtakesupthesefivePelagianclaims,and,aftershowingthecatholicpositiononthemallinbrief(1-3),discussestheminturn(4-19):viz.,thepraiseofthecreature(4-8),thepraiseofmarriage(9),thepraiseofthelaw(10-11),thepraiseoffreewill(12-16),andthepraiseofthesaints(17-18).Attheend,AugustinecallsonthePelagianstoceasetoopposetheManicheans,onlytofallintoasbadheresyastheirs(19);andthen,inreplytotheiraccusationthatthecatholicswereproclaimingnoveldoctrine,headducesthetestimonyofCyprianandAmbrose,bothofwhomhadreceived

Pelagius'praise,oneachofthethreemainpointsofPelagianism(20-32),andthencloseswiththedeclarationthatthe"impiousandfoolishdoctrine,"astheycalledit,ofthecatholics,isimmemorialtruth(33),andwithadenialoftherightofthePelagianstoaskforageneralcounciltocondemnthem(34).Allheresiesdonotneedanecumenicalsynodfortheircondemnation;usuallyitisbesttostampthemoutlocally,andnotallowwhatmaybeconfinedtoacornertodisturbthewholeworld.

Thesebookswerewrittenlatein420,orearlyin421,andAlypiusappearstohaveconveyedthemtoItalyduringthelatteryear.Beforeitsclose,Augustine,havingobtainedandreadthewholeofJulian'sattackonthefirstbookofhisworkOnMarriageandConcupiscence,wroteoutacompleteanswertoit,-ataskthathewasallthemoreanxioustocomplete,onperceivingthattheextractssentbyValeriuswerenotonlyallfromthefirstbookofJulian'streatise,butweresomewhatalteredintheextracting.Theresultingwork,AgainstJulian,oneofthelongestthathewroteinthewholecourseofthePelagiancontroversy,showsitsauthorathisbest:accordingtoCardinalNoris'sjudgment,heappearsinit"almostdivine,"andAugustinehimselfclearlysetgreatstorebyit.Inthefirstbookofthisnobletreatise,afterprofessinghiscontinuedloveforJulian,"whomhewasunablenottolove,whateverhe[Julian]shouldsayagainsthim"(35),heundertakestoshowthatinaffixingtheopprobriousnameofManicheansonthosewhoassertoriginalsin,Julianisincriminatingmanyofthemostfamousfathers,bothoftheLatinandGreekChurches.Inproofofthis,hemakesappropriatequotationsfromIrenaeus,Cyprian,Reticius,Olympius,Hilary,Ambrose,GregoryNazianzenus,Basil,JohnofConstantinople.Thenheargues,that,sofarfromthecatholicsfallingintoManicheanheresy,Julianplays,himself,intothehandsoftheManicheansintheirstrifeagainstthecatholics,bymanyunguardedstatements,suchas,e.g.,whenhesaysthatanevilthingcannotarisefromwhatisgood,thattheworkoftheDevilcannotbesufferedtobediffusedbymeansofaworkofGod,thatarootofevilcannotbeplacedwithinagiftofGod,andthelike.Thesecondbookadvancestogreaterdetail,andadducesthefivegreatargumentswhichthePelagiansurgedagainstthecatholics,inordertotestthembythevoiceofantiquity.Theseargumentsarestatedasfollows(2):"Foryousay,`Thatwe,byassertingoriginalsin,affirmthattheDevilisthemaker

ofinfants,condemnmarriage,denythatallsinsareremittedinbaptism,accuseGodoftheguiltofsin,andproducedespairofperfection.'Youcontendthatalltheseareconsequences,ifwebelievethatinfantsarebornboundbythesinofthefirstman,andarethereforeundertheDevilunlesstheyarebornagaininChrist.For,`ItistheDevilthatcreates,'yousay,`iftheyarecreatedfromthatwoundwhichtheDevilinflictedonthehumannaturethatwasmadeatfirst.'`Andmarriageiscondemned,'yousay,`ifitistobebelievedtohavesomethingaboutitwhenceitproducesthoseworthyofcondemnation.'`Andallsinsarenotremittedinbaptism,'yousay,`ifthereremainsanyevilinbaptizedcoupleswhenceeviloffspringareproduced.'`AndhowisGod,'youask,`notunjust,ifHe,whileremittingtheirownsinstobaptizedpersons,yetcondemnstheiroffspring,inasmuchas,althoughitiscreatedbyHim,ityetignorantlyandinvoluntarilycontractsthesinsofothersfromthoseveryparentstowhomtheyareremitted?'`Norcanmenbelieve,'youadd,`thatvirtue-towhichcorruptionistobeunderstoodtobecontrary-canbeperfected,iftheycannotbelievethatitcandestroytheinbredvices,although,nodoubt,thesecanscarcelybeconsideredvices,sincehedoesnotsin,whoisunabletobeotherthanhewascreated.'"Theseargumentsarethentested,onebyone,bytheauthorityoftheearlierteacherswhowereappealedtointhefirstbook,andshowntobecondemnedbythem.TheremainingfourbooksfollowJulian'sfourbooks,argumentbyargument,refutinghimindetail.InthethirdbookitisurgedthatalthoughGodisgood,andmademangood,andinstitutedmarriagewhichis,therefore,good,neverthelessconcupiscenceisevil,andinitthefleshlustsagainstthespirit.Althoughchastespousesusethisevilwell,continentbelieversdobetterinnotusingitatall.Itispointedout,howfarallthisisfromthemadnessoftheManicheans,whodreamofmatterasessentiallyevilandco-eternalwithGod;andshownthatevilconcupiscencesprangfromAdam'sdisobedienceand,beingtransmittedtous,canberemovedonlybyChrist.Itisshown,also,thatJulianhimselfconfesseslusttobeevil,inasmuchashespeaksofremediesagainstit,wishesittobebridled,andspeaksofthecontinentwagingagloriouswarfare.ThefourthbookfollowsthesecondbookofJulian'swork,andmakestwochiefcontentions:thatunbelievershavenotruevirtues,andthateventheheathenrecognizeconcupiscenceasevil.Italsoarguesthatgraceisnotgivenaccordingtomerit,andyetisnottobeconfounded

withfate;andexplainsthetextthatassertsthat`Godwishesallmentobesaved,'inthesensethat`allmen'means`allthataretobesaved'sincenonearesavedexceptbyHiswill.Thefifthbook,inlikemanner,followsJulian'sthirdbook,andtreatsofsuchsubjectsasthese:thatitisduetosinthatanyinfantsarelost;thatshamearoseinourfirstparentsthroughsin;thatsincanwellbethepunishmentofprecedingsin;thatconcupiscenceisalwaysevil,eveninthosewhodonotassenttoit;thattruemarriagemayexistwithoutintercourse;thatthe"flesh"ofChristdiffersfromthe"sinfulflesh"ofothermen;andthelike.Inthesixthbook,Julian'sfourthbookisfollowed,andoriginalsinisprovedfromthebaptismofinfants,theteachingoftheapostles,andtheritesofexorcismandexsufflationincorporatedintheformofbaptism.Then,bythehelpoftheillustrationdrawnfromtheoliveandtheoleaster,itisexplainedhowChristianparentscanproduceunregenerateoffspring;andtheoriginallyvoluntarycharacterofsinisasserted,eventhoughitnowcomesbyinheritance.

Afterthecompletionofthisimportantwork,theresucceededalullinthecontroversy,ofsomeyearsduration;andthecalmrefutationofPelagianismandexpositionofChristiangrace,whichAugustinegaveinhisEnchiridion,mightwellhaveseemedtohimhisclosingwordonthisall-absorbingsubject.Buthehadnotyetgiventheworldallhehadintreasureforit,andwecanrejoiceinthechancethatfiveorsixyearsafterwardsdrewfromhimareneweddiscussionofsomeofthemoreimportantaspectsofthedoctrineofgrace.Thecircumstanceswhichbroughtthisaboutaresufficientlyinterestinginthemselves,andopenuptousanunwontedviewintothemonasticlifeofthetimes.TherewasanimportantmonasteryatAdrumetum,themetropolitancityoftheprovinceofByzacium,fromwhichamonknamedFloruswentoutonajourneyofcharitytohisnativecountryofUzalisabout426.OnthejourneyhemetwithAugustine'slettertoSixtus,inwhichthedoctrinesofgratuitousandprevenientgracewereexpounded.Hewasmuchdelightedwithit,and,procuringacopy,sentitbacktohismonasteryfortheedificationofhisbrethren,whilehehimselfwentontoCarthage.Atthemonastery,thelettercreatedgreatdisturbance:withouttheknowledgeoftheabbot,Valentinus,itwasreadaloudtothemonks,manyofwhomwereunskilledintheologicalquestions;andsomefiveormorewere

greatlyoffended,anddeclaredthatfreewillwasdestroyedbyit.Asecretstrifearoseamongthebrethren,sometakingextremegroundsonbothsides.Ofallthis,ValentinusremainedignorantuntilthereturnofFlorus,whowasattackedastheauthorofallthetrouble,andwhofeltithisdutytoinformtheabbotofthestateofaffairs.Valentinusappliedfirsttothebishop,Evodius,forsuchinstructionaswouldmakeAugustine'slettercleartothemostsimple.Evodiusreplied,praisingtheirzealanddeprecatingtheircontentiousness,andexplainingthatAdamhadfullfreewill,butthatitisnowwoundedandweak,andChrist'smissionwasasaphysiciantocureandrecuperateit."Letthemread,"ishisprescription,"thewordsofGod'selders....Andwhentheydonotunderstand,letthemnotquicklyreprehend,butpraytounderstand."Thisdidnot,however,curethemalecontents,andtheholypresbyterSabrinuswasappealedto,andsentabookwithclearinterpretations.Butneitherwasthissatisfactory;andValentinus,atlast,reluctantlyconsentedthatAugustinehimselfshouldbeconsulted—fearing,hesays,lestbymakinginquiriesheshouldseemtowaveraboutthetruth.TwomembersofthecommunitywereconsequentlypermittedtojourneytoHippo,buttheytookwiththemnointroductionandnocommendationfromtheirabbot.Augustine,nevertheless,receivedthemwithouthesitation,astheyborethemselveswithtoogreatsimplicitytoallowhimtosuspectthemofdeception.Nowwegetaglimpseoflifeinthegreatbishop'smonastichome.Themonkstoldtheirstory,andwerelistenedtowithcourtesyandinstructedwithpatience;and,astheywereanxioustogethomebeforeEaster,theyreceivedaletterforValentinusinwhichAugustinebrieflyexplainsthenatureofthemisapprehensionthathadarisen,andpointsoutthatbothgraceandfreewillmustbedefended,andneithersoexaggeratedastodenytheother.TheletterofSixtus,heexplains,waswrittenagainstthePelagians,whoassertthatgraceisgivenaccordingtomerit,andbrieflyexpoundsthetruedoctrineofgraceasnecessarilygratuitousandthereforeprevenient.Whenthemonkswereonthepointofstartinghome,theywerejoinedbyathirdcompanionfromAdrumetum,andwereledtoprolongtheirvisit.Thisgavehimtheopportunityhecravedfortheirfullerinstruction:hereadwiththemandexplainedtothemnotonlyhislettertoSixtus,fromwhichthestrifehadrisen,butmuchofthechiefliteratureofthePelagiancontroversy,copiesofwhichalsoweremadeforthemtotakehomewiththem;andwhentheywerereadytogo,

hesentbythemanotherandlongerlettertoValentinus,andplacedintheirhandsatreatisecomposedfortheirespecialuse,which,moreover,heexplainedtothem.Thislongerletterisessentiallyanexhortation"toturnasideneithertotherighthandnortotheleft,"-neithertothelefthandofthePelagianerrorofupholdingfreewillinsuchamannerastodenygrace,nortotherighthandoftheequalerrorofsoupholdinggraceasifwemightyieldourselvestoevilwithimpunity.Bothgraceandfreewillaretobeproclaimed;anditistrueboththatgraceisnotgiventomerits,andthatwearetobejudgedatthelastdayaccordingtoourworks.ThetreatisewhichAugustinecomposedforafullerexpositionofthesedoctrinesistheimportantworkOnGraceandFreeWill.Afterabriefintroduction,explainingtheoccasionofhiswriting,andexhortingthemonkstohumilityandteachablenessbeforeGod'srevelations(1),AugustinebeginsbyassertingandprovingthetwopropositionsthattheScripturesclearlyteachthatmanhasfreewill(2-5),and,asclearly,thenecessityofgracefordoinganygood(6-9).HethenexaminesthepassageswhichthePelagiansclaimasteachingthatwemustfirstturntoGod,beforeHevisitsuswithHisgrace(10-11),andthenundertakestoshowthatgraceisnotgiventomerit(12sq.),appealingespeciallytoPaul'steachingandexample,andreplyingtotheassertionthatforgivenessistheonlygracethatisnotgivenaccordingtoourmerits(15-18),andtothequery,"Howcaneternallifebebothofgraceandofreward?"(19-21).Thenatureofgrace,whatitis,isnextexplained(22sq.).Itisnotthelaw,whichgivesonlyknowledgeofsin(22-24),nornature,whichwouldrenderChrist'sdeathneedless(25),normereforgivenessofsins,astheLord'sPrayer(whichshouldbereadwithCyprian'scommentsonit)isenoughtoshow(26).Norwillitdotosaythatitisgiventothemeritofagoodwill,thusdistinguishingthegoodworkwhichisofgracefromthegoodwillwhichprecedesgrace(27-30);fortheScripturesopposethis,andourprayersforothersprovethatweexpectGodtobethefirstmover,asindeedbothScriptureandexperienceprovethatHeis.Itisnextshownthatbothfreewillandgraceareconcernedintheheart'sconversion(31-32),andthatloveisthespringofallgoodinman(33-40),which,however,wehaveonlybecauseGodfirstlovedus(38),andwhichiscertainlygreaterthanknowledge,althoughthePelagiansadmitonlythelattertobefromGod(40).God'ssovereigngovernmentofmen'swillsisthenprovedfromScripture(41-

43),andthewhollygratuitouscharacterofgraceisillustrated(44),whiletheonlypossibletheodicyisfoundinthecertaintythattheLordofalltheearthwilldoright.For,thoughnooneknowswhyHetakesoneandleavesanother,weallknowthatHehardensjudiciallyandsavesgraciously—thatHehardensnonewhodonotdeservehardening,butnonethatHesavesdeservetobesaved(45).Thetreatisecloseswithanexhortationtoitsprayerfulandrepeatedstudy(46).

TheonerequestthatAugustinemade,onsendingthisworktoValentinus,wasthatFlorus,throughwhomthecontroversyhadarisen,shouldbesenttohim,thathemightconversewithhimandlearnwhetherhehadbeenmisunderstood,orhimselfhadmisunderstoodAugustine.InduetimeFlorusarrivedatHippo,bringingaletterfromValentinuswhichaddressesAugustineas"LordPope"(dominepapa),thankshimforhis"sweet"and"healing"instruction,andintroducesFlorusasonewhosetruefaithcouldbeconfidedin.Itisveryclear,bothfromValentinus'letterandfromthehintsthatAugustinegives,thathislovingdealingwiththemonkshadborneadmirablefruit:"nonewerecastdownfortheworse,somewerebuiltupforthebetter."Butitwasreportedtohimthatsomeoneatthemonasteryhadobjectedtothedoctrinehehadtaughtthem,that"nomanought,then,toberebukedfornotkeepingGod'scommandments;butonlyGodshouldbebesoughtthathemightkeepthem."Inotherwords,itwassaidthatifallgoodwas,inthelastresort,fromGod'sgrace,manoughtnottobeblamedfornotdoingwhathecouldnotdo,butGodoughttobebesoughttodoformanwhatHealonecoulddo:weought,inaword,toapplytothesourceofpower.ThisoccasionedthecompositionofyetanothertreatiseOnRebukeandGrace,theobjectofwhichwastoexplaintherelationsofgracetohumanconduct,andespeciallytomakeitplainthatthesovereigntyofGod'sgracedoesnotsupersedeourdutytoourselvesorourfellow-men.ItbeginsbythankingValentinusforhisletterandforsendingFlorus(whomAugustinefindswellinstructedinthetruth),thankingGodforthegoodeffectofthepreviousbook,andrecommendingitscontinuedstudy,andthenbybrieflyexpoundingtheCatholicfaithconcerninggrace,free-will,andthelaw(1-2).ThegeneralpropositionthatisdefendedisthatthegratuitoussovereigntyofGod'sgracedoesnotsupersedehumanmeansforobtainingandcontinuingit(3

sq.)Thisisshownbytheapostle'sexample,whousedallhumanmeansfortheprosecutionofhiswork,andyetconfessedthatitwas"Godthatgavetheincrease"(3).Objectionsarethenanswered(4sq.)—especiallythegreatonethat"itisnotmyfaultifIdonotdowhatIhavenotreceivedgracefordoing"(6);towhichAugustinereplies(7-10),thatwedeserverebukeforourveryunwillingnesstoberebuked,thatonthesamereasoningtheprescriptionofthelawandthepreachingofthegospelwouldbeuseless,thattheapostle'sexampleopposessuchaposition,andthatourconsciousnesswitnessesthatwedeserverebukefornotperseveringintherightway.Fromthispointanimportantdiscussionarises,inthisinterest,ofthegiftofperseverance(11-19),andofGod'selection(20-24);theteachingbeingthatnooneissavedwhodoesnotpersevere,andallthatarepredestinatedor"calledaccordingtothepurpose"(Augustine'sphraseforwhatweshouldcall"effectualcalling")willpersevere,andyetthatweco-operatebyourwillinallgooddeeds,anddeserverebukeifwedonot.WhetherAdamreceivedthegiftofperseverance,and,ingeneral,thedifferencebetweenthegracegiventohim,whichwasthatgracebywhichhecouldstand)andthatnowgiventoGod'schildren(whichisthatgracebywhichweareactuallymadetostand),arenextdiscussed(26-38),withtheresultofshowingthesuperiorgreatnessofthegiftsofgracenowtothosegivenbeforethefall.ThenecessityofGod'smercyatalltimes,andourconstantdependenceonit,arenextvigorouslyasserted(39-42);eveninthedayofjudgment,ifwearenotjudged"withmercy"wecannotbesaved(41).Thetreatiseisbroughttoanendbyaconcludingapplicationofthewholediscussiontothespecialmatterinhand,rebuke(43-49).SeeingthatrebukeisoneofGod'smeansofworkingouthisgraciouspurposes,itcannotbeinconsistentwiththesovereigntyofthatgrace;for,ofcourse,Godpredestinatesthemeanswiththeend(43).Norcanweknow,inourignorance,whetherourrebukeis,inanyparticularcase,tobethemeansofamendmentorthegroundofgreatercondemnation.Howdarewe,then,withholdit?Letitbe,however,graduatedtothefault,andletusalwaysrememberitspurpose(46-48).Aboveall,letusnotdareholditback,lestweholdbackfromourbrotherthemeansofhisrecovery,and,aswell,disobeythecommandofGod(49).

Itwasnotlongafterwards(about427)whenAugustinewascalledupon

toattempttoreclaimaCarthaginianbrother,Vitalisbyname,whohadbeenbroughttotrialonthechargeofteachingthatthebeginningoffaithwasnotthegiftofGod,buttheactofman'sownfreewill(expropriavoluntatis).Thiswasessentiallythesemi-Pelagianpositionwhichwassubsequentlytomakesolargeafigureinhistory;andAugustinetreatsitnowasnecessarilyimplyingthebasalideaofPelagianism.IntheimportantletterwhichhesenttoVitalis,hefirstarguesthathispositionisinconsistentwiththeprayersofthechurch.He,Augustine,praysthatVitalismaycometothetruefaith;butdoesnotthisprayerascribetheoriginationofrightfaithtoGod?TheChurchsopraysforallmen:thepriestatthealtarexhortsthepeopletoprayGodforunbelievers,thatHemayconvertthemtothefaith;forcatechumens,thatHemaybreatheintothemadesireforregeneration;forthefaithful,thatbyHisaidtheymaypersevereinwhattheyhavebegun:willVitalisrefusetoobeytheseexhortations,because,forsooth,faithisoffreewillandnotofGod'sgift?Nay,willaCarthaginianscholararrayhimselfagainstCyprian'sexpositionoftheLord'sPrayer?forhecertainlyteachesthatwearetoaskofGodwhatVitalissaysistobehadofourselves.Wemaygofarther:itisnotCyprian,butPaul,whosays,"LetuspraytoGodthatwedonoevil"(2Cor.xiii.7);itisthePsalmistwhosays,"ThestepsofmanaredirectedbyGod"(Ps.xxxvi.23)."Ifwewishtodefendfreewill,letusnotstriveagainstthatbywhichitismadefree.Forhewhostrivesagainstgrace,bywhichthewillismadefreeforrefusingevilanddoinggood,wisheshiswilltoremaincaptive.Tellus,Ibegyou,howtheapostlecansay,`WegivethankstotheFatherwhomadeusfittohaveourlotwiththesaintsinlight,whodeliveredusfromthepowerofdarkness,andtranslatedusintothekingdomoftheSonofHislove'(Col.i.12,13),ifnotHe,butitself,freesourchoice?Itis,then,afalserenderingofthankstoGod,asifHedoeswhatHedoesnotdo;andhehaserredwhohassaidthat`Hemakesusfit,etc.'`ThegraceofGod,'therefore,doesnotconsistinthenatureoffree-will,andinlawandteaching,asthePelagianperversitydreams;butitisgivenforeachsingleactbyHiswill,concerningwhomitiswritten,"-quotingPs.lxvii.10.Aboutthemiddleoftheletter,AugustinelaysdowntwelvepropositionsagainstthePelagians,whichareimportantascommunicatingtouswhathethought,attheendofthecontroversy,werethechiefpointsindispute."Since,therefore,"hewrites,"wearecatholicChristians:1.Weknowthatnew-bornchildrenhavenotyetdone

anythingintheirownlives,goodorevil,neitherhavetheycomeintothemiseriesofthislifeaccordingtothedesertsofsomepreviouslife,whichnoneofthemcanhavehadintheirownpersons;andyet,becausetheyareborncarnallyafterAdam,theycontractthecontagionofancientdeath,bythefirstbirth,andarenotfreedfromthepunishmentofeternaldeath(whichiscontractedbyajustcondemnation,passingoverfromonetoall),excepttheyarebygracebornagaininChrist.2.WeknowthatthegraceofGodisgivenneithertochildrennortoadultsaccordingtoourdeserts.3.Weknowthatitisgiventoadultsforeachseveralact.4.Weknowthatitisnotgiventoallmen;andtothosetowhomitisgiven,itisnotonlynotgivenaccordingtothemeritsofworks,butitisnotevengiventothemaccordingtothemeritsoftheirwill;andthisisespeciallyapparentinchildren.5.Weknowthattothosetowhomitisgiven,itisgivenbythegratuitousmercyofGod.6.Weknowthattothosetowhomitisnotgiven,itisnotgivenbythejustjudgmentofGod.7.WeknowthatweshallallstandbeforethetribunalofChrist,andeachshallreceiveaccordingtowhathehasdonethroughthebody—notaccordingtowhathewouldhavedone,hadhelivedlonger—whethergoodorevil.8.Weknowthatevenchildrenaretoreceiveaccordingtowhattheyhavedonethroughthebody,whethergoodorevil.Butaccordingtowhat"theyhavedone"notbytheirownact,butbytheactofthosebywhoseresponsesforthemtheyaresaidbothtorenouncetheDevilandtobelieveinGod,whereforetheyarecountedamongthenumberofthefaithful,andhavepartinthestatementoftheLordwhenHesays,"Whosoevershallbelieveandbebaptized,shallbesaved."Thereforealso,tothosewhodonotreceivethissacrament,belongswhatfollows,"Butwhosoevershallnothavebelieved,shallbedamned"(Markxvi.16).Whencethesetoo,asIhavesaid,iftheydieinthatearlyage,arejudged,ofcourse,accordingtowhattheyhavedonethroughthebody,i.e.,inthetimeinwhichtheywereinthebody,whentheybelieveordonotbelievebytheheartandmouthoftheirsponsors,whentheyarebaptizedornotbaptized,whentheyeatordonoteatthefleshofChrist,whentheydrinkordonotdrinkHisblood—accordingtothosethings,then,whichtheyhavedonethroughthebody,notaccordingtothosewhich,hadtheylivedlonger,theywouldhavedone.9.WeknowthatblessedarethedeadthatdieintheLord;andthatwhattheywouldhavedonehadtheylivedlonger,isnotimputedtothem.10.Weknowthatthosethatbelieve,withtheirownheart,inthe

Lord,dosobytheirownfreewillandchoice.11.Weknowthatwewhoalreadybelieveactwithrightfaithtowardsthosewhodonotwishtobelieve,whenwepraytoGodthattheymaywishit.12.Weknowthatforthosewhohavebelievedoutofthisnumber,webothoughtandarerightlyandtrulyaccustomedtoreturnthankstoGod,asforhisbenefits."CertainlysuchabodyofpropositionscommendstheirauthortousasChristianbothinheadandheart:theyareadmirableineveryrespect;andeveninthematterofthesalvationofinfants,wherehehadnotyetseenthelightoftruth,heexpresseshimselfinawayasengaginginitsheartyfaithinGod'sgoodnessasitishonorableinitsloyaltytowhathebelievedtobetruthandjustice.HerehisdoctrineoftheChurchranathwartandcloudedhisviewofthereachofgrace;butweseemtoseebetweenthelinesthepromiseofthebrighterdawnoftruththatwasyettocome.Therestoftheepistleisoccupiedwithanexpositionandcommendationofthesepropositions,whichrankswiththerichestpassagesoftheanti-Pelagianwritings,andwhichbreatheseverywhereayearningforhiscorrespondentwhichwecannothelphopingprovedsalutarytohisfaith.

Itisnotwithoutsignificance,thattheerrorofVitalistookasemi-Pelagianform.PurePelagianismwasbythistimenolongeralivingissue.Augustinewashimself,nodoubt,notyetdonewithit.ThesecondbookofhistreatiseOnMarriageandConcupiscence,whichseemstohavebeentakentoItalybyAlypius,in421,receivedatoncetheattentionofJulian,andwaselaboratelyansweredbyhim,duringthatsameyear,ineightbooksaddressedtoFlorus.ButJulianwasnowinCilicia,andhisbookwasslowinworkingitswaywestward.ItwasfoundatRomebyAlypius,apparentlyin427or428,andheatoncesetabouttranscribingitforhisfriend'suse.AnopportunityarisingtosendittoAfricabeforeitwasfinished,heforwardedtoAugustinethefivebooksthatwereready,withanurgentrequestthattheyshouldreceivehisimmediateattention,andapromisetosendtheotherthreeassoonaspossible.AugustinegivesancountofhisprogressinhisreplytotheminaletterwrittentoQuodvultdeus,apparentlyin428.ThisdeaconwasurgingAugustinetogivetheChurchasuccinctaccountofallheresies;andAugustineexcuseshimselffromimmediatelyundertakingthattaskbythepressofworkonhishands.HewaswritinghisRetractations,andhadalreadyfinished

twobooksofthem,inwhichhehaddealtwithtwohundredandthirty-twoworks.Hislettersandhomiliesremainedandhehadgiventhenecessaryreadingtomanyoftheletters.Also,hetellshiscorrespondent,hewasengagedonareplytotheeightbooksofJulian'snewwork.Workingnightandday,hehadalreadycompletedhisresponsetothefirstthreeofJulian'sbooks,andhadbegunonthefourthwhilestillexpectingthearrivalofthelastthreewhichAlypiushadpromisedtosend.IfhehadcompletedtheanswertothefivebooksofJulianwhichhealreadyhadinhand,beforetheotherthreereachedhim,hemightbegintheworkwhichQuodvultdeussoearnestlydesiredhimtoundertake.Induetime,whatevermayhavebeenthetrialsandlaboursthatneededfirsttobemet,thedesiredtreatiseOnHeresieswaswritten(about428),andtheeighty-eighthchapterofitgivesusawelcomecompressedaccountofthePelagianheresy,whichmaybeacceptedastheobverseoftheaccountofcatholictruthgiveninthelettertoVitalis.ButthecompositionofthisworkwasnottheonlyinterruptionwhichpostponedthecompletionofthesecondelaborateworkagainstJulian.ItwasintheprovidenceofGodthatthelifeofthisgreatleaderinthebattleforgraceshouldbeprolongeduntilhecoulddealwithsemi-Pelagianismalso.InformationastotheriseofthisnewformoftheheresyatMarseillesandelsewhereinSouthernGaulwasconveyedtoAugustinealongwithentreaties,that,as"faith'sgreatpatron,"hewouldgivehisaidtowardsmeetingit,bytwolaymenwithwhomhehadalreadyhadcorrespondence—ProsperandHilaryTheypointedoutthedifferencebetweenthenewpartyandthorough-goingPelagianism;but,atthesametime,theessentiallyPelagianizingcharacterofitsformativeelements.Itsrepresentativeswereready,asarule,toadmitthatallmenwerelostinAdam,andnoonecouldrecoverhimselfbyhisownfreewill,butallneededGod'sgraceforsalvation.Buttheyobjectedtothedoctrinesofprevenientandofirresistiblegrace;andassertedthatmancouldinitiatetheprocessofsalvationbyturningfirsttoGod,thatallmencouldresistGod'sgrace,andnogracecouldbegivenwhichtheycouldnotreject,andespeciallytheydeniedthatthegiftsofgracecameirrespectiveofmerits,actualorforeseen.TheysaidthatwhatAugustinetaughtastothecallingofGod'selectaccordingtoHisownpurposewastantamounttofatalism,wascontrarytotheteachingofthefathersandthetrueChurchdoctrine,and,eveniftrue,shouldnotbepreached,becauseofitstendencytodrivemenintoindifferenceor

despair.Hence,ProsperespeciallydesiredAugustinetopointoutthedangerousnatureoftheseviews,andtoshowthatprevenientandco-operatinggraceisnotinconsistentwithfreewill,thatGod'spredestinationisnotfoundedonforesightofreceptivityinitsobjects,andthatthedoctrinesofgracemaybepreachedwithoutdangertosouls.

Augustine'sanswertotheseappealswasaworkintwobooks,OnthePredestinationoftheSaints,thesecondbookofwhichisusuallyknownundertheseparatetitleofTheGiftofPerseverance.Theformerbookbeginswithacarefuldiscriminationofthepositionofhisnewopponentstheyhavemadearightbeginninginthattheybelieveinoriginalsin,andacknowledgethatnonearesavedfromitsavebyChrist,andthatGod'sgraceleadsmen'swills,andwithoutgracenoonecansufficeforgooddeeds.Thesethingswillfurnishagoodstarting-pointfortheirprogresstoanacceptanceofpredestinationalso(1-2).Thefirstquestionthatneedsdiscussioninsuchcircumstancesis,whetherGodgivestheverybeginningsoffaith(3sq.);sincetheyadmitthatwhatAugustinehadpreviouslyurgedsufficedtoprovethatfaithwasthegiftofGodsofarasthattheincreaseoffaithwasgivenbyHim,butnotsofarbutthatthebeginningoffaithmaybeunderstoodtobeman's,towhich,then,Godaddsallothergifts(compare43).AugustineinsiststhatthisisnootherthanthePelagianassertionofgraceaccordingtomerit(3),isopposedtoScripture(4-5),andbegetsarrogantboastinginourselves(6).Herepliestotheobjectionthathehadhimselfonceheldthisview,byconfessingit,andexplainingthathewasconvertedfromitby1Cor.iv.7,asappliedbyCyprian(7-8),andexpoundsthatverseascontaininginitsnarrowcompassasufficientanswertothepresenttheories(9-11).Heanswers,further,theobjectionthattheapostledistinguishesfaithfromworks,andworksalonearemeantinsuchpassages,bypointingtoJohnvi.28,andsimilarstatementsinPaul(12-16).ThenheanswerstheobjectionthathehimselfhadpreviouslytaughtthatGodactedonforesightoffaith,byshowingthathewasmisunderstood(17-18).Henextshowsthatnoobjectionliesagainstpredestinationthatdoesnotliewithequalforceagainstgrace(19-22)—sincepredestinationisnothingbutGod'sforeknowledgeofandpreparationforgrace,andallquestionsofsovereigntyandthelikebelongtograce.DidGodnotknowtowhomhewasgoingtogivefaith(19)?ordidhepromisetheresultsoffaith,works,

withoutpromisingthefaithwithoutwhich,asgoingbefore,theworkswereimpossible?WouldnotthisplaceGod'sfulfilmentofhispromiseoutofHispower,andmakeitdependonman(20)?WhyaremenmorewillingtotrustintheirweaknessthaninGod'sstrength?dotheycountGod'spromisesmoreuncertainthantheirownperformance(22)?Henextprovesthesovereigntyofgrace,andofpredestination,whichisbutthepreparationforgrace,bythestrikingexamplesofinfants,and,aboveall,ofthehumannatureofChrist(23-31),andthenspeaksofthetwofoldcalling,oneexternalandone"accordingtopurpose,"-thelatterofwhichisefficaciousandsovereign(32-37).Inclosing,thesemi-Pelagianpositioniscarefullydefinedandrefutedasopposed,alikewiththegrosserPelagianism,totheScripturesofbothTestaments(38-42).

Thepurposeofthesecondbook,whichhascomedowntousundertheseparatetitleofOntheGiftofPerseverance,istoshowthatthatperseverancewhichendurestotheendisasmuchofGodasthebeginningoffaith,andthatnomanwhohasbeen"calledaccordingtoGod'spurpose,"andhasreceivedthisgift,canfallfromgraceandbelost.Thefirsthalfofthetreatiseisdevotedtothistheme(1-33).Itbeginsbydistinguishingbetweentemporaryperseverance,whichenduresforatime,andthatwhichcontinuestotheend(1),andaffirmsthatthelatteriscertainlyagiftofGod'sgrace,andis,therefore,askedfromGodwhichwouldotherwisebebutamockingpetition(2-3).This,theLord'sPrayeritselfmightteachus,asunderCyprian'sexpositionitdoesteachus—eachpetitionbeingcapableofbeingreadasaprayerforperseverance(4-9).Ofcourse,moreover,itcannotbelost,otherwiseitwouldnotbe"totheend."IfmanforsakesGod,ofcourseitishethatdoesit,andheisdoubtlessundercontinualtemptationtodoso;butifheabideswithGod,itisGodwhosecuresthat,andGodisequallyabletokeeponewhendrawntoHim,asHeistodrawhimtoHim(10-15).Hearguesanewatthispoint,thatgraceisnotaccordingtomerit,butalwaysinmercy;andexplainsandillustratestheunsearchablewaysofGodinHissovereignbutmercifuldealingwithmen(16-25),andclosesthispartofthetreatisebyadefenceofhimselfagainstadversequotationsfromhisearlyworkonFreeWill,whichhehasalreadycorrectedinhisRetractations.Thesecondhalfofthebookdiscussestheobjectionsthatwerebeingurgedagainstthepreachingofpredestination(34-62),asifitopposedand

enervatedthepreachingoftheGospel.HerepliesthatPaulandtheapostles,andCyprianandthefathers,preachedbothtogether;thatthesameobjectionswilllieagainstthepreachingofGod'sforeknowledgeandgraceitself,and,indeed,againstpreachinganyofthevirtues,as,e.g.,obedience,whiledeclaringthemGod'sgifts.Hemeetstheobjectionsindetail,andshowsthatsuchpreachingisfoodtothesoul,andmustnotbewithheldfrommen;butexplainsthatitmustbegivengently,wisely,andprayerfully.ThewholetreatiseendswithanappealtotheprayersoftheChurchastestifyingthatallgoodisfromGod(63-65),andtothegreatexampleofunmeritedgraceandsovereignpredestinationinthechoiceofonehumannaturewithoutprecedingmerit,tobeunitedinonepersonwiththeEternalWord—anillustrationofhisthemeofthegratuitousgraceofGodwhichheisnevertiredofadducing(66-67).

Thesebookswerewrittenin428-429,andaftertheircompletiontheunfinishedworkagainstJulianwasresumed.Alypiushadsenttheremainingthreebooks,andAugustineslowlytoiledontotheendofhisreplytothesixthbook.Buthewastobeinterruptedoncemore,andthistimebythemostseriousofallinterruptions.Onthe28thofAugust,430,withtheVandalsthunderingatthegatesofHippo,fullofgoodworksandoffaith,heturnedhisfaceawayfromthestrifes-whethertheologicalorsecular-ofearth,andenteredintorestwiththeLordwhomheloved.ThelastworkagainstJulianwasalreadyoneofthemostconsiderableinsizeofallhisbooks;butitwasneverfinished,andretainsuntilto-daythesignificanttitleofTheUnfinishedWork.Augustinehadhesitatedtoundertakethiswork,becausehefoundJulian'sargumentstoosillyeithertodeserverefutation,ortoaffordoccasionforreallyedifyingdiscourse.AndcertainlytheresultfallsbelowAugustine'susuallevel,thoughthisisnotdue,asissooftensaid,tofailingpowersandgreatage;fornothingthathewrotesurpassesinmellowbeautyandchastenedstrengththetwobooks,OnthePredestinationoftheSaints,whichwerewrittenafterfourbooksofthisworkwerecompleted.TheplanoftheworkistostateJulian'sargumentsinhisownwords,andfollowitwithhisremarks;thusgivingitsomethingoftheformofadialogue.ItfollowsJulian'swork,bookbybook.ThefirstbookstatesandanswerscertaincalumnieswhichJulianhadbroughtagainstAugustineandthecatholicfaithonthegroundoftheirconfessionoforiginalsin.Julianhadargued,that,since

Godisjust,Hecannotimputeanother'ssinstoinnocentinfants;sincesinisnothingbutevilwill,therecanbenosinininfantswhoarenotyetintheuseoftheirwill;and,sincethefreedomofwillthatisgiventomanconsistsinthecapacityofbothsinningandnotsinning,freewillisdeniedtothosewhoattributesintonature.Augustinerepliestothesearguments,andanswerscertainobjectionsthataremadetohisworkOnMarriageandConcupiscence,andthencorrectsJulian'sfalseexplanationsofcertainScripturesfromJohnviii.,Rom.vi.,vii.,and2Timothy.ThesecondbookisadiscussionofRom.v.12,whichJulianhadtried,liketheotherPelagians,toexplainbythe"imitation"ofAdam'sbadexample.ThethirdbookexaminestheabusebyJulianofcertainOld-Testamentpassages-inDeut.xxiv.,2Kingsxiv.,Ezek.xviii.-inhisefforttoshowthatGoddoesnotimputethefather'ssinstothechildren;aswellashissimilarabuseofHeb.xi.ThechargeofManicheism,whichwassorepetitiouslybroughtbyJulianagainstthecatholics,isthenexaminedandrefuted.ThefourthbooktreatsofJulian'sstricturesonAugustine'sOnMarriageandConcupiscenceii.4-11,andprovesfrom1Johnii.16thatconcupiscenceisevil,andnottheworkofGod,butoftheDevil.Hearguesthattheshamethataccompaniesitisduetoitssinfulness,andthattherewasnoneofitinChrist;also,thatinfantsarebornobnoxioustothefirstsin,andprovesthecorruptionoftheiroriginfromWisd.x.10,11.ThefifthbookdefendsOnMarriageandConcupiscenceii.12sq.,andarguesthatasoundnaturecouldnothaveshameonaccountofitsmembers,andtheneedofregenerationforwhatisgeneratedbymeansofshamefulconcupiscence.ThenJulian'sabuseof1Cor.xv.,Rom.v.,Matt.vii.17and33,withreferencetoOnMarriageandConcupiscenceii.14,20,26,isdiscussed;andthentheoriginofevil,andGod'streatmentofevilintheworld.ThesixthbooktraversesJulian'sstricturesonOnMarriageandConcupiscenceii.34sq.,andarguesthathumannaturewaschangedfortheworsebythesinofAdam,andthuswasmadenotonlysinful,butthesourceofsinners;andthattheforcesoffreewillbywhichmancouldatfirstdorightlyifhewished,andrefrainfromsinifhechose,werelostbyAdam'ssin.HeattacksJulian'sdefinitionoffreewillas"thecapacityforsinningandnotsinning"(possibilitaspeccandietnonpeccandi);andprovesthattheevilsofthislifearethepunishmentofsin—including,firstofall,physicaldeath.Attheend,hetreatsof1Cor.xv.22.

Althoughthegreatpreacherofgracewastakenawaybydeathbeforethecompletionofthisbook,yethisworkwasnotleftincomplete.Inthecourseofthenextyear(431)theEcumenicalCouncilofEphesuscondemnedPelagianismforthewholeworld;andanelaboratetreatiseagainstthepurePelagianismofJulianwasalreadyin430ananachronism.Semi-Pelagianismwasyettorunitscourse,andtoworkitswaysointotheheartofacorruptchurchasnottobeeasilydisplaced;butPelagianismwastodiewiththefirstgenerationofitsadvocates.AswelookbacknowthroughthealmostmillenniumandahalfofyearsthathasintervenedsinceAugustinelivedandwrote,itistohisPredestinationoftheSaints—acompleted,andwell-completed,treatise—andnottoTheUnfinishedWork,thatwelookasthecrownandcompletionofhislaboursforgrace.

PartIV:TheTheologyofGrace

ThetheologywhichAugustineopposed,inhisanti-Pelagianwritings,totheerrorsofPelagianism,is,shortly,thetheologyofgrace.Itsrootswereplanteddeeplyinhisownexperience,andintheteachingsofScripture,especiallyofthatapostlewhomhedelightstocall'thegreatpreacherofgrace,'andtofollowwhom,inhismeasure,washisgreatestdesire.ThegraceofGodinJesusChrist,conveyedtousbytheHolySpiritandevidencedbythelovethatHeshedsabroadinourhearts,isthecentrearoundwhichthiswholesideofHissystemrevolves,andthegermoutofwhichitgrows.Hewasthemoreabletomakeitthuscentralbecauseoftheharmonyofthisviewofsalvationwiththegeneralprincipleofhiswholetheology,whichwastheocentricandrevolvedaroundhisconceptionofGodastheimmanentandvitalspiritinwhomallthingsliveandmoveandhavetheirbeing.Inlikemanner,Godistheabsolutegood,andallgoodiseitherHimselforfromHim;andonlyasGodmakesusgood,areweabletodoanythinggood.

Thenecessityofgracetoman,AugustinearguedfromtheconditionoftheraceaspartakersofAdam'ssin.Godcreatedmanupright,andendowedhimwithhumanfaculties,includingfreewill;andgavetohimfreelythatgracebywhichhewasabletoretainhisuprightness.Being

thusputonprobation,withdivineaidtoenablehimtostandifhechose,Adamusedhisfreechoiceforsinning,andinvolvedhiswholeraceinhisfall.Itwasonaccountofthissinthathediedphysicallyandspiritually,andthisdoubledeathpassesoverfromhimtous.ThatallhisdescendantsbyordinarygenerationarepartakersinAdam'sguiltandcondemnation,AugustineissurefromtheteachingsofScripture;andthisisthefactoforiginalsin,fromwhichnoonegeneratedfromAdamisfree,andfromwhichnooneisfreedsaveasregeneratedinChrist.Buthowwearemadepartakersofit,heislesscertain:sometimeshespeaksasifitcamebysomemysteriousunityoftherace,sothatwewereallpersonallypresentintheindividualAdam,andthusthewholeracewastheonemanthatsinned;sometimeshespeaksmoreinthesenseofmodernrealists,asifAdam'ssincorruptedthenature,andthenaturenowcorruptsthosetowhomitiscommunicated;sometimeshespeaksasifitwereduetosimpleheredity;sometimes,again,asifitdependedonthepresenceofshamefulconcupiscenceintheactofprocreation,sothatthepropagationofguiltdependsonthepropagationofoffspringbymeansofconcupiscence.Howevertransmitted,itisyetafactthatsinispropagated,andallmankindbecamesinnersinAdam.Theresultofthisisthatwehavelostthedivineimage,thoughnotinsuchasensethatnolineamentsofitremaintous;and,thesinningsoulmakingthefleshcorruptible,ourwholenatureiscorrupted,andweareunabletodoanythingofourselvestrulygood.Thisincludes,ofcourse,aninjurytoourwill.Augustine,writingforthepopulareye,treatsthissubjectinpopularlanguage.Butitisclearthathedistinguished,inhisthinking,betweenwillasafacultyandwillinabroadersense.Asamerefaculty,willisandalwaysremainsanindifferentthing—afterthefall,asbeforeit,continuingpoisedinindifferency,andready,likeaweathercock,tobeturnedwhithersoeverthebreezethatblowsfromtheheart('will,'inthebroadersense)maydirect.Itisnotthefacultyofwilling,butthemanwhomakesuseofthatfaculty,thathassufferedchangefromthefall.Inparadisemanstoodinfullability:hehadthepossenonpeccare,butnotyetthenonpossepeccare;thatis,hewasendowedwithacapacityforeitherpart,andpossessedthegraceofGodbywhichhewasabletostandifhewould,butalsothepoweroffreewillbywhichhemightfallifhewould.Byhisfallhehassufferedachange,iscorrupt,andunderthepowerofSatan;hiswill(inthebroadersense)isnowinjured,wounded,

diseased,enslaved,—althoughthefacultyofwill(inthenarrowsense)remainsindifferent.Augustine'scriticismofPelagius'discriminationof'capacity'(possibilitas,posse),'will'(voluntas,velle),and'act'(actio,esse),doesnotturnonthediscriminationitself,butontheincongruityofplacingthepower,abilityinthemerecapacityorpossibility,ratherthaninthelivingagentwho'wills'and'acts.'Hehimselfadoptsanessentiallysimilardistribution,withonlythiscorrection;andthuskeepsthefacultyofwillindifferent,butplacesthepowerofusingitintheactiveagent,man.According,then,tothecharacterofthisman,willtheuseofthefreewillbe.Ifthemanbeholyhewillmakeaholyuseofit,andifhebecorrupthewillmakeasinfuluseofit:ifhebeessentiallyholy,hecannot(likeGodHimself)makeasinfuluseofhiswill;andifhebeenslavedtosin,hecannotmakeagooduseofit.Thelastisthepresentconditionofmenbynature.Theyhavefreewill;thefacultybywhichtheyactremainsinindifferency,andtheyareallowedtouseitjustastheychoose:butsuchastheycannotdesireandthereforecannotchooseanythingbutevil;andthereforethey,andthereforetheirchoice,andthereforetheirwilling,isalwaysevilandnevergood.Theyarethustheslavesofsin,whichtheyobey;andwhiletheirfreewillavailsforsinning,itdoesnotavailfordoinganygoodunlesstheybefirstfreedbythegraceofGod.Itisundeniablethatthisviewisinconsonancewithmodernpsychology:letusonceconceiveof'thewill'assimplythewholemanintheattitudeofwilling,anditisimmediatelyevident,that,howeverabstractlyfreethe'will'is,itisconditionedandenslavedinallitsactionbythecharacterofthewillingagent:abadmandoesnotceasetobebadintheactofwilling,andagoodmanremainsgoodeveninhisactsofchoice.

Initsnature,graceisassistance,helpfromGod;andalldivineaidmaybeincludedundertheterm,—aswellwhatmaybecallednatural,aswhatmaybecalledspiritual,aid,Spiritualgraceincludes,nodoubt,allexternalhelpthatGodgivesmanforworkingouthissalvation,suchasthelaw,thepreachingofthegospel,theexampleofChrist,bywhichwemaylearntherightway;itincludesalsoforgivenessofsins,bywhichwearefreedfromtheguiltalreadyincurred;butaboveallitincludesthathelpwhichGodgivesbyHisHolySpirit,workingwithin,notwithout,bywhichmanisenabledtochooseandtodowhathesees,bytheteachingsofthelaw,orbythegospel,orbythenaturalconscience,toberight.

Withinthisaidareincludedallthosespiritualexerciseswhichwecallregeneration,justification,perseverancetotheend,—inaword,allthedivineassistancebywhich,inbeingmadeChristians,wearemadetodifferfromothermen.AugustineisfondofrepresentingthisgraceasinessencethewritingofGod'slaw(orofGod'swill)onourhearts,sothatitappearshereafterasourowndesireandwish;andevenmoreprevalentlyasthesheddingabroadofloveinourheartsbytheHolyGhost,giventousinChristJesus;therefore,asachangeofdisposition,bywhichwecometoloveandfreelychoose,inco-operationwithGod'said,justthethingswhichhithertowehavebeenunabletochoosebecauseinbondagetosin.Grace,thus,doesnotmakevoidfreewill:itactsthroughfreewill,andactsuponitonlybyliberatingitfromitsbondagetosin,i.e.,byliberatingtheagentthatusesthefreewill,sothatheisnolongerenslavedbyhisfleshlylusts,andisenabledtomakeuseofhisfreewillinchoosingthegood;andthusitisonlybygracethatfreewillisenabledtoactingoodpart.Butjustbecausegracechangesthedisposition,andsoenablesman,hithertoenslavedtosin,forthefirsttimetodesireandusehisfreewillforgood,itliesintheverynatureofthecasethatitisprevenient.Also,astheverynameimports,itisnecessarilygratuitous;sincemanisenslavedtosinuntilitisgiven,allthemeritsthathecanhavepriortoitarebadmerits,anddeservepunishment,notgiftsoffavour.When,then,itisasked,onthegroundofwhat,graceisgiven,itcanonlybeanswered,'onthegroundofGod'sinfinitemercyandundeservedfavour.'Thereisnothinginmantomeritit,anditfirstgivesmeritofgoodtoman.Allmenalikedeservedeath,andallthatcomestotheminthewayofblessingisnecessarilyofGod'sfreeandunmeritedfavour.Thisisequallytrueofallgrace.Itispre-eminentlyclearofthatgracewhichgivesfaith,therootofallothergraces,whichisgivenofGod,nottomeritsofgood-willorincipientturningtoHim,butofHissovereigngoodpleasure.Butequallywithfaith,itistrueofallotherdivinegifts:wemay,indeed,speakof'meritsofgood'assucceedingfaith;butasallthesemeritsfindtheirrootinfaith,theyarebut'graceongrace,'andmenneedGod'smercyalways,throughoutthislife,andevenonthejudgmentdayitself,when,iftheyarejudgedwithoutmercy,theymustbecondemned.Ifweask,then,whyGodgivesgrace,wecanonlyanswerthatitisofHisunspeakablemercy;andifweaskwhyHegivesittooneratherthantoanother,whatcanweanswerbutthatitisofHiswill?Thesovereigntyofgraceresultsfromits

verygratuitousness:wherenonedeserveit,itcanbegivenonlyofthesovereigngoodpleasureofthegreatGiver,—andthisisnecessarilyinscrutable,butcannotbeunjust.Wecanfaintlyperceive,indeed,somereasonswhyGodmaybesupposednottohavechosentogiveHissavinggracetoall,oreventothemost;butwecannotunderstandwhyHehaschosentogiveittojusttheindividualstowhomHehasgivenit,andtowithholditfromjustthosefromwhomHehaswithheldit.Herewearedriventotheapostle'scry,'OhthedepthoftherichesbothofthemercyandthejusticeofGod!'

Theeffectsofgraceareaccordingtoitsnature.Takenasawhole,itistherecreativeprinciplesentforthfromGodfortherecoveryofmanfromhisslaverytosin,andforhisreformationinthedivineimage.Consideredastothetimeofitsgiving,itiseitheroperatingorco-operatinggrace,i.e.,eitherthegracethatfirstenablesthewilltochoosethegood,orthegracethatco-operateswiththealreadyenabledwilltodothegood;anditis,therefore,alsocalledeitherprevenientorsubsequentgrace.Itisnottobeconceivedofasaseriesofdisconnecteddivinegifts,butasaconstanteffluxfromGod;butwemaylookuponitinthevariousstepsofitsoperationinmen,asbringingforgivenessofsins,faith,whichisthebeginningofallgood,lovetoGod,progressivepowerofgoodworking,andperseverancetotheend.Inanycase,andinallitsoperationsalike,justbecauseitispowerfromonhighandthelivingspringofanewandre-createdlife,itisirresistibleandindefectible.ThoseonwhomtheLordbestowsthegiftoffaithworkingfromwithin,notfromwithout,ofcourse,havefaith,andcannothelpbelieving.Thosetowhomperseverancetotheendisgivenmustperseveretotheend.Itisnottobeobjectedtothis,thatmanyseemtobeginwellwhodonotpersevere:thisalsoisofGod,whohasinsuchcasesgivengreatblessingsindeed,butnotthisblessing,ofperseverancetotheend.Whateverofgoodmenhave,thatGodhasgiven;andwhattheyhavenot,why,ofcourse,Godhasnotgivenit.Norcanitbeobjected,thatthisleavesalluncertain:itisonlyunknowntous,butthisisnotuncertainty;wecannotknowthatwearetohaveanygiftwhichGodsovereignlygives,ofcourse,untilitisgiven,andwethereforecannotknowthatwehaveperseveranceuntotheenduntilweactuallyperseveretotheend;butwhowouldcallwhatGoddoes,andknowsHeistodo,uncertain,andwhatmanistodocertain?Norwillitdotosaythatthus

nothingisleftforustodo:nodoubt,allthingsareinGod'shands,andweshouldpraiseGodthatthisisso,butwemustco-operatewithHim;anditisjustbecauseitisHethatisworkinginusthewillingandthedoing,thatitisworthourwhiletoworkoutoursalvationwithfearandtrembling.Godhasnotdeterminedtheendwithoutdeterminingtheappointedmeans.

Now,Augustineargues,sincegracecertainlyisgratuitous,andgiventonoprecedingmerits,—prevenientandantecedenttoallgood,—and,therefore,sovereign,andbestowedonlyonthosewhomGodselectsforitsreception;wemust,ofcourse,believethattheeternalGodhasforeknownallthisfromthebeginning.HewouldbesomethinglessthanGod,hadHenotforeknownthatHeintendedtobestowthisprevenient,gratuitous,andsovereigngraceonsomemen,andhadHenotforeknownequallythepreciseindividualsonwhomHeintendedtobestowit.Toforeknowistopreparebeforehand.Andthisispredestination.Hearguesthattherecanbenoobjectiontopredestination,initselfconsidered,inthemindofanymanwhobelievesinaGod:whatmenobjecttoisthegratuitousandsovereigngracetowhichnoadditionaldifficultyisaddedbythenecessaryassumptionthatitwasforeknownandpreparedorfrometernity.Thatpredestinationdoesnotproceedontheforeknowledgeofgoodoroffaith,followsfromitsbeingnothingmorethantheforesightandpreparationofgrace,which,initsveryidea,isgratuitousandnotaccordingtoanymerits,sovereignandaccordingonlytoGod'spurpose,prevenientandinordertofaithandgoodworks.Itisthesovereigntyofgrace,notitsforesightorthepreparationforit,whichplacesmeninGod'shands,andsuspendssalvationabsolutelyonhisunmeritedmercy.ButjustbecauseGodisGod,ofcourse,noonereceivesgracewhohasnotbeenforeknownandafore-selectedforthegift;and,asmuchofcourse,noonewhohasbeenforeknownandafore-selectedforit,failstoreceiveit.Thereforethenumberofthepredestinatedisfixed,andfixedbyGod.Isthisfate?MenmaycallGod'sgracefateiftheychoose;butitisnotfate,butundeservedloveandtendermercy,withoutwhichnonewouldbesaved.Doesitparalyzeeffort?OnlytothosewhowillnotstrivetoobeyGodbecauseobedienceisHisgift.Isitunjust?Farfromit:shallnotGoddowhatHewillwithHisownundeservedfavour?Itisnothingbutgratuitousmercy,sovereignlydistributed,andforeseenandprovidedfor

fromalleternitybyHimwhohasselectedusinHisSon.

WhenAugustinecomestospeakofthemeansofgrace,i.e.,ofthechannelsandcircumstancesofitsconferencetomen,heapproachesthemeetingpointoftwoverydissimilarstreamsofhistheology—hisdoctrineofgraceandhisdoctrineoftheChurch—andheissadlydeflectedfromthenaturalcourseofhistheologybythealieninfluence.Hedoesnot,indeed,bindtheconferenceofgracetothemeansinsuchasensethatthegracemustbegivenattheexacttimeoftheapplicationofthemeans.Hedoesnotdenythat'Godisable,evenwhennomanrebukes,tocorrectwhomHewill,andtoleadhimontothewholesomemortificationofrepentancebythemosthiddenandmostmightypowerofHismedicine.'ThoughtheGospelmustbeknowninorderthatmanmaybesaved(forhowshalltheybelievewithoutapreacher?),yetthepreacherisnothing,andthepreachmentisnothing,butGodonlythatgivestheincrease.HeevenhassomethinglikeadistantglimpseofwhathassincebeencalledthedistinctionbetweenthevisibleandinvisibleChurch—speakingofmennotyetbornasamongthosewhoare'calledaccordingtoGod'spurpose,'and,therefore,ofthesavedwhoconstitutetheChurch—assertingthatthosewhoaresocalled,evenbeforetheybelieve,are'alreadychildrenofGodenrolledinthememorialoftheirFatherwithunchangeablesurety,'and,atthesametime;allowingthattherearemanyalreadyinthevisibleChurchwhoarenotofit,andwhocanthereforedepartfromit.ButheteachesthatthosewhoarethuslostoutofthevisibleChurcharelostbecauseofsomefatalflawintheirbaptism,oronaccountofpost-baptismalsins;andthatthosewhoareofthe'calledaccordingtothepurpose'arepredestinatednotonlytosalvation,buttosalvationbybaptism.Graceisnottiedtothemeansinthesensethatitisnotconferredsaveinthemeans;butitistiedtothemeansinthesensethatitisnotconferredwithoutthemeans.Baptism,forinstance,isabsolutelynecessaryforsalvation:noexceptionisallowedexceptsuchassavetheprinciple—baptismofblood(martyrdom),and,somewhatgrudgingly,baptismofintention.Andbaptism,whenworthilyreceived,isabsolutelyefficacious:'ifamanweretodieimmediatelyafterbaptism,hewouldhavenothingatalllefttoholdhimliabletopunishment.'Inaword,whiletherearemanybaptizedwhowillnotbesaved,therearenonesavedwhohavenotbeenbaptized;itisthegraceof

Godthatsaves,butbaptismisachannelofgracewithoutwhichnonereceiveit.

ThesaddestcorollarythatflowedfromthisdoctrinewasthatbywhichAugustinewasforcedtoassertthatallthosewhodiedunbaptized,includinginfants,arefinallylostanddepartintoeternalpunishment.Hedidnotshrinkfromtheinference,althoughheassignedtheplaceoflightestpunishmentinhelltothosewhowereguiltyofnosinbutoriginalsin,butwhohaddepartedthislifewithouthavingwashedthisawayinthe'laverofregeneration.'Thisisthedarksideofhissoteriology;butitshouldberememberedthatitwasnothistheologyofgrace,buttheuniversalandtraditionalbeliefinthenecessityofbaptismforremissionofsins,whichheinheritedincommonwithallofhistime,thatforcedituponhim.Thetheologyofgracewasdestinedinthehandsofhissuccessors,whohaverejoicedtoconfessthattheyweretaughtbyhim,toremovethisstumbling-blockalsofromChristianteaching;andifnottoAugustine,itistoAugustine'stheologythattheChristianworldowesitsliberationfromsoterribleandincredibleatenet.Alongwiththedoctrineofinfantdamnation,anotherstumbling-blockalso,notsomuchofAugustineian,butofChurchtheology,hasgone.Itwasnotbecauseofhistheologyofgrace,orofhisdoctrineofpredestination,thatAugustinetaughtthatcomparativelyfewofthehumanracearesaved.Itwas,again,becausehebelievedthatbaptismandincorporationintothevisibleChurchwerenecessaryforsalvation.AnditisonlybecauseofAugustine'stheologyofgrace,whichplacesmaninthehandsofanall-mercifulSaviourandnotinthegraspofahumaninstitution,thatmencanseethatinthesalvationofallwhodieininfancy,theinvisibleChurchofGodembracesthevastmajorityofthehumanrace—savednotbythewashingofwateradministeredbytheChurch,butbythebloodofChristadministeredbyGod'sownhandoutsideoftheordinarychannelsofhisgrace.Weareindeedborninsin,andthosethatdieininfancyare,inAdam,childrenofwrathevenasothers;butGod'shandisnotshortenedbythelimitsofHisChurchonearth,thatitcannotsave.InChristJesus,allsoulsaretheLord's,andonlythesoulthatitselfsinnethshalldie(Ezek.xviii.1-4);andtheonlyjudgmentwherewithmenshallbejudgedproceedsontheprinciplethatasmanyashavesinnedwithoutlawshallalsoperishwithoutlaw,andasmanyashavesinnedunderlawshallbe

judgedbythelaw(Rev.ii.12).

Thus,althoughAugustine'stheologyhadaverystrongchurchlyelementwithinit,itwas,onthesidethatispresentedinthecontroversyagainstPelagianism,distinctlyanti-ecclesiastical.ItscentralthoughtwastheabsolutedependenceoftheindividualonthegraceofGodinJesusChrist.ItmadeeverythingthatconcernedsalvationtobeofGod,andtracedthesourceofallgoodtoHim.'Withoutmeyecandonothing,'istheinscriptionononesideofit;ontheotherstandswritten,'Allthingsareyours.'Augustineheldthathewhobuildsonahumanfoundationbuildsonsand,andfoundedallhishopeontheRockitself.Andtherealsohefoundedhisteaching;ashedistrustedmaninthematterofsalvation,sohedistrustedhimintheformoftheology.NootherofthefatherssoconscientiouslywroughtouthistheologyfromtherevealedWord;nootherofthemsosternlyexcludedhumanadditions.Thesubjectsofwhichtheologytreats,hedeclares,aresuchas'wecouldbynomeansfindoutunlesswebelievedthemonthetestimonyofHolyScripture.''WhereScripturegivesnocertaintestimony,'hesays,'humanpresumptionmustbewarehowitdecidesinfavorofeitherside.''WemustfirstbendourneckstotheauthorityofScripture,'heinsists,'inorderthatwemayarriveatknowledgeandunderstandingthroughfaith.'Andthiswasnotmerelyhistheory,buthispractice.Notheologywasever,itmaybemorebroadlyasserted,moreconscientiouslywroughtoutfromtheScriptures.Isitwithouterror?No;butitserrorsareonthesurface,notoftheessence.ItleadstoGod,anditcamefromGod;andinthemidstofthecontroversiesofsomanyagesithasshownitselfanedificewhosesolidcoreisbuiltoutofmaterial'whichcannotbeshaken.'