Atlas of World History

PHI LIP'S I

ATLAS OFWORLDHISTORY

PHILIP'S

ATLAS OFWORLDHISTORY

GENERAL EDITOR, PATRICK K. O'BRIENINSTITUTE OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

Philip's Atlas of World History

First published in 2002 by Philip'san imprint of Octopus Publishing Group2-4 Heron QuaysLondonE144JP

Second edition 2005

Reprinted with revisions 2007

ISBN-13 978 0540 08867 6ISBN-10 0540 08867 6

Copyright © 2002-2007 Philip's

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CONTRIBUTORS

GENERAL CONSULTANT EDITORPatrick K. O'Brien FBACentennial Professor of Economic HistoryLondon School of EconomicsConvenor of the Programme in Global HistoryInstitute of Historical ResearchUniversity of London

CONSULTANT EDITOR: THE ANCIENTWORLDJane MclntoshUniversity of Cambridge

CONSULTANT EDITOR: THE MEDIEVALWORLDPeter HeatherReader in Early Medieval HistoryUniversity College LondonUniversity of London

CONSULTANT EDITOR: THE EARLYMODERN WORLDDavid OrmrodSenior Lecturer in Economic andSocial HistoryUniversity of Kent at Canterbury

CONSULTANT EDITOR: THE AGEOF REVOLUTIONSRoland QuinaultReader in HistoryUniversity of North London

CONSULTANT EDITOR: THE TWENTIETHCENTURYPat ThaneProfessor of Contemporary HistoryUniversity of Sussex

Reuven AmitaiSenior Lecturer and Department HeadDepartment of Islamic and MiddleEastern StudiesHebrew University of Jerusalem

Lito ApostolakouVisiting Research FellowCentre for Hellenic StudiesKing's CollegeUniversity of London

Dudley BainesReader in Economic HistoryLondon School of EconomicsUniversity of London

Ray BarrellSenior Research FellowNational Institute of Economic andSocial Research (NIESR), London

Antony BestLecturer in International HistoryLondon School of EconomicsUniversity of London

David BirminghamProfessor of Modern HistoryUniversity of Kent at Canterbury

Ian BrownProfessor of the Economic Historyof South East AsiaSchool of Oriental and African StudiesUniversity of London

Larry ButlerLecturer in Modern HistoryUniversity ofLuton

Peter CareyLaithwaite Fellow and Tutor inModern HistoryTrinity CollegeUniversity of Oxford

Evguenia DavidovaResearch AssociateInstitute of HistoryBulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia

Kent G. DengLecturer in Economic HistoryLondon School of EconomicsUniversity of London

Saul DubowReader in HistoryUniversity of Sussex

Ben FowkesSenior Lecturer in HistoryUniversity of North London

Ulrike FreitagLecturer in HistorySchool of Oriental and African StudiesUniversity of London

Stephen HoustonUniversity Professor of AnthropologyBrigham Young University

Janet E. HunterSaji Senior Lecturer in JapaneseEconomic and Social HistoryLondon School of EconomicsUniversity of London

Robert IliffeLecturer in the History of ScienceImperial College of Science, Technologyand MedicineUniversity of London

Timothy InsollLecturer in ArchaeologyUniversity of Manchester

Liz JamesLecturer in Art HistoryUniversity of Sussex

Simon KanerSenior ArchaeologistCambridge County Council

Zdenek KavanLecturer in International RelationsUniversity of Sussex

Thomas LormanSchool of Slavonic and European StudiesUniversity of London

Rachel MacLeanBritish Academy Post-DoctoralResearch Fellow in ArchaeologyUniversity of Cambridge

Patricia MercerSenior Lecturer in HistoryUniversity of North London

Nicola MillerLecturer in Latin American HistoryUniversity College LondonUniversity of London

David MorganSenior Lecturer in HistoryUniversity College LondonUniversity of London

Jean MorrinLecturer in HistoryUniversity of North London

R. C. NashLecturer in Economic and Social HistoryUniversity of Manchester

Colin NicolsonSenior Lecturer in HistoryUniversity of North London

Phillips O'BrienLecturer in Modern HistoryUniversity of Glasgow

David PotterSenior Lecturer in HistoryUniversity of Kent at Canterbury

Max-Stephan SchulzeLecturer in Economic HistoryLondon School of EconomicsUniversity of London

Ian SelbyResearch FellowSt Edmund's CollegeUniversity of Cambridge

Caroline SteeleLecturer in Iliad Program, Dartmouth CollegeResearch AssociateState University of New York at Binghamton

Diura Thoden van VelzenEnglish Heritage

Jessica B. ThurlowUniversity of Sussex

Luke TreadwellUniversity Lecturer in Islamic NumismaticsOriental InstituteUniversity of Oxford

Nick von TunzelmannProfessor of the Economics of Scienceand TechnologyScience and Technology Policy Research UnitUniversity of Sussex

Emily UmbergerAssociate Professor of Art HistoryArizona State University

Gabrielle Ward-SmithUniversity of Toronto

David WashbrookReader in Modern South Asian HistoryProfessorial Fellow of St Antonys CollegeUniversity of Oxford

Mark WhittowLecturer in Modern HistoryFellow of St Peter's CollegeUniversity of Oxford

Beryl J. WilliamsReader in HistoryUniversity of Sussex

Richard WiltshireSenior Lecturer in GeographySchool of Oriental and African StudiesUniversity of London

Neville WylieLecturer in Modern HistoryActing Director of the Scottish Centrefor War StudiesUniversity of Glasgow

CONTENTS10 FOREWORD

THEANCIENTWORLD

1 Colonization of the world 1.8 millionyears ago to 10,000 BC

2 The spread of farming c. 10,000-3000 BG

3 Civilizations c. 3000-1700 BC

4 Civilizations c. 500-200 BC

5 The world AD 200-500

16 THE HUMAN REVOLUTION:5 MILLION YEARS AGO TO 10,000 BC1 Early hominids2 The spread of hominids3 Colonization of the globe

18 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:ASIA 12,000 BC-AD 5001 Hunter-gatherers in Asia2 The birth of farming in the

Fertile Crescent3 Farmers of West and South Asia4 The spread of farming in East Asia

20 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:EUROPE 8000-200 BC1 The spread of farming in Europe

7000-3500 BG2 The age of copper 3500-2000 BG3 Bronze Age Europe 2500-800 BC4 Celtic Europe 800-200 BG

22 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:AFRICA 10,000 BC-AD 5001 Postglacial hunter-gathers in the

10th-6th millennia BC2 Farming in the 7th-lst millennia BC3 Trade and industry in the

1st millennium BC4 The spread of Bantu speakers

24 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:THE AMERICAS 12,000-1000 BC1 Colonization of the Americas2 Hunter-gatherers and early farmers in

North America from 8000 BC3 Farming in Mesoamerica 7000-1200 BC4 Farming in South America from 6500 BC

26 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC10,000 BC-AD 10001 Colonization of the Pacific2 Adapting to Australia3 Easter Island4 New Zealand

28 THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS:MESOPOTAMIA AND THE INDUS REGION4000-1800 BC1 Mesopotamia in the Early Dynastic

Period c. 2900 BG2ThecityofWarka

The city of Mohenjo-Daro3 International trade in the 4th and

3rd millennia BG4 The Indus civilization

30 THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS:EGYPT 3500-2180 BG AND CHINA 1700-1050 BG1 Old Kingdom Egypt2 Bronze-working in China3 Shang China c. 1700-1050 BG

32 CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA1200 BG-AD 7001 The Olmec c. 1200-300 BG2 Classic highland civilizations c. AD 1-7003 Patterns of urbanization4 Early Classic Maya c. AD 200-550

34 CULTURES IN SOUTH AMERICA1400 BC-AD 10001 Pre-Chavin and Chavin 1400-200 BG2 Nazca and Moche 375 BC-AD 6503 Tiwanaku and Huari AD 400-10004 Irrigation systems in the

Andean region

36 THE MEDITERRANEAN ANDTHE GULF REGION 2000-1000 BG1 Empires and trade in the 2nd millennium BC2 Middle and New Kingdom Egypt

2055-10693 Invasions and migrations in the

Mediterranean c. 1200 BG

38 EMPIRES AND TRADERS 1200-600 BC1 The Assyrian Empire 911-824 BG2 Phoenicia, Philistia, Israel and Judah3 The Phoenicians c. 800 BG4 Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian and

Median Empires 750-550 BC

40 CLASSICAL GREECE 750-400 BG1 Vegetation and agriculture2 Colonization and trade 750-550 BC3 The Persian Wars 492-479 BC4 The Peloponnesian War 431-404 BC

42 THE ACHAEMENID AND HELLENISTICWORLD 600-30 BC1 The expansion of the Achaemenid Empire2 The growth of Macedonia3 The Hellenistic world4 The successor kingdoms

44 THE BIRTH OF WORLD RELIGIONS1500 BG-AD 6001 World religions to AD 6002 The spread of Buddhism to AD 6003 The Holy Land4 The origins and spread of Christianity

to AD 600

46 FIRST EMPIRES IN INDIA 600 BC-AD 5001 Kingdoms and empires 400 BC-AD 5002 Invaders and settlers3 Town and country4 Trade and religion

48 FIRST EMPIRES IN CHINA 1100 BC-AD 2201 The emergence of unified China

350-221 BC2 The Han Empire 206 BG-AD 2203 The city of Chang'an4 Agriculture and commerce

1st century BG

50 PEOPLES OF CENTRAL ASIA6000 BC-AD 5001 Southwestern Central Asia

c. 6000-2000 BG2 Central Asia c. 2000-1000 BC

3 Spread of Indo-European languages4 Nomad confederacies 800 BC-AD 1005 Nomads in the 4th and 5th centuries AD

52 EURASIAN TRADE 150 BC-AD 5001 Trading networks 150 BC-AD 5002 Southeast Asia 150 BC-AD 500

54 THE ROMAN EMPIRE 500 BC-AD 4001 The Roman Empire AD 1062 The defence of the empire AD 100-3003 Trade in the Roman Empire

56 BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF THEROMAN EMPIRE 100-5001 Germanic tribes in the 1st century AD2 Barbarians beyond the frontier 100-3503 Invasions and migrations 375-4504 Successor kingdoms c. 500

58

THEMEDIEVALWORLD

1 Food production in the 15th century

2 States, empires and cultural regionsc. 1200

62 RELIGIONS OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD600-15001 World religions 750-14502 The Christian world c. 700-10503 Religions in Asia c. 1500

64 KINGDOMS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA 500-15001 Kingdoms in mainland Southeast

Asia 500-8002 Kingdoms and empires 800-12003 Kingdoms, sultanates and trade 1200-1450

66 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 527-10251 Boundaries and campaigns

of conquest 527-10252 The themes c. 10253 Religion and trade4 Constantinople c. 1025

68 THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 630-10001 The Islamic conquests to 7502 Territories controlled by Abbasid

caliph in the 9th century3 The early Abbasid city of Baghdad4 Central Islamic lands in the 10th century

70 THE FIRST SLAVIC STATES 400-10001 The spread of Slavic culture 300-6602 State formation c. 800-10003 Trade c. 700-10004 Slavic states c. 1000

72 EAST ASIA IN THE TANG PERIOD 618-9071 East and Central Asia 618-9072 Tang China 618-9073 Korea c. 6004 Korea and Japan 750-900

74 PRANKISH KINGDOMS 200-9001 The growth of Frankish kingdoms2 The empire of Charlemagne and his

successors3 The Carolingian Renaissance4 The 9th-century Frankish economy

12

1

2

ATLAS O F W O R L D H I S T O R Y : C O N T E N T S

76 PEOPLES OF THE EUROPEAN STEPPE350-10001 Hunnic campaigns in the 5th century2 The Avars in the 6th century3 The western steppe c. 8954 The Magyars 896-955

78 THE VIKINGS 800-11001 Voyages of exploration2 Viking trade and raids3 Conquest and settlement 865-924 Conquest and settlement 892-9115 The kingdom of Denmark in the

llth century

80 STATES AND TRADE INWEST AFRICA 500-15001 States in West Africa 500-15002 Vegetation zones in West Africa3 Principal trade commodities

and trade routes 800-1500

82 STATES AND TRADE IN EAST AFRICA500-15001 States and trading communities2 Trade routes and commodities3 Great Zimbabwe

84 CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA ANDSOUTH AMERICA 500-15001 Sican and Chimu cultures 850-14752 Late Classic Maya 550-9003 Post-Classic Yucatan and highland

Mexico c. 900-15004 Western Mesoamerica 500-1475

86 EAST ASIA 907-16001 China under the Northern Song c. 10002 East Asia in 11503 Korea under the Koryo dynasty 936-13924 Korea and Japan 1400-1600

88 THE MUSLIM WORLD 1000-14001 The Muslim world 10222 The Seljuk Empire 10923 The Muslim world 12004 India under the Sultanate of Delhi

1211-13985 The Muslim world 1308

90 THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 962-13561 The Holy Roman Empire c. 950-13602 Switzerland 1291-15293 German expansion to c. 1360

92 FRANCE, SPAIN AND ENGLAND 900-13001 The kingdoms of France and Burgundy

c. 10502 Spain 11573 Spain and the western Mediterranean 13004 English lands 12955 The kingdoms of France and Aries 1265

94 THE WORLD OF THE CRUSADERS1095-12911 The First Crusade 1095-992 The Crusader States 11403 The Crusader States 11864 The Third Crusade 1189-925 The Fifth Crusade 1217-21

96 THE DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE ANDRISE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRES 1025-15001 The Byzantine Empire 1025-10962 The Balkans and Anatolia after the

fall of Constantinople 1204

3 The Byzantine Empire: restorationand decline 1340-60

4 The growth of the Ottoman Empire1307-1481

98 THE MONGOL EMPIRE 1206-14051 The Mongol conquests 1207-792 Mongol campaigns in eastern Europe3 The successor khanates4 Area subjugated by Timur-leng

1360-1405

100 THE ECONOMY OF EUROPE 950-13001 The rise of specialist production in

western Europe from 9502 Rural growth: the Chartres region of France3 Urban growth across Europe4 Mediterranean trade in the 12th and

13th centuries

102 URBAN COMMUNITIES IN WESTERNEUROPE 1000-15001 The urban population of Europe c. 13002 Northern and central Italy c. 15003 The Low Countries c. 1500

104 CRISIS IN EUROPE AND ASIA 1330-521 Eurasian trade routes in the 14th century2 The spread of the Black Death in Europe

106 EUROPE 1350-15001 Europe c. 14002 The Hundred Years' War 1337-14533 The Church during the Great Schism

1378-14174 The economy after the Black Death

108 CULTURES IN NORTH AMERICA 500-15001 The Pueblo Peoples2 Chaco Canyon3 Moundbuilders of the Mississippi4 Native American peoples c.15005 Movements of Native American peoples

14th to 18th centuries

110 THE INCA AND AZTEC EMPIRES 1400-15401 The Inca Empire2 Plan of Inca Cuzco3 The provinces of the Aztec Empire c.1520

112

THE EARLYMODERNWORLD

1 Eurasian land empires c. 1700

2 European world trade 1500

3 World trading empires 1770

116 THE EUROPEAN DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD1450-16001 Voyages of exploration 1485-16002 Routes across the Pacific

118 EUROPEANS IN ASIA 1500-17901 The Portuguese in Asia c.15802 European activity in Asia c.16503 Principal commodities in Asian trade

1600-1750

120 SPAIN AND THE AMERICAS 1492-15501 The Caribbean 1492-1550

2 Central and southern North America1519-1550

3 Cortes' expedition to Tenochtitlan4 South America 1526-50

122 THE COLONIZATION OF CENTRAL ANDSOUTH AMERICA 1500-17801 Mexico, Central America and

eastern Caribbean 1520-17502 Spanish and Portuguese South

America 1525-17503 Administrative divisions of Spanish

and Portuguese America 1780

124 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICAAND THE CARIBBEAN 1600-17631 Colonization of the North American

mainland to 17502 Colonization of the Caribbean 1625-17633 The Seven Years' War 1756-63

126 SLAVE ECONOMIES OF THE WESTERNHEMISPHERE 1500-18801 The transatlantic slave trade2 Slave economies of the western

hemisphere

128 THE GROWTH OF THE ATLANTIC ECONOMIES1620-17751 The distribution of population in

Europe c. 16502 The Atlantic economies 1650-1750

130 THE RISE OF EUROPEAN COMMERCIALEMPIRES 1600-18001 European empires and trade2 World silver flows 1650-1750

132 EUROPEAN URBANIZATION 1500-18001 European urbanization 15002 European urbanization 16003 European urbanization 17004 European urbanization 18005 The growth of London 1600-1700

134 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE 1500-17701 Centres of learning c. 17702 Scientific and technological

innovations 1650-1735

136 AFRICA 1500-18001 Peoples, kingdoms and economic activity

1500-18002 Towns and trade centres of the Gold and

Slave Coasts 1500-1800

138 MING AND MANCHU QJNG CHINA 1368-18001 Trade and production centres in the

Ming period2 Voyages of Zheng He 1405-333 Ming and Manchu Qjng imperial borders

140 TOKUGAWA JAPAN 1603-18671 Major domains and regions in the late

Tokugawa period2 Major transport routes in the late

Tokugawa period3 Urbanization in the late Tokugawa period

142 THE OTTOMAN AND SAFAVID EMPIRES1500-16831 The growth of the Ottoman Empire to 16832 The making of the Ottoman-Safavid

frontier 1514-16393 Trade routes in the 16th and 17th centuries

3

CONTENTS C O N T I N U E D

144 INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS 1526-17651 Mughal conquests 1506-16052 Trade and manufacturing3 Expansion and encroachments 1605-17074 An empire in decline

146 EUROPEAN STATES 1500-16001 Europe c. 15602 France in the 16th century3 Italy 1500-59

148 THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA 1462-17951 The expansion of Muscovy2 The growth of the Russian Empire3 Russian development in the west 1598-1795

150 SWEDEN, POLAND AND THE BALTIC 1500-17951 Swedish expansion in the 16th and

17th centuries2 Swedish military ativity c. 1620-17103 Sweden in 17214 The Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania

1462-16725 Partitions of Poland 1772-95

152 THE HABSBURG EMPIRE 1490-17001 The Habsburg Empire 1556-16182 The Burgundian inheritance3 The Habsburgs in central Europe 1618-1700

154 THE REFORMATION AND COUNTERREFORMATION IN EUROPE 1517-16481 The Protestant and Catholic Reformation2 The Reformation in Switzerland3 The Reformation and religious

conflict in France

156 REVOLUTION AND STABILITY IN EUROPE1600-17851 Wars and revolts in Europe 1618-16802 The acquisitions of Louis XIV 1643-17153 The expansion of Prussia 1618-1795

158 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WARFARE IN EUROPE1450-17501 Major fortifications and battles 1450-17502 The Thirty Years War 1618-48

160

THEAGE OFREVOLUTIONS

1 Political systems 1914

2 Major European conflicts 1770-1913

3 Major military conflicts outside Europe1770-1913

164 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1775-831 The colonial economy c. 17702 British North America 1763-753 The American War of Independence 1775-83

166 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONICEUROPE 1789-18151 Revolutionary France 1789-942 Napoleonic Europe 1796-18153 European coalitions 1793-1815

168 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN1750-18501 Resources and development in England 1750

2 The cotton textile industry in Lancashire1850

3 Industry in Britain 1850

170 THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF EUROPE 1830-19141 The growth of industry and railways2 The level of industrialization 18603 The level of industrialization 1913

172 REVOLUTION AND REACTION IN EUROPE1815-491 Treaty settlements in Europe 1814-152 Civil unrest in Europe 1819-18313 Centres of revolution 1848-49

174 THE HABSBURG EMPIRE: EXPANSION ANDDECLINE 1700-19181 Territorial expansion and contraction

1700-18142 Habsburg territories 1814-19143 Nationalities in Austria-Hungary 19004 Revolution in the Austrian Empire 1848-49

176 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND OFGERMANY 1815-711 Italy after the Congress of Vienna 18152 The unification of Italy3 The German Confederation, Austrian

Empire, Prussia and Denmark 18154 Germany from confederation to empire

178 THE DECLINE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE1683-19231 The decline of the Ottoman Empire

1683-19232 Retreat in the Balkans 1699-17393 Retreat in the Caucasus 1826-784 The birth of the Republic of Turkey 1920-23

180 RUSSIAN TERRITORIAL AND ECONOMICEXPANSION 1795-19141 The territorial expansion of the

Russian Empire 1795-19142 The economic development of European

Russia 1800-19143 The years of revolution 1905-7

182 THE WESTWARD EXPANSION OF THEUNITED STATES 1783-19101 Territorial expansion from 17832 Stages of settlement3 Routes of exploration and settlement4 Treatment of the Native Americans

184 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 1861-651 The slave population and cotton production2 The legal position of slavery 18613 The Civil War

186 THE INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF THEUNITED STATES 1790-19001 Railroads and canals 18602 Industrial development 18903 Population and urbanization 1900

188 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CANADA 1763-19141 Settlement in eastern Canada before 18252 Westward expansion to 19113 Political development since 1867

190 INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICAAND THE CARIBBEAN 1780-18301 Latin America and the Caribbean 18002 Liberation campaigns of Bolivar and

San Martin3 Latin America and the Caribbean 1830

192 LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEANPOST-INDEPENDENCE 1830-19141 South America 1830-19142 Mexico 1824-673 Central America and the Caribbean

1830-1910

194 THE BRITISH IN INDIA 1608-19201 The growth of British dominion 1756-18052 Expansion of the empire 1805-583 The empire 1858-19144 Agriculture and railways 1850-1925

196 SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE AGE OFIMPERIALISM 1790-19141 Autonomous states and colonies 1792-18602 The High Colonial Age 1870-1914

198 LATE MANCHU QING CHINA 1800-19111 Wars against China 1840-952 Foreign spheres of influence and treaty ports3 The Taiping Rebellion4 The 1911 Revolution

200 THE MODERNIZATION OF JAPAN 1867-19371 Urbanization, industrialization and

modern prefectures2 Growth of the railway network3 Acquisitions overseas 1870-1933

202 THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUSTRALIA ANDNEW ZEALAND SINCE 17901 Exploration of Australia and New Zealand

1606-18742 Economic development of Australia3 Economic development of New Zealand

204 AFRICA 1800-801 Principal African and European trading

routes c. 18402 The spread of Islam and Christianity

1860-19003 European exploration

206 THE PARTITION OF AFRICA 1880-19391 Africa on the eve of the First World War2 The South African (Boer) War 1899-19023 Colonial economic development

208 WORLD TRADE AND EMPIRES 1870-19141 Empires and patterns of world trade2 International investment 1914

210 WORLD POPULATION GROWTH ANDURBANIZATION 1800-19141 World population growth and urbanization

1700-19002 Major population movements 1500-1914

212

THETWENTIETHCENTURY

1 Wars 1914-452 Wars since 19453 Major trading blocs 1998

216 THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR1871-19141 European Alliances 18822 European Alliances 19143 The Balkan Wars 1912-13

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A T L A S O F W O R L D H I S T O R Y : C O N T E N T S

218 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-181 The First World War in Europe and the

Middle East2 The Western Front3 Trench warfare: Battle of the Somme

220 OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR1918-291 Europe in 19142 Treaty settlements in Europe 1919-233 The division of the Ottoman Empire4 Post-war alliances

222 THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 1917-391 Revolution and civil war in Russia2 Revolutionary activity in Europe

1919-233 The Soviet Union 1928-39

224 THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA 1911-491 Communist retrenchment 1934-362 Civil war 1945-493 Industrial development 1895-1949

226 LATIN AMERICA 1914-451 Increasing urban population 1920-502 US influence in Mexico, Central

America and the Caribbean3 Latin America in the First World War4 Latin America in the Second World War

228 THE GREAT DEPRESSION 1929-331 The effect of the Depression in North

America2 The effect of the Depression in Europe3 Decline in exports from countries trading

mainly in primary products 1928-29 to1932-33

4 Countries on the gold standard 1929-34

230 THE RISE OF FASCISM 1921-391 Expansion of the Italian Empire 1922-392 Expansion of Nazi Germany 1933-393 The Spanish Civil War 1936-394 Right-wing dictatorships 1919-39

232 THE SECOND WORLD WAR IN EUROPE1939_451 Military campaigns in Europe 1939-452 Germany's "New Order" in Europe

November 19423 Central Europe 1945

234 THE WAR IN ASIA 1931-451 The Japanese in China 1931-452 The Japanese offensive 1941-423 The Allied offensive 1942-45

236 THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERNEUROPE 1945-891 Communist Eastern Europe 1945-892 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

in the 1970s3 The economy of the Soviet Union

and Eastern Europe 1948-89

238 WESTERN EUROPE SINCE 19451 The economic effect of the Second

World War2 The economic integration of Western

Europe3 Employment in industry and services

1950 and 1991

240 THE UNITED STATES SINCE 19001 Population changes 1900-962 Distribution of non-white population 19003 Distribution of non-white population and

civil rights demonstrations from 1955

242 THE ROLE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THEWORLD SINCE 19451 US security commitments post-19452 US overseas trading commitments

1930s-1990s

244 THE COLD WAR 1947-911 Cold War conflicts2 The Korean War 1950-533 The Cuban Missile Crisis 1962

246 THE BREAKDOWN OF EMPIRES SINCE 19451 Colonies and mandates 19392 Decolonization 1945-983 Commonwealth of Nations4 Decolonization in the Caribbean

248 SOUTH ASIA SINCE 19201 Administrative structure of India

in the 1930s2 The partition of India 19473 Disputed territory and separatist

movements

250 SOUTHEAST ASIA SINCE 19201 The end of Western rule2 The Vietnam War 1959-753 Trade and urbanization

252 JAPAN SINCE 19451 Changes in distribution of population

since 19602 Distribution of manufacturing output

since 19603 Japanese investment and trade in East Asia

254 THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA SINCE19491 Population distribution in 19762 Land productivity and major industrial

centres in the 1980s3 Open cities and Special Economic Zones

256 AFRICA SINCE 19391 Independent Africa2 Multiparty democracy3 South Africa under apartheid4 South Africa after apartheid

258 LATIN AMERICA SINCE 19451 Main exports in the 1990s2 US intervention in Latin America

since 19453 Ethnic composition

260 THE MIDDLE EAST SINCE 19451 The Middle East and surrounding region

since 19452 The Palestine conflict3 The Arab-Israeli Wars 1967 and 19734 Wars in the Gulf 1980-88 and 1990-91

262 THE FORMER REPUBLICS OF THESOVIET UNION SINCE 19891 The break-up of the Soviet Union since 19912 Caucasus region 1988-983 The August rebellion 1991

264 EASTERN EUROPE SINCE 19891 The transition from communism to

democracy 1989-962 Economic development 1990-973 Former Yugoslavia 1991-99

266 UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING SINCE 19451 UN membership and peacekeeping

operations2 The division of Cyprus 19743 The UN in Bosnia 1994

268 HUMAN RIGHTS SINCE 19141 The spread of democracy2 Religious and ethnic conflicts 1917-983 The division of Ireland 1922

270 THE POSITION OF WOMEN SINCE 19141 Women and the right to vote2 Women in employment 1990s3 Girls in secondary education 19984 Women elected to the US Congress

272 THE WORLD ECONOMY SINCE 19451 The richest 20 countries 1950/1970/19902 The oil crisis 1973-743 Openness to trade 1980

274 CHANGES IN POPULATION SINCE 19451 Population increase 1950-972 Urbanization of the world3 Human migration 1918-98

276 PATTERNS OF HEALTH AND ILL-HEALTHSINCE 19451 Expenditure on health as percentage of

GNP 1960-652 Expenditure on health as percentage of

GNP 1990-953 Infant mortality rates 1990-954 Food consumption and major famines

since the 1940s

278 STANDARDS OF LIVING SINCE 19451 Distribution of wealth2 Human Development Index3 Literacy and education 1995

280 THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENTSINCE 19451 Carbon dioxide emissions and threatened

coastlines2 Threat to the Ganges delta3 Deforestation in the 20th century4 Acid deposition and urban pollution

1990s5 Water pollution since the 1960s

282 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONSINCE 19451 Car ownership and production2 Passenger kilometres (miles) flown 19943 Computer ownership

284 INDEX

308 BIBLIOGRAPHY

312 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

FOREWORDhere could be no more opportune time than thestart of the third millennium AD to produce anentirely new atlas of world history. Not only does

this symbolic (if arbitrary) moment provoke a mood ofpublic retrospection, but the pace of global change itselfdemands a greater awareness of "whole world" history.More than 20 years have passed since a major new atlasof this kind was published in the English language. Inthat period there has been an explosion of new researchinto the histories of regions outside Europe and NorthAmerica, and a growing awareness of how parochial ourtraditional approach to history has been. In this changedenvironment, the demand for an un-biased overview ofworld history has steadily grown in schools and colleges,and among the general reading public.

Several developments within the study of academichistory promote the seriousness with which histories ofthe world are now taken. First the accumulation ofknowledge about the past of different nations has engen-dered excessive specialization. The sheer volume ofpublications and data about details of the past stimulatesdemand from students, scholars and a wider public forguidelines, meaning and "big pictures" that worldhistory, with its unconfined time frame and wider geo-graphical focus, is positioned to meet.

Secondly the broadening of traditional history's centralconcerns (with states, warfare and diplomacy) in orderto take account of modern concerns with, for example,ecology, evolutionary biology, botany, the health andwealth of populations, human rights, gender, familysystems and private life, points the study of historytowards comparisons between Western and non-Westerncultures and histories.

Thirdly young people now arrive at universities withportfolios of know-ledge and aroused curiosities about avariety of cultures. They are less likely than their prede-cessors to study national let alone regional and parochialhistories. Schools and universities need to provide accessto the kind of historical understanding that will satisfytheir interests. To nourish the cosmopolitan sensibilityrequired for the next millennium, history needs to bewidened and repositioned to bring the subject into fruit-ful exchange with geography and the social sciences.Barriers between archaeology, ancient, classical,medieval, early modern, contemporary and other "pack-ages" of traditional but now anachronistic histories arebeing dismantled.

Unsurprisingly, the implications of "globalization" forhitherto separ-ated communities, disconnectedeconomies and distinctive cultures have been analysedby social scientists. They serve governments who are

uneasily aware that their powers to control economiesand societies nominally under their jurisdiction arebeing eroded, both by radical improvements in the tech-nologies for the transportation of goods and peoplearound the world and by the vastly more efficient com-munications systems that diffuse commercialintelligence, political messages and cultural informationbetween widely separated populations.

A NEW PERSPECTIVE ON WORLD HISTORYAs the world changes at an accelerated pace, for problemafter problem and subject after subject, national frame-works for political action and academic enquiry arerecognized as unsatisfactory. Historians are being askedfor a deeper perspective on the technological, politicaland economic forces that are now transforming tradi-tional frameworks for human behaviour, and reshapingpersonal identities around the world. Philip's Atlas ofWorld History has been designed, constructed andwritten by a team of professional historians not only forthe general reader but to help teachers of history inschools and universities to communicate that perspec-tive to their pupils and students.

World histories cannot be taught or read without a clearcomprehension of the chronologies and regional para-meters within which different empires, states andpeoples have evolved through time. A modern historicalatlas is the ideal mode of presentation for ready refer-ence and for the easy acquisition of basic facts uponwhich courses in world history can be built, deliveredand studied. Such atlases unify history with geography.They "encapsulate" knowledge by illuminating the sig-nificance of locations for seminal events in world history.For example a glance at maps on pages 78 and 116-7 willimmediately reveal why explorers and ships fromwestern Europe were more likely (before the advent ofsteam-powered ships) to reach the Americas than sailorsfrom China or India. More than any other factor it wasprobably a matter of distance and the prevailing windson the Atlantic that precluded Asian voyages to theAmericas.

Historical atlases should be accurate, accessible anddisplay the unfurling chronology of world history inmemorable maps and captions. The team of historians,cartographers and editors who collaborated in the con-struction of Philip's Atlas of World History set out toproduce a popular work of reference that could beadopted for university and school courses in worldhistory. In the United States and Canada such coursesare already commonplace and the subject is now spread-ing in Britain, Europe, Japan and China. New textbooksappear regularly. American journals dealing with worldhistory publish debates of how histories designed to

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cover long chronologies and unconfined geographiesmight be as rigorous and as intellectually compelling asmore orthodox histories dealing with individuals,parishes, towns, regions, countries and single continents.The editors attempted to become familiar with as manycourse outlines as possible.

Their plans for the atlas were informed by the ongoing,contemporary debate (largely North American) aboutthe scale, scope and nature of world history. Forexample, they were aware that most "model" textbooksin world history are usually constructed around thegrand themes of "connections" and "comparisons"across continents and civilizations, and that a scientifi-cally informed appreciation of environmental,evolutionary and biological constraints on all humanactivity are regarded as basic to any understanding ofworld history.

Through its carefully designed system of cross-referenc-ing, this atlas promotes the appreciation of"connections", "contacts" and "encounters" promotedthrough trade, transportation, conquest, colonization,disease and botanical exchanges and the diffusion ofmajor religious beliefs. It also aims to facilitate "com-parisons" across space and through time of the majorforces at work in world history, including warfare, revo-lutions, state formation, religious conversion, industrialdevelopment, scientific and technological discoveries,demographic change, urbanization and migration.Histories or atlases of the world are potentially limitlessin their geographical and chronological coverage.Publications in the field are inevitably selective and asWilliam McNeill opined: "Knowing what to leave out isthe hallmark of scholarship in world history".

HISTORY IN ITS BROADEST CONTEXTAs I write this foreword conflict escalates in the MiddleEast. The crisis in the Middle East features in Part 5:"The Twentieth Century", but in the atlas it is also set inthe context not just of our times, but of the whole spanof history. The atlas opens with "The Human Revolution:5 million years ago to 10,000 BC" placed within an inno-vative opening section dealing largely with archaeologicalevidence for the evolution of tools and other artefacts, aswell as the transition from hunting to farming in all thecontinents except Antarctica from around 10,000 BC.

This first section also covers connections and compar-isons across the first civilizations in Mesopotamia, theIndus Valley, Egypt, China and Mesoamerica and SouthAmerica as well as those later and more familiar empiresof Greece, India, China and Rome. Yet the editors havealso ensured that small countries (such as Korea), impor-tant but often forgotten traders and explorers (such as

the Vikings), and the nomadic peoples of Central Asia,the Americas and Africa have found their place in thiscomprehensive atlas of world history.

Furthermore, coverage of the world wars of the 20thcentury, the Great Depression, the rise of communismand fascism, decolonization and the end of the Cold Warand the events of the 1990s makes the atlas into a dis-tinctive work of first references for courses in currentaffairs and contemporary history. Facts, brief analysesand illuminating maps of such seminal events in worldhistory as the transition to settled agriculture, the inven-tions of writing and printing, the birth of religions, theRoman Empire, Song China, the discovery of theAmericas, the Scientific, French and IndustrialRevolutions, the foundation of the Soviet Union and ofcommunist China are all carefully chronicled and repre-sented on colourful maps drawn using the latestcartographic technology. Although any general atlas ofworld history will, and should, give prominence to suchtraditional, historical themes as the rise and decline ofempires, states and civilizations, a serious effort has beenmade wherever possible in the atlas to accord properemphasis to the communal concerns of humankind,including religion, economic welfare, trade, technology,health, the status of women and human rights.

The Philip's Atlas can be used easily to find out about asignificant event (The American Revolution), the historyof defined places and populations (India under theMughals 152 6-1765), religious transitions (TheReformation and Counter Reformation in Europe1517-1648), or social movements on a world scale(World Population Growth and Urbanization1800-1914). Nevertheless the atlas has also beendesigned in the context of a remarkable revival in worldhistory, which is now underway, and which representsan exciting alternative to histories narrowly focused onthe experience of national communities. World historyoffers chronologies, perspectives and geographical para-meters which aim to attenuate the excesses of ethnicity,chauvinism and condescension. The length and breadthof an atlas of world history covering all continents, and achronology going back twelve millennia, can work to sep-arate the provincial from the universal, the episodic fromthe persistent. It can expose the decline as well as therise of societies, nations, cultures and civilizations. In sofar as this atlas succeeds in these goals, and thus con-tributes to the widespread aspiration for an education inworld history, it can also help nurture a cosmopolitansensibility for the new millennium.

Patrick K. O'Brien FBAInstitute of Historical Research, University of London

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The first humans evolved in Africa around two million years ago. By

9000 BG their descendants had spread to most parts of the globe and in

some areas were beginning to practise agriculture. From around 4000 BG

the first civilizations developed, initially in the Near East and India and

subsequently in China, Mesoamerica and South America. In the centuries

that followed, to AD 500, many states and empires rose and fell.

The world was not colonized

in a single movement; therewere at least two major episodes.In the first, between 1.8 millionand 300,000 years ago, earlyHomo spread from Africa as faras China and western Europe. Inthe second, the descendants ofearly //o/nowere replaced byrepresentatives of modernhumans, Homo sapiens, whoreached Australia by 60,000 andthe Americas by 14,000 yearsago. During the whole of thisperiod the migration of humans

number of ice ages, when sealevels fell to reveal land"bridges" that in later yearsbecame submerged.

ome five to eight million years ago, a speciesof small African primates began walkingupright. While there are many theories about

the advantages conferred by moving on two legsrather than four, there is general agreement thatthe success of the hominid line (humans and theirancestors) is due in part to the adoption of thisnew method of locomotion. Between five and onemillion years ago, hominid species proliferated inEast Africa and southern Africa, giving rise by 1.8million years ago to the new genus, //orao, towhich we ourselves belong (map J).

The development by Homo of stone tools - and,we may presume, tools that have not survived,made of other materials such as bone and wood -was a major advance in human evolution, allowingour ancestors to engage in activities for which theylacked the physical capabilities. This ability todevelop technology to overcome our physicallimitations has enabled us to develop from a smalland restricted population of African apes to aspecies that dominates every continent exceptAntarctica and has even reached the moon.Between 1.8 million and 300,000 years ago,members of our genus colonized much of temperateEurope and Asia as well as tropical areas, aided bytheir ability to use fire and create shelter. By9000 BG the only parts of the globe which modernhumans - Homo sapiens - had not reached weresome remote islands and circumpolar regions.

With the development of agricultureand settled communities there was agrowing need for storage. Potterybegan to be made on a wide scale inorder to meet this need, but it alsoserved as a vehicle for human artisticactivity. This Maya cylindrical pottery

vessel depicts players in a ballgamethat was an important ritual activitythroughout the ancient civilizations ofMesoamerica. A standard but as yetundeciphered text in the complexMaya hieroglyphic writing runs roundthe top of the vessel.

FROM HUNTING TO FARMINGIn 10,000 BG the world was inhabited solely bygroups who lived by hunting and gathering wildfoods. Within the succeeding 8,000 years, however,much of the world was transformed (map 2).People in many parts of the world began to producetheir own food, domesticating and selectivelybreeding plants and animals. Farming supportedlarger and more settled communities, allowing theaccumulation of stored food surpluses - albeit withthe counterpoised risks involved in clearing areasof plants and animals that had formerly been asource of back-up food in lean years. Agriculturalcommunities expanded in many regions, forexample colonizing Europe and South Asia, and indoing so radically changed the landscape.

THE ANCIENT WORLD

s

was greatiy affected by a

1

Rock paintings, such as these "X-ray

style" figures from Nourlangie in

Australia's Northern Territory, provide a

fascinating record of the everyday

world of hunter-gatherers. They also

give some insight into the rich spiritual

and mythological life of the people

who created them.

FIRST CIVILIZATIONSAs the millennia passed there was continuinginnovation in agricultural techniques and tools,with the domestication of more plants and animalsand the improvement by selective breeding of thosealready being exploited. These developmentsincreased productivity and allowed the colonizationof new areas. Specialist pastoral groups moved intopreviously uninhabited, inhospitable desert regions.Swamps were drained in Mesoamerica and SouthAmerica and highly productive raised fields wereconstructed in their place. Irrigation techniquesallowed the cultivation of river valleys in otherwisearid regions, such as Mesopotamia and Egypt.

High agricultural productivity supported highpopulation densities, and towns and cities grew up,often with monumental public architecture.However, there were also limitations in theseregions, such as an unreliable climate or riverregime, or a scarcity of important raw materials(such as stone), and there was often conflictbetween neighbouring groups. Religious or secularleaders who could organize food storage andredistribution, craft production, trade, defence andsocial order became increasingly powerful. Thesefactors led to the emergence of the firstcivilizations in many parts of the world betweenaround 4000 and 200 BG (maps 3 and 4 overleaf).A surplus of agricultural produce was used in thesecivilizations to support a growing number ofspecialists who were not engaged in foodproduction: craftsmen, traders, priests and rulers,as well as full-time warriors - although the majorityof soldiers were normally farmers.

Specialists in some societies included scribes.The development of writing proved a majoradvance, enabling vast quantities of humanknowledge and experience to be recorded, sharedand passed on. Nevertheless, in most societiesliteracy was confined to an elite - priests, rulersand the scribes they employed - who used it as ameans of religious, political or economic control.In most parts of the world, the belief that thereshould be universal access to knowledge recordedin writing is a recent phenomenon.

RITUAL AND RELIGIONAlthough without written records it is impossible toreconstruct details of the belief systems of pastsocieties, evidence of religious beliefs and ritualactivities abounds, particularly in works of art,monumental structures and grave offerings.

Farming developed in manyparts of the world from around10,000 BC. Differences in thelocally available plants and

animals and in local conditionsgave rise to much variationbetween regions. Domestic

animals, for example, played an

important part in Old World

agriculture, whereas farmers in

Mesoamerica and North America

relied heavily on wild animals

and crops such as beans for

protein. A settled lifestyle usually

depended on the practice of

agriculture. However, in some

areas, such as the Pacific coast of

North America, an abundant

supply of wild resources allowedsettled communities to develop

without agriculture.

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Intensive and highlyproductive agriculture gave riseto civilized societies inMesopotamia, Egypt andnorthern India in the 4th and3rd millennia BC and in ChinabylZOOBC.

etween 1200 and 500 BCcivilized societies wereestablished in the Americas. Bythis time the early states ofEurasia and Africa had declined

such as the Persian Empire,Minoan and Mycenaean Greeceand the Zhou state in China.

Ritual and religion were a powerful spur to thecreation of monumental architecture by literateurban societies such as the Egyptians, Greeks andRomans, but also in smaller societies dependent onagriculture, such as the prehistoric inhabitants ofEurope who built the megalithic tombs, or themoundbuilders of North America. Monuments alsoreflected other factors, such as a desire for prestigeor to affirm territorial rights. Although suchbuilding activity implied the ability to mobilizelarge numbers of people, this did not necessarilyrequire hierarchical social control; it could beachieved within the framework of a community ledby elders or priests.

A Scenes from the life and "former by which time several major religionslives" of Buddha (c. 563-483 BC) are - Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism,

among those decorating the stupa at Buddhism and Christianity - hadAmaravati in southern India. The stupa developed and begun to spreaddates mostly from the 2nd century AD, through Asia and Europe.

Concern with the proper disposal of the deadwas displayed from Neanderthal times, more than50,000 years ago. In the burial or other treatmentof the body regarded as appropriate (such ascremation or exposure), the dead were oftenaccompanied by grave offerings. These could rangefrom food or small items of personal dress, to largenumbers of sacrificed relatives or retainers as intombs dating from the 3rd millennium BC in Egyptand the 2nd millennium BC in Shang China. Theofferings might be related to life after death, forwhich the deceased needed to be equipped, butalso frequently reflected aspects of the deadperson's social position in life.

New regions became caught up inthe expansion of states: Korea andparts of Central Asia fell to the ChineseHan Empire, Europe was swept up bythe Roman Empire, and the NorthAmerican southwest came under thecultural influence of Mesoamerican

states. Elsewhere, however, farmers,herders and hunter-gatherers continuedtheir traditional lifestyle, affected tovarying degrees by their civilizedneighbours, who regarded them as"barbarians". Such "barbarians" couldturn the tide of empires: Central Asiannomads were the periodic scourge ofWest, South and East Asia forthousands of years, and Germanicconfederacies, with Central Asians,brought down the Western RomanEmpire in the middle of the 1stmillennium AD.

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and been replaced by others,

Grave offerings often provide valuable cluesabout past social organization. They also point tothe important part played by artisans in thedevelopment of civilized communities, in particularproducing prestige items for use by the elite andmanufactured goods to be traded in exchange forvital raw materials. In developed agriculturalsocieties, craft production was unlikely to be a full-time pursuit for more than a handful of individuals,but this did not prevent high standards beingreached in many communities.

Unlike pottery, which was made by the majorityof settled communities, and stone, used for toolsworldwide from very early times, metalworking didnot develop in all parts of the globe, due in part tothe distribution of ores. Initially metal artefactstended to be prestige objects, used to demonstrateindividual or community status, but metal was soonused for producing tools as well. The developmentof techniques for working iron, in particular, was amajor breakthrough, given the abundance andwidespread distribution of iron ore.

STATES AND EMPIRESBy about 500 BG ironworking was well establishedin Europe, West and South Asia, and in parts ofEast Asia and Africa. States had developed in mostof these regions at least a thousand years before,but for a variety of reasons the focal areas of theseentities had changed over the course of time(map 4). The formerly fertile lower reaches of theEuphrates, cradle of the Mesopotamian civilization,had suffered salination, and so the focus had shiftednorth to the competing Assyrian and Babylonianempires. In India the primary civilization hademerged along the Indus river system; after its fall,the focus of power and prosperity shifted to theGanges Valley, which by the 3rd century BG was thecentre of the Mauryan Empire.

Europe was also developing native states, and bythe 1st century AD much of Europe and adjacent

The civilizations of theancient world provided a milieuin which the sciences and

regions of Asia and Africa were united throughmilitary conquest by the Romans. The rise andexpansion of the far-reaching Roman Empirewas paralleled in the east by that of the equallyvast Chinese Han Empire (map 5).

Military conquest was not, however, the onlymeans by which large areas were united. TheAndean region, for example, was dominated inthe 1st millennium BG by the Ghavin culture,seemingly related to a widely shared religiouscult centred on a shrine at Ghavin de Huantar. Acomplex interplay of political, economic,religious and social factors determined thepattern of the rise and fall of states.

On the fringes of the human world, pioneerscontinued to colonize new areas, developingways of life to enable them to settle in thecircumpolar regions and the deserts of Arabiaand to venture huge distances across unchartedwaters to settle on the most remote Pacificislands. By AD 500 the Antarctic was the onlycontinent still unpeopled.

Babylonians, Indians andGreeks, for example, developedmathematics and astronomicalknowledge to a high level, whilethe Chinese pioneered advancesin a number of fields, amongthem metallurgy and miningtechnology. The Romans werealso skilled innovators,particularly in engineering,where in the public domain theybuilt magnificent roads andaqueducts, such as the Pont duGard in France, pictured here.

T The burials of importantpeople were often lavishlyfurnished with spectacular worksof craftsmanship. The body ofPrincess Dou Wan of the Hankingdom of Zhongshan in Chinawas buried in the 2nd century BCin this suit made of jade plaquesbound together with gold thread.In Chinese belief, jade was linkedto immortality, and suits such asthis were intended to preservethe body of the deceased.

15

technology thrived. The

THE HUMAN REVOLUTION:5 MILLION YEARS AGO TO 10,000 BC1 CONTINUOUS GENE FLOW MODEL

Some experts believe that modernhumans evolved from the early hominids inparallel in Africa, Asia and Europe (1).However, it is more generally accepted thatthey originated in Africa and then spread -at the expense of other hominid species (2).

The last of the inhabited continents to becolonized by hominids was South America,probably between 14,000 and11,000 years ago.

I

races of the earliest ancestors of humans, theAustralopithecines, have been found in Africa, datingfrom between five and two million years ago when the

forests had given way in places to more open savanna(map 1). A line of footprints discovered at Laetoli is vividevidence that these now extinct early hominids (humanancestors belonging to the genera Australopithecus andHomo} walked upright. Hominid fossils from this remoteperiod are rare, since the creatures themselves were notnumerous. The remains that have been found probablybelong to different species: some, such as A, robustus andA. boisei, lived on plant material; others, such as the smallerA. africanus, ate a more varied diet. By two million yearsago the hominids included Homo habilis, small creatureswhose diet probably included kills scavenged from carni-vores. Unlike their Australopithecine cousins, H. habilis hadbegun to manufacture stone tools (called "Oldowan" afterthe key site of Olduvai), roughly chipped to form a service-able edge for slicing through hide, digging and otheractivities which these small hominids could not performwith their inadequate teeth and nails. These developments,along with physical adaptation, were crucial in the amazingsuccess of humans compared with other animal species.

THE MOVE INTO TEMPERATE REGIONSBy 1.8 million years ago this success was already becomingapparent in the rapid spread of hominids well outside theiroriginal tropical home, into temperate regions as far afieldas East Asia (map 2). This move was made possible by anumber of developments. Hominids began to make new andmore efficient tools, including the multipurpose handaxe,which extended their physical capabilities. A substantialincrease in body size allowed representatives of Homo tocompete more successfully with other scavengers, and by500,000 years ago our ancestors were hunting as well asscavenging, using wooden spears and probably fire. Fire wasalso important in providing warmth, light and protectionagainst predators, and for cooking food, thus making iteasier to chew and digest. To cope with the temperateclimate, hominids used caves and rock shelters such asthose found at the famous Chinese site of Zhoukoudian.

There had been a gradual cooling of the global climate,with ice sheets developing in the Arctic by 2.4 million yearsago. Around 900,000 years ago this process had accelerated,giving rise to a pattern of short ice ages approximately every

100,000 years. These ice ages were interspersed with shortphases of temperatures similar to or higher than those oftoday, and much longer periods of intermediate tempera-tures. The pattern of ice advance and retreat had a majoreffect not only on the distribution of hominids and othermammals but also on the preservation of their fossils, so thepicture that we have today is at best partial. During warmperiods, hominids penetrated as far north as southernEngland; in cooler periods, sea levels fell and many coastalareas that are now submerged became habitable.

A Many hominid species flourished in sub-SaharanAfrica between five and one million years ago,

but most died out. Modern humans are theonly surviving descendants.

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2 DISCRETE EVOLUTION MODEL

THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN HUMANSAround 100,000 years ago two hominid species were livingin the eastern Mediterranean region. One was the Asian rep-resentative of the Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis) -descended from H. heidelbergensis - who inhabited Europeand West Asia from some time after 200,000 BC; the otherwas an early form of Homo sapiens (modern humans) whohad first appeared some 20,000 years earlier in southernAfrica. By 40,000 BC modern humans were to be foundthroughout the previously inhabited world - Africa, Asia andEurope - and in Australia (map 3).

Opinions are divided as to how this came about. Oneschool of thought holds that the descendants of the firsthominids to colonize these various regions had evolvedin parallel (diagram 1}; there was continuous gene flowbetween adjacent regions, spreading adaptations andchanges throughout the hominid world but with regional dif-ferences also present, as in the modern races. This view seesthe emergence of modern humans as a global phenomenon.

The alternative and more generally accepted view is thatthe original colonists developed into different regionalspecies (diagram 2). Modern humans emerged in Africa andwere able to spread at the expense of other hominids, pro-gressively colonizing West Asia by 100,000 BC, East Asia andAustralia by 60,000 BC and Europe by 40,000 BC. Whetherthey interbred with the hominids they displaced or simplyextinguished them is unclear, but almost certainly Homosapiens was the only surviving hominid by about 30,000 BC.

From Asia modern humans moved into the Americas,crossing the Bering Strait during an ice age when the landbridge of Beringia was exposed, and migrating southwards

later. The date of this colonization is still hotly debated, butthe earliest incontrovertible evidence of humans in theAmericas south of the glaciated area comes after the icesheets began to retreat - about 14,000 years ago.

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTEarly modern humans and their Neanderthal contempo-raries used similar tools and seem to have been culturallyrelated. However, although Neanderthals and even earlierhominids may have communicated with sounds to someextent, H. sapiens was the first hominid to be able to com-municate in a fully developed spoken language. This was acritical development, making possible detailed planning anddiscussion of group activities and interactions and, moreimportantly, allowing the knowledge acquired through indi-vidual experience to be shared and transmitted fromgeneration to generation.

From about 100,000 years ago many aspects of humanconsciousness and aesthetic sense began to evolve, as evi-denced by the finely shaped and consciously planned stonetools of both Neanderthals and modern humans, and by thebeginning of burial. The emergence of human consciousnessbecomes ever more apparent in the art that dates fromabout 35,000 BC, and very probably earlier in Australia.Archaeologists have found exquisite figurines depicting bothhumans and animals, as well as magnificent animal andabstract paintings and engravings on the walls of caves androck shelters. The most famous of these finds are in south-ern France and adjacent Spain, but early art has been foundall over the world, with fine concentrations in Australia,Africa and Russia.

Until recently the immediatedescendants of Homo habilis were allclassified as Homo erectus, but it now seemsmore probable that there were a number ofroughly contemporary hominid species:H. ergaster in Africa, H. erectus in East Asiaand H. heidelbergensis m Europe. Thepaucity of hominid fossils makes theirclassification extremely difficult, and thereare major and frequent changes in theinterpretation of the limited evidence.

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING 12,000 BG-AD 500 pages 18-27 17

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:ASIA 12,000 BC-AD 500

A Animal bones are much more likely tobe preserved than plant remains, so thearchaeologist's picture of past subsistenceprobably underestimates the importanceof plant foods. This is particularly true oftubers, roots, leafy vegetables and fruits,which must have provided the bulk of thediet in areas such as Southeast Asia. Wehave a clearer picture of the developmentof early agriculture in areas such as Chinaand West Asia, where cereals (rice, millet,wheat and barley) and pulses (beans, peasand the like) were the principal food plants.

Living in sedentary settlements madeit possible to store cereals and other plantfoods, including nuts, to provide someinsurance against lean seasons or years.It also enabled people to accumulatepossessions that today provide valuableevidence of their way of life.

vidence from many parts of the world indicates thatduring the final millennia of the last glacial age -between around 16,000 and 12,000 years ago - the

range of foods eaten by humans broadened considerably. Inthe "Fertile Crescent" of West Asia (the arc of land com-prising the Levant, Mesopotamia and the Zagros region) wildwheat and barley provided an abundant annual harvest thatenabled hunter-gatherers to dwell year-round in permanentsettlements such as Kebara (map 1). Nuts and other wildfoods, particularly gazelle, were also important here.

Around 12,000 BC the global temperature began to rise,causing many changes. Sea levels rose, flooding manycoastal regions; this deprived some areas of vital resourcesbut in others, such as Japan and Southeast Asia, it creatednew opportunities for fishing and gathering shellfish.Changes occurred in regional vegetation, with associatedchanges in fauna. Throughout Asia, particularly in thesoutheast, plant foods became increasingly important.

In the Levant wild cereals at first spread to cover a muchlarger area, increasing the opportunities for sedentary com-munities to develop. A cold, dry interlude around 9000 to8000 BG caused a decline in the availability of wild cereals

and the abandonment of many of these settlements, butcommunities in well-watered areas began to plant andcultivate the cereals they had formerly gathered from thewild (map 2). By 8000 BG, when conditions again becamemore favourable, these first farming communities had grownin size and number and they began to spread into othersuitable areas. Initially these new economies combinedcultivated cereals with wild animals, but around 7000 BCdomesticated sheep and goats began to replace gazelle andother wild game as the main source of meat.

Subsequent millennia saw the rapid spread of farmingcommunities into adjacent areas of West Asia (map 3).They appeared over much of Anatolia and northernMesopotamia by about 7000 BG, largely confined to areaswhere rain-fed agriculture was possible. Agricultural com-munities also emerged around the southeastern shores ofthe Caspian Sea, and at Mehrgarh on the western edge ofthe Indus plains. Pottery, which began to be made in theZagros region around this time, came into widespread usein the following centuries, and copper also began to betraded and worked. Cattle, domesticated from the aurochs(Bos primigenius) in the west and from native Indian cattle(Bos namadicus) in South Asia, were now also important.In Anatolia cattle seem to have played a part in religion aswell as in the economy: for example, rooms in the massivesettlement at Qatal Hoyiik in Anatolia were decorated withpaintings of enormous cattle and had clay cattle-heads withreal horns moulded onto the walls.

DIVERSIFICATION OF AGRICULTUREBy 5000 BG the development of more sophisticated agricultural techniques, such as irrigation and water control, hadenabled farming communities to spread into southernMesopotamia, much of the Iranian Plateau and the Indo-Iranian borderlands. It was not until the 4th millennium BC,however, that farmers growing wheat and keeping sheep,goats and cattle moved into the adjacent Indus Valley andthence southward into peninsular India. The developmentof rice and millet cultivation by the Indus civilization(pages 28-29) led to a further spread of agriculture into theGanges Valley and the south of India.

Eastern India also saw the introduction of rice cultiva-tion from Southeast Asia, while sites in the northeast mayowe their development of agriculture to contact with north-ern China. In the latter region farming probably beganaround 7000 BG and was well established by 5000 BC(map 4). In two areas in the Huang He Basin, at sites suchas Cishan and Banpo, communities emerged whose

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A T L A S O F W O R L D H I S T O R Y : P A R T 1

economies depended on cultivated millet, along with fruitsand vegetables, chickens and pigs, while further south, inthe delta of the Yangtze River, wet rice cultivation began.Hemudu is the best known of these early rice-farmingcommunities: here waterlogging has preserved finely con-structed wooden houses and a range of bone tools used incultivation, as well as carbonized rice husks and theremains of other water-loving plant foods such as lotus. Herealso was found the first evidence of lacquerware: a redlacquered wooden bowl. Although water buffalo and pigswere kept in this southern region, both hunted game andfish continued to play an important role in the economy.

By 3000 BG wet rice agriculture was becoming established in southern China, northern Thailand and Taiwan,and millet cultivation in northern China. Communities inthe northwest also grew wheat and barley, introduced fromthe agricultural communities of West or Central Asia. InSoutheast Asia tubers and fruits had probably been inten-sively exploited for millennia. By 3000 BG wet rice was alsgrown in this region and buffalo, pigs and chickens wereraised, but wild resources remained important.

The inhabitants of Korea and Japan continued to rely ontheir abundant wild sources of food, including fish, shellfish,deer, nuts and tubers. Often they were able to live in per-manent settlements. The world's earliest known pottery hadbeen made in Japan in the late glacial period: a range ofelaborately decorated pottery vessels and figurines was pro-duced in the later hunter-gatherer settlements of thearchipelago. Trade between communities circulated desir-able materials such as jadeite and obsidian (volcanic glass).Around 1500 BG crops (in particular rice) and metallurgicatechniques began spreading from China into these regions,reaching Korea via Manchuria and thence being taken toJapan. By AD 300 rice farming was established throughoutthe region with the exception of the northernmost island,Hokkaido, home of the Ainu people, where the traditionalhunter-gatherer way of life continued into recent times.

Banpo, a typical early Chinese farmingsettlement, contained dwellings, storage pitsand animal pens, a communal hall, acemetery and kilns in which finely decoratedpottery was fired. The villagers wereprobably already keeping silkworms,although most textiles were made of hemp.By around 3000 BC settlements were oftenfortified with tamped earth walls, implyingintercommunity warfare. Clear signs ofdeveloping social stratification appear at thistime - for example, elite burials containingprestige goods of bronze and importedmaterials such as jade, made by anemerging class of specialist craftsmen.Following the introduction of metallurgyfrom China during the 1st millennium BC,Korea and Japan also developed asophisticated bronze industry.

By 4000 BC farming communitiesestablished in many areas of Asia werelinked by trade. Areas of high agriculturalproductivity, such as southern Mesopotamia,were dependent on trade to obtain thebasic raw materials lacking in the alluvialenvironment, such as wood and stone. Theywere, however, able to support full-timecraft specialists producing goods for export,particularly textiles and fine pottery, aswell as surplus agricultural produce.

MESOPOTAMIA AND THE INDUS REGION 4000-1800 BC pages 28-29 19CHINA 1700-1050 BC pages 30-31

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:EUROPE 8000-200 BC

From the 6th century BC some Celticchiefdoms began to benefit from trade withthe Greeks and Etruscans, their increasingwealth being reflected in massive hillfortsand splendidly furnished graves. Metal oresand other raw materials - goods previouslycirculated within Europe - were nowsyphoned off by the Mediterranean world inexchange for luxuries, especially wine andrelated artefacts, such as Greek pottery andEtruscan bronze flagons. These in turnprovided inspiration for native Celticcraftsmen: this flagon came from a richgrave at Basse-Yutz, in northeastern France.

By 7000 BC farming communities werespreading from Anatolia into southeastEurope, bringing wheat, barley, sheep andgoats. Pigs and cattle, indigenous to Europe,were kept, and wild plants and animals werealso exploited by these early farmers.Farming also spread into neighbouring areasand by 4000 BC was widespread across thecontinent, although the numbers of farmerswere relatively small. The greater part ofEurope was still sparsely inhabited forest,only gradually being cleared for farmingsettlement over succeeding millennia.

he postglacial conditions of the period 8000-4000 BCoffered new opportunities to the hunter-gatherers ofEurope. Activity concentrated on coasts, lake margins

and rivers, where both aquatic and land plants and animalscould be exploited; the ecologically less diverse forest inte-riors were generally avoided. Initially groups tended to movearound on a seasonal basis, but later more permanent com-munities were established, with temporary special-purposeoutstations. Dogs, domesticated from wolves, were kept toaid hunting. Some groups managed their woodlands by judi-cious use of fire to encourage hazel and other useful plants.

EUROPE'S FIRST FARMERSFrom around 7000 BC farming communities began toappear in Europe (map 1). Early farmers in the southeastbuilt villages of small square houses and made pottery,tools of polished stone and highly prized obsidian, as wellas ornaments of spondylus shell obtained by trade. Onceestablished, many of the sites in the southeast endured forthousands of years, gradually forming tells (mounds ofsettlement debris). By 5000 BC some communities werealso using simple techniques to work copper.

Between 5500 and 4500 BC pioneering farming groupsrapidly spread across central Europe, settling predominantlyon the easily worked loess (wind-deposited) river valleysoils. They kept cattle, raised crops and lived in largetimber-framed long houses which often also sheltered theiranimals. At first these groups were culturally homogeneous,but after about 4500 BC regional groups developed andfarming settlements increased in number, spreading outfrom the river valleys.

The hunter-gatherers in the central and westernMediterranean came into contact with early farmers colo-nizing southern parts of Italy. They acquired pottery-makingskills and domestic sheep and goats from these colonists,and later they also began to raise some crops. By 3500 BCcommunities practising farming but still partlyreliant on wild resources were estab-lished over most of westernEurope. Huge megalithic("large stone") tombswere erected, whichacted as territorial

markers affirming community ties to ancestral lands. Thesetombs took many forms over the centuries and were asso-ciated with a variety of rites, generally housing the bones ofmany individuals, usually without grave goods.

THE USE OF METALSBy 3500 BC a new economic pattern had developed asinnovations emanating from West Asia spread throughEurope via farming communities in the southeast and theeast, on the fringes of the steppe. These included the use ofanimals for traction, transport and milk, woolly sheep,wheeled vehicles and the plough. Plough agriculture allowednew areas and less easily worked soils to be cultivated, andthere was a general increase in animal husbandry; special-ist herders also appeared (map 2). Trade, already wellestablished, now grew in importance, carrying fine flint andhard stone for axes over long distances in a series of shortsteps between communities. Major social changes werereflected by a significant shift in the treatment of the dead:in many regions communal burial in monumental tombsgave way to individual burials with personal grave goods,often under a barrow. New types of monuments erected inwestern areas suggest a change in religious practices, with anew emphasis on astronomical matters.

From around 2500 BC copper was alloyed with tin tform bronze. The need for tin, a rare and sparsely distri-buted metal, provided a stimulus to the further developmentof international trade in prestige materials (map 3). Thesewere particularly used as grave goods and votive offerings,emphasizing the status achieved by their owners. Chiefswere now buried under massive barrows with splendid goldand bronze grave offerings, while lesser members of societywere interred under barrows in substantial cemeteries.Command of metal ore sources gave certain communitiespre-eminence, while others derived their importance froma key position at the nodes of trade routes. The Carpathian

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By 3000 BC copper and gold metallurgywere practised across most of Europe. Thesemetals were used to make prestige goodsthat enhanced the status of high-ranking

individuals. Drinking vessels for alcoholwere also status symbols - Corded Ware ineastern and northern Europe and, later,Beakers in central and western Europe.

region enjoyed particular prosperity around this time;Scandinavia, which lacked indigenous metal ores, never-theless now became involved in international trade, and bythe late 2nd millennium developed a major bronze industrybased on metal imported in exchange for furs and amber.Agriculture and livestock also brought wealth to favouredareas, and there was a major expansion of farming onto lightsoils formerly under forest. Substantial field systems markthe organization of the agrarian landscape in at least someregions. By the start of the 1st millennium, however, manyof the more marginal areas for agriculture had becomescoured or exhausted and were abandoned.

WARFARE AND RELIGIONBy the late 2nd millennium warfare was becoming a moreserious business. Often settlements were located in defens-ible positions and fortified. (In previous centuries fortifiedcentres had been far fewer and more scattered.) However,until the late centuries BC armed conflict between individualleaders or raids by small groups remained the establishedpattern, rather than large-scale fighting.

A greater range of weapons was now in use, especiallyspears and swords, their forms changing frequently inresponse to technical improvements and fashion. Bronzewas in abundant supply and made into tools for everydayuse by itinerant smiths. Iron came into use from around1000 BG and by 600 BC it had largely replaced bronze fortools and everyday weapons, freeing it for use in elaboratejewellery and ceremonial armour and weaponry.

Major changes occurred in burial practices and religiousrites. In most areas burial, often under large mounds, wasreplaced by cremation, the ashes being interred in urnswithin flat graves (urnfields). Funerary rites became morevaried in the Iron Age and many graves - particularly inwealthy areas - contained lavish goods, as in the cemeteryat Hallstatt in western Austria, which profited from the tradein salt from local mines. Substantial religious monumentswere no longer built, religion now focusing on natural loca-tions such as rivers and lakes.

CELTIC EUROPEDuring the 1st millennium BC much of France, Germanyand the Alpine region came to be dominated by the Celticpeoples (map 4), who also settled in parts of Britain, Spainnorthern Italy and Anatolia. By the 3rd century BC towns(known to the Romans as oppida) were emerging in manyparts of Europe, reflecting both increased prosperity andmore complex and larger-scale political organization. In thewest this development was short-lived as Europe west of theRhine progressively fell to Roman expansion. In the east andnorth, however, Germanic and other peoples continued thelife of peasant agriculture, trade, localized industry andwarfare that had characterized much of the continent formany centuries.

Small-scale chiefdoms emerged in many From around 1300 BC, however, thisparts of Europe during the 2nd millennium situation began to change, culminating inBC, but their leaders' power was limited. the larger groupings of the Iron Age.

T Metalwork and, occasionally, peoplewere sacrificed by the Celts at their sacredEuropean sites - rivers, lakes and woods.

THE ROMAN EMPIRE 500 BC-AD 400 pages 54-55 21

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:AFRICA 10,000 BC-AD 500

y 10,000 BC most of Africa was inhabited by huntergatherer groups (map 1). Although generally onlytheir stone tools survive, the majority of their arte-

facts would have been made of perishable materials such aswood, leather and plant fibres. At Gwisho in Zambia a largefind of organic objects, including wooden bows and arrows,bark containers, and leather bags and clothes, provides uswith some insight into what is normally lost. Further infor-mation on the lives of African hunter-gatherers comes fromtheir rich rock art, known in many areas of the continentbut particularly in the Sahara and in southern Africa. Thisnot only depicts aspects of everyday life, such as housingand clothing, but it also gives a picture of archaeologicallyintangible activities such as dancing and traditional beliefs.

With the retreat of the ice sheets around this time con-ditions became both warmer and wetter, creating newopportunities for hunter-gatherer communities. Rising sealevels encouraged the utilization of coastal resources, suchas shellfish in southern Africa. Many groups moved betweenthe coast and inland sites, exploiting seasonally availablefood resources, and people also began to hunt smaller gamein the forests that were spreading into former savannaregions. In the Sahara belt, largely uninhabited during thearid glacial period, extensive areas of grassland now devel-oped and the existing restricted bodies of water expandedinto great lakes, swamps and rivers. These became favouredareas of occupation, often supporting large permanent set-tlements whose inhabitants derived much of their livelihoodfrom fish, aquatic mammals (such as hippos), waterfowl andwater plants, as well as locally hunted game. Similar lake-side or riverine communities developed in other parts of thecontinent, for example around Lake Turkana in East Africa.

EARLY FARMING IN AFRICASome communities began to manage their resources moreclosely: they weeded, watered and tended preferred plants,and perhaps planted them, and they herded local animals,particularly cattle but also species such as eland and giraffe

During glacial periods tropical regionssuch as Africa experienced considerablearidity. With the retreat of the ice sheets intemperate regions by about 10,000 BC, partsof Africa became warmer and wetter, offeringnew ecological opportunities to the continent'spopulation. Postglacial changes wereparticularly marked in northernAfrica, where increased humidityprovided conditions favouringpermanent settlements. Atmany places pottery (toofragile to be used bymobile groups) wasbeing made fromaround 7500 BC.

A broad band eastwardsfrom West Africa was the originalhome of many of the plant speciesthat were taken into cultivation.Here farming had become wellestablished by around 1000 BC

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(map 2). In the Nile Valley, nut-grass tubers had been inten-sively exploited since glacial times, and by 11,000 BG cerealssuch as sorghum and probably barley were also managed.Sheep and goats, and some crop plants such as wheat, wereintroduced, probably from West Asia. By about 5000 BGmany communities in northern Africa were raising indig-enous crop plants such as sorghum and keeping domesticcattle, sheep and goats, though they also continued to huntand fish and to gather wild plant foods. Dependence on agri-culture intensified, domestic resources grew in importance,and the number of farming communities increased.

From around 4000 BG, however, the Sahara regionbecame increasingly dry; lakes and rivers shrank and thedesert expanded, reducing the areas attractive for settle-ment. Many farmers moved southwards into West Africa.Although harder to document than cereal agriculture, thecultivation of tubers such as yams and of tree crops such asoil palm nuts probably began around this time. Localbulrush millet was cultivated and African rice, also indig-enous to this region, may well have been grown, althoughat present the earliest evidence for its cultivation is fromJenne-jeno around the 1st century BC. By around 3000 BCfarming communities also began to appear in northern partsof East Africa.

THE SPREAD OF METALWORKINGAround 500 BC metalworking began in parts of West Africa(map 3). Carthaginians and Greeks had by this time estab-lished colonies on the North African coast (pages 40-41).They were familiar with the working of bronze, iron andgold and were involved in trade across the Sahara, and thismay have been the means by which knowledge of metal-lurgy reached sub-Saharan Africa. Sites with early evidenceof copperworking, notably Akjoujt, have also yielded objectsimported from North Africa. Egypt, Nubia and Ethiopia werenow working metals and may also have been a source oftechnological expertise. Alternatively, the working of goldand iron may have been indigenous developments: theimpressive terracotta heads and figurines from Nok wereproduced by people well versed in smelting and using iron.

Although iron tools were very useful for forest clearance,agriculture, woodworking and other everyday activities, thespread of ironworking was at first extremely patchy. Whilesome areas in both East and West Africa were working ironas early as the Nok culture around 500 BC, other adjacentregions did not begin to do so until the early or middle cen-turies of the first millennium AD (pages 80-81). In somecases, however, such as the equatorial forests of the CongoBasin, the absence of early evidence of metallurgy is likelyto reflect the poor preservation of iron objects: ironworkingwas probably well established there by the late centuries BC.

EARLY FARMING IN SOUTHERN AFRICAThe early centuries AD saw the spread into much of the restof Africa of ironworking, along with pottery, permanent set-tlements, domestic animals and agriculture (map 4). By the2nd century the eastern settlers had reached northernTanzania, from where they quickly spread through thecoastal lowlands and inland regions of southeastern Africa,reaching Natal by the 3rd century. Depending on local con-ditions and their own antecedents, groups establisheddifferent patterns of existence within the broad agriculturalframework: those on the southeastern coast, for example,derived much of their protein from marine resources suchas shellfish rather than from their few domestic animals;other groups included specialist pastoralists and broadly

Archaeological data and linguisticevidence combine to indicate that a numberof radical innovations - includingagriculture, herding, metalworking andpermanent settlement - were introduced tothe southern half of the continent by thespread of people from the north who spokeBantu languages. Originating in part of

southern West Africa (now eastern Nigeriaand Cameroon), Bantu languagesprogressively spread southwards along twomain routes, in the east and west. The areasthese farmers penetrated were inhabited by

based mixed farmers growing cereals that included sorghumand millet, plus other plants such as cowpeas, beans,squashes and probably yams.

The interrelations of these settlers with the nativehunter-gatherer groups were varied. Some hunter-gatherersin areas suitable for agriculture were totally displaced by thenewcomers; others established mutually beneficial relations,adopting aspects of the intrusive culture, such as pottery ordomestic animals; some groups raided the new farmingcommunities to lift cattle, sheep or goats. The southwestwas unsuited to the cultivation of the introduced crops, buthunter-gatherers there began to herd domestic sheep.

By the late 1st millennium AD iron tools had largelyreplaced stone tools throughout most of Africa. In someareas - the Copperbelt in Zambia and Zaire, for example -copper was being made into ornaments such as bangles,though gold would not be worked in the southern half of thecontinent before the close of the millennium.

The Greek historian Herodotus reportedattempts by Persian and Phoenician sailorsto circumnavigate Africa in the early 1stmillennium BC. The Carthaginians alsopenetrated southwards by sea, establishingoutposts as far south as Mogador andprobably reaching (erne (Herne Island).Paintings of chariots characteristic of the1st millennium BC have been found in theSahara. Although these do not mark theactual routes taken by traders across thedesert, they do provide evidence of theirpresence. Trans-Saharan trade wasfacilitated in the late centuries BC by theintroduction of camels for transport.

hunter-gatherer communities, speakingKhoisan languages in the south andprobably in other areas.

STATES AND TRADE IN WEST AFRICA 500-1500 pages 80-81 STATES AND TRADE IN EAST AFRICA 500-1500 pages 82-83 23

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:THE AMERICAS 12,000-1000 BC

The antiquity of the first Americans isstill a controversial issue. A few sites, such asMeadowcroft in North America and MonteVerde in South America, are sometimesclaimed to have been occupied well before12,000 BC. However, undisputed evidence ofpeople at these and other sites dates from12,000 BC onwards, with Fell's Cave in theextreme southern tip of the continent beingoccupied by 9000 BC.

ontroversy surrounds the date of human colonizationof the Americas (map 1}. During glacial periods whensea levels fell, the Bering Strait became dry land

(Beringia), allowing humans living in Siberia to move acrossinto the northernmost part of the Americas. However, sub-stantial ice sheets would then have prevented furtheroverland penetration of the continent. Only subsequently,when the ice sheets melted, could further advances occur -although it is conceivable that migration into the Americastook place by sea, down the Pacific coast.

Several glacial cycles occurred following the emergenceof modern humans (pages 16-17), during which, at leasthypothetically, such a migration could have taken place.Nevertheless, despite (as yet unsubstantiated) claims forearly dates, humans probably reached the far north of theAmericas about 16,000 BC, during the most recent glacialepisode, and spread south when the ice sheets retreatedaround 12,000 BC. Not only do the earliest incontrovertiblydated sites belong to the period 12-10,000 BC, but biologicaland linguistic evidence also supports an arrival at this time.In addition, the adjacent regions of Asia from whichcolonists must have come seem not to have been inhabiteduntil around 18,000 BC.

The colonization of the Americas after 10,000 BC wasextremely rapid, taking place within a thousand years. Thefirst Americans were mainly big-game hunters, althoughoccasional finds of plant material show that they had avaried diet. Their prey were mostly large herbivores: bisonand mammoths in the north, giant sloths and mastodonsfurther south, as well as horses, camels and others. By about

7000 BC many of these animals had become extinct (exceptthe bison, which became much smaller in size). Humansprobably played some part in these extinctions, althoughchanges in climate and environment are also likely factors.

HUNTER-GATHERERS AND EARLY FARMERSAfter 8000 BC bison hunting became the main subsistencebase of the inhabitants of the Great Plains of North America(map 2). Hunting was generally an individual activity, butoccasionally groups of hunters and their families combinedin a great drive to stampede bison over a cliff or into anatural corral, so that huge numbers could be slaughtered atonce. Elsewhere in North America, a great range of regionalvariations developed on the theme of hunting and gather-ing, and in many areas these ways of life survived until theappearance of European settlers in recent centuries.

The people of the Arctic regions led a harsh existence.Their inventiveness enabled them to develop equipmentsuch as the igloo and the kayak to withstand the intensecold of winter and of the Arctic seas, and to hunt largeblubber-rich sea mammals such as whales and seals. Othernorthern groups relied more on land mammals, notablycaribou. The inhabitants of the Pacific Coast region grewprosperous on their annual catch of salmon and othermarine and riverine resources. They acquired slaves,constructed spectacular wooden structures and gave mag-nificent feasts. In the deserts of the southwest, seasonalmigration enabled people to obtain a diversity of plant,animal and aquatic foodstuffs at different times of theyear, while the wooded environment of the east also

Much of our evidence for early valleys, such as that at Tehuacan, whereagriculture in Mesoamerica comes from the arid environment has preserved aintensive investigation of a few highland wealth of plant food remains.

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provided a diverse range of such foods. In areas of abun-dance, some eastern groups were able to settle in camps formuch of the year, burying their dead in large cemeteries.

These woodland folk also developed long-distance tradenetworks, exchanging such prized commodities as copper,marine shells and fine-quality stone for tool-making. Later,groups in the Ohio Valley and adjacent areas (the Adenaand Hopewell cultures) elaborated their exchange networksand raised substantial mounds over their dead. By about2500-2000 BG some groups in the eastern region were cul-tivating local plants, such as sunflowers and squashes. Inthe southwest similar developments were encouraged by theintroduction around 1000 BG from Mesoamerica of maize, ahigh-yielding crop which did not reach the eastern commu-nities until around AD 800 (pages 108-9}.

DEVELOPMENTS IN MESOAMERICAAfter 7000 BG hunter-gatherer bands in highland valleys oMesoamerica supplemented the foodstuffs they obtainedthrough seasonal migration by sowing and tending a numberof local plants such as squashes and chillies (map 3). By5000 BG they were also cultivating plants acquired fromother regions of Mesoamerica. Among these was maize, atfirst an insignificant plant with cobs barely 3 cm (1.2 in)long. However, genetic changes progressively increased thesize of the cobs, and by 2000-1500 BG maize had becomethe staple of Mesoamerican agriculture, supplemented bybeans and other vegetables. Villages in the highlands couldnow depend entirely on agriculture for their plant foods andwere occupied all year round. As there were no suitableherd animals for domestication, hunting remained impor-tant into colonial times; the only domestic animals eatenwere dogs, ducks and turkeys (introduced from NorthAmerica). Lowland regions of Mesoamerica followed a some-what different pattern: coastal and riverine locationsprovided abundant wild foods throughout the year, makingyear-round occupation possible at an early date. Agriculture,adopted in these regions later than in the highlands, pro-vided high yields, particularly in the Veracruz region wherethe Olmec culture emerged around 1200 BG (pages 32-33).

EARLY FARMING IN SOUTH AMERICAPreserved organic remains from arid caves in the Andesprovide evidence that plants were cultivated in SouthAmerica by around 6500 BG (map 4). Along with local vari-eties like potatoes, these included plants (such as beans andchillies) native to the jungle lowlands to the east. It is there-fore likely that South American agriculture began in theAmazon Basin, although humid conditions in this areaprecluded the preservation of ancient plant remains. Pottery

and other equipment used to process manioc (cassava) offerindirect evidence that this important American staple foodwas grown in South America by 2000 BC.

By this time village communities were establishedthroughout the Andean region and had developed strategiesto exploit a variety of local resources. The coast providedexceptionally rich fisheries, while inland crops were culti-vated using irrigation, with cotton particularly important.The lower slopes of the Andes were also cultivated, withcrops such as potatoes at higher altitudes, while the llamasand alpacas of the high pastures provided meat and wool.

Apart from residential villages, often furnished withsubstantial cemeteries, early South Americans also builtreligious centres with monumental structures. By 1200 Bthe Ghavin cult, centred on the great religious monumentsof Ghavin de Huantar and marked by characteristic art,architecture and iconography, had united peoples alongmuch of the Peruvian coast (pages 34-35).

The initial inhabitants of North Americawere big-game hunters, but after 8000 BCmany regional groups began to developtheir own individual ways of life based onlocally available resources. Later, manygroups also participated in regional tradenetworks, obtaining valued commoditiessuch as turquoise and obsidian in thesouthwest. The rich diversity of NorthAmerican life is reflected in the surviving artand artefacts: exquisite ivory figurinesof animals from the Arctic; vivacious rockpaintings from many areas showinghunting, dancing and musicians; beautifullymade decoy ducks of reeds and feathersfrom the Great Basin; and carvings in mica,copper and soapstone from the Hopewellmounds of the east.

From about 6500 BC agriculture in SouthAmerica included not only the cultivation ofplants native to the local area but also cropsfrom other regions. Maize was probablyintroduced from Mesoamerica: it appearedin Ecuadorian farming villages and in theAndean highlands around 5000 BC, thenspread from 800 into the Amazon Basin,where it supported rapid population growth.

CIVILIZATIONS IN SOUTH AMERICA 1400 BC-AD 1000 pages 34-35CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA 1200 BC-AD 700 pages 32-33 25

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: AUSTRALIAAND THE PACIFIC 10,000 BC-AD 1000

Among the stones which the earlyMaori settlers of New Zealand becameskilled in carving was jade, from whichthis pendant is made.

The rapid spread of the Asian peopleswho colonized the Pacific islands after about1500 BC is something of an enigma. Theirmotivation cannot have been solely anexpanding population's need to find newterritories to settle, since only smallfounding populations remained - wellbelow the numbers that the islands couldhave supported. They carried with them allthe plants and animals they required inorder to establish horticultural communities,but marine resources also played animportant role in their economies.

he Pacific was one of the last regions on Earth to becolonized by people. Modern humans spread intoSoutheast Asia and from there crossed the sea to New

Guinea and Australia (which formed a single landmass atthat time) by about 60,000 BC. A few of the islands adjacentto New Guinea were also settled before 30,000 BC, butexpansion into the rest of the Pacific only began around1500 BC and was not completed until AD 1000(map 1).

THE FIRST COLONIZATION OF AUSTRALIAThe early inhabitants of Australia were confined initially tothe coast and inland river valleys, spreading to colonize thesouth by 40,000 BC (map 2). They gathered a variety of wildresources and hunted the local fauna, which at that timeincluded a number of large species such as a giant kanga-roo, Procoptodon. Between 25,000 and 15,000 these hugecreatures became extinct: humans may have been partly toblame, although increasing aridity was probably also respon-sible. By 23,000 BC ground-stone tools were being made -the earliest known in the world - and by 13,000 BC peoplehad learnt to process the toxic but highly nutritious cycadnuts to remove their poison. The harsh desert interior ofAustralia was colonized by groups who adapted theirlifestyle to cope with this challenging environment.

By 3000 BC further major changes had taken place. Newtools were now in use, including the boomerang (inventedby 8000 BC) and small, fine stone tools suited to a variety oftasks, of which wood-working was of prime importance.The dingo, a semi-wild dog, had been introduced intoAustralia, perhaps brought in by a new wave of immigrantsfrom Southeast Asia. Dingoes outcompeted the nativepredators such as the thylacine (Tasmanian tiger), a car-nivorous marsupial which became extinct.

Although they never adopted farming Australia's aborig-ines exercised considerable control over the wild resourcesat their disposal, clearing the bush by Presetting in order toencourage new growth and attract or drive game, andreplanting certain preferred plant species. New Guinea's firstinhabitants were also hunters and gatherers, but by 7000BC some communities here had begun cultivating localplants like sugar cane, yam, taro and banana, and keepingpigs (map I). At Kuk, in the highlands, there is evidence at

this early date for a network of drainage channels to allowcrops to be grown in swampland.

MIGRATION AFTER 1500 BCFarming communities were also developing in East andSoutheast Asia; around 1500 BC a new wave of colonistsbegan to spread out from this area, moving from the main-land into Taiwan and the Philippines, then into the islandsof Southeast Asia and from here into the Pacific. By1000 BC they had reached the Marianas in the north and,much further afield, Tonga and Samoa in Polynesia to theeast. The movement of these people can be traced from thedistribution of their distinctive pottery, known as Lapitaware, a red-slipped ware decorated with elaborate stampeddesigns. They also used obsidian (volcanic glass) and shellfor making tools, and brought with them a range of South-east Asian domestic animals, including dogs and chickens.

By this time the colonists had become skilled navigators,sailing in double canoes or outriggers large enough toaccommodate livestock as well as people, and capable oftacking into the wind. The uniformity of their artefactsshows that contacts were maintained throughout the area,with return as well as outward journeys. The Polynesiansused the stars, ocean currents, winds and other natural phe-nomena as navigational guides, and they made ocean chartsof palm sticks with the islands marked by cowrie shells.

The inhabitants of the eastern Polynesianislands erected stone platforms and courtswith stone monoliths. These were shrines(marae) which were used for prayer and forhuman and animal sacrifice to the gods, aswere the unique stone monuments - hugestone platforms (ahu} and colossal stone

heads (moo/)-of Easter Island. No EasterIsland statues were erected after AD 1600and by 1863 all existing ones had beendeliberately toppled (to be re-erected fromthe 1950s), a development that reflectssocial upheaval related to deforestation andconsequent pressure on resources.

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The complex social and cultural lifeof Australia's Aboriginal inhabitants isreflected in painted and engraved art(which appeared almost as early as the firstsettlement of Australia), in burials with anarray of grave goods, in a variety of ritualsites, and in the Aborigines' rich oraltraditions. Links between communitiesbased on kinship were enhanced by long-distance trade: commodities such as coastalshells were taken into the interior whileroughed-out stone axes from quarries in theinterior moved in the opposite direction.

THE COLONIZATION OF EASTERN POLYNESIAThis wave of colonization came to a standstill around1000 BG in western Polynesia. Groups from the colonizedregions spread north and east to complete the settlement ofMicronesia from that time, but it was not until about 200 BGthat a new surge of eastward colonization took place, estab-lishing populations on the more scattered islands of easternPolynesia, including the Society Islands, Tahiti and theMarquesas. These people evolved a distinctive culture whichdiffered from that developed by groups in the areas alreadysettled - areas that were still open to influence fromSoutheast Asia. By now the Polynesians had almost entirelyabandoned pottery: eastern Polynesians began making dis-tinctive new types of stone adze, shell fish-hooks andjewellery. They also built stone religious monuments.

The best known and most striking of these were theEaster Island statues. Easter Island and Hawaii were settledin a further colonizing movement by around AD 400. Nearly2,000 kilometres (1,250 miles) from Pitcairn, its nearestneighbour, Easter Island was probably never revisited afterits initial settlement. The resulting isolation allowed itspeople to develop a unique form of general Polynesianculture, notable for its mysterious stone heads (map 3).

NEW ZEALAND'S FIRST SETTLERSBetween AD 800 and 1000 a final wave of Polynesian voy-agers colonized New Zealand (map 4) and the ChathamIslands to the east. Here new challenges and oppor-tunities awaited them.

New Zealand is unique in the Pacific in enjoyinga temperate climate; most of the tropical plants cul-tivated by Polynesians elsewhere in the Pacific couldnot grow here, although sweet potatoes (introducedinto Polynesia from South America) flourished. In

THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND SINGE 1790 pages 202-3

compensation there were rich marine resources and awide range of edible plants indigenous to the islands -of which one, the root of the bracket fern, became animportant cultivated plant on North Island.

There was also a large population of huge flight-less birds (moa), which had evolved in great diversitydue to the absence of mammals and predators.Reverting to their distantly ancestral hunter-gathererway of life, the new settlers (early Maori) huntedthese birds to extinction within 500 years, aidedby the dogs and rats they had introduced. Thenative flora also became depleted. As SouthIsland was unsuited to agriculture its pop-ulation declined, and on North Islandincreased reliance on horticulturewent hand in hand with growingwarfare between the commu-nities, accompanied bythe building of fortifiedsettlements, trophyhead-hunting andcannibalism.

The culture of the early Maori settlers in

New Zealand differed from that of otherPolynesians in the emphasis it placed onlong-distance trade. Among the items tradedwere various types of stone used for makingtools and weapons, including greenstone forwarclubs and amulets, and materials such asobsidian (volcanic glass), argillite (whiteclay rock) and shells.

27

THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS: MESOPOTAMIAAND THE INDUS REGION 4000-1800 BC

The unstable physical environment ofMesopotamia caused many radical changesin the pattern of settlement. Sediments fromthe Tigris and Euphrates filled in the head ofthe Gulf, isolating ancient ports. Moreover,the courses of the rivers also changed,taking precious river water away fromsettlements. Since rainfall was inadequateto sustain crops, these settlements wereusually soon abandoned.

Early Mesopotamian cities varied in sizeand importance, from 10-hectare (25-acre)Abu Salabikh to Warka(Uruk), whichcovered over 400 hectares (1,000 acres)and had a population of 40-50,000 people.Warka's 9-kilometre (6-mile) city wallenclosed temples, palaces and houses,sometimes grouped into specialized craftquarters, as well as open spaces forgardens, burials and waste disposal.Indus cities, by contrast, generallycomprised a large planned residential areaand a raised citadel with public buildingsand, probably, accommodation for therulers. In the largest, Mohenjo-daro, thelower town contained both spacious privatehouses and industrial areas hosting the fullrange of Indus crafts.

gricultural communities had emerged in many partsof the world by the 4th millennium BC. In some areashigh productivity supported high population densities

and the emergence of cities, necessitating more complexsocial organization and giving rise to more elaborate publicarchitecture. These developments encouraged trade inessential and luxury goods as well as craft and other occu-pational specialization. Such "civilized" communitiesappeared first in Mesopotamia, around 4000 BC.

MESOPOTAMIABy 4500 BC the advent of irrigation agriculture had enabledthe settlement of the dry southern Mesopotamian alluvium(map 1). A social world comprising groups of agriculturalistkinsfolk living in hamlets, villages or towns evolved, to betransformed around 600 years later into one of specialistsliving in complex and hierarchical social arrangements inan urban milieu. Religion played an important part in thisprocess: while religious structures are recognizable in theearlier archaeological record, palaces and other large secularbuildings appear only later in the 4th millennium. Religiouscomplexes became larger and increasingly elaboratethroughout the period.

A number of urban centres emerged, of which one inparticular stands out - ancient Warka (map 2A), also calledUruk. The city had at least two very large religious precincts- Eanna and Kullaba. In the Eanna Precinct the earliestwritten records, dating from around 3100 BC, have beenfound: tablets of clay or gypsum inscribed with ideographiccharacters. These first texts were economic in nature, com-prising lists and amounts of goods and payments.

By 2900 BC there were also other important urbancentres in southern Mesopotamia - city-states ruled byindividual kings who negotiated shifting economic andpolitical alliances among themselves and with politiesoutside Mesopotamia. The wealth and power of the EarlyDynastic rulers can be seen in the elaborate burials in theRoyal Cemetery of Ur, some including human sacrifices aswell as objects of gold, silver and lapis lazuli.

SUMER AND AKKADFrom the fragmented historical record of this period it isapparent that the region was becoming divided between thelands of Akkad (from Abu Salabikh to the edge of the north-ern Mesopotamian plains) and of Sumer (from Nippur southto Eridu). Sumer and Akkad were not political entities butregions whose people spoke two different languages whilesharing a common material culture. Around 2350 BCSargon I, a charismatic and powerful Akkadian ruler, subju-gated all Sumer and Akkad, also conquering lands to thenorthwest as far as Turkey and the Mediterranean, and tothe east as far as Susa. His was perhaps the first empire tooutlast the life of its founder, but by 2200 BC it had collapsedand was followed by a period of Sumerian revival.

At the close of the 3rd millennium BC Ur, long an impor-tant Sumerian city, came to dominate the region. The ThirdDynasty of Ur ruled the cities of Sumer and Akkad and eastbeyond the Zagros Mountains, establishing a system of gov-ernors and tax collectors that formed the skeleton for thecomplex bureaucracy needed to control a large population.However, this last Sumerian flowering had lasted only 120years when Ur was sacked in 2004 BC by the Elamites.

INTERNATIONAL TRADEThe literate Sumerians provide an invaluable source ofinformation on contemporary cultures, from whom theyobtained essential raw materials such as metals, wood andminerals, and luxuries including lapis lazuli. The mostdistant of their direct trading partners was the Indus region,known to them as Meluhha, the source of ivory, carnelianbeads and gold; closer lay Magan, a major source of copper,and Dilmun (Bahrain), long known to the Sumerians as thesource of "sweet water" and "fish-eyes" (pearls) (map 3).Dilmun acted as an entrepot in this trade, but there werealso Meluhhan merchants resident in some Sumerian cities.Sumer exported textiles, oil and barley to its trading part-ners, but the Indus people were probably most interested inreceiving silver obtained by Sumer from further west. It islikely that Magan was an intermediary for trade along theArabian coast with Africa, the source of several types ofmillet introduced into India at this time. The Indus peoplealso had writing, but the surviving texts - brief inscriptionson seals and copper tablets - have yet to be deciphered, andprobably contain little beyond names and titles.

28

A


point to a time when a network of riversflowed parallel to the Indus, augmentingthe area available for agriculture. The areaat the mouth of these rivers was importantin both local and international trade.

In the 4th and early 3rd millennia BCSumerians traded with towns across theIranian Plateau. By the later 3rd millenniumBC, however, they were trading directly withthe Indus region by sea, and trade in lapislazuli had become an Indus monopoly.

THE INDUS REGIONIn the Indus region, colonized by farmers in the later 4thmillennium BC, many settlements were replaced by plannedtowns and cities around 2600 BC (map 4). Within theiroverall similarity of plan there was considerable local varia-tion, particularly in the layout of the citadel, probablyreflecting heterogeneity in religious and cultural practices.For example, the citadel at Mohenjo-daro was dominated bya Great Bath, suggesting ritual bathing, important in laterIndian religion (map 2B). In contrast, those of Kalibanganand Lothal had pits where sacrificial material was burnt.

Despite some regional variation, uniformity was akeynote of the Indus civilization. Throughout the Indusrealms high-quality goods such as pottery, flint blades andcopper objects, shell and stone beads and bangles, andsteatite seals were manufactured from the best materialsavailable, such as flint from the Rohri Hills. Although theIndus people owed much of their prosperity to the richagricultural potential of their river valleys, a significantproportion of the population were mobile pastoralists, theirflocks and herds grazing in the adjacent forests and grassyuplands; it is probable they acted as carriers in the internaltrade networks that ensured the distribution of goods.

Outside the heartland of the civilization, mobile hunter-gatherers provided the means by which the Indus peopleobtained goods and materials (such as ivory, carnelian andgold) from other regions of the subcontinent, in exchangefor cultivated grain, domestic animals and manufacturedgoods such as copper fish-hooks. The fishers of the ArawalliHills also participated in this network, trading their locallymined copper.

Around 1800 BC the Indus civilization went into decline.A probable cause was the drying up of some of the rivers,but other factors may have included disease, changes inagricultural practices, and perhaps the depredations of Indo-Aryan nomads on the Indus periphery.

THE MEDITERRANEAN 2000-1000 BC pages 36-37 29INDIA 600 BC-AD 500 pages 46-47HUNTING TO FARMING: ASIA 12,000 BC-AD 500 pages 18-19

In the 4th and early 3rd millennia BC

THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS:EGYPT 3500-2180 BC AND CHINA 1700-1050 BC

Ancient Egypt became the world's firstlarge, centrally ruled state. It was headed bya divine king (pharaoh) who was known asthe son of Ra, the sun god. According tosome experts, pyramids represented thestaircase along which the pharaoh wouldreturn to the heavens after his death. Themost famous pyramids are those at Giza,angled at a perfect 52°. Close by is Khafre'sSphinx, 73 metres (240 feet) in length andcarved from a limestone outcrop. Originallyit was plastered and brightly painted, thebearded face wearing a spectacularheaddress sporting a cobra motif.

^ "Gift of the Nile" was the name givenby the Greek historian Herodotus(c.. 485-425 BC) to the country whereAncient Egyptian civilization flourishedwithout rival for over 2,000 years. Whilethe Nile Valley provided fertile soils, thesurrounding deserts yielded the preciousmetals and building stone used in ambitiousartistic and architectural endeavours such asthe pyramids. These won such acclaim inAncient Greece that they became known asone of the "Seven Wonders of the World".

he first civilizations emerged in areas where highagricultural productivity was possible, supportingdense populations. In the Old World they appeared

along the rivers in Mesopotamia, northern India, Egypt andnorthern China. Graft specialization developed, trade flour-ished, writing began and rulers were often given elaborateburials. However, each civilization also had unique featuresrooted in its own cultural background and environment.

Life in Ancient Egypt evolved around the Nile, which pro-vided a regular water supply and fertile soils and thus, bycontrast with the surrounding desert regions, made agricul-tural production possible. Navigation on the river was easy, asboats could travel northwards with the current or sail south-wards on the northerly winds. From the 5th millennium BGfarming communities along the Nile gradually began to mergeinto a cultural, political and economic unit. This process ofunification was encouraged by trading contacts and the needto control the floodwaters of the Nile. To reap the benefits ofthe yearly inundation of the river, communities had to worktogether to build dams, flood basins and irrigation channelsover large areas. In around 3000 BG this co-operation resulted

in the establishment of a single kingdom and the FirstDynasty: according to tradition, in 3100 BC King Menesunited the delta region (Lower Egypt) and the river valley(Upper Egypt) and founded a capital at Memphis.

THE EARLY DYNASTIC AND OLD KINGDOM PERIODSThe period of the first Egyptian dynasties was one of greatcultural and economic significance, when hieroglyphic scriptwas developed and administrative centres established.During the succeeding period of the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC), Egyptian culture flourished and the great pyramidswere built as spectacular royal tombs (map 1). The first wasthe step pyramid constructed for Pharaoh (or King) Djoser(2667-2648 BC) at Saqqara: over 60 metres (200 feet) high,it was the largest stone building of its time. The first truepyramids, with sloping sides, were constructed at Giza, andthe largest, built for Pharaoh Khufu (2589-2566 BC), reacheda height of nearly 150 metres (500 feet). Eventually the ruleof the Old Kingdom dynasties collapsed, possibly because ofthe expanding power of the provincial governors, or perhapsbecause scarce rainfall led to famine and unrest. Centralgovernment would be restored with new dynasties during theMiddle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC) and the New Kingdom(1550-1069 BC) periods (pages 36-37).

THE GROWTH OF EGYPTIAN TRADEIn search of building materials, gold and luxury items, thepharaohs established a wide trade network. During the OldKingdom period links were forged with many areas of WestAsia, including Byblos on the Lebanese coast, predomi-nantly in a search for timber, and expeditions were sent tomine turquoise, copper and malachite in the Sinai Desert.The Eastern Desert yielded copper and stone and gaveaccess to the harbours on the Red Sea, from where tradewith East Africa and Arabia was conducted. While thesetrading missions were mainly peaceful, the area to the southof the First Cataract along the Nile became a prime targetfor expansion. This land, called Nubia or Rush, offered largequantities of gold as well as connections with the Africanhinterland, which was an important source of spices, ebony,ivory and other luxury goods. During the Old Kingdomperiod, a mining settlement was established at Buhen - thefirst step in a process of southward expansion which wouldpeak in the 15th century BC.

Arts and crafts flourished in Ancient Egypt, particularlyin the service of religion and in providing for the dead.Religion also played a major role in northern China, whereancestors were given the greatest respect and were consultedby divination using oracle bones prior to important eventssuch as hunting trips, childbirth and military campaigns.

THE RISE OF THE SHANG CIVILIZATIONAround 1700 BC the Shang civilization emerged as apowerful new state in the northern plains of China. It isknown from later historical sources, from magnificentarchaeological remains of cities and great tombs, and fromwritten inscriptions carved on oracle bones and cast onsplendid ritual bronze vessels. Bronze-working wasimportant to Shang culture and to many other peoples inChina, and several different traditions can be recognized(map 2). However, it is the use of writing that sets the Shangcivilization apart: although ideographic pictograms wereused as potters' marks as early as the 3rd millennium BC,the Shang inscriptions provide the first evidence of thedevelopment of a literate civilization in China.

During the latter half of the 2nd millennium BC the Shangdynasty conquered and controlled large parts of northernChina (map 3). The first Shang king, Tang, achieved domi-nance by defeating 11 other peoples and then winning over36 more by his fair rule and moral leadership.

Shang rule reached its greatest extent under Wu Ding,one of Tang's successors, who was renowned for his wisdomand led a series of successful military campaigns. Wu Dingwas supported in his campaigns by his consort Fu Hao, whoherself led armies into battle against the hostile Fang people.

30

T


The secret of Shang military success was the use of warchariots, which were so prized that they were sometimesincluded in burials. Fu Hao's sumptuous tomb is the richestknown Shang burial, containing over 400 bronze treasures,2,000 cowrie shells and more than 500 jade artefacts. Most ofthe other great tombs, however, were looted in antiquity.

ROYAL CHINESE CITIESWalled towns or cities ruled by royal lineages were centralto early Chinese states, but they were often "moved": eightsuch transfers are recorded for the Shang capital before thereign of the first king (the beginning of the "dynastic period")and a further seven for the 30 kings of the dynastic period.We know most about the last capital, Yin (near modernAnyang), which was founded by Pan Geng in about 1400 BC.

Yin was located on the marshy plains of the Huang HeRiver, at that time a warmer and moister environment thannow exists. The coast was considerably closer and the regionwas fertile, supporting two crops a year of rice and millet.Water buffalo and wild boar roamed the luxuriant forestswhich have long since disappeared. Yin sprawled over a largearea in which residential compounds for the ruling elite andclusters of commoners' dwellings were interspersed withbronze foundries and workshops producing jade and lacquerware and pottery. At its centre lay the royal palaces and

ancestor temples set atop platforms of pounded earth, and aroyal cemetery where kings lay in magnificent shaft graves.

We know little about the later Shang rulers, except forthe debaucheries of the last king, the tyrannical Ghou. Suchwere Ghou's excesses and tortures that the Shang peoplewelcomed his defeat at the hands of the Zhou in the Battle ofGhaoge, traditionally dated 1122 BC but probably closer to1050 BG. The Zhou were to become China's longest-rulingdynasty, governing the region until 256 BC (pages 48-49).

The immediate predecessors of theShang began working in bronze - a craftreaching great heights under both the Shangand their neighbours. Cast bronze vessels,used to serve food and drink in ceremonieshonouring ancestors, followed the traditionalshapes previously made in pottery, oftenintricately decorated and featuring the faceof a monster known as iaoiie. The discoveryof many fine bronzes at Sanxingdui inSechuan proves the existence of excellentbronze-working traditions outside the Shangarea. Working in bronze probably beganearlier in Southeast Asia and south China.

The Shang state was the most importantof China's early states - and the only onethat was literate. From the oracle bones theShang employed to foretell the outcome ofmilitary campaigns, we know the names ofmany fang (alien states) with whom theywere in conflict at various times. Defeatedenemies were often sacrificed to gods orancestors. Shang kings maintained a smallpersonal bodyguard but could raise armiesof up to 5,000 men from their provinces inwartime. These were mainly foot soldiersarmed with halberds, supporting an eliteforce of chariotry.

Many bronze vessels produced in ShangChina were decorated with animal motifs.The lid of this gong (lidded jar) is in theform of an imaginary animal combiningfeatures of birds and tigers. Gongs wereused during the time of Fu Hao around1200 BC, but were soon replaced byanimal-shaped jars.

THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE GULF REGION 2000-1000 BC pages 36-37 31FIRST EMPIRES IN CHINA 1100 BG-AD 220 pages 48-49

CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA1200 BC-AD 700

The Olmec are best known for themassive carved heads and other distinctivestone sculptures found in their threesuccessive ceremonial centres of San Lorenzo(1200-900 BC), La Venta (900-600 BC)and Tres Zapotes (600-300 BC) and atother Mesoamerican sites.

Teotihuacan influenced and probablydominated much of the extensive area withwhich it traded, including the Maya city ofKaminaljuyu. It is unclear to what extentthis dominance was achieved andmaintained by military force: althoughTeotihuacan art rarely shows its people aswarriors, this is how they appear in the artof their powerful neighbours, the Maya andMonte Alban.

y 1200 BG much of Mesoamericawas inhabited by agricultural com-munities, which were linked through

trade in both essential everyday commodities andexotic materials. The most prosperous area at this timewas the Gulf Coast, where annual river flooding supportedrich agriculture, and it was in this region that the Olmecculture emerged (map 1).

While some scholars believe that the Olmec dominatedMesoamerica, controlling the settlements in which their dis-tinctive artefacts have been found, others see the Olmec asthe religious leaders of the time, with their successive cere-monial centres acting as places of pilgrimage. Another schoolof thought views the Olmec as the most visible and mosteasily identified of a number of contemporary regional cul-tures that were mutually influential.

Much that is characteristic of later Mesoamericancivilization is already evident in the Olmec culture. The dan-gerous animals (in particular the jaguar) and the natural

phenomena (such as rain) whichfeature prominently in Olmec art reap-pear in various guises in later religious art.The concern with the movements of sun, moonand stars that underlies much Mesoamerican religionis apparent in the astronomically aligned layout of theOlmec ceremonial centres, where the first temple pyramidsand plazas, as well as caches of precious offerings to the gods,have been found. The characteristic colossal carved heads,which may be portraits of Olmec rulers, wear helmets for theritual ballgame, a dangerous sport with religious significancethat was part of most Mesoamerican cultures and ofteninvolved the sacrifice of members of the losing team.

Personal blood sacrifice, practised in later Mesoamericanreligions, also appears to have been a feature of Olmec life, asstingray spines and other objects used to draw blood havebeen found at Olmec sites. These items were widely traded -as were both jade, which had great ritual importance, andobsidian (volcanic rock glass), used to make exceptionallysharp tools but also fine ritual or status objects. The wide-spread distribution of these materials reflects not only theirreligious significance throughout Mesoamerica but also theirrole as indicators of status in communities where social hier-archies were beginning to emerge. Prestigious Olmec potteryand figurines (including the characteristic "were-jaguar"babies) served the same purpose.

THE TEOTIHUACAN AND MONTE ALBAN EMPIRESBy about 300 BG the Olmec had lost their pre-eminentposition and other civilizations were developing in the high-land zone, particularly the Teotihuacan Empire in the Basinof Mexico and the Monte Alban Empire of the Zapotec peoplein the Oaxaca Valley (map 2). This was the beginning of

B

32

A T L A S OF W O R L D H I S T O R Y : P A R T 1

what is known as the Classic Period, which lasted untilaround AD 900. Agricultural productivity now greatlyincreased in this region as irrigation techniques using wellsand canals were developed to supplement rain-fed farming.Raised fields may also have been cultivated.

Like the Olmec, all these civilizations were heavilyinvolved in trade. The city of Teotihuacan (map 3A),founded before 300 BG, was well placed to control wide-spread trading networks. It contained over 600 workshopsmanufacturing goods for local use and for export - objectsof obsidian (400 workshops), basalt (a building stone), shelland other materials, as well as distinctive pottery.

The city of Monte Alban was founded around 500 BC.Like Teotihuacan, it was the ceremonial and political centreof its state, but in contrast it was not the centre for regionalcraft production. Evidence shows that initially the MonteAlban state grew by military conquest, but by AD 300 itsexpansion had been checked by that of the TeotihuacanEmpire, although the people of Monte Alban seem to havebeen on friendly terms with their neighbour.

Ballcourts and depictions of sacrificial victims at MonteAlban show the continuation in the highland zone of thereligious practices of Olmec times. Also continued was theuse of written symbols (glyphs) to record dates and relatedinformation. Concern with the movements of heavenlybodies and the related calendar had led to the developmentof glyphs by the Olmec; by 500 BG the people of the OaxacaValley were recording dates and names on their carved stoneslabs (stelae). However, the only region where a completewriting system developed in the Classic Period was the Mayalowlands (map 4).

THE EARLY MAYA CIVILIZATIONThe Maya writing system was extremely complex, withmany variations in the form of individual glyphs and in theway in which a word could be expressed. It was also used torecord an extremely elaborate calendric system, involvinginterlocking and independent cycles of time, including the52-year repeating cycle used throughout Mesoamerica andthe Maya Long Count, a cycle beginning in 3114 BG accord-ing to our present-day dating system. These depended bothon a detailed knowledge of astronomical patterns and onsophisticated mathematics, including the concept of zero.

Although the Maya script is still not fully deciphered,scholars are now able to read many inscriptions on carvedstelae, temple stairs and lintels and have pieced together thedynastic history of many of the Maya kingdoms. (Unlike thetwo highland empires, the Maya were not politically unified,although they were united culturally.) Maya inscriptionsrecord the descent of each ruler from a founding ancestor,his performance of appropriate ritual activities on dates ofsignificance in the astronomical religious calendar, and hisvictories over neighbouring rulers. Although wars of conquest did occur at this time - Uaxactun's takeover by Tikal(map 3B) in AD 378 is the prime example - the main motivefor warfare was to capture high-ranking individuals to beused as sacrificial victims.

Blood sacrifice was of central importance in Maya andother Mesoamerican religions, based on the belief thathuman blood both nourished divine beings and opened apathway through which humans could communicate withthe spirit world. While personal sacrifices could be made byany member of Maya society, it was largely the responsibilityof each king to ensure the well-being of his state through theprovision of sacrificial victims and by letting his own blood.Members of the king's family were appointed as provincialgovernors of lesser centres within the kingdom, and they alsoacted in other official capacities including that of scribe.

The 7th century saw the demise of Teotihuacan andMonte Alban and the rise of other highland states, while inthe Maya region important changes had already occurred(pages 84-85). The pattern of existence that had emergedin Olmec times continued, however, as the template for theMesoamerican way of life up to the time of the Europeanconquest in the 16th century.

The cities of Teotihuacan and Tikal

highlight the contrasting patterns of life

in the highland and lowland civilizations.

Tikal, in the Maya lowlands, covered more

than 120 square kilometres (47 square

miles) with an estimated population of

50,000, while Teotihuacan in the highlands

housed two to four times as many people

in a sixth of the area. House compounds in

Maya cities were interspersed with doorstep

gardens and raised fields in swamp areas,

and a great variety of crops were grown in

both. By contrast the agricultural lands

supporting Teotihuacan lay outside the

city, in the Basin of Mexico. Highland and

lowland cities alike, however, focused on a

ceremonial centre containing temples and

the residences and burial places of the elite

Recent discoveries have shown that the

Maya employed intensive farming

techniques, including hillside terracing to

counteract erosion, and canals dug along

rivers and in bajos (seasonal swamps) for

drainage, water storage and probably fish-

farming and communications. Highly

productive raised fields were constructed

between grids of canals - although the

known extent of these fields is likely to

represent only a fraction of what once

existed. As in other Mesoamerican

civilizations, trade played an important role

in Maya life, providing materials for daily

living, religious rituals and status symbols.

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: THE AMERICAS 12,000-1000 BG pages 24-25 CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA 500-1500 pages 84-85 3 3

CULTURES IN SOUTH AMERICA1400 BC-AD 1000

Spondylus and strombus shells, widelyregarded as food for the gods, featuredprominently in Chavin and later Andeanart. Imported from the coast of Ecuador,they were an important commodity inthe exchange networks that ensured thedistribution of foodstuffs and other rawmaterials (such as obsidian, or volcanicglass) and manufactured goods (notablypottery and textiles) between the differentregions of the Andean zone during theChavin period. Chavin de Huantar probablyowed its pre-eminent position to its locationat the centre of trade routes running bothnorth-south and east-west. In some areasroads were built to facilitate trade andcommunications, and these networks(and the commodities they carried)changed little in later periods.

I

y the late 2nd millennium BC a patchwork of interrelated farming settlements existed throughout theAndean region, from coasts and lowland valleys to

high pastures. In addition to residential villages, the Andeanpeople were constructing religious centres which tookvarious forms (map 1). Those in coastal regions were char-acteristically built in the shape of a U, with terraced moundslaid out along three sides of a rectangular plaza, and apyramid often stood on the central mound. Some of thesetemple complexes - notably Gerro Sechin, where graphiccarvings of victims survive - give evidence of human sacri-fice as a part of the rites performed. Thus they foreshadowthe practices of later Andean cultures, which included awidespread trophy head cult (for example among the Nazca)and warfare to obtain captives for sacrifice (particularlyevident among the Moche).

CHAVIN DE HUANTARAround 850 BC a similar U-shaped ceremonial centre waconstructed in the mountains at Ghavin de Huantar.Housing the shrine of an oracular fanged deity set withinlabyrinthine passages, Ghavin de Huantar became a placeof pilgrimage, the centre of a cult that was widespread in itsinfluence, as demonstrated by the distribution of artefacts inthe characteristic Ghavin style. Carvings decorating thetemple mounds focused on religious themes, as did designson pottery, jewellery and other objects. Chief among thesewas the Ghavin deity, which continued to be worshippeddown the ages in various forms, such as the Staff God of

Tiwanaku. Other supernatural creatures included jaguars,caymans and composite beasts; shamans were also depictedand they were believed to be able to transform themselvesinto exotic birds and animals.

Traded objects, such as goldwork, were included asgrave goods in the elaborate burials of the Ghavin elite.These burials were often placed in shaft tombs within theplatforms of the Ghavin ceremonial centres, another prac-tice that endured down the ages - for example in themagnificent burials found in the few unlooted Mochehuacas (sacred pyramids) such as that at Sipan.

THE PARACAS AND NAZCA CULTURESThe distinctive Paracas culture emerged in Ghavin times,around 600 BC. Their craftsmanship survived in an extensive cemetery (map 1} containing numerous mummies ofelite individuals wrapped in beautifully embroidered cottontextiles and accompanied by fine pottery, goldwork andother offerings. By around 375 BC the Paracas culture hadeveloped into the Nazca culture (maps 2 and 4B], alsorenowned for its textiles and fine polychrome pottery. Somevessels were designed in the form of trophy heads, and realheads - pierced for suspension on a rope - have been recov-ered from Nazca cemeteries, in particular that at the chiefNazca ceremonial centre of Gahuachi.

Unlike Ghavin de Huantar and the ceremonial centresof other Andean civilizations, Cahuachi seems not to havefunctioned as a town, though it was probably a placeoccupied briefly by thousands of pilgrims during religiousceremonies and festivals. In its neighbourhood are the enig-matic Nazca Lines, designs on a gigantic scale which werecreated by removing stones to expose the light desert soilbeneath and depict animals, birds and geometric shapesfamiliar from the Nazca pottery. Their form can only beappreciated from the air, so they are thought to have beenintended for the gods to view and to have been used in theperformance of religious activities.

The Moche culture was centred on the siteof Moche, in northwest Peru. Its adobepyramids, among the largest in the NewWorld, contained temples and rich tombslater desecrated by other Andean peoplesand the Spanish. Through time, the Mochespread to most of the northern coast of Peru,

from the Huarmey Valley in the south, and,in the latest phase, to the LambayequeValley in the north. Further south, the Nazcaculture is well represented by largecemeteries and substantial religiousstructures of mudbrick. The culture is bestknown, however, for the Nazca Lines.

34

B


Irrigation played an important role inSouth American agriculture, and watercontrol was well developed during theChavin period (1200-200 BC), when aseries of canals was skilfully used toprovide awe-inspiring sound effects in thegreat ceremonial centre of Chavin deHuantar. Later civilizations in the Andeanregion employed a variety of differenttechniques appropriate to local conditions.The Moche supplemented perennial andseasonal watercourses by creating anetwork of canals (B). To the south, in theNazca region, underground aqueductsdesigned to prevent water loss by

evaporation (A) were probablyconstructed after AD 600 when the regionfell to the Huari, who also builtsophisticated hillside irrigation terraces.The Tiwanaku state undertook a large-scale programme of swamp drainage andcanal construction in the Pampa Koaniregion of Lake Titicaca to establish acomplex network of fertile raisedfields (C). Some of these irrigationsystems (such as the Nazca undergroundaqueducts) have survived into moderntimes; others have recently been revivedand are proving far more successful thanmodern methods.

THE MOCHE CULTUREPartially contemporary with the Nazca culture, whichflourished until around AD 600, was the Moche culture ofc. AD 1-650, maps 2 and 4B). Their ceramics, painted withexceptionally fine calligraphy, reveal a ceremonial lifefocused on mountain worship, royal mortuary cults, warfareand the dismemberment of captives. The recent discoveryof an unlooted pyramid (/luaca) at Sipan, containing theburials of two Moche lords, has given us a vivid picture ofMoche burial practices. Accompanied by a number of sacri-ficed men, women and dogs, these lords were lavishly robedin garments decorated with gold and silver, copper andfeathers; they were provided with rich grave goods in thesame materials, along with spondylus and strombus shells.

Details of these burials are familiar from decoration onthe painted or moulded pottery. Moche ceramics alsoincluded some of the first (and only) portrait effigies in theAmericas, all cast from moulds and often into the stirrup-handled vessels common to Peru. Although heavy inreligious imagery, these ceramics are unusually narrative forSouth American art, leading some scholars to postulateinfluence from other areas such as Mesoamerica.

THE CITIES OF HUARI AND TIWANAKUAround AD 650 the Moche culture was eclipsed by new artstyles emanating from Huari, near Ayacucho in the south-ern highlands of Peru (map 3). More distant still lay a city ofcomparable complexity, Tiwanaku, near Lake Titicaca.Although both cities had emerged c. 400, the connection

^ In the period AD 600-1000 AndeanSouth America contained at least threeexpansive political entities embracingdistinct ecological zones and ethnic groups.The city of Tiwanaku extended its controlfrom the rich farmlands around LakeTiticaca to lower valleys in adjacent areasof southern Peru, northern Chile andnorthern Argentina. At about the sameperiod, during the so-called "MiddleHorizon", a related (but probably rival)polity flourished around the city of Huariin Peru, displacing the coastal culture ofMoche around AD 650.

between them remains enigmatic. Most archaeologistsbelieve that they were not so much dual capitals of oneempire (an older theory) as antagonistic polities, one -Huari - oriented to the north, the other - Tiwanaku - to thhigh timberless plains known as the altiplano.

While recent political instability in the region of Huarihas made it difficult to study, Tiwanaku has been intensivelyinvestigated, unveiling elaborate raised fields (map 4C}.Whether the fields around Lake Titicaca were systematicallyorganized and harvested by the Tiwanaku state continuesto be controversial. Field research in the Moquegua Valleyindicates late Tiwanaku expansion into a number ofenclaves, with maize in particular being cultivated. Alsosubject to Huari influence, this valley was important as thesource of many prized materials which included lapis lazuli,turquoise, obsidian (volcanic glass) and copper.

The Nazca pottery vessel (left) depictinga seated warrior holding a trophy head isrepresentative of the cult of trophy headswhich was widespread in South America. Thecontainer with a funerary effigy (right) ischaracteristic of the Chavin style.

CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERIGA AND SOUTH AMERICA 500-1500 pages 84-85 35THE AMERICAS 12,000-1000 BC pages 24-25

THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE GULFREGION 2000-1000 BC

Nefertiti-the subject of this bustcarved by the royal sculptor Thutmose -was the powerful wife of the hereticalpharaohAkhenaten(r.l 352-36 BC).Ascending the throne as Amenhotep IV, theking changed his name when he introducedthe monotheistic worship of Aten, the sungod. He founded a new captial, Akhetaten(modern Amarna), but this, like his religion,was abandoned after his death.

During the New Kingdom period a flowof goods such as gold, timber and ivoryfrom Egypt reached Phoenicia, Cyprus, Creteand, further afield, the interiors of the NearEast. In return Asiatic products such ascopper and tin - and, before 1450, potteryfrom Crete - were imported into Egypt.While the Egyptian and Hittite empiresplayed key roles in the extensiveMediterranean trade networks of the 2ndmillennium BC, behind the coast there wereother powerful states - those of theAssyrians, Babylonians (the Kassitekingdom), Hurrians (the kingdom ofMitanni) and Elamites. Much of theireconomic power derived from control ofimportant overland routes - as well as thosein the Gulf.

he eastern Mediterranean became extremely affluentduring the Bronze Age. This prosperity was largelybased on a booming international trade in which the

Egyptians and later the Hittites played key roles (map 1).During the period of the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC),Egypt experienced stability under a central government ledby dynasties from Thebes. Dominion over Nubia, which hadbeen lost during the political disintegration of the FirstIntermediate Period (2181-2055 BC), was restored, guaran-teeing access to products from the African heartland. Royalmissions were sent to re-establish diplomatic contacts withSyria and Palestine, a move that further encouraged trade inthe eastern Mediterranean.

THE MINOAN AND MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATIONSFrom approximately 2000 BC the Minoan civilization flourished on the island of Crete, centred around palaces such asKnossos, Phaistos and Mallia, and the island developed itsown script. Initially pictographs resembling the Hittite signaryand Egyptian hieroglyphs were used, but around 1700 BC. linear script was invented, the so-called "Linear A".

Around 1450 BC most Minoan palaces were destroyed ..fire. This was once considered to be linked to the massivevolcanic eruption on the nearby island of Thfra (Santorini),but the eruption is now thought to have taken place around1628 BC. One possibility is that the destruction was due toccupation by mainland Greeks, the so-called Mycenaeans,who extended the already far-flung trading networks of theMinoans and adapted the Minoan script to suit theirlanguage, an early form of Greek. This "Linear B" script canbe read, unlike the still undeciphered Linear A. Tabletswritten in this new script were found on the mainland andon Crete. While the Mycenaean culture showed greataffinity with that of Minoan Crete, it also displayed a farmore warlike character: Mycenaean palaces were reinforcedwith enormous fortifications and the theme of warfaredominated their wall paintings.

KINGDOMS AND CITY-STATES OF MESOPOTAMIAThe mighty states of the Assyrians, Babylonians, Hurriansand Elamites flourished by controlling hinterland connect-ions (map l).ln southern Mesopotamia (Babylonia) foreigntrade was increasingly in the hands of private individuals, incontrast to earlier periods when trade was controlled by

temples or the government. Luxury items such as gold, lapislazuli, ivory and pearls were exchanged for Mesopotamiantextiles, sesame oil and resin.

At the beginning of the 2nd millennium there was a strug-gle for ascendancy and control among the southern cities, inwhich Isin and Larsa were early players. Later the city ofBabylon under King Hammurabi (r. 1792-50 BC) conqueredmost of the cities of southern Mesopotamia and up theEuphrates to Mari. Although this empire was relatively short-lived, it transformed southern Mesopotamia into a singlestate. Hammurabi is most famous for his Law Code which,although not the earliest known in Mesopotamia, is the firstfor which we have the complete text.

While these changes were occurring in the south, innorthern Mesopotamia the inhabitants of the core Assyriancity of Ashur were creating trading networks with cities inAnatolia up to 800 kilometres (500 miles) away, where theyestablished trading outposts to exchange Assyrian textilesand "annakum" (probably tin) for silver and gold.

HITTITE EXPANSION AND CONTRACTIONTo the north and east of Mesopotamia there were, by themid-2nd millennium BC, numerous small Hurrian (somtimes called Mitannian) principalities, while the Hittitescontrolled much of Anatolia. Texts written in the wedge-shaped characters of the cuneiform script tell us there wereother kingdoms in Anatolia such as Arzawa, Assuwa,Ahhiyawa and Lukka, but their exact location is uncertain.

In 1595 BC the Hittites under King Mursili defeatedBabylon. Soon afterwards, however, the Hittites were besetby internal dissension and revolts, and lost much of theirextended territory until they were left controlling onlycentral Anatolia. For about a century very little is knownabout events in Mesopotamia and Anatolia. In 1480 BC theHurrian kingdoms were united by King Parrattarna as thekingdom of Mitanni, and by 1415 BC the Kassites, a peoplwho had been slowly moving into Babylonia, had establisheddominance in the area. The Hittites once again controlledmuch of the Anatolian plateau and were heavily involved inMediterranean trade, receiving commodities such as copper,gold and grain as tribute from the cities under their influenceor control. At the same time they were spreading southwardsinto the Levant, an area where the Egyptians under the NewKingdom dynasties were also expanding.

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NEW KINGDOM EGYPTEgyptian unity had once again been destroyed when theHyksos, an Asiatic tribe, seized part of the country around1650 BG. Their rule lasted for about 100 years until Ahmose(r. 1550-25 BC) drove them out and established the NewKingdom (1550-1069 BG), a period of great cultural flowering(map 2). This was also the time of the greatest Egyptianexpansion, predominantly geared towards securing resourcesfrom Nubia and West Asia. Thutmose I (r. 1504-1492 BG)campaigned as far as the Euphrates River, and Thutmose III(r. 1479-25 BG) reclaimed Syria, thus extending the empireto Garchemish. He also established Egyptian control overNubia up to the Fourth Cataract.

Egyptian domination over Palestine and Syria once againlapsed until Sety I (r. 1294-79 BG) recovered Palestine. Heinitiated a period of fierce competition with the Hittites forcontrol of the Levant, which came to a head at the Battle ofQadesh in 1275 BG. Although the Egyptians claimed victorythe Hittites probably gained the upper hand, as the areaaround and south of Damascus came under Hittite influence.

Soon after this battle the resurgent Assyrians under KingAdad-nirari I (r. 1305-1274 BG) captured the Mitanniancapital of Washukanni (whose location is still unknown) and,with the collapse of the Mitanni kingdom, established them-selves as a power equal to Egypt. In response the Hittitesformed a pact of non-aggression with the Egyptians that ledto a period of stability in the region.

THE "SEA PEOPLES"Early in the 12th century BC large movements of peoplesaround the eastern Mediterranean coincided with the socialand economic collapse of many of the Late Bronze Agekingdoms (map 3). A wave of destruction was wrought bytribes known collectively as the "Sea Peoples": cities on theSyrian coast and Cyprus were sacked, along with Hittite set-tlements and Mycenaean palaces, and the Hittite Empire andMycenaean civilization both came to an end.

The Assyrians were not directly affected by theseupheavals and continued to expand. They invaded Babylonas well as the Levant, where they took advantage of thecollapse of the Hittite Empire. However, by the close of the2nd millennium Assyrian dominance was also fading and thekingdom of Elam to the east now became the most powerfulplayer in the region.

While the Old Kingdom period is knownas the "Age of the Pyramids", the NewKingdom was the era of the vast templesand lavishly painted tombs of pharaohs andnobles in the Valley of the Kings and theadjacent areas around Thebes. The Valleyof the Kings alone hosted 62 rock-cut tombs,of which the most famous is that ofTutankhamun. His grave was the only onewhich archaeologists found largely intactand it contained, besides his mummy, anastounding wealth of grave goods includingdismantled chariots, beds, masks, gamesand musical instruments.

The movements of the "Sea Peoples"- bands who roamed the Mediterraneanduring the 13th century BC - have beenreconstructed on the basis of few writtensources and little archaeologkal evidence.In Egypt two attacks by these tribes havebeen documented. Merenptah(r. 1213-1203 BC) withstood an attack onthe Nile delta by a united force of Libyansand the Sea Peoples. They returned duringthe reign of Rameses III (1184-53 BC),attacking by land and sea. They weredefeated, but later some settled peacefullyin Egypt, others in Palestine. Egyptianpharaohs triumphantly recorded theirvictories over the Sea Peoples, exaggeratingthe threat posed by groups whom at othertimes they often employed as mercenaries.It has been assumed that the razed citieselsewhere in the Mediterranean were causedby the same Sea Peoples, although internalunrest and earthquakes were probablyamong other factors involved.

E M P I R E S A N D T R A D E R S 1 2 0 0 - 6 0 0 B C p a g e s 3 8 - 3 9

EMPIRES AND TRADERS1200-600 BC

The Phoenicians emerged as a majorsea-trading nation in the 1st millennium BC.In addition to cedar from their mountainsand purple dye made from local shellfish,they traded copper from Cyprus and otherraw materials obtained from their coloniesin the western Mediterranean and furtherafield. Their fine craft products - includingglassware and ornaments carved from theivory of Syrian elephants - were also highlysought after. To the south the Phoenicianhomeland bordered on the newly foundedstates of the Israelites and the Philistines -the latter descended from one group of the"Sea Peoples" who had caused suchupheaval in the Mediterranean during thelate 2nd millennium BC.

rom approximately 1200 to 900 BC West Asia was i.an economic and political downswing. Both thearchaeological and textual evidence indicates that

there was no longer the vast wealth that had supported thelavish royal lifestyles and military campaigns of the LateBronze Age. Although major cities remained occupied, theempires of the Egyptians, Hurrians, Hittites, Elamites andAssyrians no longer held sway over the region. However,beginning in 911 BC, Adad-nirari II (r. 911-891 BC) startedto re-establish central authority in Assyria (map 1). Aftersecuring Assyria he sacked but did not conquer Babylonand subsequently conducted a successful series of cam-paigns in the Habur region. Expansion of the AssyrianEmpire continued throughout much of the 9th century BC,and with their mighty armies the Assyrians were to dom-inate West Asia almost continuously for 200 years untiltheir defeat by the Medes and Babylonians in 612 BC.

ASSYRIAN EXPANSIONThe Assyrians did not have a policy of uniform military con-quest and incorporation; instead they established a patternof conquest that entailed first receiving gifts from indepen-dent rulers, who were considered as "clients". If the clientstate subsequently failed to provide "gifts" (tribute), theAssyrians treated this as an act of rebellion and conqueredthe state. A local ruler was then appointed, or the countrywas annexed and ruled by a provincial governor. Thismethod of domination and control channelled all the trib-utes of clients and booty of conquered countries into theheartland of Assyria. Thus the Assyrians not only acquiredan extensive empire but also great wealth, enabling theirrulers to build fabulous palaces, establish several new capi-tals and commission works of art ranging from exquisiteivory carvings to monumental stone reliefs.

ISRAEL AND JUDAHThe Levant was one of the main areas to suffer the effects ofAssyrian expansion. The Israelites had settled in Palestine,their traditional "promised land", around 1250 BC (map 2).A little later, around 1200 BC, the Philistines occupied theadjacent area of Philistia. Increasing pressure from this andother neighbouring tribes forced the Israelites to uniteunder one king during the llth century BC. The first, Saul,was defeated by the Philistines, but his successor David

The Assyrians controlled their empire byinstalling local rulers or provincial governorsand a system of tribute. From the late 9th

century onwards they sometimes enslavedand resettled thousands of conqueredpeople in areas far from their homelands.

(r. 1006-966 BC) expanded the kingdom and choseJerusalem as its religious and political centre. Under Davidand his son Solomon (r. 966-26 BC) the kingdom prospered,becoming an international power and a centre of cultureand trade. Tensions between the northern and the southerntribes mounted, however, and after Solomon's death thekingdom was divided into two parts, Israel and Judah.

THE AGE OF THE PHOENICIANSTo the north Phoenicia had become a major trading empireafter the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization around1200 BC (pages 36-37). Phoenicia consisted of autonomouscity-states such as Byblos, Sidon and Tyre, whichestablished new trade routes and from the end of the 9thcentury BC founded colonies in North Africa, Spain andSardinia (map 3). Carthage was a wealthy Phoenician

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trading centre and gradually established its own empire.Phoenician interest in the western Mediterranean led toclashes with Greeks in southern France and Corsica, whilethe Carthaginians later engaged in a power struggle with theRomans that ended with their city's destruction in 146 BC.

EGYPT AND ASSYRIAAfter the central government of the Egyptian New Kingdomcollapsed around 1069 BC, the country was ruled by twocompeting dynasties based in the Nile delta and Thebes.Nubia, parts of which had been colonized by Egypt fromOld Kingdom times (pages 30-31), now became indepen-dent (map 4). A family of local lords established itself as apowerful dynasty, governing from Napata. When the rulersbased in the delta threatened Thebes, the priest of the stategod Amun sought the protection of the Nubian king Piy(r. 746-716 BC), granting him the title Pharaoh of Egypt.Piy conquered Thebes and went northwards to put downopposition by the delta rulers. His successor completed theconquest of Egypt, reversing centuries of Egyptian domi-nation of Nubia. The start of the Nubian dynasty marks thebeginning of the so-called Later Period (747-332 BC).

In the early 8th century the powerful Assyrians suffereda period of weakness, which allowed the kingdoms of otherpeoples to thrive, among them the Urartians in easternAnatolia and the Chaldeans in southern Mesopotamia(Babylonia). However, by the middle of the century theAssyrians were once again expanding, for the first time cam-paigning north of the Euphrates - where they conquered anumber of city-states which had formed after the collapseof the Hittite Empire 600 years earlier.

The process continued under Sargon II (r. 721-705 BC),who expanded the boundaries of the empire beyond those ofthe 9th century BC (map 4). By 701 BC the Assyrians hadannexed Phoenicia, Israel and Judah, and in the 7thcentury BC they turned their attention to Babylon, wherethey were confronted by a powerful culture that would suc-cessfully hold its own against the Assyrian might. Although

eventually defeating the Babylonians and their Elamite alliesin 694 BC, Assyria always considered Babylon specialbecause of its history, its culture and the power of itsancient gods. Thus Babylon was ruled by a member of theAssyrian royal family as co-king rather than as governor.

In 671 BC the Assyrians launched an attack against theEgyptians and, after initial setbacks, secured domination ofthe country. However, they never completely controlled itand, after a number of additional campaigns, they withdrewto leave friendly "client kings" in place. During this periodEgyptian culture flourished, with Greek Classical andHellenistic influences becoming increasingly prominent.The Nubians, meanwhile, retreated southwards.

THE NEO-BABYLONIAN EMPIREIn 626 BC, after 60 years of stability and growth underAssyrian co-kings, a Chaldean who took the royal name ofNabopolassar seized power in Babylonia and establishedwhat is known as the Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian Empire.Ten years of civil war between the Babylonians and theAssyrians followed, but by 616 BC Nabopolassar was strongenough to take his armies north, where he defeated theAssyrians and their Egyptian allies. In 615 BC the Medes,who originated from the area around Hamadan, sacked theAssyrian capital Ashur. In 612 BC the combined forces ofthe Medes and Babylonians besieged and sacked Nineveh,effectively bringing the Assyrian Empire to an end.

Soon afterwards Nabopolassar was succeeded by hisson, the biblical conqueror Nebuchadnezzar, and the Medesbegan their extensive conquest of the Iranian Plateau. Theywere eventually defeated around 550 BC by the Persianleader Cyrus, who went on to conquer Babylon in 539 BC.The fall of Nineveh in 612 BC can be seen as a turning pointbetween the millennia that saw the old empires of Egypt,the Hittites, Babylon and Assyria rise, fall and rise again,and the arrival of new players on the world stage: thesewere the Persians and the Greeks, who also went on toestablish extremely powerful entities that finally clashed.

In the early 8th century BC waningAssyrian power allowed neighbouringkingdoms to prosper. The Urartians, centredin eastern Anatolia around Lake Van,greatly expanded their territory, notably tothe south. They had adopted a number ofideas from the Assyrians - including the useof cuneiform writing - but they had theirown distinctive culture and were skilled inworking both bronze and iron.

In Babylonia the Chaldeans, an Amoritetribe, became prominent. The languishingGulf trade revived under their auspices, andthe resulting wealth and stability enabledBabylonian cultural life to continue, assuringthe survival of Mesopotamian literary andscientific traditions.

Assyrian power grew once again in thelate 8th century BC, and after gainingcontrol of Babylonia and the Levant theempire was soon in conflict with Egypt.Assyria made a partially successful attackon Egypt in 671 BC, returning in 663 BCand attacking Memphis, prompting theNubian ruler Taharqo to flee south toThebes. Within just 40 years, however,Assyria itself was attacked and subdued bythe Babylonians, who continued to rule inMesopotamia until 539 BC, when Babylonfell to Cyrus of Persia.

THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE GULF REGION 2000-1000 BC pages 36-37 39THE AGHAEMENID AND HELLENISTIC WORLD 600-30 BC pages 42-43

CLASSICAL GREECE750-400 BC

Greek art and architecture had aprofound effect on the Romans. ThisRoman marble copy of Athena, goddessof war and wisdom, was based on astatue by the Greek sculptor Myron inthe 5th century BC. The original wouldhave been made of bronze using the"lost-wax" technique, a method thatenabled the Greeks to portray the mostlifelike of figures.

During the 8th and 7th centuries BC theGreeks came to play a pivotal role in thegrowing Mediterranean trade. However,their ambitions also led to confrontationswith rival merchant forces, notably thePhoenicians.

ore than 700 years after the fall of Mycenae (pages36-37}, a new civilization flourished in Greece. Thecultural and political life of Greece, and particularly

of Athens, in the 5th century BC was to have a profounimpact on Western civilization. In Athens the principles ofdemocracy were established and scientific and philosophicalreasoning taken to unprecedented heights. The Athenianliterary tradition - exemplified by the tragedies of Sophoclesand the comedies of Aristophanes - formed a central partof its legacy. Also in Athens, architecture and forms of artsuch as sculpture and vase painting took on the Classicalstyles that still influence the Western sense of aesthetics.

The Greek landscape is dominated by the sea and bymountains, which cover 80 per cent of the mainland andreach heights of over 2,000 metres (6,000 feet) (map 1).Authors such as Plato glorified a past when the countrysidewas lush and densely wooded, but by the 1st millennium B.poor soil and the scarce rainfall during the summer monthslimited the possibilities for growing crops. Modern botani-cal and geological studies reveal a remarkable stability inthe Greek countryside during the last 3-4,000 years, untilthe recent industrialization of agriculture. Today's farmersgrow labour-intensive crops such as apricots and grapes inthe valleys along the coast, cultivate cereals and olives onthe less fertile mountain slopes, and use the mountain pas-tures as grazing land. It is likely that the ancient ruralpopulation of Greece practised a similar mixed agriculture,supplemented with marine resources.

THE GREEK CITY-STATESWhereas the many islands in the Aegean Sea provide securepoints for navigation and promote maritime traffic, cross-country communication is hindered by the mountains,which leave many areas isolated. In these mountain pocketsindependent, self-governing city-states, or poleis, developedduring the 8th century BC. Their focal point was usually anurban centre positioned on a defensible rock: the acropolis(literally the "high town"). This functioned as the political,administrative and religious centre for the surroundingcountryside. Some city-states expanded their influence andcame to dominate; others remained on a more equal footingwith neighbouring cities, with whom they acted as a federalunit in matters such as foreign policy. During the 8thcentury BC a sense of a Greek identity emerged, primarilybased on language and religion - and expressed in the pan-Hellenic (all-Greek) festivals such as the Olympic Gamesand the shared oracles at Delphi and Dodona.

From around 750 BC food shortages, political unrest andtrade interests prompted the Greeks to venture out and

Geography and natural resources set theparameters for the political and culturaldevelopment of Classical Greece. Oftenseparated from each other by mountains,

the city-states evolved independently, manyof them relying on travel by sea. A lack ofhigh-quality agricultural land furtherencouraged expansion overseas.

establish new city-states well away from home (map 2).These colonies retained the culture and religion of themother cities, yet in a political sense functioned independ-ently. The earliest colonies in Syria (Al Mina) and Italy(Ischia), founded by Eretria and Ghalcis, were primarilytrading posts, but the quest for arable land probably playeda key role in the colonization of Sicily and the Black Seaarea, mostly by Ghalcis, Corinth and Miletus. While thesetrade connections and colonies were of great cultural sig-nificance, promoting an exchange between the eastern andwestern Mediterranean areas, they also led to major con-flicts, for example with the Phoenicians (pages 38-39}.

WAR WITH PERSIAIn the east the expansion of Persia's Achaemenid Empire(pages 42-43) led to confrontations with the Greek cities ofAsia Minor (map 3). With the support of Athens and Eretriathese cities rebelled against the Persian king Darius I in499 BC, and the rebellions were not finally suppressed unti493 BC. Darius then demanded the submission of all thmainland Greek cities, but Athens and Sparta refused. In492 BC Darius sent out a punitive mission, which backfire

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after most of the Persian fleet was lost in storms aroundMount Athos. When Eretria was sacked in 490 BC Greecewas divided on how to respond, but the Athenians and asmall Plataean force took the initiative and defeated thePersians at Marathon that year. Infuriated, Darius's succes-sor Xerxes prepared an even larger invasion, to which manyof the Greek city-states responded by mounting their firstunited force, led by Sparta. The Athenian leader Themi-stocles interpreted the oracular pronouncement that theyshould rely on Athens's wooden walls to mean strengtheningtheir navy, and he enlarged the fleet to 180 ships.

The first confrontation took place in 480 BC at Thermo-pylae, where the Spartan King Leonidas held out bravely butwas defeated. After inflicting considerable losses on thePersian navy at Artemisium in 480 BC, the Athenians with-drew to the Bay of Salamis. They knew they could notdefeat the Persians on land and so left their city to theenemy, who burned Athens to the ground. The huge Persianfleet followed the Athenian navy to Salamis but was unableto manoeuvre within the narrow straits there and was oblit-erated in 480 BC. The following year, at Plataea, the Persianland army suffered a similar fate at the hands of theSpartans, and the Greeks dealt the Persians the final blow in479 BC at Mount Mycale, where the Persian troops hadtaken refuge. The small and independent Greek city-stateshad managed to defeat the greatest empire at that time.

ATHENS AND SPARTAAthens gained tremendous prestige through its contribu-tions to the victory over the Persians and, when Spartadeclined, seemed the obvious leader of an anti-Persian pact.Although the main aims of this confederacy, the DelianLeague, were protection against the Persians and seekingcompensation for the incurred losses, the Athenians soonused the alliance to build an empire. They imposed heavytributes on their allies and punished revolts mercilessly. In454 BC the Delian League's treasury was moved to Athensand funds were overtly channelled into the city's coffers. Agrand building scheme was launched to restore the city,crowned by the construction of the Parthenon (477-438 BC)and the Erechtheum (421-406 BC). This was Athens'sGolden Age, much of it masterminded by Pericles.

Sparta and other Greek cities watched the growth ofAthens with suspicion. Not only did they fear Athens's mili-tary power, but they were also wary of democracy, Athens'sradical contribution to political innovation. This rule of thepeople (women, slaves and foreigners excepted) was per-ceived as posing a direct threat to Sparta's ruling upperclasses and, after mounting tension, war broke out in 431BC (map 4). It was a costly conflict: Attica's countryside wassacked annually and the population, withdrawn within thecity's walls, suffered famine and plague that killed a quarterof its number, including Pericles. The Peloponnesian Warlasted 27 years, ending with Athens's downfall in 404 BC.

The Greeks exported their political andsocial ideas alongside their art, and variouscolonies around the northern shores of theMediterranean are still littered with temples,theatres, gymnasia and agoras, or market-places. The remains of this late 5th-century

temple are at Segesta in Sicily - a focalpoint for Greek trade. Its columns are in thesimple Doric style, first of the three majororders of Classical architecture; theprogressively more complex and ornateIonic and Corinthian styles followed later.

THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE GULF REGION 2000-1000 BC pages 36-37

The unity displayed by Greece duringthe Persian Wars was short-lived. Athenianimperialist policy led to war with Sparta andits Peloponnesian allies - described by thehistorian Thucydides as the most appallingof all the Greek wars in losses and suffering.

The Persian kings Darius I and Xerxesplanned three invasions in their attempts tosubdue mainland Greece. While the firstfailed in 492 BC, the second and third (490and 480 BC) posed such a serious threatthat Greece responded as a united force.

4 1THE AGHAEMENID AND HELLENISTIC WORLD 600-30 BC pages 42-43

THE ACHAEMENID AND HELLENISTIC WORLD600-30 BC

On his succession in 359 BC Philip IIwas master of a tiny kingdom, yet hetransformed the Macedonian army into aformidable fighting machine - increasingthe numbers of aristocratic cavalry,introducing the heavy infantry phalanxarmed with sarissas (long pikes), andmounting sieges of unprecedentedefficiency. By his death in 336 BC Macedoniawas a major power, dominating Greece andthreatening the Persian Achaemenid Empire.His son Alexander, charismatic leader andmilitary genius, inherited Philip's ambitionsas well as his army, and he conquered notonly the Persian Empire but also lands wellbeyond. However, his attempts to weld hisvast conquests into a unified empire undercombined Macedonian and local rulersended with his early death in Babylon atthe age of 32.

allowing the fall of the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, in612 BG, the former Assyrian Empire was dividedbetween the Babylonians and the Medes, with a small

corner of the extensive new Median territory occupied by adependent related Indo-Iranian tribe, the Persians. In550 BC the Persian King Cyrus, of the Achaemenid family,rose against his overlord and occupied the Median terri-tory. Learning of this, King Croesus of Lydia (a country richin goldmines) saw an opportunity to enlarge his empire tothe east. He consulted the Delphic oracle, which prophe-sied that he would destroy a great kingdom and, confidentof his success, Croesus faced Cyrus at Hattusas. The battleended in stalemate, however, and Croesus retreated toSardis, followed by Cyrus, who besieged the city untilCroesus's surrender in 547 BG - when Croesus realized thatthe kingdom whose destruction the oracle had referred towas his own.

The Persian Achaemenid Empire (map 1) now encom-passed the Lydian territory, including the Greek cities onthe coast of Asia Minor which Croesus had annexed in585 BG. In 539 BG Cyrus also conquered Babylon. He wassaid to have been a just ruler who allowed his subjects reli-gious freedom and did not impose excessively harsh taxes.

THE PERSIAN SATRAPIESIn 530 BG Cyrus was killed on campaign and was succeededby his son Cambyses, whose greatest military feat was theannexation of Egypt in 525 BG. After Cambyses and hisbrother mysteriously died, Darius I (a cousin ofAchaemenid descent) came to the throne in 521 BG. Ratherthan accepting the existing administrative structures as hispredecessors had done, Darius organized the empire into20 provinces or "satrapies", each ruled by one of his rela-tives. To ensure efficient government he created a roadnetwork and installed a regular system of taxation basedon the gold Daric coin.

Darius added the Indus province to the empire andbrought Thrace under Persian rule in 512 BC, but his attackon the Scythians in the Danube area was unsuccessful.Darius suffered another setback in 499 BG, when Cyprus

Persian rule combined an empire-widelegal and administrative system with anacceptance of local customs, practices andreligions. Trade prospered under theAchaemenids, facilitated by the efficient

road network, a standardized system ofweights and measures, and the innovativeuse of coinage. Sophisticated irrigationworks using underground watercourses andcanals increased agricultural productivity.

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and the Greek city-states on the coast of Asia Minorrevolted. Although Cyprus was swiftly brought back underPersian rule, the Greek rebellion persisted until 493 BC.The missions sent by Darius and his successor Xerxes topunish the mainland Greeks for their support ended inPersian defeats in 490, 480 and 479 BC (pages 40-41). Therest of the empire remained intact until it was conqueredby Alexander the Great.

MACEDONIAN EXPANSIONWhen Darius invaded Thrace, Macedonia had little choicebut to become a Persian vassal, and it remained a marginalstate on the international political scene until Philip IIascended the Macedonian throne in 359 BC. Philip forged aprofessional army, unified Macedonia and, having gainedcontrol of Thessaly, expanded into Illyria and Thrace, bring-ing important harbours and goldmines into the empire.

His expansion (map 2) met with hostility from Athensand Thebes, whose military power had greatly diminishedduring the Peloponnesian War. After his victory over a com-bined Theban-Athenian army at Ghaeronea in 338 BC,Philip was the undisputed master of Greece until his assas-sination in 336 BC - just as he was preparing to invadePersia. His 20-year-old son Alexander III succeeded him, andafter crushing opposition to his reign in Macedonia he joinedthe remainder of his father's army in Persian territory.Having defeated the army of the Persian satraps at Granicusin 334 BC, Alexander faced Darius III (r. 335-330 BC) at Issusin 333 BC. On a narrow coastal plain he dealt the Persians adevastating defeat and captured Darius's family.

He then conquered Syria, Egypt and Mesopotamia beforeconfronting Darius again in 331 BC on the plains of the Tigrisnear Arbela. After a long battle, Darius fled and Alexandermoved on to sack Persepolis in retribution for the destruc-tion of Athens in the Persian Wars some 150 years earlier.

In the east, Alexander's self-proclaimed status as King ofAsia was threatened by rebel satraps. However, in 327 BC hecrushed remaining opposition in eastern Iran andAfghanistan, before invading northern India. His ambitionhad now shifted to expanding beyond the boundaries of the

former Persian Empire, and he crossed the River Indus in326 BC; he hoped to proceed to the River Ganges, regardeas the eastern limit of the inhabited world, but was stoppedby mutiny in his tired army. Instead he subdued the tribesalong the River Indus and returned to Babylon, where hedied in 323 BC of fever, exhaustion or possibly poison.

Alexander the Great had forged an empire whichstretched from Greece to the River Indus (map 3) andwhich merged Greek and Oriental cultures. Greek becamethe common language, and Greek gods were venerated sideby side with local deities. Both Macedonians and Persiansruled as satraps, and Alexander encouraged his generals tomarry Persian women, as he himself had done. He founded70 new cities, many called Alexandria, which acted asmilitary but also cultural centres of the new cosmopolitansociety. Alexander's success was rooted in his prowess as amilitary leader, a role in which he displayed great personalcourage, and in clever propaganda, such as the construc-tion of a myth proclaiming his divinity - a belief which hehimself seemed to share.

ALEXANDER'S SUCCESSORSAfter Alexander's death a long power struggle ensuedbetween his generals, the so-called "War of the Diadochi"(successors). The main contenders were Antigonus ofPhrygia, Seleucus of Babylonia, Ptolemy of Egypt, andAntipatros, in charge of Macedonia and Greece. Macedonia,generally regarded as the seat of legitimate rule, became thecentre of continuous conflict. After the murder ofAlexander's son by Gassander, son of Antipatros, the varioussuccessors all proclaimed themselves kings between 306and 303 BC (map 4).

While this marked the definite end of Alexander'sempire, the war was not yet over: after renewed hostilitiesthree kingdoms (later called the Hellenistic Kingdoms) weresecurely established by 275 BC. The Antigonids ruled inMacedonia, the Seleucids in Syria and the Ptolemies inEgypt, but their reigns ended when the Romans capturedtheir territories (in 148, 64 and 30 BC respectively).Meanwhile the successors of Ghandragupta - who, afterAlexander's death, had founded the Mauryan Empire andtaken control of the Punjab region - remained in poweruntil approximately 186 BC (pages 46-47).

Alexander's army met the Persian forcesof Darius III at Issus in 333 BC - and scorea victory that both heralded his conquest ofsouthwest Asia and signalled the beginningof the end for the 220-year-old Achaemeniddynasty, rulers of the first Persian empire.This graphic detail, modelled on a 4th-century BC Hellenistic painting -commissioned by Alexander's own generals- is taken from the mosaic at the House ofthe Faun in Pompeii. It was created in thelate 2nd or early 1st century BC - clearevidence of Alexander's enduring reputationamong the Romans.

Throughout the lands of Alexander'sshort-lived empire, Greek culture blossomedunder Hellenistic rule, usually enriched byindigenous cultures; even in India, at thevery limit of Alexander's conquests, it had alasting effect. Developments in astronomy,medicine, mathematics and engineeringtook place alongside patronage of the arts,the building of libraries and theencouragement of education. With theRoman Empire acting as intermediary, theseachievements laid the basis for a laterEuropean civilization.

THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE GULF REGION 2000-1000 BC pages 36-37 43THE ROMAN EMPIRE 500 BG-AD 400 pages 54-55

THE BIRTH OF WORLD RELIGION1500 BC-AD 600

The 1st century AD witnessed a schism inBuddhism: the resultant MahayanaBuddhism offered universal salvation andspread through Central Asia and China,while the more conservative TheravadaBuddhism became influential inSoutheast Asia.

y 600 AD a series of major religions had spreadthroughout Eurasia (map 1). Distinguished fromother, more local beliefs by a focus on holy writings,

or scriptures, most of them continue to flourish today.The oldest religion is Hinduism. Its sacred writings, the

Vedas, were first compiled by seers and priests, or rishis,and were based on myths, legends and hymns passed downfrom antiquity. Many of the beliefs and rituals of Hinduismhad their origins in the sacrificial cults introduced to India

by the Indo-Aryans from around 1500 BG, while others wereindigenous and can be traced back to the Indus civilization(pages 28-29); indeed it derives its name from the river.

Central to Hinduism are a belief in the transmigrationof souls, the worship of many deities (who eventually cameto be seen as aspects of one god), the religious sanction ofstrict social stratification, the caste system, and the abilityto assimilate rather than exclude different religious beliefs.Unlike most of the later major religions, Hinduism neverreally spread beyond the bounds of its home country,although it was very influential in some of the early states ofSoutheast Asia (pages 64-65).

THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISMSiddhartha Gautama (c. 563-483 BG), the founder oBuddhism, was born a wealthy prince in northeastern India(map 2). Renouncing worldly trappings and achievingenlightenment, or nirvana, he became known as theBuddha (the Enlightened). Gautama lived at a time of greatreligious ferment in India, and Buddhism was one of anumber of sects that aimed to reform Hinduism. Another,more extreme, reform movement was Jainism, whoseasceticism was a reaction to the rigid ritualism of Hinduism.

Buddhism shared with Hinduism the belief in the cycleof rebirth, but differed in the way in which escape fromthe cycle could be achieved. Indeed the appearance ofBuddhism stimulated a resurgence in Hinduism, which maybe why Buddhism failed to take a permanent hold in India.

immediately after it. Judaism and Hinduismhad their roots in earlier times, when manypeoples worshipped local gods.

Several founders of world religions -notably Buddha, Confucius, Zoroaster andChrist - lived in the 1st millennium BC or

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Buddhism was given official backing by the MauryanEmperor Ashoka (r. 272-231 BC), and Buddhist monuments,such as the great stupa at Sanchi, were built. Over thefollowing centuries Buddhism - with its emphasis on over-coming suffering and breaking out of the endless cycle ofrebirth through discipline, meditation, good works and thebanishing of desire - spread throughout much of Asia,reaching Japan in the 6th century AD. Great Buddhistcentres, based around religious communities, developed.

CONFUCIANISM AND DAOISMTwo philosophical traditions were dominant in China whenBuddhist monks arrived there in the 4th century AD.Confucianism, named after the author of the Classics,Kongzi, or Confucius (551-479 BC), propounded a set ofmorals encouraging a way of life ruled by the principles oforder, hierarchy and respect. Confucius worked for muchof his career as an administrator in one of the WarringStates (pages 48-49), and his ideas subsequently greatlyinfluenced political philosophy in China and many otherparts of East Asia.

The other tradition, Daoism, or "the Way", called forpeople to find ways of being in harmony with the world. Itwas based on the teachings of the philosopher Lao-tze,written down in the Dao De Jing (probably in the 3rdcentury BC). In its combination of cosmology and the sanc-tification of nature, certain mountains were consideredespecially sacred and became the focus of worship.

ZOROASTRIANISM AND JUDAISMIn West Asia a new religion developed out of the ancientIndo-Iranian belief systems during the 1st millennium BC.Zarathrustra, known to the Greek world as Zoroaster, livedin Persia, probably during the 10th century BC, though somedate him from 628 to 551 BC. Zoroastrianism, the religionnamed after him, had a major impact on the developmenton many other religious traditions, including Judaism andChristianity. Its scriptures, the Avesta, set out the Zoro-astrian belief that life is a constant struggle between goodand evil. Zoroaster rejected the pantheism of the Indo-Iranian religions and proclaimed one of the ancient deities,Ahura Mazda (the "Wise Lord") as the one supreme god.

Zoroaster believed that the end of the world was imminent,and that only the righteous would survive the great confla-gration to share in the new creation.

Following the death of Zoroaster his teachings spreadthroughout the Persian Achaemenid Empire of 550-330 BC(pages 42-43} until the conquests of Alexander displacedZoroastrianism with Hellenistic beliefs. Renewed interest inZoroastrianism developed towards the end of the ParthianEmpire (238 BC-AD 224), and it was taken up as the officialreligion of the Sasanian Empire, where it flourished untilthe arrival of Islam in the 7th century.

Zoroastrianism had considerable influence on the devel-opment of Judaism (map 3), which had originated with thepeople of Abraham - nomad groups living in the northernArabian Desert in the 2nd millennium BC. Jewish traditionholds that these Hebrew people spent time in slavery inpharaonic Egypt before leaving under the leadership ofMoses around 1250 BC. They settled in Canaan and foughtwith the local inhabitants, particularly the Philistines, untilpeace was achieved under King David around 1000 BC.

Jewish communities were established in Egypt in the2nd century BC, in Italy from the 1st century AD, in Spain byAD 200 and in Germany by AD 300. The teachings ofJudaism form the Old Testament of the Bible; in addition,Jewish law is recorded in the Talmud, the first codificationbeing the Mishnah, written down about AD 200.

THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITYNamed after its founding figure, Jesus Christ (c. 4 BC-AD 29),Christianity (map 4) developed from Judaic roots.Christians believe in one God and that Jesus, born inBethlehem, is the Son of God - the Messiah whose arrivalon Earth had long been promised in the Jewish tradition.Jesus's radical teachings and disregard for the establishmentled to his death by crucifixion, an event Christians believehe overcame in the Resurrection. In the first few centuriesAD, Christianity flourished in many parts of the Romanworld, and Christ's teachings (written down in the NewTestament) spread by apostolic figures such as Paul ofTarsus. By 600 it had travelled from its origins in the easternMediterranean as far as the western shores of the CaspianSea in the east and the British Isles in the northwest.

Early Christians were often persecutedby the Romans, who saw them as a threatto the stability of the empire because theyrefused to acknowledge the divinity of theRoman emperor. By AD 64 Nero usedChristians as victims in the imperial arenas,and in the early 4th century Diocletianorganized campaigns against them.However, Diocletian's successor Constantinelegalized Christianity, and at the first"Ecumenical Council" (held at Nicaea in325) he brought church and state together.Constantine had converted to Christianityafter a key victory over his rivals in 312, avictory he ascribed to the power invested inhim as the servant of the Highest Divinity,which he equated with the Christian god.

Many sects emerged during this earlyspread of Christianity, and councils wereperiodically held to discuss the doctrinaldisagreements raised - with some sectsdeclared heretical as a result.

After the death of David's son Solomonin 926 BC, the Jewish lands were dividedinto the kingdoms of Israel and Judah,which then had a turbulent history ofdivision and conquest by Assyria, Babyloniaand, lastly, by Rome. Between AD 66 and 73rebellion against Roman rule broke out, butthe empire reconquered Jerusalem in 70,destroying the Jewish temple. Following along siege at Masada the last of the rebelswere crushed in 73, and after a secondrevolt was brutally put down (132-35)many Jews left Judah (called Judaea bythe Romans).

RELIGIONS OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD 600-1500 pages 62-63 45THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 600-1000 pages 68-69

FIRST EMPIRES IN INDIA600 BC-AD 500

By the 6th century BC prosperous statesin the Ganges Valley were competing fordominance, expanding not only by militaryconquest but also through dynasticmarriages and political alliances - a trendthat set the pattern for the rise and fall ofstates in subsequent centuries. Strong rulerssuch as the early Mauryas and the Guptassucceeded in uniting large areas to formempires, but weak successors were unableto hold them together.

Despite their diverse origins anddifferent political histories, the invadersof the subcontinent followed a commonpattern. Each group introduced new culturalelements - seen, for example, in art stylesinfluenced by the Hellenistic world - butfar more marked was their "Indianization".Most of them readily adopted Indian culture,settling in towns such as Taksasila (Taxila) orMathura, converting to Buddhism or otherIndian religions, patronizing art andarchitecture, profiting from South Asia'sflourishing international trade, and on thewhole becoming socially assimilated.

uring the 2nd millennium BC Indo-Aryan nomadswere the first of many groups from Iran or CentralAsia to invade the Indian subcontinent. Initially they

spread only into the Ganges Valley, but according to legend(given support by recent archaeological work), around500 BC a group led by Prince Vijaya also gained control ofSri Lanka. In 530 BC the Persians conquered the northwest,but the area subsequently fell to Alexander the Great (pages42-43) and the Indo-Greek kingdoms that emerged after hisdeath dominated the region for several centuries. However,neither Persians nor Greeks ever penetrated deeper into thesubcontinent, due to the strength of native dynasties.

KINGDOMS AND EMPIRESBy 500 BC kingdoms existed throughout the Ganges region.Chief among these was Magadha, favourably located forcontrol both of riverborne trade and of the sources of rawmaterials such as iron. Magadha gradually expanded at theexpense of its neighbours and before 297 BC its king,Chandragupta Maurya, ruled most of north India (map 1).His grandson Ashoka (r. 272-231 BC) further extended theempire, conquering Kalinga in 261 BC, and only the extremesouth retained its independence. Pillar and rock edicts markthe extent of Mauryan political authority: these proclaimedAshoka's ethical code of social responsibility and toleration.It was an age of peace and prosperity.

The political unity of the Mauryan Empire did not longsurvive Ashoka's death in about 231 BC. Numerous inde-pendent kingdoms emerged, such as the Satavahana realmsin western India, but none was strong enough to resist thewaves of foreign invaders (map 2). The Sakas, arriving fromCentral Asia around 130 BC, gradually gained control ofmuch of the north and west. They were succeeded by theParthians from the Iranian Plateau and the Central AsianKushans, who loosely united the Ganges Valley and thenorthwest until the mid-3rd century AD. From the 5thcentury AD onwards, the north was prey to attacks by theferocious Hunas (White Huns) who swept in from the east.

By the time they reached the Ganges Valley or theDeccan, the force of foreign invasions was spent, and SriLanka and the south were generally spared. Instead they suf-fered periodic attacks by native groups such as theMauryans, Tamils and Guptas. In the 4th century AD theGuptas, who ruled a small kingdom in the Ganges region,began to expand, gaining control of adjacent regions throughmilitary conquest, diplomacy and dynastic marriages. Unlikethe earlier Mauryan Empire, however, they established onlyindirect political authority over much of this area, localrulers usually acting under their suzerainty.

RURAL AND URBAN DEVELOPMENTMuch of the subcontinent, such as the jungle regions, wasunsuited to agriculture and was inhabited by hunter-gatherers. In addition to the wild produce they collected fortheir own needs they obtained materials for settled farmers,such as honey, venison and lac (used for lacquer), exchang-ing these for cultivated foodstuffs and manufactured goods.

Throughout this period the majority of South Asiansdwelt in villages. Rice was the main staple in the east andSri Lanka, millet in the south and wheat in the north;animals, particularly cattle, were kept. By around 500 BCirrigation works such as canals, dams and tanks were beingconstructed to increase agricultural productivity. Rulers -particularly the Mauryas, who exercised strong centralizedcontrol over their realms - also encouraged the cultivationof wasteland, often by the forced resettlement of groups oflow-caste cultivators. In Sri Lanka sophisticated hydraulicengineering developed from around 300 BC, using sluice pitsand long canals. Land taxes and levies on produce providedthe main income for states throughout the period, althoughtrade also yielded considerable revenues.

Many towns and cities developed as centres of trade andindustry, and they flourished even during periods of weakpolitical control (map 3). Many, especially in the west andsouth, were ports for seaborne trade. They contained

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^ Many towns and cities were establishedunder the Mauryas, though they developedsomewhat later in the south, whereirrigation agriculture had begun only around300 BC. Political authority went hand-in-hand with town dwelling: when the Ikshvakubroke away from the weakened SatavahanaEmpire in the 3rd century AD, for example,one of their first acts was to establishVijayapuri ("city of victory", now modernNagarjunakonda) on the banks of theKrishna River.

palaces, parks andfacilities for bathing,Hindu temples, Buddhistand Jain monasteries, andthe houses and workshops ofmerchants and artisans. Smallcraft enterprises developed intomajor industries, generally underthe control of caste-based guilds.

TRADE AND RELIGIONBy the early centuries AD regularseaborne trade linked southern Indiaand Sri Lanka with countries to botheast and west (map 4). The Romanstraded gold in exchange for gemstones,textiles and spices; to the east, Indiansand Sri Lankans obtained gold, tin andspices from the kingdoms of Southeast Asia(pages 52-53). In addition, Southeast Asiaacted as an entrepot between China andIndia. China also traded overland along the SilkRoad, which skirted the deserts of Central Asia.From north India Chinese goods, particularly silks,were carried through Persia or by sea to Alexandria,Rome's principal port for trade using the Indian Ocean.

These land and sea routes also carried Indian religionsto the lands of the east. In the mid-lst millennium BC anumber of new religions appeared, notably Buddhism andJainism (pages 44-45). They rejected Brahminical Hinduorthodoxy, including the caste system, and were enthu-siastically adopted by the lower castes, merchants andcraftsmen. Buddhism rapidly became the dominant religionin north India, later spreading into the south. Ashoka sent aBuddhist mission to Sri Lanka, where King DevanampiyaTissa became an ardent convert, establishing a Buddhistrealm which has endured until today. Simple complexes ofmonastic cells grew by the early centuries AD into sub-stantial monasteries, usually richly endowed by royalty,merchants and guilds. Located on the outskirts of towns andalong the great highways, they supported Buddhist monksand nuns, accommodated travellers, provided education andcould raise venture capital.

Under the Guptas (c. 320-550) there was a major revivalof Hinduism, which had continued in some areas and wasnow enhanced by features adopted from the breakaway reli-gions, particularly bhakti (personal devotion to deities orsaints). Buddhism gradually withered away in the countryof its birth but remained vigorous in Sri Lanka, China,Japan, Tibet and Southeast Asia. Hinduism was also intro-duced to the latter region, and a patchwork of Buddhist andHindu states developed there (pages 62-63).

T Trade and religion developed together,with Buddhism being carried eastwardsfrom India to the Far East and SoutheastAsia by merchants. By the 5th century ADChinese pilgrims were visiting the Indiansubcontinent to study original documents -and to worship and offer gifts at shrinessuch as that of the Buddha's toothon the island of Sri Lanka.

FIRST CIVILIZATIONS: MESOPOTAMIA AND THE INDUS REGION 4000-1800 BC pages 28-29 47THE MUSLIM WORLD 1000-1400 pages 88-89

FIRST EMPIRES IN CHINA1100BC-AD220

In the 8th century BC regional entitiesbegan to assert their independence from theZhou state, fighting among themselves fordominance as well as fending off attacksfrom barbarian neighbours. By the late 5thcentury power was concentrated in sevenprincipal states - Han, Wei, Zhao, din, Chu,Van and Qi. They all built enormous walls toprotect their borders, fortified their citiesand even their villages, and constructedroads and canals to expedite the movementof troops and supplies. As militarytechnology and the science of warfareflourished, the organization, weaponry andferocity of the Qin army combined to givethem superiority over the other WarringStates, and in 221 BC the Qin united thewhole area to form the first Chinese empire.

The conquests in Central Asia of the Hanemperor Wu Di and his embassiesto the west opened up a major trade routelinking East and West. Merchant caravanstook Chinese goods (especially silk) as faras the Roman Empire in exchange forWestern luxury goods. Well-preserveddocuments from northwestern China andalong this "Silk Road" record the everydaylife in garrison towns.

n the period between the victory of the Zhou king Wuover the Shang in the mid-llth century BC and thdownfall of the last Han emperor, Xian Di, in AD 220

China underwent a series of political, economic and philo-sophical transformations that were to lay the foundationsfor Chinese government and society until the 20th century.

THE FIRST CHINESE DYNASTIESThe Zhou, possibly descended from nomads, establishedtheir royal capital at Hao in their ancestral heartland in theWei River valley. For 250 years Zhou rulers held sway overa unified domain, their rule legitimated by the Mandate ofHeaven - the divine right to rule China - which theyclaimed to have inherited from the Shang. Long inscriptionson fine bronze vessels record their achievements. By770 BC, however, the empire had begun to fragment, anunder pressure from barbarian tribes to the northwest theZhou capital was moved east to Luoyang. Despite the con-tinued claim of Zhou kings to the Mandate of Heaven, realpower slipped away to a multitude of regional states.

By 403 BC seven major "Warring States" were competinfor control of China (map 1). Through a series of tacticalvictories beginning in 280 BC, and under King Zheng from246 BC, the state of Qin achieved supremacy by 221 BC.Zheng had reformed Qin, replacing the old kinship-basedgovernment with an efficient bureaucratic state.Proclaiming himself Shi Huang Di, "the First Emperor", heestablished his new capital at Xianyang. Despite an earlydeath in 210 BC, he left a legacy that paved the way for LiuBang, the founder of the Han dynasty four years later, to

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A T L A S OF W O R L D H I S T O R Y : PART 1

A Chang'an, the capital of the Han from206 BC to AD 23, had a population ofabout 250,000. Famed for its towers, itboasted wide boulevards, immense walls

and gates, religious buildings, palaces androyal pleasure gardens. Its great marketswere at the centre of a network of tradingemporia that stretched across the empire.

build the Han Empire (map 2). Liu Bang and his descen-dants ruled China from 206 BC to AD 220, with a briefinterruption during Wang Mang's Xin dynasty (AD 6-23).

MOVEMENTS OF POPULATIONBy AD 2, the date of the first national census, China had arecorded population of 57 million. This huge number wasoften mobilized for warfare or vast public works, and in thereign of Wu Di (141-87 BC), the "Martial Emperor" whogreatly expanded the territories of the empire, some twomillion people were resettled in colonies in the north andnorthwest. However, the later part of the Han dynasty saw amajor movement of population southwards - a process thatwas precipitated by a major shift in the course of the HuangHe River between AD 2 and 11 that left much of north China,traditionally the centre of power, depopulated.

THE ART OF WAR IN EARLY CHINAThese mass population movements occurred in a countryunified through major developments in the art of war. Underthe warlords of the Warring States, both individual gallantryand mass brutality were displayed, and armies became pro-fessional. From the 6th century BC new weapons, notablyiron swords and armour, had replaced the traditional bronzehalberds. Cavalry outmanoeuvred chariots on the battlefieldand the new cities became targets for siege warfare. TheZhao stronghold of Jinyang was besieged for a year beforethe attackers turned on each other in a classic piece ofWarring States treachery. From the 5th century BC thestates built pounded-earth walls along their frontiers.

While earlier rulers either mounted expeditions againstthe nomadic "barbarian non-Chinese" or were harassed bythem, the Qjn and Han were aggressively expansionist. Tokeep the nomads out of his new empire, Shi Huang Di joinedthe sections of walled defences earlier states had built, thuscreating the Great Wall. The Xiongnu, among the mostaggressive of the Central Asian peoples (pages 50-51,52-53), were particularly troublesome for the early Chineseempires, and the Han emperor Wu Di's constant search forallies against them created new links with the middle of thecontinent. The nomads often had to be bought off as muchas driven away by force, as shown by the Chinese treasuresfrom the tomb of the Xiongnu chief at Noin Ula. Under theHan, military expansion was backed up by a programme ofcolonization, and commanderies were set up in areas as far-flung as modern Korea and Vietnam.

TOWN AND COUNTRY LIVINGA truly urban civilization developed in this period, withwalled cities becoming the focus of trade, as in the case ofChang'an (map 3). Many modern Chinese cities are built onfoundations laid in the Zhou period, and the earliestChinese coins, miniature bronze knives and spades comefrom Zhou cities. Coinage was standardized by the FirstEmperor and the multitude of local mints was finallybrought under central control in 119 BC.

The empire depended on the production of a wide rangeof goods and services, and in particular stable agriculture(map 4). Agricultural productivity was increased by gov-ernment reforms and the use of more efficient tools,especially new ploughs made of iron. The importance of ironwas recognized through the introduction, again in 119 BC, ofstate monopolies over its production, along with control ofthe production of salt and alcohol.

POLITICS AND THE END OF THE HAN EMPIREIn the period of the Warring States, a political philosophydeveloped that recognized the uplifting nature of public life,but also viewed politics as ultimately corrupting. Clashes res-onate throughout the history of the early Chinese empiresbetween, on the one hand, the authoritarian politics of manyof the rulers and, on the other, the high ideals of Confucius(551-479 BC) - perhaps the most influential of all Chinesephilosophers - and his Reformist successors, which placedemphasis on virtue and fair government. Unlike their Shangpredecessors, rulers were bound more by codes of humanconduct than the demands of the spirits. Laws were first cod-ified in the state of Wei under the rule of Duke Wen(r. 424-387 BC). Although much criticized, these formed themodel for the Han law code. It was, however, peasant revoltsinspired by messianic beliefs, often drawing on Daoism, thatdisrupted and weakened the Han Empire towards the end ofits life. Movements such as the revolt of the Yellow Turbansin 184 AD, punished by the slaughter of over 500,000 people,left the empire open to the ambitions of powerful indepen-dent generals who divided up its territories between them.

The massive mausoleum of Shi HuangDi, "the First Emperor", located at the Qincapital of Xianyang (later Chang'an underthe Han dynasty), took 700,000 conscriptedlabourers 35 years to build. The life-sizeterracotta soldiers pictured here wereamong the 7,500 that guarded the vastburial pits surrounding the elaborate tomb.

While rice, millet and wheat were thestaples of Han agriculture, supplemented byvegetables, many areas also produced othercommodities such as timber or fruit. Hempwas grown to make clothing for themajority, while silk supplied the elite.Iron was produced from the 6th century BCand was used for the majority of tools andweapons. Salt production was another majorindustry, obtained from the sea in coastalregions but elsewhere mined from brinedeposits often found deep underground.

CHINA 1700-1050 BC pages 30-31 EAST ASIA IN THE TANG PERIOD 618-907 pages 72-73 49

PEOPLES OF CENTRAL ASIA6000 BC-AD 500

Between 1500 and 800 BC copper- andbronze-working were taken up and refinedacross the Central Asian steppe - at thesame time as a new way of life appeared,linking European Russia with the westernborders of China (mop 7\. Horses andwheeled transport allowed people to exploitareas where pasture was too sparse tosupport herds in one place all the yearround. Encouraged partly by changes inclimate and vegetation, people took up anomadic existence, moving with their herds.These animals, formerly kept for meat, werenow mainly reared for milk which was madeinto a variety of foods, including cheese,yoghurt and fermented drinks.

Among the nomads were groups speakingIndo-European languages (map 3). Theyprobably included Tocharian speakers in theTarim Basin, where there have been finds ofdesiccated mummies of individuals with astrongly European appearance which datefrom this period. In West Asia, texts thatinclude Indo-European terms identify otherIndo-European-speaking groups, includingthe leaders of the non-Indo-European-speaking Mitanni.

entral Asia is a vast arid zone of steppe grasslands,looming mountains and inhospitable deserts. On itssouthwestern mountain fringes an agricultural way of

life developed as early as the 6th millennium BC at sites likeDjeitun, and some of these communities later developed intotowns and cities (map 1). For example, Altyn Depe was firstoccupied in the 6th millennium, was enclosed by a wall inthe 4th millennium, and by the 3rd millennium covered anarea of nearly 30 hectares (74 acres) with craft productionareas, elite compounds, fine burials and large platformsreminiscent of the great Mesopotamian ziggurats (pages28-29). Agriculture in this region depended on a precariousirrigation system that collapsed around 2000 BC. However,later inhabitants such as the Persians (later 1st millenniumBC) and Sasanians (from the 3rd century AD) devised morecomplex underground irrigation canals (qanats) which againbrought prosperity to the region.

Up to the 5th millennium BC settlements were scatteredalong the rivers of Central Asia. These often consisted of par-tially subterranean houses and were home to small groupsof hunter-gatherers who caught fish and a variety of gameand collected plant foods. Later these hunter-gatherer com-munities began to adopt pottery and aspects of foodproduction from the agricultural or pastoral groups withwhom they came into contact (map 2).

SETTLEMENT AND PASTORALISMBy 4500 BC small permanent communities had appeared infavoured regions of Central Asia on the margins of Europeand West Asia, growing crops and, more particularly, herdinglivestock. Some of these were among the first to domesticatethe horse, initially for meat. Their successors used wheeledvehicles: indeed four-wheeled wagons appeared in burials in

Southern Turkmenia was one of theregions in which agricultural communitieshad developed by 6000 BC. Part of the

urban revolution, the later towns and citiesof Turkmenia were centres of technologicalexcellence and trading entrepots.

50

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A T L A S O F W O R L D H I S T O R Y : P A R T

southern Russia in the 4th millennium BC, and by 2000 BCthe chariot dominated battlefields from Mesopotamia toChina. The introduction of the spoked wheel (replacing theheavy solid wheel) made these vehicles much more man-oeuvrable. Horse-riding was first adopted around 2000 BCby peoples dwelling north of the Caspian Sea. By 1000 BCfull nomadic pastoralism had developed, from whichemerged the horse-riding warriors who were to become thescourge of the Classical world.

While the origins of Indo-European speakers are still amatter of heated debate, many scholars would now placethem among the groups dwelling between the Black Sea andCaspian Sea in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC. These arearchaeologically identifed as the Srubnaya and Andronovocultures and their predecessors. During the 2nd millenniumBC groups speaking Indo-European languages can be identi-fied in adjacent areas (map 3). By the beginning of the 1stmillennium AD Indo-European languages were spoken inEurope as well as much of West Asia, Iran, South Asia andparts of Central Asia.

By the 1st millennium BC a fusion of nomadic andsedentary cultures gave rise to several kingdoms in south-western Central Asia, which by the mid-6th century BC werelargely under Persian control. The Achaemenid kings of thePersian Empire built roads, fortified cities and developedirrigation systems, and the influence of Persian culture wasfelt deep into Central Asia. Persian rule came to an end withthe campaigns of Alexander the Great, and Hellenisticsystems of administration and culture spread throughoutthe region (pages 42-43}. The Graeco-Bactrian kings werethe first to establish links across Central Asia with China.

THE NOMAD CONFEDERACIESIn the later centuries BC a series of powerful confederaciesemerged among the nomad peoples. Historical accounts ofthese nomad societies and the threat they posed to theClassical civilizations have been left behind by Greek,Roman, Chinese and other authors, who named great tribalconfederacies, including the Xiongnu and Yuezhi in the east,and the Scythians, Sakas, Cimmerians and Sarmatiansfurther west (map 4). These nomad groups buried their elitein great mounds such as those at Noin Ula, Pazyryk and KulOba. Horses, central to the nomadic way of life, often playeda major role in burial rituals, sacrificed to accompany theirowners, along with much gold and silver and lavishly deco-rated textiles, some of which have been marvellouslypreserved in the frozen conditions of the tundra. Such richburials are described by the Greek historian Herodotus,

whose accounts closely match the archaeological finds.These nomads wore highly decorated clothes and orna-mented their bodies with tattoos. Hemp was not only usedfor textiles but was also smoked, as evidenced by remainsof smoking paraphernalia. Stringed instruments also foundin the tombs attest a love of music and song.

The Xiongnu formed one of the greatest of the nomadconfederacies. Originating on the Mongolian plateau, theyconquered and ruled the oasis cities of the Turfan Basin inthe 2nd century BC. While they sometimes harried theborders of the Chinese Empire, on other occasions theyenjoyed good trading relationships with China (pages52-53), as can be seen in the presence of exquisite Chinesesilks and other manufactured treasures, such as bronzes andlacquer, in the burial of a Xiongnu chief at Noin Ula.Xiongnu expansion drove other nomad groups further west,including the Yuezhi, who settled on the Oxus (Amudarya)River. One branch of the Yuezhi, the Kushans, later estab-lished an empire in northern India (pages 46-47).

The Xiongnu and other nomad peoples developed a dis-tinctive culture, marked particularly by a splendid traditionof zoomorphic art. Other shared practices included bindingchildren's heads in infancy to produce an elongated shape.They also developed major innovations in equestrian andmilitary equipment, such as the composite bow or the scale-armour which made Sarmatian cavalry such formidableopponents of the Romans. Similarly the Huns, mountedsteppe warriors armed with powerful reflex bows, wroughthavoc in 5th-century Europe and northern India (map 5).

A From the 1st millennium BC substantialpopulation movements took place in thesteppe region. Groups often spilled over intoadjacent settled lands, in some cases layingwaste settled communities before beingdriven off, as with the 8th-centuryincursions of the Cimmerians into West Asia.Sometimes the invaders settled and becameincorporated into the civilization of the landsthey overran - the Sakas and Kushans inSouth Asia, for example. China successfullyresisted many nomad incursions - partly byerecting massive defences that culminated inthe Great Wall - though its westernprovinces fell for a period to the might ofthe Xiongnu nomads.

T The Huns moved through Central Asiaduring the 4th century AD, as evidenced byfinds of their typical large bronze cauldrons,bows and artificially deformed skulls. Onebranch entered Europe in the 5th century,briefly wreaking havoc under thecharismatic leadership of Attila, while theHephtalites (Hunas or White Huns) overranthe Sasanian Empire and laid waste thecities of northern India, where theyestablished a short-lived empire.

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: ASIA 12,000 BG-AD 500 pages 18-19 51EAST ASIA IN THE TANG PERIOD 618-907 pages 72-73

EURASIAN TRADE150 BC-AD 500

Bronze-working cultures had developedin mainland Southeast Asia during the 3rdmillennium BC, and by 500 BC the bronzeobjects that were produced included thefamous Dong Son drums. The drums wereplaced in elite burials and probably had aritual significance. Made using a "lost wax"casting technique, they were widelydistributed and reached the islands ofSoutheast Asia, where metallurgy was alsobeing practised. By the 2nd century BC thearea was linked to both India and China bysea routes which were used by HinduBrahmin priests and Buddhist missionariesas well as merchants. As a result, new ideasof astronomy, art, science, medicine,government and religion were spread, andBuddhist and Hindu states were establishedin the region. One of the greatest wasFunan, reputedly founded in the 2ndcentury BC by the Brahmin Kaundinya andreaching its peak in the 3rd century AD. Theremains of a major Funan trading city havebeen excavated at Oc Eo.

I

n the early 2nd century BC the Xiongnu nomads drovtheir Yuezhi neighbours westwards, in the processmaking the Yuezhi king's skull into a drinking cup. In

138 BC the Han Chinese emperor Wudi sent Zhang Qian tothe Yuezhi, hoping to make common cause with themagainst their mutual Xiongnu enemies. After enormousdifficulties and numerous adventures, Zhang Qian reachedthe Yuezhi in the Oxus Valley - and although he failed topersuade them to renew their conflict with the Xiongnu, hetook back to China detailed accounts of the lands he visitedand the new opportunities for trade that they offered.

Over the following century Han China established traderoutes through Central Asia which, despite passing throughsome of the most inhospitable terrain in Eurasia, soon pro-vided access to West and South Asia and indirectly to theRoman world (map 1). For a time the Chinese controlledthis "Silk Road" through Central Asia, establishing theWestern Regions Protectorate with garrisons in the caravantowns, but the area was always menaced and often con-trolled by barbarian groups such as the Wusun and,especially, the Xiongnu. During the first three centuries ADthe western portion was ruled by the Kushans, who hadestablished an empire in northern India (pages 46-47).

Dependent largely on the hardy Bactrian camel, the SilkRoad trade took Chinese silks (a prized commodity in theRoman Empire) and other luxuries to India and thence tothe markets of the West. In exchange, many Roman manu-factured goods found their way to China, along with thehighly valued "heavenly horses" of Ferghana, gems fromIndia, and grapes, saffron, beans and pomegranates fromCentral Asia. Ideas travelled, too: by the 1st century ADBuddhism was spreading from its Indian home to the oasistowns of the Silk Road, later becoming established in China,Korea and Japan (pages 44-45).

A number of possible routes linked China and the West,their course channelled by lofty mountains and freezingdeserts, but political and military factors were also impor-tant in determining which routes were in use at any time.The oasis towns along the Silk Road rose and fell in pros-perity with the fluctuating importance of the various routes.The collapse of the Han Empire in the 3rd century AD, thedecline of the Kushans and the break-up of the Roman

Empire all had their impact on the Silk Road, though linksbetween East and West continued - for example, takingChinese pilgrims to visit the Buddhist holy places in India.

SOUTHEAST ASIABy the 2nd century BC sea routes linking India with Chinavia Southeast Asia were also in common use. While Indianliterature makes only vague references to trade withSoutheast Asia, finds of Indian beads and Western objectsin the region - such as Roman coins and cut gems - and ofSoutheast Asian tin in south Indian sites, attest to theregion's contacts with India. The seaborne trade grew in theearly centuries AD, a period when urban centres and stateswere appearing in much of Southeast Asia (map 2).

Riverborne trade linked China and mainland SoutheastAsia during the 1st millennium BC, and sea traffic developedduring the period of the Han Empire. In 111 BC Han armiesconquered the formerly independent state of Nan Yue,establishing colonies and, from AD 40, directly administeringthe province. At this time the area to its south was probablyhome to a number of small independent chiefdoms unitedin opposition to Chinese territorial aggression. Chineseinterest in Southeast Asian trade burgeoned after the fall ofthe Han in AD 220, when the Chinese elite fled south, andtrade with the West along the Silk Road was largely replacedby maritime trade via Southeast Asia to India.

52

TRADE ACROSS THE INDIAN OCEANTrade links had been operating around the coasts of theIndian Ocean from the later 3rd millennium BG. Regularseaborne trade took place in the Gulf, Sumerians tradingdirectly with the Indus civilization, along with the coastalinhabitants of Oman and Makran and the seafaring tradersof Bahrain. Land or coast-hugging sea routes also broughtAfrican plants and Arabian incense to India and the landsof the Gulf (pages 28-29). Egypt was economically andpolitically involved with Nubia to its south along the RiverNile (pages 30-31), and seaborne expeditions through theRed Sea were mounted by Egypt to bring back exotic mat-erials from the Land of Punt, probably situated in Ethiopia.

In subsequent centuries the rise and fall of Mediter-ranean, western Asiatic and Indian Ocean states andcultures brought a variety of participants into this network,including Persians, Phoenicians and Greeks. By the 1stmillennium BG both Arabians and Indians were familiarwith, and exploiting, the monsoon winds to cross the IndianOcean instead of laboriously following the coast. Thesewinds carried them east in the summer, down the Red Seaand across to India, while the northeast monsoon in theautumn carried vessels westward from India and down theAfrican coast. It was not until the final centuries BC,however, that the Greeks and Romans also becameacquainted with the monsoon winds. The volume of Roman

traffic in the Indian Ocean greatly increased during thereign of Emperor Augustus (27 BG-AD 14), with perhaps over100 ships setting out from the Red Sea in a single year.

A Greek sailing manual of around 60 AD, The Periplusof the Erythraean Sea (Indian Ocean), has provided awealth of information on trade in this area. Alexandria wasthe starting point for most east- and southbound trade: herethe bulk of cargoes were assembled and shipped down theNile as far as Koptos, where they were taken by camel toeither Myos Hormos or Berenice on the Red Sea. Someexpeditions travelled south as far as Rhapta on the coast ofEast Africa, obtaining ivory, tortoise-shell and incense - around trip of two years because of the timing of the winds.

Others made the more dangerous ocean crossing toIndia, where they exchanged gold, wine, manufacturedgoods and raw materials for gems, fine Indian cotton tex-tiles and garments, Chinese silks, spices, aromatics anddrugs. On the return journey they would stop at Kane andMuza to obtain frankincense and myrrh, reachingAlexandria within a year of departure. Arab and Indianmerchants also still plied these routes. Unlike the Romans(whose trade was in low-bulk, high-value commodities,carried directly between their source and the Romanworld), other Indian Ocean traders dealt in everyday com-modities such as grain, foodstuffs and ordinary textiles andmight trade in any port.

A A variety of routes linked the countriesof Asia, East Africa and the Mediterranean.Long-established routes through the Gulfand across the Iranian Plateau flourishedduring the 1st millennium BC under theAchaemenids and their Hellenisticsuccessors. From the 2nd century BC thenewly established Chinese trade route acrossCentral Asia linked with these existingroutes, while Arabs and Indians operatedsea trade across the Indian Ocean, anddesert caravans carried incense fromsouthern Arabia via the Nabataean state toRome. By the 1st century AD hostilitybetween the Parthian and Roman empireshad closed the overland route throughPersia, and the Romans became directlyinvolved in Indian Ocean trade. Chinesegoods reached India via the Silk Road andindirectly by sea via Southeast Asia; fromhere they were taken by Roman shippingacross the Indian Ocean, along with Indiangoods. The Axumite kingdom benefitedfrom this shift, becoming a major producerof incense, while the Arab states that hadoperated the overland caravans declined.

MESOPOTAMIA AND THE INDUS REGION 4000-1800 BG pages 28-29 KINGDOMS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA 500-1500 pages 64-65 53

THE ROMAN EMPIRE500 BC-AD 400

Skilful political manoeuvring helpedOctavian (Augustus) to secure victory overhis rivals in the struggle to succeed his uncleJulius Caesar. Augustus used his position ofsupreme power well, enacting a raft ofimportant legal, economic, social andadministrative reforms, reviving traditionalreligious beliefs, encouraging the arts, andconstructing and restoring many publicbuildings in Rome.

T The Roman Empire was the first state tobring unity to much of Europe. From thecold hills of southern Scotland to the desertsof North Africa, Rome introduced a commonculture, language and script, a politicalsystem that gave equal rights to all citizens,a prosperous urban way of life backed byflourishing trade and agriculture, andtechnical expertise that created roads,bridges, underfloor heating, public bathsand impressive public buildings, some ofwhich survive today. Roman culture alsospread to lands beyond the imperial frontier,influencing among others the Germanicbarbarians who later overran the empire -but who would eventually perpetuate manyof its traditions and institutions, notablythrough the medium of the Christian Church.

T

he classical world was the cradle of European civil-ization: if Greece shaped Europe's culture, Rome laidits practical foundations. Throughout Rome's mighty

empire, science was applied for utilitarian ends, from under-floor heating to watermills, aqueducts and an impressiveroad network. Rome bequeathed to posterity its efficientadministration, codified laws, widespread literacy and a uni-versally understood language. It also adopted and spreadChristianity, for which it provided the institutional base.

The city of Rome developed in the 7th and 6th centuriesBG from a number of settlements spread over seven low, flat-topped hills. Ruled by kings until about 500 BG, it thenbecame a republic governed by two annually-elected consulsand an advisory body, the Senate. Around the same timeRome defeated the tribes in the surrounding area and grad-ually expanded through Italy: in the Latin War (498-493 BG)it crushed a rebellion of the Latin tribes, incorporating themin a pro-Roman League, and by the 3rd century BG it hadoverrun the Greek-influenced civilization of the Etruscans,famous for their fine pottery.

Victory over the Samnites in 290 BG led to a confronta-tion with the Greek colonies in southern Italy, whose defeatin 275 BG gave Rome control of the entire Italian peninsula.To strengthen its grip on the conquered territory, colonieswere founded and settled by both Roman citizens and Latinallies. Swift access to these colonies was provided by anextensive road network, created from the late 4th centuryBG and greatly extended during the 2nd century BG.

EXPANSION BEYOND ITALYThe first confrontation outside Italy was against theCarthaginians, who saw their commercial interests in Sicilythreatened by Rome's expansion. During the three PunicWars (264-241, 218-201, 149-146 BG) Rome seized terri-tory formerly held by the Carthaginians (Sardinia, Corsica,Spain and the tip of northern Africa), but also suffered itsworst defeats. In 218 BG the Carthaginian general Hannibalcrossed the Alps and obliterated the Roman army at LakeTrasimene (217 BG) and at Cannae (216 BG). To withstandthe Carthaginians, Rome had constructed its first fleetaround 260 BG and became a maritime power with controlover a Mediterranean empire that incorporated the formerHellenistic kingdom of Macedonia (pages 42-43} from 148BG and Pergamum from 133 BG. As a result, Greek culturebegan to exert a powerful influence on Roman life and art.

The newly acquired provinces (map 1} created theopportunity for individuals to make a fortune and forge aloyal army. One of these new powerful commanders,Pompey (106-48 BG), conquered Syria, Cilicia, Bithynia andPontus, while Julius Caesar (100-44 BG) annexedGaul and expanded the African province.

Caesar's influence had grown to such an extent that theSenate saw its position threatened and ordered him todisband his army in 49 BC.

Caesar disobeyed and crossed the Rubicon River - indefiance of the law that forbade a general to lead his armyout of the province to which he was posted - and ruledRome as a dictator until he was assassinated in 44 BG.Caesar's adoptive son Octavian (63 BC-AD 14) officiallyrestored the Senate's powers, nominally taking up the posi-tion of princeps (first citizen) while gradually increasing hisauthority. In 27 BC he was awarded the title "Augustus"("revered one"), and this date is usually taken as the start ofthe imperial period.

Augustus's reign brought a period of peace and stability,the so-called Pax Romana, which would last until AD 180.His main military efforts were aimed at creating a fixed andeasily defensible border for his empire (map 2). Augustusconquered the entire area up to the River Danube, which,together with the River Rhine, formed his northern border.In the east the frontier was less well defined and was con-trolled more by political means, such as alliances withneighbouring kingdoms.

Augustus also annexed Egypt, Judaea and Galatia andreorganized the legions left by his predecessors, keeping afirm grip on those provinces that required a militarypresence by awarding them the status of imperial province.The emperor himself appointed the governors for theseprovinces, while the Senate selected the governors for theothers. Augustus also reorganized the navy: he based his twomain fleets at Misenum and Ravenna to patrol theMediterranean against pirates, while smaller fleets were sta-tioned within the maritime provinces to guard the borders.

ROMAN TRADETrade flourished under Augustus's rule. The military infra-structure such as sheltered harbours, lighthouses and roadsgreatly benefited commercial activity, and the presence ofRoman soldiers in faraway provinces further encouragedlong-distance trade (map 3). Gradually, however, theprovinces became economically independent: they startedto export their own products and eventually, during the 3rdcentury, began to deprive Rome of its export markets.


<4 Unlike his acquisitive predecessor Trajan,Emperor Hadrian concentrated onreinforcing the previous Roman limes,or frontiers. He strengthened the AgriDecumates limes between the Rhine andthe Danube with a wooden palisade andnumerous forts and is thought to havestarted work on a mudbrick wall and ditchwhich was to become the African frontier,the fossatumAfricae. He built the firststone wall to secure the British frontier -a second was later constructed by Antoninus(r. 138-161) - and also reinforced Trajan'work on the Syrian limes, a policy latercontinued by Diocletian.

THE EMPIRE AFTER AUGUSTUSSome of Augustus's successors attempted to enlarge theempire, others to consolidate existing territory. WhereasTiberius (r. AD 14-37) refrained from any expansion,Claudius (r. 41-54) annexed Mauretania, Thrace, Lycia andparts of Britain, while Vespasian (r. 69-79) conquered the"Agri Decumates" region. Under Trajan (r. 98-117) theempire reached its maximum extent, including Arabia andDacia by 106. Trajan subsequently subjugated Armenia,Assyria and Mesopotamia, but these conquests were soonabandoned by Hadrian (r. 117-138).

Under Diocletian (r. 284-305) the empire was dividedinto Eastern and Western parts, each ruled by an

"Augustus", while the provinces were replaced by a massivenew bureaucracy and the army was greatly extended.However, the resignation of Diocletian in 305 was followedby chaos - out of which, in 312, Gonstantine (r. 306-337)emerged victorious in the West. In 324 he reunited theempire and made Christianity the official religion, and in330 he established a new capital at Constantinople.Following his death in 337 the empire was divided andreunited several times before it was permanently split in395. The sacking of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 (pages56-57) signalled the end of the Western Empire; to the east,the empire was to continue in the guise of the ByzantineEmpire until 1453.

T During the reign of Augustus tradebecame Rome's lifeline. To feed its rapidlyexpanding urban population, it depended onthe import of corn - first from Sicily, laterfrom Africa and Egypt - and to suit thetastes of Rome's "nouveaux riches" luxurygoods were imported from even furtherafield - silk from China, hair for wigs fromGermany, ivory from Africa. However, thetraffic was two-way: during the 1st centuryAD, for example, Rome developed alucrative business supplying the provinceswith products such as wine and olive oil.

EUROPE 8000-20 BC pages 20-21 BARBARIAN INVASIONS 100-500 pages 56-57 BYZANTINE EMPIRE 527-1025 pages 66-67 55

BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE100-500

aRoman legionaries were first calledupon ro defend the empire against aserious threat from the Germanic tribesin the 2nd century AD - the date of thisRoman stone relief.

T From the pages of Germania by theRoman historian Cornelius Tacitus (55-120)there emerges a clear picture of theGermanic world of the first century AD,comprising a multiplicity of small politicalunits, with any larger structures being littlemore than temporary tribal confederations.By the 350s, however, long-term processesof social and economic change (largely theproduct of extensive contacts with theRoman Empire) had created a smallernumber of much more powerful groupings.Of these the Gotones (Goths), then based inPoland, would have the biggest impact onRome and its European dominions.

throughout its history the Roman Empire sufferedfrequent small-scale raids along its European fron-tier, but major invasions were rare. In the early 1st

century AD a defensive alliance to resist Roman aggressionhad been formed under the leadership of Arminius, a chief-tain of the Gherusci - one of a host of minor political unitsthat comprised the Germanic world at this time (map 1).

However, the first large-scale invasion of the RomanEmpire did not occur until the 160s, when the movementof Gothic and other Germanic groups from northernPoland towards the Black Sea led to the Marcomannic War.Recent archaeological investigations have revealed thespread of the so-called Wielbark Culture south and eastfrom northern Poland at precisely this period (map 2}.Another time of turmoil followed in the mid-3 rd century,associated with Goths, Herules and others in the east andFranks and Alemanni in the west. Archaeologically, theeastward moves are mirrored in the creation and spread ofthe Goth-dominated Gernjachov Culture in the later 3rdcentury. None of this, however, amounts to a picture ofconstant pressure on the Roman Empire.

Relations between the empire and the peoples beyondits borders, whom the Romans regarded as uncivilized"barbarians", were not all confined to skirmishing andwarfare. Numerous individual Germans served in Romanarmies, while Roman diplomatic subsidies supportedfavoured Germanic rulers. Some important trading routesalso operated, such as the famous amber route to the Baltic(pages 38-39), and there was a steady flow of materials(timber, grain, livestock) and labour across the border.

These new sources of wealth - and in particular thestruggle to control them - resulted in the social, economicand political transformation of the Germanic world. By the4th century the many small-scale political units, which hadrelatively egalitarian social structures, had evolved intofewer, larger and more powerful associations that weredominated by a social elite increasingly based on inheritedwealth. The main groups were the Saxons, Franks andAlemanni on the Rhine, the Burgundians and Quadi on the

middle Danube, and the Goths on the lower Danube (map2). None had the power to stand up to the empire on theirown, but neither was Roman domination of them total, theAlemanni even seeking to annex Roman territory in the350s and dictate diplomatic terms.

THE ARRIVAL OF THE HUNSThe prevailing balance of power was transformed sometime around 350 by the arrival on the fringes of Europe ofthe Huns, a nomadic group from the steppe to the east(map 3). By 376 the Hunnic invasions had made life intol-erable for many Goths and they had started to movewestwards. Three groups came to Rome's Danube frontierto seek asylum: one group was admitted by treaty, a secondforced its way in, and the third, led by Athanaric, sought anew home in Transylvania. Goodwill was lacking on bothsides, however, and the two admitted groups becameembroiled in six years of warfare with the Roman Empire.

A huge Gothic victory won at Hadrianople in 378 con-vinced the Roman state of the need to recognize the Goths'right to an autonomous existence - a compromise con-firmed by peace in 382. In the meantime the Goths underthe leadership of Athanaric had in turn forced Sarmatiansonto Roman soil, Taifali barbarians had crossed the Danubeto be defeated in 377, and numerous groups of Alans hadbegun to move west, some being recruited into the Romanarmy in the early 380s. In 395 the Huns made their firstdirect attack on the empire, advancing from the areanortheast of the Black Sea (where the majority were stillbased) through the Caucasus into Asia Minor.

The division of the Roman Empire into the Western andEastern Empires in 395 (pages 54-55) was soon followed byfurther invasions (map 3). In 405-6 Goths under the lead-ership of Radagaisus invaded Italy, and while he wasdefeated and killed in the summer of 406, many of hisfollowers survived to be sold into slavery or incorporatedinto the Roman army. At the end of 406 another large groupof invaders - mainly Vandals, Alans and Sueves - crossedthe Rhine. It is likely that, as with the invaders of the 370s,they were fleeing from the Huns, who by around 420 wereestablished in modern Hungary, the subsequent centre ofHunnic power (pages 76-77).

THE COLLAPSE OF THE WESTERN EMPIREBy around 410 numerous outsiders were established withinthe Roman Empire in western Europe. The Vandals, Alansand Sueves had pillaged their way to Spain (map 3), and

aaThe Romans regarded all peoplesoutside their empire as inferior, referringto them as "barbarians". There were twomain groups: first, the largely Germanic-speaking settled agriculturalists of central

and eastern Europe; second, the nomadicsteppe peoples belonging to variouslinguistic and ethnic groupings whoperiodically disturbed the eastern fringesof continental Europe.

56

T


the Goths, who had crossed the empire's frontier in 376,had moved to Italy under the leadership of Alaric. Herethey were reinforced by the former followers of Radagaisusto create the Visigoths. They sacked Rome in August 410,but by 420 the Romans had forced them to accept settle-ment in Aquitaine on compromise terms. Rome had alsocounterattacked in Spain, where one of the two Vandalgroups and many Alans were destroyed, before the death ofEmperor Honorius in 423 led to ten years of internal poli-tical strife which crippled the empire's capacity for action.During this period the Vandals and Alans, now unitedunder Geiseric, seized the rich lands of North Africa, whileeastern Britain fell decisively under the sway of Anglo-Saxon invaders.

The losses in Britain, Aquitaine, Spain and North Africafundamentally eroded the power of the Western Empire.Essentially, it maintained itself by taxing agricultural pro-duction, so that losses of land meant losses of revenue.Tax-raising in northern Gaul was periodically disrupted byFranks and others. By 440 the Western Empire had lost toomuch of its tax base to survive. It was propped up for ageneration, however, through a combination of prestige(after 400 years it took time for the empire's contempo-raries to realize that it was indeed at an end), support fromthe Eastern Empire, and temporary cohesion fuelled byfear of the Huns, whose empire reached its peak underAttila in the 440s.

The collapse of Hunnic power in the 450s, however,heralded Roman imperial collapse. New kingdoms quicklyemerged around the Visigoths in southwestern Gaul andSpain, and the Burgundians in the Rhone Valley, wherethey had been resettled by the Romans in the 430s afterbeing mauled by the Huns. At the same time the Franks, nolonger controlled by the Romans, united to create a

kingdom either side of the Rhine (pages 74-75). The end ofthe Huns also freed more groups to take part in the share-out of land (map 4). Lombards and Gepids took territoriesin the middle Danube, and Theoderic the Amal unitedGothic renegades from the Hunnic Empire with otherGoths serving in the Eastern Roman army. This new force,the Ostrogoths, had conquered the whole of Italy by 493.

I n the 5th century a combination offear of the Huns (especially for theVisigoths, Vandals, Alans, Sueves andBurgundians) and opportunism (notably forthe Anglo-Saxons, Franks and Ostrogoths),prompted a series of militarily powerfuloutsiders to carve out kingdoms from theterritory of the waning Western RomanEmpire. To protect their estates, the basis oftheir wealth, many local Roman landownersdecided to come to terms with the invaders,with the result that the successor kingdomsall acquired some important vestiges ofRoman institutions and culture.

The frontiers that replaced the divisionsof the Western Roman Empire by 500 werefar from fixed. For example, in the 6thcentury the Frankish kingdom grew apace,the Ostrogoths were destroyed by theByzantine emperor Justinian, and the riseof the Avars prompted the Lombards toinvade northern Italy in 568.

THE ROMAN EMPIRE 500 BG-AD 400 pages 54-55 57PRANKISH KINGDOMS 200-900 pages 74-75

THE MEDIEVAL WORLDHumans already occupied much of the globe by the year 500. Over the next

thousand years the spread of intensive food production enabled their

numbers to continue rising and a growing area to become more densely

occupied. As a result, states and empires and other complex forms of socio-

economic organization developed in almost every continent. Foremost in

terms of wealth, population and technological achievement was China.

^Between 500 and 1500intensive forms of agriculturedeveloped in many parts of theworld, but the vast grasslands ofthe Eurasian steppe continued tobe populated by horse-breedingpastoralist nomads and semi-nomads. Riding eastwards andwestwards from Central Asia,they frequently raided the landsof permanently settled peopleswho increasingly used the ploughto cultivate their fields.

^ The West African city-kingdom of Benin - renownedpartly for the brass heads ofwhich this is an example -developed from the 13th centuryas an important centre of trade.It was at the southern end of a

network of trade routes acrossthe Sahara, some of which hadexisted for many centuries butdid not become important untilthe 9th century when Muslimmerchants in North Africa beganto travel southwards.

Anumber of intensive methods of cultivationhad been developed before 500. However,the medieval period witnessed the spread of

such methods over an ever-expanding area,dramatically increasing outputs in parts of Africaby the 8th century, in eastern Europe by the turnof the millennium, and in some regions of NorthAmerica throughout the centuries up to 1500(map 1). Depending on the environment, differentcrops were involved: sorghum and millet in Africa,wheat in Europe, and maize, beans and squashamongst others in North America.

At the same time new intensive farming regimeswere developed which tackled the problem ofsustaining soil fertility in the face of continuoususe. In medieval Europe an unprecedented level ofcentral planning evolved, based on the manor. Thismade possible economies of scale in the use ofexpensive items (such as draught animals and irontools) and the implementation of a new strategy forraising production while maintaining fertility - thethree-year rotation system. Wheat was grown inone year, beans and other legumes to restorenitrogen to the soil were grown in the next, and theland was allowed to lie fallow in the third.

On the basis of such advances, populations oftengrew dramatically. In England, for example, thefigure of just over one million in about 500 nearlyquadrupled to over four million before the BlackDeath (bubonic plague) took its dreadful toll acrossEurope in 1347-52, while China's population underthe dynasties of the Tang (618-907) and Song(960-1279) increased from just over 50 million inthe mid-8th century to over 100 million in the late13th century.

Food production and populations did not alwaysincrease, however. Where a figure seems to havereached its optimum under a precise set ofenvironmental conditions, a period of depletionoften followed. In Mesoamerica, for example, the

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"Maya Collapse" of the 9th century, when thepopulation dropped dramatically from almost fivemillion in the Yucatan Peninsula alone, can at leastpartly be attributed to degradation of the landcaused by intensive agriculture coupled with areduction in rainfall. In western Europe it ispossible that the impact of the Black Death - whichreduced the population by between a quarter and ahalf - may have been intensified because numbershad in places already passed the point ofsustainability for the agriculture of the time.

THE SPREAD OF WORLD RELIGIONSThe Black Death was seen by the Christianpopulation of Europe as God's punishment for theirsins. Christianity won an increasing number ofadherents in Europe during the medieval period,while Buddhism spread to East and Southeast Asia.In India, the land of Buddhism's birth, Hinduismrevived, particularly in the south.

In the 630s the new religion of Islam emerged inthe Arabian Peninsula and through militaryconquest rapidly took hold of the Middle East,North Africa and parts of Europe. It reached thelimits of its westward expansion in 732, when aMuslim army was defeated at Poitiers in centralFrance. However, over the following centuries thestates and empires of Islam frequently inflicteddefeats on Christendom. At the end of the 13thcentury the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria completedtheir recapture of the Holy Land (Palestine) fromthe Latin Church and in 1453 the Ottoman Turksfinally succeeded in capturing Constantinople -capital of the Orthodox Church. Islam also eclipsedZoroastrianism in southwest Asia, pushed Hinduismback in India from the 1190s, and spread intoCentral Asia through the conversion of the Mongolsfrom the late 13th century.

TOWNS AND TRADEIn the ancient world much effort was devoted tobuilding and adorning cultural and ceremonialcapitals such as Babylon, Athens, Rome andConstantinople. The medieval period too saw theconstruction and expansion of such cities. InChina, Chang'an was adopted by the Tang dynastyas their capital and was developed to cover an areaof 77 square kilometres (30 square miles), with apopulation of about one million in the 7th century.With Baghdad, the Muslim Abbasids founded whatwas to become probably the world's largest city inthe early 9th century, with an area of 90 squarekilometres (35 square miles). The Muslims alsooversaw the development of some of Europe'slargest cities at this time - notably Cordoba andSeville in Spain and Palermo in Sicily. It was notuntil the 12th century that the towns of LatinChristendom really began to grow, the larger amongthem - such as Paris and Cologne - buildingmagnificent churches, town halls and palaces.

By 1500 only a tiny proportion of the world'spopulation lived in large cities. In Europe, forexample, just three million out of an estimatedtotal of 80 million lived in cities with over 10,000inhabitants. The characteristic form of medievalurbanism everywhere was the modest market town,evolved as a service centre for the local agriculturaleconomy. It was a place where surplus crops couldbe exchanged for other foodstuffs and goods,making it possible to grow a wider range of cropssuited to local soils. It was also home to a variety ofspecialist craftsmen, whose various wares (tools,leather goods, ceramics, and so on) were made forsale to the rural population.

Throughout the medievalperiod agriculture was theoccupation of the vast majorityof people. From the 10th centuryit was made more productive inEurope partly by the introductionof the three-year rotation systemand improvements in the designof the plough. However, thepattern of life continued much asit always had, dictated by theseasons. This 15th-centuryillustration of ploughing thefields and sowing the winter

grain in October is taken from aBook of Hours (Les Jres Riches

Heures da Due de Berry], whichwas produced by the Franco-Flemish Limbourg brothers. Likemany medieval calendars, thebook illustrates the changingoccupations of the months, fromsowing to harvesting.

China's cities were among themost impressive of the medievalworld. A busy street scene isdepicted in this 12th-centuryillustration of Kaifeng, capital of

the Song dynasty between 960and 1126. Attacks from the northby the Jurchen then led to theadoption of the more southernHangzhou as the Song capital.

With its estimated population ofone and a half million, Hangzhoubecame a symbol of a golden agein China's history.

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A States and empires continuedto rise and fall in the medievalperiod. Many of those in Eurasiain 1200 were to be overwhelmedby the destructive conquests ofthe Mongols in the 13th century.

T The Byzantine EmperorJustinian l(r. 527-65)attempted to recreate the RomanEmpire of the 4th century, beforeit was divided into Eastern andWestern parts. Among hisconquests were Italy, where headopted the city of Ravenna asthe imperial capital and did muchto adorn it. This 6th-centurymosaic in the Church of SanVitale shows the EmpressTheodora with her attendants.

The development of market towns was a clearsign of growing sophistication in rural economies,where specialization and exchange (developed inmany parts of Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica andSouth America well before 500) replaced self-sufficiency as the basis of agricultural production.During the medieval period they spread acrossEurope and came to play an important role in theeconomies of both West and East Africa.

Some towns also serviced regional and long-distance trade based largely on linking contrastingecological zones and dealing in items that wereperceived as luxuries - notably metals, clothingmaterials and spices. From the later 8th centurythe Viking merchants of Scandinavia linked thefur-producing forests of subarctic regions with thewealthy cities of the Middle East, while from the9th century a growing trans-Saharan trade movedgold, ivory and slaves between West Africa and theMuslim north African coast. Trade in a variety of

items, including metalwork, stones and cacao,continued to flourish in Mesoamerica, as did themovement of silks and spices along the highways ofCentral Asia until the nomadic Mongol hordescreated havoc there in the 13th century.

STATES AND EMPIRESMuch of the new food surplus was now used tosupport people performing a range of specialistfunctions, many of which were not directlyconcerned with traditional forms of economicactivity. The number of religious specialists grew asChristianity joined Buddhism in generatingnumerous monastic communities. Most specialists,however, were associated with the spread of statesand empires (map 2). A class of literatebureaucrats - devising and administering laws andgathering taxes - became a feature of the majorityof medieval states. Long established in parts ofAsia, such people became central to the functioningof many European states from the 12th century.

Another specialist, even more widespread, wasthe warrior. The Chinese Song Empire wassustained by huge armies, supported by taxesraised from a dependent rural populace, while inJapan the samurai became a socially dominantmilitary aristocracy in the first half of the 2ndmillennium. The great empires of Mesoamerica andSouth America were similarly built around largebodies of specialist warriors. In Europe an eliteknightly class developed from the late llth century,eclipsing the more widely spread militaryobligations of earlier centuries. For 200 years theseknights provided the backbone of the crusaderarmies that set out to recover and protect the HolyLand from the Muslims.

Medieval state structures took many forms. Somewere extremely loose associations, such as the

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merchant communities of Viking Russia. Whilethese did support a king, his rights were verylimited and he and his fellow merchant oligarchsdid little more than exact relatively small amountsof tribute from largely autonomous Slav subjects.

The feudal states of western Europe, by contrast,supported an oligarchic landowning elite whoexercised tight controls over their peasantry. Thekings, however, again had restricted powers; it wasonly the development of royal bureaucracies afterabout 1200 that allowed them to exploit theirkingdoms' taxable resources more effectively.

The vast Chinese empires were organized on yetanother basis, with an oligarchy of bureaucraticfamilies competing for power and influence througha governmental system which they entered via civilservice examinations. Some Mesoamerican states,such as those of the Maya, also had literatebureaucracies, while in the 15th century even thenon-literate Incas in South America used theirquipus (knotted strings) for the record-keepingvital to any dominant imperial power.

The history of medieval empires and states wasnever confined to armies, bureaucracies anddominant elites. Nearly all displayed progress inart, music, architecture, literature and education.Elites everywhere patronized the arts andsponsored entertainments, as surviving examplesfrom imperial China, Moorish Spain, earlyRenaissance Italy and many other places testify.

Sometimes these cultural spin-offs markedadvances in themselves. In the 8th century, forexample, the monasteries of Carolingian Europeproduced a cursive form of writing that acceleratedmanuscript production for the remainder of themedieval period, and in early 15th-century Koreathe world's first system of moveable metal type forbook printing was introduced.

BROADENING HORIZONSDuring the prehistoric period humans had becomewidely dispersed as they had colonized the globe.Nevertheless, many groups had maintainedcontacts with their neighbours, exchanging ideas

and materials. The development of civilizationsfrom the 4th millennium BG saw the establishmentof direct political and trade links betweengeographically distant regions. Such links increasedvery noticeably during the medieval period, in linewith advances in nautical technology.

At the turn of the millennium Viking adventurerscombined the sail power and hull strength of theirships to forge the first tenuous links across theAtlantic to America. More substantial connectionswere developed by Muslim traders who in theirdhows exploited cyclical winds and currents toexpand the triangular trade that had existed sincethe 1st century AD between the Red Sea, EastAfrica and India. Beyond India the trade networkextended as far east as China, from where in theearly 15th century expeditions sailed to SoutheastAsia and Africa. Their ships were five times the sizeof the Portuguese caravels in which the northwestcoast of Africa was explored from 1415.

While ocean travel would produce maritimeempires outside the Mediterranean only after 1500,land empires continued to ebb and flow in themedieval period, with some covering vast areas.Successive Chinese dynasties controlled statesoften larger than modern China. In the 7th centurythe power of the Western Turks ran from theborders of China to the fringes of eastern Europe,and in the 13th century the nomadic Mongolsconquered a vast area of Eurasia to create thelargest land empire the world has ever seen.

Political, economic and cultural ties betweenstates all burgeoned in the medieval period,accelerating the process of making the world a"smaller" place. However, as well as generating newwealth and cultural stimulation, interaction acrossEurasia brought the plague to Europe - toparticularly devastating effect in the 14th century.The medieval world was a place in which empireswere established and sustained by bloodshed, greatart often flourished because of unequaldistributions of wealth, and the triumph ofChristianity and Islam came at the cost ofwidespread persecution.

In common with the otherworld religions, Islam generatedits own style of art andcraftsmanship-of which this14th-century mosque lampis an example. Geometric andfloral patterns adorned the wallsof mosques and secularbuildings, as well as pottery,glass and metalwork.

Ankgor Wat, built in the 12thcentury, is perhaps the mostimpressive of the Hindu andBuddhist temple complexes thatsurvive among the ruins ofAngkor in Cambodia. Angkorwas the capital of the KhmerEmpire, which emerged in the9th century and dominatedmainland Southeast Asia forover 400 years.

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RELIGIONS OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD600-1500

The magnificent temple complex ofBorobudur in central Java was built between750 and 850 as an expression of devotionto Mahayana Buddhism. This carving adornsone of the temple walls.

The rise of Islam from the 630s cuta swathe across the Christian Mediterraneanworld. By way of compensation, missionaryChristianity spread ever further intonorthern and eastern Europe, while minorityChristian regions survived in Central Asia,the Middle East and northeast Africa.Meanwhile Buddhism, marginalized in thesubcontinent of its birth, extended everfurther north and east, into Tibet, China,Southeast Asia, Korea and, finally, Japan.In Southeast Asia it faced in turn a challengefrom Hinduism and then from Islam.

In the period 600-1500 AD all the great world religionsextended their sway. Buddhism, Christianity and Islamwere ultimately the most successful (map 1), but the

older tenets of Judaism and Brahmanical Hinduism stillfound converts. Other ancient systems were threatened:Hellenism, the sophisticated neo-Glassical philosophy of theMediterranean world, survived only in a subordinate role,while localized "pagan" traditions and preliterate beliefsystems often disappeared when challenged persistently bya missionary religion such as Buddhism or Christianity -particularly if it enjoyed the backing of a government.

THE IMPACT OF ISLAMIslam emerged in the 7th century as a mass movement ofdevout converts to the Koranic revelation (pages 68-69),men who employed warfare to help win adherents fromChristianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism and the olderlocalized faiths. It fractured the cultural unity of theChristianized Roman Mediterranean and totally eclipsedZoroastrianism in Persia. Islamic secular culture absorbedClassical, Zoroastrian and Hindu traditions as well as thoseof the Arabian Desert. However, the global expansion of theIslamic world (Dar al-Islam) brought subdivision and evenschism. The Islamic sunna (code of law) was variouslyinterpreted, often regionally, by four separate law schools.Shiite partisans of dynastic leadership split right away fromthe consensual Sunni tradition and developed their ownconventions. By the time Islam reached the Danube inEurope, the Niger in West Africa and the Moluccas inSoutheast Asia in the 15th century, it was far from cohesive.

THE CHANGING FACE OF CHRISTIANITYAlthough Christian minorities held on in Egypt, the MiddleEast and Central Asia (map 2), "Christendom" becameincreasingly identified with Europe, where both the Western(Latin) and the Eastern (Greek or Orthodox) traditionscompensated for their losses to Islam by vigorous and some-

times competitive missionary activity. Latin Christianitywon over Germanic-speaking peoples and their centralEuropean neighbours, while large areas of the Balkans andeastern Europe were converted to Orthodoxy. After cen-turies of intermittent disagreement between the Latin andGreek Churches, the Great Schism of 1054 finally broughtabout the divide between Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

The crusades of 1095-1291 to the Holy Land wereessentially counter-productive (pages 94-95}. They putMuslims forever on their guard against Latin Christendomand may have added to the pressure on communities of ori-ental Christians to convert to Islam. Militant LatinChristendom was more successful in the Baltic region andthe Iberian Peninsula, where the later medieval period sawthe political reconquest of all Moorish territory. By 1500Spain had become a launchpad for transatlantic venturesand the transmission of Christianity to the New World.

THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM OUTSIDE INDIABuddhism lost its western lands to Islam and it neverregained any large-scale presence in India, the subcontinentof its birth, where the mainstream Hindu tradition predomi-nated alongside what remained of the Jain faith. Buddhistnumbers were increasingly concentrated in lands to the eastand north and, paradoxically, Buddhist strength was at itsgreatest where there was ideological power-sharing withother faiths - the case in both China and Japan (map 3).

In China the secular philosophy of Confucianism wasrevitalized during the Tang dynasty of the 7th to 9thcenturies, retaining its classical status and control of theeducation system. It offered moral and intellectual guide-lines for a life of public service, virtuous prosperity andhappiness to members of the scholar gentry, including the"mandarins" of the Chinese civil service. Buddhismremained - like the indigenous Chinese philosophy or"way" of the Dao (Tao) - as an alternative, culturally sanc-tioned code, appealing to those who could never hope to


achieve the Confucian scholarly ideal or who found itssecular priorities unsatisfying.

In Japan Buddhism had been adopted from China by the6th century. It became remarkably pervasive and was intel-lectually and spiritually creative, bringing literacy to thewhole country - but it never ousted Kami (Shinto), a tradi-tionalist compendium of reverence for nature, land andstate which remained intrinsic to Japanese cultural identity.

ORGANIZATIONAL AND CULTURAL PARALLELSDespite profound divergences in creed and world outlook,the major medieval faiths had organizational and culturalparallels. All had "professional" adherents who adopted aconsciously devout, disciplined or even ascetic way of life.While the reclusive tradition of withdrawal to the wildernesspervaded a range of religious cultures, hermits and wander-ing "holy men" were never as influential as members ofdisciplined religious orders and brotherhoods. The Sangha(monastic order) was central to the life of the Buddhistworld and included nuns; the Persian Sufi movement wasvital to the spread of Islam among the ordinary people; thegreat Benedictine houses of western Europe preserved a cul-tural and political inheritance through centuries of feudaldisorder - as did, in a similar political context, the greatBuddhist houses of medieval Japan. However, when mendi-cancy appeared in the West, with the establishment in the13th century of wealthy orders of friars, it was very differentfrom the contemplative and ascetic mendicancy of the East.

Medieval religions offered practical services to state andsociety. In many countries the educated clergy were theonly people able to write and therefore worked as officialscribes. Churches, mosques and temples operated a broad-casting system and communications network, and pilgrimsand travellers could expect hospitality from religious found-ations. Members of many religious communities were adeptat acquiring communal or institutional (as distinct from per-sonal) wealth. They could operate as financiers and at thesame time expand their sphere of influence; thus Hindutemples were the banks of South India and 15th-centuryPortuguese overseas enterprise was funded by the crusad-ing Order of Christ.

Much of the ritual year was defined by medieval religionand, where communal prayer was an obligation, the hoursof the day. The spires, domes and towers of religious archi-tecture dominated the skylines of major cities. Yet remoteregions retained old beliefs and customs: there were fringeareas in Mesopotamia where sects clung to the traditions ofthe temples as late as the llth century, and the 14th-century traveller Ibn Battutah found West African Muslims,even some of those who had made the pilgrimage to Mecca(the hajj), amazingly relaxed in their religious observance.

CHALLENGES TO THE ESTABLISHED RELIGIONSChallenges to the established religions came from withinrather than from residual "old beliefs". The Buddhist world,for example, saw the development of eccentric and magicalpractices on the margins of the Tantric tradition, while earlyIslam experienced a succession of breakaway movementsfrom the mainstream Sunni community - Kharijite, Ibadhiand a range of Shiite alternatives. In the Christian worldmany "heresies" countered established orthodoxy. Medievalreligious culture was not necessarily intolerant: pilgrimage,a universal form of devotion, could be a mind-broadeningexperience, and different religions were sometimes capableof coexistence and even co-operation. For example, in the13th century, at the height of the Christian reconquest ofMoorish territory in Spain, Santa Maria La Blanca in Toledofunctioned peaceably as the mosque on Fridays, the syna-gogue on Saturdays and the church on Sundays.

The Buddhist canonical divide betweenthe Mahayana and Theravada traditionscontinued to follow Asia's cultural and ethnicfaultlines. Wherever it took root inSoutheast Asia, such as Annan (Vietnam),

the Mahayona tradition was widelyregarded as "Chinese" Buddhism, whilerecognition of the Theravada tradition wasassociated with independence from theinfluence of Chinese culture.

The last three centuries of the firstmillennium AD saw the steady developmentof a deep and lasting cultural divide -

between an Eastern, Greek-rooted Orthodoxtradition and a Western, Latin-based Catholicculture. Both lost both lands and devotees to

Islam in the Near East and North Africa, butresilient Christian communities continued tosurvive in these areas under Muslim rule.

THE BIRTH OF WORLD RELIGIONS 1500 BC-AD 600 pages 44-45 THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER-REFORMATION IN EUROPE 1517-1648 pages 154-55 6 3

KINGDOMS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA500-1500

T Angkorean power reached its greatestheight during the reign of Jayavarman VII(r. 1181-c.l 218). His capital was Angkor,at the centre of which was Bayon, a hugepyramidical temple and one of more than900 Buddhist temples built by Khmer rulersfrom the 9th century onwards. While theAngkhorean mandala dominated themainland of Southeast Asia for fourcenturies, the empire of Srivijaya graduallygained control of many of the ports andpolities scattered along the coasts of thearchipelago. Although not the closest ofthese polities to the sources of major tradecommodities - such as camphor,sandalwood, pepper, cloves and nutmeg -Srivijaya did have the advantage ofpossessing a rich agricultural hinterland.

In the 6th century Southeast Asia was a region in whichwarfare was endemic and the borders of political enti-ties, known as mandalas, expanded and contracted with

the power of their overlords. The influence of India wasevident in the widespread practice of Hinduism andBuddhism (pages 44-45). Also evident was the influence ofChina, which under the Han dynasty had first begun toadminister the area of Nam Viet (in what is now northernVietnam) in 40 AD (map 1). In 679 the Chinese Tang gov-ernment set up a protectorate-general in the area and theChinese commanderies - in particular, that in Chiao-Chih -became important trade centres. There were, however,many rebellions, and in 938 independence from China wassecured and the Dai Viet kingdom established. To the southof Nam Viet was Champa, where fishing, trade and piracywere more important economic activities than agriculture.

THE KHMER KINGDOMSIn about 550 the capital of the great Hindu kingdom ofFunan, Vyadhapura, was conquered by King Bhavavarmanof Chen-la. Regarded as the first state of the Khmers - one

of the many ethnic groups in the region - Chen-la had bythe 7th century expanded its power throughout much ofmainland Southeast Asia. In 802 the Khmer kingJayavarman II established the Angkorean mandala, theforerunner of modern Cambodia, which was to dominatecentral mainland Southeast Asia until the 13th century(map 2}. His new capital at Hariharalaya was on the greatinland sea of Tonle Sap - the key to the floodwaters of theMekong that were essential for the intensive rice irrigationschemes on which Angkor depended.

THAI AND BURMESE KINGDOMSThe hold of the Khmers over central mainland SoutheastAsia was to be broken by the Thais. In the middle of the 7thcentury the Thais had formed the kingdom of Nanzhao insouthwestern China. Perhaps partly due to pressure fromthe Chinese, they had moved south along the river valleysinto Southeast Asia, conquering the Buddhist kingdom ofPyu in the middle of the 8th century. Around 860 a Thaipolity in the area of modern Thailand was founded with itscapital at Sukhothai (map 2). It was the first of three Thaikingdoms to emerge on the Chao Phraya River, displacingearlier Hindu kingdoms such as Dvaravati. The invasion ofsouthwest China by Mongol forces under Qubilai Khan in1253-54 pushed more Thais south - probably from theregion of Nanzhao - and the Thai kingdom centred atChiengmai was founded around 1275, followed furthersouth by Ayuthia in 1350 (map 3).

The Burmese kingdom of Pagan was established shortlyafter Angkor emerged in Cambodia in the 9th century(map 2). In 1044 Anawratha ascended the throne and didmuch to extend the realm of the Pagan kings, the greatest ofwhom was Kyanzittha (r. 1082-1112). These kings built oneof the most elaborate and extensive Buddhist monumentsin the world in their capital at Pagan, where vast temple

64

By the 6th century Champa included kingdom of Funan to the south. Funan wareas that had previously been part of Nam finally conquered in 550 by Chen-la, aViet to the north and the great Hindu kingdom that had once been its vassal.


complexes spread 60kilometres (35 miles)across the floodplains ofthe Irrawaddy River. Thisgreat building programme wasto ruin the kingdom; in 1287, aftera period of decline, Pagan succumbedto invasion from China.

In the 15th century a new power, Pegu,developed in lower Burma (map 3). Pegu fosteredtrading links with India and maritime Southeast Asiathrough its seaports, which included Martaban. It was alsooften in conflict with the inland agricultural state of Ava,which craved access to the ports controlled by Pegu. Despiteoccasional support from Ming China, the rulers of Ava wereconstantly harassed by the Shan hill peoples, culminatingin the assassination of the king in 1426, and as a result Avaeventually gave up its ambitions regarding Pegu.

THE EMPIRE OF SRIVUAYAThroughout the Malaysian Peninsula and much of islandSoutheast Asia, maritime empires flourished. The empire ofSrivijaya (c. 670-1025) (map 2), with its centre near themodern port of Palembang in Sumatra, was based on controlof the resources of the forests and seas of the Indonesianarchipelago. The city blossomed, its wealth reflected in cer-emonial centres such as those described by the 7th-centuryChinese traveller I Ching, where 1,000 priests served goldand silver Buddhas with lotus-shaped bowls.

In central Java, kingdoms had developed by the 6thcentury in which some of the greatest monuments of theancient world were to be constructed (map 2). TheSailendras, one of the central Javanese royal lineages, sup-ported Mahayana Buddhism, a patronage that found itsgreatest expression in the magnificent temple complex of

Borobudur, built between 750 and 850. Aswell as being devout the Sailendras were aggressivewarriors, and they mounted a series of seaborne expeditionsagainst kingdoms on the mainland: Chiao-Chih in 767,Champa in 774 and Chen-la of Water in around 800. Theykept control of Chen-la of Water until it was taken over bythe Khmer Empire. They also held sway over large areas ofSumatra. However, after 860 control over Java moved fromthe Sailendras to Hindu lineages, including the builders ofthe great Hindu complex at Prambanan.

In the llth century a new power emerged in east Java,and control of the international trade routes began to slipaway from Srivijaya. In 1025 this process was hastenedwhen the Srivijayan capital was sacked by Chola invadersfrom south India. Airlangga (c. 991-1049) was one of themost important of the rulers of this east Javanese realm,which came to dominate and grow wealthy on the bur-geoning international trade in spices. Following Airlangga'sdeath in 1049 the realm was divided in two, with Singharasito the east and Kediri to the west. In the mid-13th centurythe rulers of Singhasari took over Kediri to lay the founda-tions of the great maritime empire of Majapahit, whichcontrolled the region until the 15th century.

The trade routes that hod facilitated thespread of Hinduism and Buddhism toSoutheast Asia also encouraged the spreadof Islam. It reached the northern tip ofSumatra in the 13th century; by the 15thcentury it had reached Malaya and Java. Anumber of Muslim states were created at theexpense of the faltering Majapahitkingdom, including one based on Melaka, athriving commercial port which by the endof the 15th century controlled the Strait ofMalacca. In 1511 Melaka fell to thePortuguese, thus ushering in an era duringwhich Europeans wreaked great change onthe Muslim, Buddhist and Hindu kingdomsand empires of Southeast Asia.

EURASIAN TRADE 150 BG-AD 500 pages 52-53 65EUROPEANS IN ASIA 1500-1790 pages 118-19

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE527-1025

In the 7th century the traditionalRoman provinces were reorganized intolarge /tames that were ruled initially bymilitary commanders. This was the firststep to ending a system in which theexpansion and defence of the empiredepended on the deployment of mercenaryarmies and the imposition of high levels oftaxation on the peasantry.

Throughout their history the Byzantines describedthemselves as Romans, and saw their empire as thecontinuation, without break, of the Roman Empire.

Consequently, to give a starting date for the ByzantineEmpire is a matter of debate among historians. The date of527, when Justinian became emperor and launched a far-reaching campaign of conquest, is one of several options.Others include 330, when the Roman emperor Gonstantinethe Great moved his capital to the city of Byzantium,naming it Constantinople, and 410, when Rome was sacked.Yet another is 476, when the Western Empire virtuallyceased to exist, leaving Constantinople and the EasternEmpire as the last bastion of Christian civilization.

FLUCTUATING BORDERSThe history of the empire is one of constantly fluctuatingborders as successive emperors campaigned, with varyingdegrees of success, against Persians and Arabs to the east,and Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and Russians to the north and west(map 1). Two of the most successful conquering emperorswere Justinian (in power from 527 to 565) and Basil II (co-emperor from 960 and in sole authority from 985 to 1025).Justinian looked to the west to regain the old empire ofRome, and he and his general Belisarius conquered NorthAfrica and Italy, while struggling to hold the eastern fron-tier. However, the resources of the empire were notsufficient to retain this ground, and during the 7th centurymost of these territorial gains were lost. The rise of Islamoffered a new enemy with whom the empire was to be in

conflict until finally succumbing in 1453 (pages 96-97). Inthe four centuries between the reigns of Justinian and Basil,emperors never ceased both to fight and to negotiate forterritory. However, it was in the llth century thatByzantium made its greatest gains to the west, with Basil"the Bulgar-Slayer" bringing the entire Balkan peninsulaunder Byzantine control after defeating the Bulgarians. Basilalso forged links with the Rus and Vikings to the north,employing them as troops in his wars of conquest.

ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURETotalitarian in ambition and ideology, absolute in his powerto intervene directly in every aspect of both governmentand life itself, the emperor was the beginning and end ofthe political and administrative structure. Initially this wasbased on the Roman system of provincial government. Inthe 7th century, however, the traditional Roman provinceswere reorganized into large units called "themes" (map 2),where the military commander also functioned as civiladministrator and judge. The population of each themeprovided the basis of recruitment for the army, which tookthe form of a peasant militia. Ordinary soldiers were givenland in frontier regions and exempted from taxation inexchange for military service. By the 8th century thethemes were the centres of revolts, with theme generalsbecoming pretenders to the imperial throne. Consequently,throughout the 8th and 9th centuries the central govern-ment worked to diminish the power of large themes, and bythe llth century the military commanders had beenreplaced by civil governors.

CHURCH AND STATEByzantium saw itself as the Christian empire under God, itsmission to reduce the world to one empire. Church andstate were inextricably linked. Ecclesiastical organizationwas as hierarchical as that of the state. Five patriarchates,based at Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria andAntioch, marked out the centres of Christian worship in theLate Roman period and fought for supremacy inthe Church. By the llth century, however, the threeoriental sees were no longer part of the empire, and in theensuing centuries it was the struggle between Rome andConstantinople that affected the course of Byzantinehistory. Beneath the patriarchs was a system of bishoprics,within which the bishops derived considerable influencefrom their control of all ecclesiastical properties and chari-table institutions. The empire also extended its influencethrough missionary expeditions, above all in the strategi-cally important Balkan area (map 3).

Under Justinian the Roman provinces ofAfrica (533-34) and Italy (535-40) werereconquered. From the mid-6th century,however, defensive warfare becameendemic, and in the early 7th centuryattacks by the Avars and Arabs led to thevirtual extinction of the empire. Aprolonged period of determined defencefollowed before Basil II succeeded inexpanding the boundaries once more inthe llth century.

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Simply called "the City" (map 4), Constantinople wasthe most important city in the empire. It was the emperor'sbase, and thus the centre of all civil, military and ecclesias-tical administration. Its position was almost unassailable,as the Muslim armies who attempted to capture it in the7th and 8th centuries discovered (pages 66-67). Foralmost 900 years it withstood all attacks by enemy forcesuntil, in 1204, it was overrun and ransacked by the army ofthe Fourth Crusade.

The main trade routes were sea or river-based and the chief centres of trade wereon the coast. Dominant among them wasConstantinople, which not only served asthe emperor's capital but also as the heartof Christendom for many centuries.

The transformation of the small town ofByzantium into the city of Constantinoplewas accomplished remarkably quickly.There is evidence that by the middle of the4th century there were 14 palaces, 14churches, 8 aqueducts, 2 theatres and acircus, as well as homes for the inhabitantswho were forced to move to the city fromnearby setttlements. Comparatively little

now survives of Byzantine Constantinoplein present-day Istanbul, but Hagia Sophia,the great church built by Justinian as acentre of worship for all Christendom, canstill be seen, along with a host of lesserchurches. A handful of imperial monumentsexist, the most obvious of which are the5th-century city walls in the shape of anarc almost 6 kilometres (4 miles) long.

The importance of religion in the empire is reflected inits surviving artistic achievements. Churches and monas-teries, often beautifully decorated with mosaics and wallpaintings, are to be found throughout the empire'sterritories, along with portable works of art, such asenamels, books, metalwork and, above all, icons. The fewsecular buildings and objects that remain are often in LateRoman cities such as Ephesus - gradually abandoned in the7th century - but most notably in Constantinople.

3 RELIGION AND TRADEBoundary of empire 1025

Patriarchate

Bishopric

Mission

Centre of artistic activity

Important trading centre

Main trading route

(land/sea)

T H E R O M A N E M P I R E 5 0 0 B C - A D 4 0 0 p a g e s 5 4 - 5 5 T H E D E C L I N E O F T H E B Y Z A T I N E A A N D R I S E O F T H E O T T O M A N E M P I R E S 1 0 2 5 - 1 5 0 P A G E S 9 6 - 9 7

THE SPREAD OF ISLAM630-1000

In the second quarter of the 7th century AD the map ofthe world was abruptly and irreversibly changed by aseries of events that astonished contemporary observers.

From the 630s the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula, previ-ously accorded little attention by the "civilized" world, burstout of their homelands and attacked the fertile regions tothe north in a series of campaigns that resulted in the com-plete destruction of the Sasanian Empire and the end ofByzantine control of the Near East. They then set aboutforging a new social and cultural order in the conqueredterritories, based on the principles of the religion theybrought with them - a force which has continued to exert aprofound influence over the region to the present day.

MUHAMMAD: THE "PROPHET"In the early years of the 7th century tribal Arabian societyunderwent a transformation: a new communal structureemerged to replace the traditional tribal divisions that hadhitherto dominated the Arabian Peninsula. This communitywas largely the creation of a single man, Muhammad, atrader from Mecca, the main commercial town of westernArabia. Following divine revelations in which he identifiedhimself as the "Seal of the Prophets" (after whom no otherswould come), Muhammad preached a new moral systemthat demanded the replacement of idol worship with sub-mission to a common code of law and the unity of Muslims("those who submit [to God]") against unbelievers.

Although he was persecuted by the Meccans in the earlyyears of his mission, Muhammad later enjoyed rapid success

<4 Near the ancient Sasanian capital ofCtesiphon, the Abbasids' new capital cityof Baghdad was built in circular form,with the Great Mosque and caliph'spalace - symbolizing the close associationof religious and political power - locatedtogether at its centre.

in nearby Medina, where he made many converts and laiddown the rules governing the conduct of the community.Thereafter he sent missionaries to spread his messagethroughout Arabia, and shortly before his death (probablyin 632) he led his triumphant army back to reclaim Mecca.

THE VICTORY OF ISLAMWithin a decade of Muhammad's death the Muslim armies- inspired by zeal for their new faith and a desire for plunder- had inflicted defeat on both regional superpowers, theByzantines and the Sasanians, already weakened by decadesof conflict with each other. The Muslim victories at Yarmukand Qadisiyya (in 636) opened the way to further expan-sion (map 1). In 642 the Muslim armies conquered Egypt,by the mid-640s Persia was theirs, and by the late 640s theyhad occupied Syria as far north as the border with Anatolia.

The wars of conquest continued, albeit at a lesser pace,for roughly a century after the humiliation of the Byzantinesand Sasanians. After overrunning the whole of the NorthAfrican coastal region and taking root in much of theIberian Peninsula, the Muslim state reached the limits of itswestward expansion into Europe at the Battle of Poitiers incentral France in 732. The one realistic prize which alwayseluded these conquerors was Constantinople: in spite ofseveral Muslim attempts to capture it by siege, it remainedthe Byzantine capital until 1453.

INTERNAL CONFLICTThe euphoria generated by these successes was temperedfrom the start by disagreements between Muslims concern-ing several matters - including, most crucially, the questionof who was to lead the community. The Prophet had com-bined both religious and political authority in his ownperson and this model was followed for the first threecenturies by the caliphs who led the community after him.However, Muhammad had made no arrangement for thesuccession, and more than once in the century after his

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death the Islamic world was thrown into turmoil by fiercelycontested civil wars fought over this issue.

In spite of such upheavals, political power was consoli-dated at an early stage in the hands of the first Islamicdynasty, the Umayyads, who ruled from their capital inDamascus for nearly 100 years (661-750). Although muchmaligned by later Muslim writers, this caliphal dynastysucceeded in giving an Arab Muslim identity to the state.The caliph Abd al-malik b. Marwan (d. 705) decreed thatArabic (instead of Greek or Pahlavi) should be the languageof administration, began a programme of religious building,and instituted a uniform Islamic coinage. Trade flourished inthe region, with Syria in particular benefiting from therevenues flowing into the caliph's coffers.

THE ABBASID DYNASTYIn the middle of the 8th century a new dynasty, theAbbasids, toppled the Umayyads, whom they accused ofruling like kings rather than caliphs - without the sanctionof the community (map 2). Abbasid rule witnessed a realchange in the Muslim state, with the caliphs constructing agrand new capital of Baghdad (also known as the City ofPeace) in Mesopotamia (map 3). It is no coincidence thatAbbasid courtly culture borrowed heavily from that of thePersian royalty, for the focus of Muslim culture now swungeastwards from Syria.

At the same time as Islam was expanding internally,Muslim eyes and minds began to be opened to a widerworld, both through growing trade - in particular with theFar East - and through a burgeoning interest in ancientknowledge, primarily Greek, which was furthered by thetranslation into Arabic of foreign books.

Like their predecessors, however, the Abbasids failed togain universal acceptance for their claim to be the legitimateleaders of the Muslim world. Although the caliphs conti-nued to rule in Baghdad until they were deposed by theMongols in the mid-13th century, they gradually lost their

territories to local warlords, rulers who governed indepen-dently while still proclaiming formal subservience to thecaliph. Parts of North Africa, far from the seat of caliphalpower, began to fall outside caliphal control practically fromthe first years of Abbasid rule. By the beginning of the 10thcentury a rival caliphate was set up in Egypt, and Iraq andIran were divided into petty kingdoms, many ruled byIranian kings (map 4). In the llth century these kingdomswere swept away by the steppe Turks who invaded theMuslim world and changed the ethnic and cultural map asdecisively as the Arabs had done four centuries earlier.

A By 750 Islam was the major civilizationwest of China and one in which there was aparticularly close association betweenreligion and culture. Mosques served notonly as religious and social centres butalso as centres of scholarship, which was

overwhelmingly Arab in orientation,although influenced by Greek, Roman,Persian and Indian traditions. Thispainting of Medina, with the mosque ofMuhammad at its centre, comes from anillustrated Persian text written in Arabic.

Rapid urbanization followed the rise ofthe Abbasids, particularly in Iraq and Persia,as would-be converts flocked to the citiesfrom the countryside. It has been estimatedthat while only 10 per cent of the populationof these regions was Muslim when theAbbasids came to power, within a centurythis figure had grown to 50 per cent - andhad reached 90 per cent by the beginning ofthe 10th century.

As the political unity of the Muslim statebegan to disintegrate, local culturesreasserted themselves. The Samanid kings(819-1005) who ruled from their capital inBukhara encouraged the composition ofPersian poetry at their court, while theirwestern rivals, the Buyid rulers of Iraq andPersia (932-1062), held the caliph captivein his palace and styled themselvesShahanshahs like the Persian kings of old.

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 527-1025 pages 66-67 69THE MUSLIM WORLD 1000-1400 pages 88-89

THE FIRST SLAVIC STATES400-1000

An early Premyslid ruler of Bohemia,Prince Wenceslas in 925 overthrew hismother who, as regent, was persecuting theChristians. He continued the Christianizationof Bohemia but this, together with hissubmission to the Germans, arousedopposition, and in 929 he was killedand succeeded by his brother, Boleslav I.This portrait of the prince, the patron saintof the Czechs, was painted by a member ofthe Czech School in the 16th century.

In the 9th and early 10th centuries Slavicstates formed in Moravia, Poland andBohemia. Polish and Bohemian rulers usedfortified administrative centres to dominatepreviously independent tribes. While GreatMoravia was based on large urban centreson the River Morava, state formation amongthe Elbe Slavs was held in check by thepower of the German duchies, notablySaxony under Otto I.

I t is evident from first archaeological traces of the Slavsthat in the 3rd and 4th centuries they lived in thefertile basins of the Vistula, Dniester, Bug and Dnieper

rivers (map 1). In the early 5th century, however, thenomadic Huns conquered and drove out Germanic peoplesto the west of this area (pages 56-57), allowing the Slavs tomove as far as the Danube frontier of the Byzantine Empireby around 500. The subsequent victories over theByzantines by a second nomadic people, the Avars (pages76-79), meant that Slavic groups were able to penetratesoutheastwards into the Balkans and even the Peloponnese.At the same time Slavs also moved north and west as Avarsencroached on their territory.

As a result, most of central Europe as far west as theElbe was settled by Slavs - Moravia and Bohemia had beensettled by 550, and much of the Elbe region by 600. Theprocess can be traced archaeologically in the emergenceand distribution of various Slavic cultures, which aremainly distinguished by the pottery they produced.

In the 6th century the Slavs operated in numeroussmall and independent social units of a few thousand. Somehad kings, but there were no established social hierarchiesand no hereditary nobility - merely freemen and slaves.Slavs were particularly ready to adopt captured outsidersas full members of their groups, and this partly explainswhy they were able to Slavicize central and eastern Europein such a relatively short period of time. They lived insmall, unfortified villages, grew crops and raised animals.

However, from the 7th century, hillforts - each servingas a local centre of refuge for a small social unit - becamethe characteristic form of Slavic settlement, and severalthousand have been found in central and eastern Europe.They subsequently merged into larger, more organizedpolitical entities, the first of which evolved in Moravia inthe 9th century (map 2} but was swallowed up by Magyarsmoving westwards from around 900 (pages 76-77).

ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATIONAfter about 500 Slavic agriculture became more productivethanks to the adoption of Roman ploughs and crop rota-tion. This agricultural revolution was only one element ina wider process of economic development which, archaeo-logically, is reflected in the wide range of specialistmanufactures, not least of silver jewellery, found on Slavicsites. Much of the Slavs' new wealth derived from contactswith economically more developed neighbours. Its greatest

A Between around 400 and 650 Slavic- mirrored in the distribution of the so-calledspeaking groups came to dominate much of Prague Culture. Over the next century, largecentral and eastern Europe. Their spread in areas of the North European Plain wereand around the Carpathians (to c. 550) is similarly colonized by Slavic peoples.

single source was the trade in slaves with the Muslimcaliphates, conducted from the 8th century onwards andevidenced by hoards of Arab silver coins found in centralEurope (map 3). Western Slavic groups and the Rus cap-tured slaves from eastern Slavs living in the area betweentheir respective territories. Some slaves were sold directlyto Muslim (and some western) merchants in centralEurope, notably in Prague, while many were shipped to theMuslim world by Scandinavian and other "middlemen".These intermediaries bought slaves at the trading centresof the south Baltic coast (such as Elbing, Wiskiauten andGrobin) and subsequently transported them down the riverroutes of eastern Europe, particularly the Volga, which gavedirect access to the Caspian Sea and Muslim Mesopotamia.

THE FORMATION OF STATESThe slave trade played an important role in generating newpolitical structures. Traders had to organize to procureslaves, and this, together with the new silver wealth, madepossible new ambitions. In the first half of the 10thcentury, for example, Miesco I established the first Polishstate with the help of his own armoured cavalry, which hiswealth enabled him to maintain. Perhaps this force wasfirst employed to capture slaves, but it soon took on therole of establishing and maintaining territorial control withthe aid of a series of hillforts. The Premyslid dynasty ofBohemia, which originated around Prague, adopted asimilar strategy, and by around 900 it controlled centralBohemia through a network of three central and five fron-tier hillforts. Over the following century the dynastyextended its influence much further afield and in its newlyacquired territories it replaced existing hillforts, which hadserved for local self-defence, with fortified administrativecentres in order to maintain its control.

To the east, the Rus of Kiev had by about 1000 createdthe first Russian state, extending their control over other,originally independent trading stations such as Smolensk,Novgorod, Izborsk and Staraia Ladoga (map 4). Each ofthese trading groups consisted of a relatively small numberof originally Scandinavian traders and a much largernumber of Slavs who produced the goods, shared in theprofits - and quickly absorbed the Scandinavians.

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While Slavic state formation generally involved assert-ing aggressive dominion, this was not always the case.During the 10th century the Elbe Slavs - comprising thepreviously independent Abodrites, Hevellians and Sorbs -increasingly acted together to throw off the dominationbeing exerted on them by Ottonian Saxony, which in themiddle of the century had carved up their territories into aseries of lordships or marches. However, the Elbe Slavsreasserted their independence in a great uprising of 983.

THE ADOPTION OF CHRISTIANITYState formation also had a religious dimension. Franks andthen Ottonians, the Papacy and Byzantium were all inter-ested in sending missionaries to the Slavic lands, mostfamously in the mid-9th century when Cyril and Methodiuswent, with papal blessing, from Constantinople to Moravia.

From the 8th century hoards of Arabsilver coins were deposited in Slavic centraland eastern Europe - evidence of Slavicparticipation in the fur and slave tradesconducted in the rich lands of the AbbasidCaliphate. Slavs also traded with theFrankish Carolingian world to the west.

There the brothers generated a written Slavic language totranslate the Bible and Christian service materials. In the10th century Rus, Polish and Bohemian leaders all adoptedChristianity. Kiev, Gniezno and Prague, capitals of theirrespective states, all became archbishoprics, Kiev andGniezno with their own episcopal networks.

Christianization allowed ambitious Slavic dynasts tosweep away not only the old Slavic gods but also the cultsthat were unique to each independent group and soreflected the old political order. The establishment of strongChristian churches thus contributed significantly to theprocess whereby the small, independent Slavic communi-ties of the 6th century evolved into the new Slavic states ofcentral Europe in the 9th and 10th centuries.

By the year 1000 three dominantdynasties had emerged in the Slav lands ofcentral and eastern Europe - in Bohemia,Poland and Russia - each centred on theirrespective capitals of Prague, Grezno andKiev. While closely controlling their coreareas, these new states also fought each

other for control of the lands in between(Moravia, Volhynia, Silesia, Byelorussia),which repeatedly changed hands overseveral centuries. Dynastic unity in Polandand Russia was to collapse gradually in the12th and 13th centuries, leading topartitions and the creation of lessexpansionist kingdoms. At the same timeGerman expansion - at first demographic,then political - was to undermine theindependence of the western Slavic states.

BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 100-500 pages 56-57 71THE MONGOL EMPIRE 1206-1405 pages 98-99

EAST ASIA IN THE TANG PERIOD618-907

The Tang dynasty established a vastempire - larger than any other Chineseempire before the conquests of the Manchus1,000 years later. Throughout the empireBuddhism flourished, and Chinese pilgrimstravelled along the trade routes of the SilkRoad - firmly under Tang control betweenthe mid-7th and mid-8th centuries - to visitstupas and shrines in India. The expansion

of the Tang was finally halted in 751 whentwo major defeats were inflicted on theirarmies - by the kingdom of Nanzhao atthe Battle of Dali and by the Muslim Arabsat the Battle of Tolas River. This last battleresulted in the Abbasid Empire gainingcontrol of the area west of the Pamirs andestablished the boundary between thecivilizations of Islam and China.

The central administration controlledevery province, using regular censuses togather information about the availableresources and population. (In 754 therewere nearly 53 million people living in over300 prefectures.) A network of canals linkedthe Yangtze Valley with areas to the north,supplying the huge army that defended thelong imperial borders.

Following the collapse of the Han Empire in AD 220China was divided into the three competing kingdomsof Shu, Wei and Wu. A brief period of unity was pro-

vided by the rule of the Western Jin between 265 and 316before northern China fell under the control of non-Chinese chiefs, leaving the south in the hands of an elitistaristocracy. The country was reunited under the Suidynasty - established in 581 - but the dynasty was short-lived. In 618, after four centuries of division and turmoil,the Tang dynasty took control (map 1).

The influence of Tang China was to be felt throughoutAsia in the three centuries that followed. Its political sta-bility and economic expansion led to the unprecedenteddevelopment of links with many peoples throughout Eastand Central Asia, and these fostered a cultural renaissanceand cosmopolitanism in China itself. Tang armies broughtthe trade routes of the Silk Road under Chinese control,with protectorates established as far west as Ferghana andSamarqand. In the middle of the 7th century, the ChineseEmpire reached its maximum extent prior to the Manchuconquests a thousand years later. For a hundred years Tangarmies were not seriously challenged, and Tang models ofgovernment were taken up by many neighbouring peopleswho in turn expanded their own spheres of influence.These included the kingdom of Nanzhao in the southwest,Bohai in the northeast, Silla in Korea and the earlyJapanese state centred on Heijo.

The Tang system of centralized government (map 2)was introduced by the second Tang emperor, Tai Zong(r. 626-649), and was supported by a professional bureau-cracy of civil servants. The cities were linked to thecountryside through a well-developed infrastructure ofcanals and roads. New agricultural land was opened up,especially in the south, and in the first part of the Tangperiod peasants owned their own land, paying for it in taxesand labour. Later on, however, as central power waned,wealthy and powerful landowners extended their area ofcontrol. Rural prosperity supported the growth of newindustries, notably the production of fine pottery andluxury goods that were often inspired by fashionableforeign items.

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Lavishly furnished tombs, often adornedwith fine paintings, housed the remains ofthe elite in Korean society, while themajority had simpler burials. Among the

grave offerings were exquisite gold crownsand other jewellery made of gold foil andwire. Fine stoneware pottery made in thekingdom of Kaya was exported to Japan.

THE KOREAN PENINSULAIn the Korean Peninsula, Tang armies assisted the kingdomof Silla (map 3), which in its campaign of expansion hadcrushed Paekche in 660. The defeat of Koguryo in 668marked the beginning of the unification of Korea. To thenortheast the state of Bohai was established by Tae Cho-yong, a general from Koguryo who refused to surrender toSilla, and in 721 a wall was built to separate the two states(map 4). Silla finally compelled the Chinese to abandontheir territorial claims in Korea in 735, but all through thisperiod maintained good relations with the Chinese: Koreanscholars, courtiers and Buddhist monks made frequentjourneys to China, and Korean trading communities wereestablished in eastern China. Many individual Koreansplayed important roles in the Tang Empire. In 747 aChinese army was led to the upper ranges of the Indus byKo Son-ji, a Korean military official.

THE ROLE OF BUDDHISMNot only the Chinese and Koreans, but also the Japanese,were brought together by the spread of Buddhism fromIndia throughout East Asia. Buddhism often received offi-cial support and many of the most spectacular Buddhistmonuments in Asia were built at this time, from the cavetemples at Dunhuang in China to the Horyuji and Todaijitemples in Nara in Japan. The Silla capital at Kumsong(modern Kyongju), which already boasted fine monumentssuch as the Ch'omsongdae observatory, was further embell-ished with great Buddhist structures including thePulguk-sa temple (c. 682). However, the relationshipbetween this new religion and the government was notalways easy: in 845 Emperor Wu Zong ordered the closureof nearly 45,000 monasteries and temples throughoutChina in an attempt to restrict the influence of Buddhism.

DEVELOPMENTS IN JAPANOn the Japanese archipelago a centralized bureaucraticgovernment developed from a series of successive capitalsin the Kinai region. In 710 the new capital at Heijo, nearthe present city of Nara, was designed by EmperorGemmyo following Chinese principles of city planning. The

subsequent Nara period saw major political, economic andland reforms as well as campaigns against the Emishi andEzo peoples who lived north of the boundaries of theexpanding Japanese state. In 794 the capital was moved toHeian (now Kyoto), ushering in the golden age of Heiancivilization during which a sophisticated courtly lifestyledeveloped among the elite classes. In the later part of theHeian period (794-1185) the samurai culture, whichplaced great value on military prowess, also evolved.

THE DECLINE OF TANG POWERThe 9th century saw the waning of Tang influence and anever-increasing independence in surrounding countries(map 1}. In 751 Tang armies suffered two major defeats: atthe Battle of Dali in the south, over 60,000 Tang soldiersperished at the hands of the troops of the kingdom ofNanzhao; in the west, Arabs took control of much ofCentral Asia in the Battle of the Talas River, which set theborder between the Chinese and Abbasid empires.

The faltering of the Tang dynasty was symbolized by therebellion of An Lushan, the commander of the northeasternarmies, who gained great influence over Emperor XuanZong (r. 712-56) through the imperial concubine YangYuhuan. In 755 An Lushan rebelled against the emperor andled a force of over 100,000 men on the capital. Although therebellion was eventually put down, the empire was greatlyweakened and became vulnerable to external attacks. In787 the Tibetans sacked the capital Chang'an, and in 791defeated Chinese and Uighur forces near Beshbaliq, endingChinese domination of Central Asia. As central controlweakened and provinces became more powerful, Chinaonce again moved towards disintegration. Following morerevolts, the last Tang emperor was deposed in 907.

China's relations with surrounding countries changed asthese countries themselves changed. The last Japaneseembassies were sent to China in 838, and in 894 theJapanese government, now dominated by the Fujiwara clan,officially banned travel to China. In the Korean Peninsulaserious rebellions broke out in Silla in 889, and out of theserebellions was born the kingdom of Koryo, centred in thenorth, which was to control all of Korea from 936.

Buddhism rapidly gained popularity inJapan following its introduction from Koreain the 6th century, but traditional JapaneseShinto religion was actively encouraged by7th- and 8th-century rulers. The two creedswere brought together in the Tendaiteachings of Saicho after the capital wasmoved from Heijo to Heian in 794, and thestrong links between religion andgovernment were subsequently severed.

The long-established East Asian traditionof erecting lifesize stone terracotta guardianfigures on and around tombs reached itsapogee in the three-coloured glazed statuesof the Tang period.

FIRST EMPIRES IN CHINA 1100 BC-AD 220 pages 48-49 73EAST ASIA 907-1600 pages 86-87

PRANKISH KINGDOMS200-900

Royal tours were a crucial element ofCarolingian governmental control. As ayounger man, Charlemagne averaged29 kilometres (18 miles) a day and stayedregularly in all parts of his kingdom,thus enabling him to keep his localrepresentatives in line. Also performingthis function were teams of inspectors(m/'ss/l, each usually comprising a laymanand a prominent ecclesiastic. Charlemagne'sgrandson, Charles the Bald (r. 843-77),later evolved clearly designated areas ofinspection (missatica) in the north.

The Franks were created by the reorganization of anumber of Germanic groups on the northern Rhinefrontier of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century AD.

They comprised several subgroups, most prominently theSalians and Ripuarians, which were further divided intowarbands, each with their own king. The collapse of theRoman Empire after about 450 prompted further changes,with Ghilderic (d. 482) and his son Glovis (r. 482-511),uniting increasing numbers of Franks under their rule.

The two men belonged to a prominent Salian family -called the Merovingians after a legendary founder Merovech- but their careers turned the family into a royal dynastyfor all Frankish peoples. At the same time, the newly unitedFranks were able to conquer more and more territory:Ghilderic started by taking over the Roman province ofBelgica II, to which Glovis added the region around Paris(the kingdom of Aegidius and Syagrius), Alemannia andAquitaine. Glovis's sons and grandsons further conqueredProvence, Burgundy and Thuringian territory (map 1).

The Franks did not, however, evolve governmentalstructures of sufficient strength to hold this large new statetogether. The conquests had generated renewable wealth forkings to reward local landowners and hence attract theirsupport, but when the conquests petered out kings had tobuy support using their own landed resources, so that greatmen became wealthier at the expense of kings. By around700 the real power had passed to a relatively small numberof families in each of the regions of the kingdom: Austrasia,Neustria, Burgundy, Aquitaine and Provence (map 2).

In the 8th century the rulers of Austrasia in the north-east - called the Garolingian dynasty - reunited the wholeFrankish world. Between about 695 and 805 their armies

The collapse of Roman power in northernGaul after about 450 facilitated theunification of the Franks and the extensionof their dominion. The Romans had kept the

tribes divided and weak, but Merovingianleaders Childeric and Clovis eliminated rivalPrankish warlords to create a new dominantforce in post-Roman western Europe.

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were on campaign for all but five years, taking advantage ofan open frontier to the east. As a result, Austrasia's rulerscould offer ongoing rewards to would-be supporters and thusoutbid noble rivals from the other regions. In three genera-tions - Charles Martel (d. 741), Pippin the Short (r. 741-68) and Charlemagne (r. 768-814) - the dynasty reunitedFrancia and conquered Lombard Italy, Saxony, Alemannia,Thuringia, Bavaria and the Avars (map 3). On ChristmasDay 800 Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome.

THE STRUCTURE OF GOVERNMENTThe Merovingians based their rule on the existing Romanstructures: the cities, or civitates, and their dependent ter-ritories. However, by about 800 the civitcttes had ceased toexist, and in their place was a patchwork of smaller coun-ties. It was thus much easier to create continuous territorieswhen the kingdom was divided, as between Charlemagne'sgrandsons in the Treaty of Verdun in 843.

The main governmental problem remained constant:how to exercise centralized control over a very largekingdom in an era of primitive communications. Powerfullandowners were essential to a king's rule, but they had tobe prevented from becoming too independent; continualroyal travel was a central part of the strategy.

Royal finance still relied on conquest. Once expansionpetered out after the conquest of Saxony (805), and espe-cially when Louis the Pious (d. 840) was succeeded by agreat number of quarrelling sons, Merovingian patternsreasserted themselves. Financial resources, above all land,were transferred by rival members of the dynasty in a bidto buy supporters. By 900 Carolingian power in WestFrancia was confined to the Paris region, while East Franciawas run by non-Carolingians from 911 (pages 92-93).

THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCEUnder Charlemagne determined efforts were made to reviveClassical learning. Texts were gathered and copied, and theteaching of good Latin was made a priority in royally spon-sored monasteries and cathedrals with scriptoria or writingoffices (map 3). This Carolingian Renaissance was generatedby the work of a relatively small number of institutions, andits central thrust was religious. Carolingian monks copiedClassical texts because their language and contents wereconsidered necessary for a full understanding of the Bible.Editing variant texts of the Bible to produce one orthodoxversion, codifying divergent sources of church law, provid-ing service books in good Latin: all of these were basic tasksCharlemagne wanted his scholars to undertake. Charle-magne also wished - as he proclaimed in the AdmonitioGeneralis of 789 and the Programmatic Capitulary of 802 -to ensure higher standards of Christian religious observanceand biblically guided morality in his realm. His bishopsattempted to enforce this programme through a sequence ofreforming councils designed to harmonize standardsthroughout the empire. Louis the Pious did the same withmonastic practice through further councils between 817 and819. The Papacy likewise received strong royal support, andwas endowed with the lands which would form the basis ofthe papal state through to the 19th century.

THE PRANKISH ECONOMYBy around 600 the Merovingians had presided over the col-lapse of most of the more sophisticated elements of theRoman economy: taxation, substantial long-distance trade,towns, specialized manufacture and coins (apart from a veryhigh-value gold coinage that was useless for everyday trans-actions). There were also associated declines in populationand agricultural production. The 7th and 8th centuries,however, witnessed substantial recovery. New trading routesspread across the Channel and North Sea, their progressmarked by the appearance of a series of trading stations oremporia (map 4). Monetary-based exchange also increased- using, from the later 7th century, a lower value silver cur-rency. The quantity and quality of silver coins grewdramatically with the new coinage introduced by

Charlemagne in the 790s - a coinage that Charles the Baldlater managed to his own profit; a dense network of mintsallowed him periodically to change coin types, demand thatpeople use new coins, and charge them fees for reminting.

CAROLINGIAN ACHIEVEMENTSPolitically the Carolingian period ended in failure. Theunited western European empire could not be held together,even if Charlemagne's resumption of an imperial title woulddirectly inspire his Holy Roman successors (pages 90-91).In economic and cultural terms, however, the Carolingianperiod was deeply formative. Trade, a monetarized economyand more specialized production all began to flourish, pro-viding the essential backdrop to the "take-off" of thewestern European economy which followed in the llthcentury and after (pages 100-1). Carolingian scholars alsoset new standards in Christian belief, practice and intellec-tual development, with Latin Christendom growing from theseeds planted by Charlemagne.

Carolingian scholars developed a new,easily written script - the Carolingianminiscule - which greatly speeded up thetedious process of book copying. They alsorevived Classical Latin from Classical texts,making it the language of medievallearning. Their strict choices helped definethe limits of modern knowledge: theyignored texts whose contents theyconsidered unnecessary or inappropriate forLatin Christendom, and consequently theseworks have failed to come down to us in themodern world.

In the 7th and 8th centuries thePrankish economy recovered well from itsMerovingian decline. Sea trading linksflourished to the north and new centresof trade were established. Louis the Pious(r. 814-40), Charlemagne's only survivingson, ordered that there should be a marketin every county, and they feature widely inthe charters of Charles the Bald. TheCarolingian period thus witnessedsubstantial moves away from locally focusedsubsistence agricultural economies towardsgreater specialization and exchange.

THE ROMAN EMPIRE 500 BG-AD 400 pages 54-55 75THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 962-1356 pages 90-91

PEOPLES OF THE EUROPEAN STEPPE350-1000> By the mid-440s the Hunnic Empiredominated large numbers of Germanicgroups in the middle Danube region andexercised a loose hold over large tracts ofeastern and north-central Europe. Themilitary success of the empire is evidentfrom the large number of rich burials thathave been found, particularly in the middleDanube region, which date from the Hunnicperiod. Some of these burials may havebeen of Huns, but many clearly belonged tothe Germanic dynasts who first profitedfrom the empire and subsequently led theindependence movements which destroyed itafter the death of Attila in 453.

Tin the 560s the Avars establishedthemselves in the area of modern Hungaryand for the next 70 years raided territoriesfrom the Rhine to Constantinople. Theynearly conquered Constantinople in 626 butin doing so suffered a defeat which greatlyreduced their offensive military potential.While this allowed the defection of many oftheir subjects, they remained a dominantpower in central Europe until being defeatedby Charlemagne in 796.

A t the western end of the immense grasslands thatrun between China and Europe is the Volga andUkrainian steppe, while further west are two regions

of Europe that in soil and climate can be regarded as con-tinuations of the steppe, the Dobrudja in modern Romaniaand the Great Hungarian Plain. In the 1st millennium ADthe rich grazing lands of this area attracted successivewaves of Asian nomads and semi-nomads who were from avariety of ethnic backgrounds and supported themselvesby raising animals that were moved annually betweenupland summer and lowland winter pastures.

Among the most important of these westward-movingpeoples were the Huns (from c. 350), whose ethnic affilia-tion is unknown, and the Turkic-speaking Avars (fromaround 560). In the latter half of the 6th century they werefollowed by further groups from the confederation of theso-called Western Turks (the Bulgars, Khazars and the

Finno-Ugrian-speaking Magyars), and in the 9th century byindependent Turkic-speaking groups, the Pechenegs andthe Oguz. As more nomads moved onto the steppe, theydrove the earlier arrivals further west and towards thelands around the Mediterranean - lands whose relativewealth could be tapped through raids and more sustainedmilitary campaigns, or through the extraction of annualtributes. In 395, for example, the Huns, who at this pointwere settled in the Ukrainian steppe, raided both theRoman and Persian empires (pages 56-57), and by the410s they were established on the Great Hungarian Plain,supplying mercenaries to the Roman state. In the 440s,after a sequence of highly destructive campaigns, theirfeared leader Attila was receiving 900 kilograms (2,000pounds) of gold a year in tributes. The Avars later mounteda series of campaigns against the Byzantines, particularlyin the 580s, and extracted a steadily increasing tribute. Inthe 10th century the Magyars terrorized Europe with raidsfrom the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean coast of France.

THE BUILDING OF EMPIRESThe steppe peoples not only raided the empires of otherpeoples but also built empires of their own, either on thesteppe or within Europe. On the Great Hungarian Plain theHuns established a powerful and aggressive empire betweenabout 410 and 469 (map 1). They were succeeded by theAvars, who moved west from the Ukrainian steppe inaround 560 to escape the Western Turks and establishedan empire that was to last until 796 (map 2).

Centred around the ruling clan of the Asina, theWestern Turks built a huge empire stretching from theborders of China to the Ukrainian steppe, but it had col-lapsed by the 630s. During the following 40 years three ofits constituent parts - the Bulgars, Khazars and Magyars -established longer-lived entities in the Dobrudja, Volga andUkrainian steppe respectively. These empires remained rel-atively stable for over 200 years, until in the late 9th and

76


early 10th centuries the Pechenegs moved west, expellingthe Magyars and undermining Khazar power (map 3). ThePechenegs themselves would later fall victim to the SeljukTurks, a dynasty who were to emerge from the Oguz in thellth century (pages 88-89).

All these shifting empires were based on the conquestand exploitation of subject tribes, who were usually amixture of nomadic peoples and more settled agriculturalgroups. Attila's Hunnic Empire of the 440s consisted of adominant Hunnic core but with numerous, particularlyGermanic, groups such as Goths, Gepids, Herules, Rugians,Sueves and Lombards. The Avar Empire of the later 6thcentury incorporated Gepids, Bulgars and numerous Slavicgroups, and the Bulgar state in the Dobrudja and sur-rounding territories also incorporated many Slavic tribes.The Khazars on the Volga steppe exercised dominion overthe nomadic Magyars before they established their ownempire in the Ukraine, as well as over large Slavic and laterScandinavian Rus groups to the north.

Once they had achieved some degree of dominance,peoples of the steppe tended to cease being simple nomadsand profound social evolution sometimes followed. Forexample, when the Huns first reached the Ukrainian steppearound 375, they were led in their continual search for newpastures by a multiplicity of chiefs. By the 430s, however,one dominant dynasty, that of Attila, had emerged, sup-pressing all rivals. With warfare dominating their lives, theHuns were able to use the wealth of the Roman Empire tocreate a new, more stratified social hierarchy under asingle ruler.

THE IMPACT OF THE NOMADS ON EUROPEThe nature of these nomad empires explains much of theirimpact on Europe. Built on military dominance, theyrequired continued military success to survive. In theircampaigns they used soldiers and leaders recruited fromthe peoples they dominated, and their successes were tosome extent shared with these peoples. A successful cam-paign both maintained a leader's prestige and providedbooty to be distributed - not only among the nomad corebut also to selected leaders among subject groups, whoseloyalty was thus maintained. The campaigns led to a sub-stantial degree of instability in Europe, as groups escapingfrom the intruders sought new homes. The collapse of the

Western Roman Empire in the 5th century was broughtabout by Germanic groups escaping the Huns, and Avarpressure later led to a great migration of Slavs into centraland eastern Europe and Lombards into Italy.

Warfare, however, could not be successful forever. TheEuropeans eventually learned how to contain the steppepeoples, for whom the logistic problems of continuouswarfare increased as closer targets were conquered. Onceexpansion stopped, decline quickly followed. Within 16years of Attila's death in 453, the Huns had ceased to existas an independent force in Europe. Without booty todistribute or prestige to inspire fear, Attila's sons lost controlof the subject peoples. Similarly, when defeat byConstantinople had curbed the power of the Avars in the7th century, numerous Slavs and Bulgars escaped from theAvar Empire. Long-term survival was only possible forsteppe peoples by adopting the lives of sedentary land-owners and embracing mainstream European culture, as theMagyars did after being defeated by the Saxons at the Battleof Lechfeld in 955 (map 4).

In the 9th century the Khazars played adominant role in trade throughout theUkrainian steppe with both the Bulgars andMagyars. Directly or indirectly, theirhegemony also extended to the Slavic andRus groups of the neighbouring forestedzone to the north.

Driven into the heart of the continent bythe arrival of the Pechenegs on theUkrainian steppe around 895, the Magyarsin turn terrorized central, southern andeven parts of western Europe withwidespread raids. Their expansion wasfirst curbed in 936 and then halted in 955by the newly powerful Saxon kings Henry Iand his son Otto I.

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: EUROPE 8000-200 BC pages 20-21 THE MONGOL EMPIRE 1206-1405 pages 98-99 77

THE VIKINGS800-1100

Viking raiders ranged widely, reachingthe coast of Italy. So, too, did Viking traders,exchanging goods at towns in westernEurope and following the river routes ofwestern Russia to sell furs and slaves as faraway as Baghdad. Both traders and raidersused the new ship technology to create newways of making money out of the wealth ofthe great Carolingian and Abbasid empires.

New ship technology, combining the useof sail power with a strong but flexible hullwhich could survive the impact of oceanwaves, made extraordinary voyages ofexploration possible for the adventurousVikings. In 986 Bjarni Herjolfsson reachedNorth America after being blown off courseduring a voyage from Iceland to Greenland.His discoveries along the coasts ofNewfoundland and Labrador were followedup by Leif Eiriksson, who in about 1003sailed from Greenland in order to followHerjolfsson's route in reverse.

A This Viking silver dragon-headed amuletcomes from Iceland, which was colonized bythe Vikings in the late 9th century. Its crossshape may well have a Christianconnotation: the inhabitants of Iceland -together with those of Denmark, Norwayand Sweden - were converted to Christianityin the late 10th and early 11th centuries.

T he Vikings first came to the attention of otherEuropeans when, at the end of the 8th century, theysailed from their Scandinavian homeland to launch a

series of ferocious raids on the coasts of Britain, Ireland andFrance. However, in the 300 years that followed they notonly plundered in western Europe but also embarked onvoyages of exploration, established a far-reaching network oftrading routes and created new states. During these years theterm "Viking" was applied only to those who undertookexpeditions of plunder, but it has since come to be usedmore widely to refer to all the inhabitants of Norway,Denmark and Sweden at that time.

VOYAGES OF EXPLORATIONIn the late 8th century Norwegians sailed to the Shetlandsand Orkneys, drawn across the North Sea by the prevailingwinds and currents. This was a shorter journey than coastinground Scandinavia and led naturally on to the northerncoast of Scotland, the Hebrides, Ireland and western Britain(map 1). The Norwegians then ranged further afield andreached the Faroes in the early 9th century and Iceland,another 1,600 kilometres (1,000 miles) northwest, in the860s and 870s. Greenland was first visited in about 900,when the Norwegian Gunnbjorn was blown off course.Settlement there began in the late 10th century, bringingfurther explorers, such as Eirik the Red, who surveyed muchof the new land. According to a 12th-century saga, it wasduring a voyage to Greenland in 986 that Bjarni Herjolfssonwas storm-driven south to reach the shores of NorthAmerica. He made three landfalls, one of which is thought to

coincide with the site of a permanent Norwegian settlementdating from around 1000 near L'Anse aux Meadows, on thenorthern tip of Newfoundland. Herjolfsson was followed byother voyagers, notably Leif Eiriksson (in 1003) and hisbrother Thorvald (between 1005 and 1012).

TRADING AND RAIDINGMost Vikings sailed in search of profit, whether as traders orraiders. They exchanged goods at trading centres (emporia)in northern Europe and followed the river routes of westernRussia - chiefly the Volga route to the Caspian - to gainaccess to the rich Muslim world (map 2). Between the later8th and 10th centuries the natural resources of the north -particularly furs but also honey, wax, falcons, walrus ivoryand large numbers of slaves - were exchanged for Arab silver,mostly at a great emporium in the land of the Volga Bulgars(pages 76-77). During the 9th century Norwegians andDanes also moved west, taking slaves from Ireland andScotland via new trading settlements at Dublin and York.

Commerce and plundering were linked: slaves wereusually captured in raids and the trading centres became anatural target for raiders. Exploiting many of the establishedtrading routes, Norwegians raided northern Britain from 796,and Danes quickly followed suit, moving along the Channelto attack southern England and northern France. Merchantswere forced to pay protection money and many of the oldemporia (especially Quentovic, Dorestad and Hamwic) wererepeatedly sacked. In the 840s and 860s settlements alongthe western coasts of France and Spain, and along theMediterranean coast as far as Italy, were also raided.

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Alfred's newly constructed fortresses(the burhs) protected his kingdom from thesecond Great Army of 892-95. Many of itsfrustrated contingents then returned to the

continent, creating chaos in Brittany and,under King Rollo, eventually being grantedland to found the Duchy of Normandy atthe mouth of the Seine in 911.

CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENTA totally new level of activity unfolded in western Europefrom the 860s with the arrival of the "Great Armies", inde-pendent (mostly Danish) groups led by their own kings butoften totalling several thousand men and now enablingVikings to settle in previously inpenetrable areas south ofScotland. The first Great Army landed in England in 865 andwithin five years had subdued Northumbria, Mercia and EastAnglia. The next seven years saw a series of assaults on theone surviving kingdom, Wessex, which under Alfred theGreat successfully resisted and defeated the Viking Guthrumat Edington in 878. The Vikings were given territory northof the River Thames, and this was formally established asDanelaw (map 3). Dissatisfied with this arrangement, someVikings turned to continental Europe, and for 13 years(879-92) battles raged along the rivers of northern France,even reaching Paris. Following a serious defeat on the RiverDyle the remaining Vikings returned to England in 892, butthis time Alfred fended them off with ease (map 4).

THE FORMATION OF STATESDanelaw never constituted a unified state, and when theVikings no longer arrived in large numbers after 900 theWessex monarchy swallowed up their territories to createthe first united kingdom of England. By contrast, King Rollo'ssettlement in France eventually emerged as the independentDuchy of Normandy, and Viking trading stations in westernRussia coalesced into a state in the 10th century (pages70-71). However, the main forum of Viking state formationwas Scandinavia itself. In about 800 no unified kingdomsexisted there, but by around 1000 a dynasty with its capitalat Jelling, led by Svein Forkbeard and his son Gnut, hadestablished control over all of Denmark. Having suppressedtheir rivals they built fortresses, set up regional administra-tive centres, created the first native Scandinavian coinageand - because Svein and Gnut were also Christians - estab-lished a number of bishoprics (map 5).

Similar processes began in Norway in the 990s, whenOlaf Tryggvasson, returning from extensive raiding inEngland as a rich man and a convert to Christianity, foundedthe Norwegian monarchy. The entity he created was far fromstable, however, and Sweden also remained politically frag-mented. Thus when Svein and Cnut gathered forces for theconquest of England (1003-17) they were joined not only byDanes but also by numerous independent groups from acrossScandinavia. Cnut became a strong ruler of England, but hishold on Denmark and Norway was weak, and on his deathin 1035 his empire disintegrated. Within 50 years theVikings had been driven out of England by the Normans, andby the 12th century they were no longer a force to be fearedoutside the shores of Scandinavia.

Numbering several thousand men, the"Great Armies" which started to collect inwestern Europe from about 865 marked anew era in Viking expansion. Mainly Danish,they were large enough to conquer andsettle whole Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and -when checked by Alfred the Great of Wessexin 878 - to cause similar disruption on theContinent by exploiting the major riversystems of France and the Low Countries.

By around 1000 the Jelling dynasty had structures, allowing it to exploit both humancreated the first Danish kingdom. It reduced and other resources of Jutland and itslocal autonomy and created new political neighbouring islands.

Even to the modern eye the Vikinglongships are impressive. The 9th-century,16-seater Gokstad ship, recovered by aNorwegian excavation, is 23.5 metres (justover 76 feet) long, clinker-planked with thinoak attached by a combination of lashingsand small iron plates to 19 frames built upfrom a huge keel. An Atlantic crossing of1893 in a replica of this ship - made in just28 days from Bergen to Newfoundland -demonstrated the timeless efficiency of thedesign. It was, however, normally only used

for coastal sailing; the broader and deeperhalfship was considered more suitable forlong-distance ocean crossings.

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: EUROPE 8000-200 BC pages 20-21 79EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7

STATES AND TRADE IN WEST AFRICA500-1500

By 1500 a number of rival stateshad emerged in West Africa, eachgoverned by an elite whose wealthand power can be judged from theirsubstantial towns, their rich burialsand the fine works of craftsmanshipcreated for them.

The various vegetation zones of WestAfrica supported different agriculturalregimes and produced different rawresources - such as gold from the savannaand forest, and salt from the desert. Thisdiversity in turn helped stimulate thedevelopment of interregional trade.

E arly West African states took a number of forms,varying in size from the vast Songhay Empire, whichheld in its sway many different ethnic groups, to

smaller, more ethnically homogeneous Hausa city-statessuch as Kano (map 1). Methods of government, too, wereequally varied: the great medieval empires of the savannaand semi-desert Sahel regions employed often complexbureaucracies utilizing Muslim officials and the Arabicscript, while in the forested region of the south, differentsystems existed which attached varying importance to the

role of king. Among the Igbo in the Niger delta, forexample, there was no king and loyalty to the state wasmaintained through religious ties, ceremonies and clans.

TRADE AND THE FORMATION OF STATESTrade was intimately linked with the growth of states inWest Africa, initially local and interregional in focus butlater developing into long-distance trade across the Sahara.Trade flourished partly because of the existence of differentenvironmental zones that stretched east-west across thecontinent and comprised the Sahara Desert, the Saheliansemi-desert, the Sudannic savanna and wooded grasslands,and finally the more heavily wooded region merging into therainforest (map 2}. The forms of agriculture practised variedbetween zones: for example, the yams cultivated in thesouthern wooded region could not be grown in the Sahelianor Saharan zones, whereas pastoralism or animal herdingwas viable in the Sahel. This variation resulted in a need toexchange commodities, often carried out by merchantsfrom the Sahel or savanna regions (map 3).

Prosperity generated through trade, coupled with thegrowth of settlements at important trade centres, graduallyled to urbanization and the foundation of states. Recentexcavations have shown that the settlement of Jenne-jeno inMali, the earliest town yet found in West Africa, was foundedin about 300 BG and had developed into a thriving town byAD 500. Although Jenne-jeno never grew into a state, itserved as a centre of trade where savanna commodities suchas gold, iron and various foodstuffs were traded for Saharansalt and possibly - though this is less certain - for copper.

Another town founded in Mali by the 7th century wasGao, later to become the capital of the Songhay Empire. Tothe west, in Mauritania, the capital of the empire of Ghanaalso appears to have been in existence by this time, thoughonly part of the settlement - the merchants' town of KoumbiSaleh - has so far been found. While Ghana was in all prob-ability the first of the states founded in West Africa, eventswere also proceeding rapidly to the east of this area on themargins of Lake Chad. The kingdom of Kanem, east of thelake, was mentioned in an Arab document in the mid-9th

80

century and had certainly been in existence for some timebefore that. Later, apparently in the 14th century, this stateshifted west of Lake Chad to Borno and became known asKanem-Borno.

The forest regions, with their higher density of popula-tion than the savanna or Sahel regions, were a source ofslaves, and states began to emerge in this area around the12th century. Trade appears to have been linked with thegrowth of the Akan states in modern Ghana, an area rich ingold where trade centres such as Begho were foundedperhaps as early as the 12th century. To the northeast theseven Hausa city-states, the Hausa Bakwai, were establishedduring the 13th century. Together with a further sevenrelated but non-Hausa states to the south, these formed alink in the 15th century between Kanem-Borno to the eastand the Songhay Empire and the Akan states to the west.

The forest kingdoms also emerged comparatively early,with Benin (now famous on account of its bronze sculp-tures), occupied by the 13th century. Similar castings,predating those of Benin, were produced in Ife, birthplace ofthe Yoruba nation - a state with a well-developed traditionof forest farming, town living, crafts and government.

CONTACTS WITH THE MUSLIM WORLDIndirect trans-Saharan trade is known to have occurredduring the 1st millennium BG, but it is unlikely that cara-vans travelled right across the desert until the introductionof camels towards the end of that period. Archaeological evi-dence indicates that trans-Saharan trade became far moreimportant with the consolidation of Islam in North Africafrom the early 9th century AD, and from this time it had amajor economic and social impact on the developing statesof sub-Saharan Africa.

There was a great demand in the Muslim world for WestAfrican products, particularly gold, slaves and ivory. Among

the items sent south in return were manufactured goodssuch as cloth, glazed pottery, glass vessels, beads, paper,brass and cowrie shells (later used as currency). Transportwas by camel caravans, which travelled from well to well tothe Sahelian trade centres of Koumbi Saleh, Tegdaoust andGao. From there some of the goods were traded on furtherinto West Africa - indicated, for example, by the discoveryof many thousands of 9th-century coloured glass beads atthe site of Igbo-Ukwu in the southern forest zone.

Through contacts with Muslim merchants, the Saheliantrade centres were exposed to Islam from the very begin-nings of trans-Saharan trade with Muslim North Africa.Various local rulers of the empires of Ghana, Kanem-Borno,Mali and Songhay converted to Islam, which spread rightacross the region through the activities of local merchantgroups such as the Mande or Wangara, who were respons-ible for much of the trade in gold and kola nuts from theAkan states. Hausa was also gradually Islamized but furthersouth, in the forest states such as Ife or Benin, the tradi-tional beliefs of animism were maintained, with religiousand secular authority often intermixed.

THE ARRIVAL OF THE PORTUGUESEMajor events in the second half of the 15th century were tohave far-reaching effects on the states, societies and tradesystems of West Africa. Paramount among these was thearrival of the Portuguese on the west coast in the 1440s, fol-lowed by the establishment in 1482 of a Portuguese tradingpost at Elmina on the coast of modern Ghana. This meantthat imported manufactured goods such as cloth could nowbe obtained directly from the coast and that another outletfor West African commodities was established. The slavetrade across the Atlantic also began, starting with the firstcargo of slaves from West Africa to the West Indies in 1518- a momentous event with tragic consequences.

Located on the inland Niger delta, thetown of Jenne-jeno owed its prosperity to itsgreat agricultural wealth, exporting rice,cereals, dried fish and fish oil toneighbouring regions by using the Niger asa transport highway. It was the first of manysuch towns that emerged in West Africa, allof them trading local raw materials andproduce for everyday commodities andluxuries from other regions as far awayas Muslim North Africa.

Like the people of Benin, the Yorubaproduced fine bronze heads and figurines.However, they are particularly renowned fortheir terracotta heads, such as this one of a12th-l 3th century queen from Ife.

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: AFRICA 10,000 BC-AD 500 pages 22-23 81AFRICA 1500-1800 pages 136-37

STATES AND TRADE IN EAST AFRICA500-1500

Soapstone brought from a source24 kilometres (15 miles) away was usedat Great Zimbabwe to carve ritual objectsin the form of people and birds.

The agricultural communities that hadcolonized East and southern Africa in the 1stmillennium AD developed into kingdoms andstates in the early centuries of the 2ndmillennium. Both cattle-herding andcommand of raw materials - including gold,copper and ivory - were by now of majorimportance. In the north, following amission of 543, Christianity had becomeestablished in the Axumite kingdom, whileMuslim traders who settled on the coastfrom the 9th century were responsible notonly for the introduction of Islam but alsothe development of Islamic states. Furtherinland elites emerged, marked by richburials such as those at Sanga and bysubstantial centres such as Great Zimbabwe.

In the 6th century East Africa was a mosaic of verydifferent cultural groups employing a variety of subsis-tence strategies. Though in many areas foraging was still

the primary means of providing food, agriculture and stock-keeping had already spread throughout the length of thecontinent. In areas such as the arid far southwest and theforests of central Africa, nomadic hunter-gatherers, being sowell adapted to these environments, were still thriving in1500 AD. However, by the 8th century more settled com-munities had also begun to be established, which frequentlycontrolled resources such as copper and ivory or acted astrading settlements. Some of these settled communitieslater developed into kingdoms and became integrated intoextensive trading networks.

In Ethiopia the Christian Axumite kingdom had begunto decline in the 7th century after losing control of its portsto the Arabs, and was finally destroyed in the 10th century.Christianity nevertheless remained strong in Ethiopia, andthe focus of Christian Ethiopia (map 1) shifted south fromAxum to Lalibela (then called Adefa). While the Axumitekingdom had been urban in character, the empire which

replaced it was largely feudal, its rulers shifting their courtwhen local resources had been exhausted. Rock-cutchurches, created between the 10th and the 15th centuries,are the main legacy of the Christian Ethiopian Empire.

THE ISLAMIZATION OF EAST AFRICATo the east and southeast of the Christian empire, Islamictrading settlements were established along the coast andalong the trade routes leading into the interior from themajor ports, of which Zeila was perhaps the most important.As the Muslim population increased, the creation of anumber of Islamic sultanates led to conflict with theChristian Ethiopian Empire. During this period the Somalislowly expanded from around the Gulf of Aden - along thecoast north to Zeila and south to Mogadishu, and into theinterior - to occupy much of the Horn of Africa. By the 12thcentury Islamization of this area had become well advanced.

During the 9th century a series of trading settlements,united by a common religion, language and style of living,emerged along the East African coast. These Swahili-speaking Islamic communities, though African, lay on abranch of the great trade routes connecting the Red Sea,southern Arabia and India, and they adopted variousaspects of the cultures with which they came in contact. Bythe 14th century Swahili towns and settlements had greatlyexpanded from the early sites of Manda and Shanga andstretched from Mogadishu south to Chibuene, with com-munities on the Comores and Madagascar. Towns such asKilwa contained fine, multi-storied houses built of coral, andtheir inhabitants ate a diet containing rice, spices andcoconut - cosmopolitan Indian Ocean tastes.

STATE FORMATION IN THE INTERIORPolitical developments also occurred in interior East Africa.In the region of the Great Lakes a series of huge earthworkenclosures was built: at Bigo over 10 kilometres (six miles)of ditches and ramparts enclosed almost 300 hectares (750acres). It is thought that these enclosures were used for cor-ralling cattle and that this kingdom, which later came to beknown as Bunyoro, based its wealth and power on itscontrol of cattle. Further south, control of the copper andgoldfields (map 2} may have been a factor in the rise ofother powerful elites. An excavated sequence of burials atSanga illustrates the emergence of a hierarchical society bythe 10th century and the development of a currency systemof uniform small copper crosses. Although the main copperbelt was 200 kilometres (125 miles) to the south, the societyrepresented in the Sanga cemetery used copper to indicatewealth and status.

On the Zimbabwe Plateau, with its highland and lowlandgrazing areas and its gold, iron, copper and tin resources,a powerful elite emerged at the beginning of the presentmillennium. Its capital was located at Great Zimbabwe(map 3), a substantial complex of stone towers and enclo-sures surrounded by daga (mud structures), which mayhave had a population of some 18,000 people. Similarstone structures are found across the plateau, indicatingthe extent of the authority exercised by the Zimbabweelite. Religion may have played a role in legitimizing thisauthority: many ritual objects have been found atGreat Zimbabwe, in particular soapstone carvings andmonoliths, some surmounted by birds.

EAST AFRICAN TRADEThe control and exploitation of particular resources or oftrade routes played a role in the development of virtuallyevery state and kingdom in East Africa. The area was rich inresources - in metals such as gold, copper and iron, and inexotic materials such as ivory. Whereas West Africa, with itstreacherous winds and coasts, had to rely on the trans-Saharan trade routes until the end of the 15th century, EastAfrica was connected from an early date to the trade net-works of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean (pages 52-53), andbeyond as far east as Java and China (map 2). At the north-ern end of the coast, traders may have been active from as

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early as the 1st century AD, when it was found that usingthe favourable winds, a good dhow could make a return tripfrom Mombasa to Gambay during one monsoon season.

The main export from the Horn of Africa was slaves,shipped up the Red Sea and to the Arabian Peninsula. Inreturn various manufactured goods were imported, includ-ing arms from the Arab world and ceramics from Arabia,Persia and China. Ceramics were also a major import alongthe length of the East African coast, where Swahili houseswere built with rows of wall niches to display their collec-tions of porcelain. Other imports included textiles, spicesand sugar. Great Zimbabwe grew wealthy from the trading ofcopper, gold and iron ore, and the coastal trading townscontrolled the export of various products - metals, ivory andslaves - from the interior, to which they transported beads.

The trading communities of the East African coastreached their height at the end of the 15th century. In 1497a Portuguese expedition led by Vasco da Gama landed atSofala, beginning a new chapter in the history of East Africa.Initially the Portuguese established forts at Kilwa and Sofalato safeguard their trade routes to India, but the rich coastaltrade here soon became an equal attraction. The nature ofthese coastal settlements, and their relationship with theinterior, would now alter irrevocably.

Trade routes across the Indian Ocean,which had existed at least from the 1stcentury AD, flourished during the periodfrom 500 to 1500. Taking advantage of themonsoon winds in both directions, dhowssailed between the ports of East Africa, theRed Sea, India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asiaand China bearing raw materials, spices andluxury goods - among them Persian andChinese porcelain.

^ In about 1250, stone structures beganto be constructed at Great Zimbabwe,comprising drystone walls formingenclosures, platforms to support huts and amassive enclosure containing a conicaltower. Great Zimbabwe was the capital ofthe rulers of a society that drew its wealthfrom both cattle-keeping and trading withthe coastal states of East Africa. In the mid-15th century the settlement - like Kilwa onthe coast - began to decline.

FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: AFRICA 10,000 BG-AD 500 pages 22-23 83AFRICA 1500-1800 pages 136-37

CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICAAND SOUTH AMERICA 500-1500

Gold - of which this Chimu tumi, orceremonial knife, is made - was prized bymany South American cultures for itssymbolic connection with the sun.

The Yucatan Peninsula and adjacentregions were home to the Maya. In theperiod 500 to 800 large cities, somecontaining as many as 100,000 people,dominated the smaller cities and kingdomsunder divine rulers. Calakmul, insoutheastern Campeche, was by far the mostactive in forging alliances and orchestratingbattles. A persistent antagonism existedbetween Calakmul and the similarly largeand prestigious kingdom of Tikal, with bothapparently organized into state-like entities.

Mesoamerica and the Andes region of South Americawere home to some of the most sophisticated civil-izations in ancient America - including, in the

period from around 500 to 1500, the Later Maya, Toltec,Teuchitlan, Tarascan, Zapotec, Mixtec, Sican and Ghimu.While some consisted of only one ethnic group, others occu-pied an ecologically distinct region, such as areas in the hotlowlands (tierra caliente) or cooler highlands (tierra fria).Most began in a heartland under tight dynastic control butthen spread to more distant areas which were governed onlyindirectly, often through local rulers.

THE CHIMU CULTURETo the west of the Andes the Ghimu, a dynasty from theMoche Valley, gradually came to dominate a thin coastalstrip in Peru between the 10th and 15th centuries (map 1).Iconographic clues suggest substantial continuity with thereligion of the earlier Moche state (pages 34-35), althoughwith a new twist: the capital city of Chan Chan contains tenimmense enclosures thought to have served as mortuarytemples for deceased Ghimu emperors.

In three phases of expansion the Ghimu lords extendedcontrol over and beyond the valleys once controlled by theMoche, with the same tendency of avoiding highland zones.Evidence of Ghimu control in the south is patchy as localpolities were incorporated by the Ghimu without any sub-stantial change to local government. By contrast, areas tothe north may have been subjected to territorial conquest.Around 1350 the Ghimu conquered the Lambayeque Valley,where the Sican culture with its rich burials and prosper-ous, irrigated settlements had succeeded the Moche. ChanGhan wielded heavy control until 1475, when the Ghimuemperor was seized by the Incas (pages 110-11) and takenback to their highland capital of Guzco.

At its height in 1475 the Chimu cultureoccupied a thin coastal strip from nearpresent-day Lima to the Gulf of Guayaquil,in Ecuador. Sketchy historical evidence helpsidentify the the lords of Chimu and of itscapital Chan Chan, who presided over anexpansion that emanated from the MocheValley. By 1200 this dynasty held sway over

five valleys and by 1475, led by EmperorMinchancaman, it had vaulted over theSechura Desert into a region formerlylinked to the Amazonian cultural area.Great canals connecting river valleysfacilitated irrigation agriculture and thegrowth of urban civilization in the heartlandof the Chimu.

THE LATER MAYAIn Mesoamerica the Maya went through great changes in theperiod between 500 and the Spanish conquest in the 16thcentury. Until about 800, kingdoms ruled by "holy lords"and administered by courtiers waged war and createdalliances against a backdrop of a rising population - one thatapproached five million in the central Yucatan Peninsulaalone (map 2}. However, between 800 and 900 the popula-tion plummeted dramatically for a variety of reasons, someof them agricultural and meteorological (such as envir-onmental degradation) and others political, includingintensified conflict between elites.

The so-called "Maya Collapse" was more pronounced inthe centre of the peninsula than elsewhere, partly due to alower birth rate and a higher mortality rate here thanelsewhere, but also because of large-scale movements ofpeople into more peaceful zones. Thus while the reducedpopulation of the central area settled on defended islands inlakes, some Maya groups undoubtedly moved to cities in thenorthwest which had only just overcome a severe watershortage by developing a new means of collecting andstoring rainwater in underground cisterns.

At the time of the collapse, the large city of Ghichen Itzalorded over a confederacy that shaped the northern penin-sula (map 3). In the late 13th century the smaller city ofMayapan took over, its rule lasting until around 1450. Thefinal years before the Spanish conquest saw power disperseinto small kingdoms - a development that made the YucatanPeninsula far more resistant to Spanish incursions thanTenochtitlan, imperial city of the Aztecs in the Valley ofMexico (pages 110-11).

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THE TOLTECSThe emperor of the Aztecs was one of the 15th-centuryrulers in Mesoamerica who claimed descent from theToltecs, a legendary people who had inhabited the semi-mythical paradise city of Tula. There is some historicalevidence to support these legends, Tula having beenidentified with a major ruined city which was at its peakaround the 10th century and was abandoned and destroyedaround 1160 (map 3). Its inhabitants, the Toltecs, includedgroups from the Gulf coast as well as Nahuatl speakersoriginally from the "barbarian" lands to the north.Monumental sculptures and other artwork at Tula show theToltecs as warriors - and practising the Mesoamericanrituals of captive sacrifice and the ballgame.

Major conflict around 980 may have led one group ofToltecs to flee to the Yucatan, where religious and perhapsdynastic elements typical of Tula appeared in Ghichen Itzaat this time. The Toltecs remaining at Tula then came todominate a large area of central Mexico, playing a major rolein trading networks which stretched as far north as thePueblo area of southwestern North America (pages 108-9),the source of highly-prized turquoise. After the collapse ofTula there was probably a major dispersal of its inhabitants,introducing Toltec elements into the Valley of Mexico,Gholula and the Maya area.

THE TEUCHITLAN, TARASCAN, ZAPOTEC AND MIXTECCIVILIZATIONSWestern Mexico (map 4) has often been described as theland of "enduring villages", each with deep-shaft tombs con-taining sculptures of everyday life. However, recent researchhas shown that from 500 to 900 this hilly, dry and remotepart of Mesoamerica contained not only shaft tombs but alsoa distinctive temple type known as the guachimonton: a cir-cular configuration of mounds around a central pyramid,often with a ballcourt extending out as an alley from thecentral group of buildings. The concentration of such fea-tures in the Teuchitlan Valley, together with raised fieldagriculture (chinampas) and fortified control points alongvalleys leading into this area, suggest a unitary state.

By the late pre-Gonquest period a local people, speak-ing an isolated language known as Tarascan, controlled alarge area of western Mexico around Lake Patzcuaro, fromwhere they successfully harried the Aztecs. The Tarascanswere exceptional craftsmen, particularly in their working ofgold and silver. Their emperor, the kasonsi, commissioned

stepped platforms known asyacatas, probably the funerarymonuments of his ancestors. In a dualistic pattern alsocommon in central Mexico the kasonsi shared power with apowerful priest.

To the southeast of the Tarascan kingdom, in the OaxacaValley, were the Mixtecs. They had eclipsed the power of theZapotecs, who around 700 had abandoned their greatClassic centre of Monte Alban in the valley and later movedto a new base at Mitla. Here the Zapotecs constructed a for-tified stronghold with fine palaces and continued to practisesacrificial rites until the arrival of the Spanish.

The Mixtecs, who were originally based in a series ofsmall warring kingdoms in the north and west of the OaxacaValley, expanded their territory by warfare and dynasticmarriages during the Post-Classic period (between 900 andthe Spanish conquest). By 1350 they controlled the OaxacaValley and influenced neighbouring regions as far asGholula. Both the Mixtecs and Zapotecs suffered at thehands of the Aztecs, but neither people was ever completelyconquered; like the Tarascan Empire, both these cultureswould soon be destroyed by powerful European invaders.

After the "Maya Collapse" in the 9thcentury, Chichen Itza flourished beforebeing replaced in the late 13th century bya political hegemony centred on the denselysettled and walled city of Mayapan. Tradingcommunities prospered both along the coast,particularly behind the protection of thebarrier reef on the east coast of the YucatanPeninsula, and in the southwest, home ofthe Putun Maya, who operated a majorPost-Classic maritime network.

From an original homeland somewherein the Sonora Desert in the extremenorthwest of Mexico, Nahuatl-speakingpeoples - among them the ancestors of theToltecs and Aztecs - migrated into centralMexico via western Mexico, an area thatwas subject to substantial populationmovements between 500 and 900.

MESOAMERICA 1200 BG-AD 700 pages 32-33 85SPAIN AND THE AMERICAS 1492-1550 pages 120-21SOUTH AMERICA 1400 BG-AD 1000 pages 34-35

EAST ASIA907-1600

In contrast to the cosmopolitan anexpansionist Tang dynasty, the Song dynastywas introspective and defensive. The threatfrom the north forced the Song to maintaina massive professional army, which by 1040contained over 1,250,000 men. Militaryexpenditure exploded and the production ofarms and armour reached unprecedentedrates. The Song also developed newmethods of warfare: the first survivingformula for gunpowder dates from thisperiod, although it had been inventedunder the Tang.

A painted wooden carving of Buddhafrom Japan's Muromachi period(1335-1573) conveys a vastly differentimage to the traditional Buddhist figures ofthe Indian subcontinent. Arriving in Japanfrom China by the 6th century, Buddhismwas hugely influential, notably in education,but it failed to replace the indigenous

religion of Shinto.

Following the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907 (pages72-73), southern China was broken up into small"kingdoms" ruled over by warlords, while northern

China was controlled by a rapid succession of "dynasties",the Later periods of the Liang, Tang, Jin, Han and Zhou. Thisperiod of disunity, known as the Ten Kingdoms and FiveDynasties, was ended in 960 by the general Zhao Kuangyin,who brought China under the control of the Song dynastyand reigned as Emperor Taizu until 976.

The reunified Chinese Empire (map 1) was rather differ-ent in character from its Tang predecessor. It was muchsmaller: Central Asia had been lost, and the Liao state in thenortheast was controlled by the Khitan people, the Xixiastate in the northwest by the Tangut people. The Khitan andthe Tangut were non-Chinese, and the north presented aconstant military threat to the Song. Initially the Songemperors established the northern city of Kaifeng as theircapital. However, after the loss of much of northern China toJurchen invaders, who created the Jin state, the Song estab-lished a second capital further south in Hangzhou.

CULTURE AND ECONOMY OF THE SONG PERIODThe Song period saw a great revival in Confucianism,regarded as the native Chinese philosophy, at the expense ofBuddhism, which had been imported from India during theTang period. The class of scholar-officials burgeoned as great

emphasis was placed on civil service examination, whichbegan during the Han period and continued under the Tangrulers, as the method of recruiting the governing elite. By theend of the era some 400,000 candidates sat exams each year,sometimes with hundreds of aspirants chasing a single post.Scholarly families fuelled a demand for the many new booksof all sorts that the improvements in printing, such as wood-block printing and the use of moveable type, allowed to beproduced. The Song era also witnessed new artistic forms,notably the rise of landscape painting - and indeed theEmperor Huizong (r. 1100-1126) was blamed for the loss ofthe north because he allowed his interests in art to distracthim from government.

The population of China rose to over 100 million by1100, with a much higher increase in the south than in thenorth. This demographic growth was accompanied by greateconomic growth and an expansion in mercantile activity,notably in waterborne trade, facilitated by the world's firstpaper money. Vast new tracts of land were opened up foragriculture, and the development of an unregulated propertymarket led to the appearance of huge estates. All acrossChina new cities flourished, often starting out as bustlingmarkets but with tea houses and shops soon added to attracttraders and customers. In the 13th century the Italian trav-eller Marco Polo was to describe the later Song capital ofHangzhou as the finest and most splendid city in the world.

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EVENTS IN THE NORTHEASTThe Liao state in the northeast was a union of a number ofKhitan tribes - originally from the margins of theManchurian steppe - brought together by the ruler Abaoji inthe early 10th century. Their state comprised a solidlyKhitan northern part and a southern part divided into 16provinces and occupied mostly by the three million Chineseruled over by the Khitan. From the late 10th century theKhitan repeatedly attacked the Koryo kingdom in Korea,capturing the capital Kaegyong in 1011. There were alsofrequent forays against the Tangut to the west.

By the 12th century a new power had emerged in thenortheast - a confederation of Jurchen tribes from themountains of eastern Manchuria. Following victory over theLiao state in 1125, the Jurchen seized north China twoyears later and established the Jin dynasty (map 2). TheSong dynasty survived in the south until 1279, when thewhole country fell to the Mongols (pages 98-99); they were,in their turn, to be replaced in 1368 by the Ming dynasty.

KOREA AND JAPANOn the Korean Peninsula (map 3) the Koryo kingdom lasteduntil 1392. The later years of the dynasty were marked byrepeated debilitating incursions by northern nomads and,from 1231, a series of invasions by Mongol armies. In 1232the court was forced to flee the capital to Kanghwa Islandand by 1259 the government had accepted Mongol domina-tion. Rebellions and coups took their toll, and in 1388General Yi Song-gye mounted a coup d'etat, ushering in theYi dynasty that was to last from 1392 until 1910 (map 4).

Hanyong, modern Seoul, replaced Kaegyong as thecapital and in October 1446 Hangul, the new Korean script,was promulgated. Employing a phonetic alphabet, which canbe learnt much more quickly than Chinese ideographs, thisscript brought literacy to the peasants and enabled thegradual appearance of a vernacular literature.

In Japan the seat of government shifted from Kyoto toKamakura in 1185 as military overlords, or shoguns, tookpower from the emperor in Kyoto. The Kamakura period(1185-1335) saw the development of the militaristicsamurai culture. In 1274 and 1281 two unsuccessful

expeditions were launched against Japan from Korea by theMongols. Power returned to the imperial capital of Kyoto inthe Ashikaga or Muromachi period (1335-1573), but duringthe Onin Wars, which began in 1467 and continued for overa century, the country was wracked by bloody civil conflict.Christianity arrived in 1543, accompanied by new tools ofwar, including castle architecture and flintlock guns.

The internal fighting was ended by two successive uni-fiers of the country, Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi,whose respective castles give their names to the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1573-1613). After winning control ofmost of Japan in 1590, Hideyoshi failed in his first invasionof Korea in 1592 when his force of 160,000 men - aiming toconquer China after subduing Korea - were thwarted afterthe Korean admiral Yi Sun-Sin famously cut his enemy'snautical supply lines.

Japanese incursions into Korea were met with counter-attacks by combined Ming Chinese and Korean forces, andindeed Hideyoshi died in his second attempt at conqueringKorea in 1597. Power passed to Tokugawa leyasu, who estab-lished the Tokugawa Shogunate (pages 140-41} and closedthe doors of Japan to the outside world.

A In 1161 the Jin dynasty adoptedKaifeng, the old Song seat of governmenton the Huang He, as their capital, while theretreating Song set up a new capital furthersouth at Hangzhou.

The 16th century in Japan is known asthe era of the Warring States, or Sengokuperiod, during which regional warlordsfought each other to win control of thecountry. When it ended, the Japanese rulersset their sights on conquering Korea.

Under the Koryo, pottery manufactureflourished. Cultural achievements includedthe publication of the first Korean histories,

while among technical innovations was theuse of moveable type, leading to the world'sfirst casting of metal type in 1403.

EAST ASIA IN THE TANG PERIOD 618-907 pages 72-73 87CHINA 1368-1800 pages 138-39 TOKUGAWA JAPAN 1603-1867 pages 140-41

THE MUSLIM WORLD1000-1400

During the 10th century the politicalunity of the Muslim world collapsed. TheAbbasid caliphs, previously dominant fromthe Atlantic to India, were replaced by aseries of regional dynasties, and the caliphin Baghdad was reduced to little more thana religious figurehead.

At the beginning of the llth century the Muslim worldstretched from Spain in the west to the borders ofCentral Asia and India (map J). Yet the political and

religious unity provided for most of the Muslim world by theAbbasid Caliphate - with the notable exception of UmayyadSpain - had been lost by the 10th century. The AbbasidEmpire had fragmented and the central lands of Egypt andIraq were occupied by the Fatimids and the Buyids, bothShiite states that rejected the Sunni caliph's religiousauthority. The caliph himself now survived as no more than

Under Malik Shah, the Sejuk-ledwarbands of the Oguz Turks reunited muchof the old Abbasid Empire. His authoritywas based loosely on a combination ofpersonal prestige and the ability, furnishedby his military successes, to distributematerial reward to more or lessautonomous subordinate rulers, eachwith his own warrior following.

The unity fostered by the Seljuks in th11th century was illusory. Reliant oncontinued military expansion to provide therewards coveted by local leaders, it was notsustainable in the long term. Instead, in the12th century the Muslim world fragmentedinto a series of regional authorities - alocalization of power which made possiblegains by the Byzantines, crusaders, nomadsand others at the expense of particularMuslim communities.

a powerless figurehead in Baghdad under the ignominioustutelage of a Buyid sultan. In the far west the UmayyadCaliphate was close to collapse and partition between anumber of successor states - the taifa kingdoms - and theMaghreb (North Africa) was divided between several Berberdynasties. The major power in the east was the Ghaznavids,a Turkish dynasty of former slave soldiers whose only rivalswere the recently converted Turkish Qarakhanids and thestill largely non-Muslim Turkish nomads, especially theOguz, on the steppe to the north. Muslim political weaknesshad already allowed the Byzantines to expand into Syria andArmenia, and it would soon open the way for Christian con-quests in Spain and Sicily.

THE GREAT SELJUK EMPIREIn the west the Muslim retreat was only temporarily haltedby the occupation of Muslim Spain by Berber dynasties fromthe Maghreb - first the Almoravids (1086-1143) and laterthe Almohads (1150-1228). In the central and eastern landsthe situation was transformed first by the conversion of theOguz Turks to Sunni (rather than Shiite) Islam, and then in1038 by the Oguz invasion of Iran, led by the Seljukdynasty. Victory over the Ghaznavids at Dandankan in1040, the conquest of Baghdad from the Buyids in 1055 andthe defeat of the Byzantines at Manzikert in 1071 enabledthe Seljuks to create a loose Sunni empire that stretchedfrom the edge of the steppe to Anatolia and Palestine. Thereligious, if not the political, authority of the Abbasid caliphwas restored, and the next target was Shiite Egypt.

The so-called Great Seljuk Empire (to distinguish it fromthe later Anatolian state of the Seljuks of Rum) reached itszenith under Malik Shah (map 2). His death in 1092 openeda new phase of political instability and fragmentation whichprovided the opportunity in 1098-99 for Latin Christiansfrom western Europe to establish the Crusader States inSyria and Palestine (pages 94-95). The Seljuks continuedto rule in parts of western Iran as late as 1194, but theSeljuk era was over in Syria by 1117, and in most of easternIran by 1156. Only in Anatolia did an independent branchof the Seljuk dynasty flourish into the 13th century.

One beneficiary of Seljuk decline were the Abbasidcaliphs, who enjoyed a new-found political independence insouthern Iraq, but otherwise the central and eastern lands

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of the Muslim world fell to Turkish dynasties. Several ofthese lineages, including the Zengids, the Ildegizids and theSalghurids, had their origins as atabegs, holders ofdelegated Seljuk authority (map 3), but there were twoimportant exceptions - the Ayyubids and the Ghurids.

The Ayyubids were a Kurdish dynasty who began assoldiers serving the Zengids. The most famous Ayyubid,Saladin, overthrew the Fatimid Caliphate in 1171, so restor-ing Sunni authority in Egypt. Having expelled the Zengidsfrom Damascus and Aleppo and retaken Jerusalem from thecrusaders, he established himself as the dominant Muslimleader in the western Near East (pages 94-95).

The Ghurids were an Iranian dynasty from a tribal back-ground in eastern Iran. They came to prominence servingthe Ghaznavids and Seljuks - before, like the Ayyubids,taking over from their former masters as rulers in their ownright. From the 1150s until their disastrous defeat by thenomad Qara Khitai in 1204, the Ghurids were the leadingpower in eastern Iran. Their conquests in India between1192 and 1206, going beyond the earlier Ghaznavid terri-tories based on Lahore, laid the foundation for the TurkishSultanate of Delhi in 1211 and long-lasting Muslim rule inthe subcontinent (map 4).

THE MONGOL INVASIONSThe late 12th century, the age of Saladin and the Ghurids,was a period of calm before a storm which threatened thecomplete destruction of Islam. From 1219 the paganMongols invaded and gradually conquered the area ofmodern-day Iran, Iraq and eastern Anatolia (pages 98-99).Baghdad was sacked in 1258, and the last generally recog-nized Abbasid caliph put to death. In the West, Christianarmies were conquering most of what remained of MuslimSpain - and in 1217-21, and again in 1249-50, they threat-ened to seize Cairo and end Muslim rule in Egypt.

The Muslim world was saved partly by disunity amongthe Mongols. After 1242 the Mongols in the west weredivided between the Golden Horde, the Ilkhanate and theChaghatai Khanate, and they frequently fought one anotheras fiercely as they did their non-Mongol enemies (map 5).Islam as a religion and a culture also proved capable ofconverting some of its conquerors. Although the SpanishChristians proved resistant, both the Golden Horde and theIlkhan Empire had converted to Islam by the early 14thcentury. Muslim survival was also due to fierce resistance -in India from the sultans of Delhi, in Syria and Palestinefrom the Mamluk rulers of Egypt.

THE MAMLUKS OF EGYPTSlave soldiers or mamluks (usually Turks imported

from the steppe) had been a feature of Muslimarmies since the 8th century. The Egyptian

mamluks serving the Ayyubids weremostly Kipchak Turks, brought as

slaves from the Black Sea and

taken to Egypt, where they were converted to Islam andtrained to become a formidable military force. In 1250, afterthe French crusader invasion landed, the leaders of one ofthe main mamluk regiments murdered the last Ayyubidsultan in Egypt and seized power. By the beginning of the14th century the Mamluk regime had permanently haltedthe Mongol advance - and expelled the crusaders from theirlast coveted territories on the Levantine mainland.

ounded in 1211 by Turks fromAfghanistan, the Sultanate of Delhi was themain centre of Muslim domination in India- and the base from which, at leastnationally, it spread across much of thesubcontinent. However, Indian nobles usedstrongpoints to control trading routes as wellas peasant producers. The destruction of thesultanate by the Mongol conqueror Timur-leng in 1398 paved the way for the

decentralization of power into the hands oflocal Hindu and Muslim rulers.

Mongol military power conquered muchof the Muslim world in the 13th century.However, because the Mongols converted toIslam their fragmented empire failed tothreaten Muslim religious and culturaldomination of most of the lands of theformer Abbasid Caliphate.

THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 600-1000 pages 66-67 89THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES 1025-1500 pages 96-97

THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE962-1356

The Holy Roman Emperor claimed to bethe temporal sovereign of westernChristendom, ruling in co-operation with thespiritual sovereign, the Pope. However, theempire never encompassed the whole ofwestern Christendom and had little politicalsubstance in Italy, while relations with thePope were often stormy.

formed the East Francia of the 843 Carolingian partition(pages 74-75) together with Lotharingia (the 843 "middlekingdom" to which Burgundy - the territories from Basel toProvence - was to be added in 1032-34), and Lombardy(map 1). This empire was passed on with relatively minorgeographical alteration thereafter to his son and grandson(Otto II and Otto III) and then to his Salian, Staufen, Welf,Luxembourg and Habsburg successors.

By taking the imperial title, Otto was deliberately pre-senting himself as the successor of Charlemagne - restorerof the Christian empire in the west - in order to enhancehis prestige. Two centuries later, when Frederick Barbarossasucceeded to the same kingship and imperial status, hereaffirmed the continuing tradition by instigatingCharlemagne's canonization and by adding the word "holy"to the name of the empire. A further two centuries later, in1355, Charles IV of Luxembourg secured his imperial

The Swiss Confederation grew from aninitial "peace association" formed by thethree Forest Cantons in 1291. It expandedin the mid-14th century to include the

towns of Luzern, Bern and Zurich in aleague which controlled the trade routefrom the Rhine Valley across the Alps viathe St Gotthard Pass.

coronation in Rome, and then, in 1356, issued the GoldenBull. This came to be viewed as the basic constitutional lawof the empire, defining as it did the right of seven Electorsmeeting at Frankfurt - the archbishops of Mainz, Cologneand Trier, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke ofSaxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg and the King ofBohemia - to designate the emperor-elect, also called "Kingof the Romans". In this form, the Empire continued until itsdissolution in 1806.

THE ITALIAN KINGSHIPWithin the Empire the sense of two component kingshipswas maintained: the primary northern kingship comprisingFranks, Saxons, Swabians, Bavarians and Lotharingians,and the southern secondary kingship of the Lombards. Theemperor-elect, chosen by German princes, travelled southacross the Alps to secure recognition in northern Italy andcoronation by the Pope in Rome, but there was little gov-ernmental substance to his position in Italy. Intermittently,attempts were made to change this situation. Between themid-lOth and mid-11th centuries the Liudolfing and Salianemperors spent lengthy periods south of the Alps. In theyears 1158-77 the Staufen emperor Frederick Barbarossasought to benefit from the gathering pace of economicgrowth and north Italian trade (pages 100-1), but failed towin a decisive victory over the Lombard League of north-ern town communes. His son successfully took over Sicilyand southern Italy in 1194, but his grandson's renewedattempt in 1236-50 to master Lombardy was thwarted bythe alliance of communes and Papacy.

The pattern of northern intervention in Italy survivedthe Staufens' loss of the Sicilian as well as the German king-ship in 1254-68. However, after the expeditions of Henry ofLuxembourg in 1310-13 and Ludwig of Wittelsbach in 1328,imperial jurisdiction south of the Alps was merely theoreti-cal. In practice, government and politics evolved as anautonomous system of local regimes - and the flowering ofboth Italian economic enterprise and Renaissance culturedeveloped independently of the Empire (pages 102-3).

THE NORTHERN EMPIREIn Germany the king's position was stronger than in Italy,yet here too the force of localism was of primaryimportance. Traditions of local lordship and identity werevery powerfully entrenched, pre-dating the Carolingian"unification" of the region under a single kingship, and

90

emperor by the Pope in Rome in 962, his empirehen the East Prankish king, Otto I, was crowned

comprised those lands north of the Alps which hadW


remained the necessary framework of government. It wasimpossible for any single authority to exert control over solarge and diverse an area and even when - in Germany aselsewhere in the 12th and 13th centuries - more bureau-cratic governmental techniques were developed, theybenefited local rulers rather than the emperor. These localrulers might be noble dynasts, communal associations inindividual "free towns", or more varied groupings. Amongthe latter the Swiss cantons, which included both Alpinerural communities and towns, were the most successful inconsolidating a separate existence (map 2).

EASTWARD EXPANSIONBoth the diversity and the extent of German society wereenhanced between the 10th and 14th centuries by large-scale expansion eastwards. In the 10th century the SaxonLiudolfings gained acceptance as kings through theirsuccessful military leadership in warfare against the Slavseast of the Elbe - and above all against the Magyars who,from 900, were raiding along the Danube Valley. The victo-ries of Henry I in the north in 933 and Otto I in the south in955 opened the way to German movement eastwards,in a number of permutations of tribute-taking and land-settling ventures (map 3).

After the llth century, kings and emperors had little todo with such expansion. Instead, local dynasties - such asthe Babenbergs in Austria or the Wettins in Meissen -recruited the necessary human resources of peasant farmersand urban traders and provided the local structure ofmilitary and juridical organization. This movement of east-ward expansion far exceeded even the expanded limits ofthe Empire (Reich), whose princes attended the Reichstagand engaged in the politics of elective kingship. Throughouteast-central Europe, with the active encouragement of localrulers, German communities, equipped with German

customary law, were induced to settle alongside Slav andMagyar populations.

From the mid-12th century some of these local rulerswere connected with crusading impulses (pages 94-95).The Wendish Crusade from 1147 to 1185, waged by Germanprinces and Danish kings, brought forcible Ghristianizationto Holstein, Mecklenburg and Pomerania. A further series ofcrusades developed after 1200 in the east Baltic area ofLivonia, extending into Finland by the 1240s under theimpetus of Swedish conquest. Most notably, from the 1220sthe Teutonic Order (an organization of soldier-monks,founded in Palestine in the 1190s, whose members wererecruited from the Rhineland and other parts of the Empire)acquired independent rule in Prussia and from there wagedthe "Perpetual Crusade" against the pagan Lithuanians.

THE HANSEATIC LEAGUEThe 12th and 13th centuries also saw the creation of anetwork of German maritime enterprise in the Baltic, fromNovgorod to Flanders and England through the North Sea.The timber, furs and grain of Scandinavia, northern Russia,and the southern hinterland of the Baltic were shippedwestwards, with return cargoes of cloth and other manufac-tured commodities. Merchants formed associations (hanses)to protect and enhance their trade and in the 13th centurythis trading network developed into the Hanseatic League(map 3). The League linked the newly founded Germantowns (dominated by the Hanseatic merchants) on thesouthern Baltic coast between Lubeck and Riga, both south-wards to the German hinterland and the newly exploitedlands to the east, and northwards to Scandinavia.Throughout t is area local rulers awarded grants of privi-lege in reti n for profit-sharing arrangements, thuscontributing LJ German economic and cultural expansionwithin Europe.

By the 13th century the movement ofGermans eastwards had advanced the limitof the Empire over a wide band of territoryfrom Austria north to Meissen, Brandenburg,Holstein, Mecklenburg and Pomerania. Inthe 1220s the Teutonic Order contributed tothe defence of Hungary and Poland againsttheir pagan neighbours in Transylvania andPrussia, and in the following decades itestablished control over Prussia and Livonia.From here it waged the "Perpetual Crusade"against the pagan Lithuanians until 1410,when it was defeated at Tannenberg by thePoles and Lithuanians (whose conversion toChristianity was achieved in 1386-87by the less violent method of dynasticmarriage diplomacy).

PRANKISH KINGDOMS 200-900 pages 74-75 EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7 9 1

FRANCE, SPAIN AND ENGLAND900-1300

The more important regional powers inFrance and Burgundy around 1050included Normandy, Flanders, Anjou andToulouse as well as the Capetian kings.

Their authority was no more stable thanhad been that of the Carolingians.

he kings of Aragon were united in1137 with the already powerful counts ofBarcelona, and they used the growingcommercial wealth of the port of Barcelonato extend their control to southern Francethrough the imposition of feudal ties.

The Christian kings in Spainstrengthened their position by organizingopposition to the Muslim rulers in the south.Having held out against the Almohads andAlmoravids, they overran much of theMuslim territory in the 13th century.

Between the 10th and 13th centuries much politicalcontrol in France, Spain, England and other areas ofwestern Europe was devolved to local landowning

aristocracies who built castles and employed armouredknights to assert their power over the peasants. Dependingon circumstances, these local magnates came more or lessunder the control of kings or regional lords. There was nosimple pattern, but underlying changes in the economymeant that the power and influence of kings and regionallords, after declining during the llth century, had generallygrown by around 1300.

THE KINGDOM OF FRANCEDuring the 8th and early 9th centuries the FrenchGarolingian kings (pages 74-75) had been immenselysuccessful in harnessing the aristocracy in a commonenterprise. However, by the end of the 10th century royalpower and the political structure of West Francia wereundergoing a fundamental transformation. One reason forthis was that in about 950 the economy of western Europehad entered a phase of steady growth, marked by risingpopulation, new settlements and an increasing volume ofexchange (pages 100-1). At the same time the Garolingianlands in West Francia had been given away or sold off in anattempt to buy support - and lacking any obvious foreignenemy either to plunder or unite against, the French kingshad soon been reduced to comparative impotence. By 987,when Hugh Capet replaced the last Garolingian king, royalauthority extended little beyond the small royal domain inthe lie de France (map 1).

The extent to which power had devolved varied fromarea to area, and authority by no means remained stable.In the county of Macon, for example, the counts had largelythrown off the authority of the dukes of Burgundy by 980,only to then find their own authority steadily undermined.As a result, by about 1030 the local castle-holders (castel-lans) and great churches were in effect independent, withtheir own courts exercising private justice - "banal lord-ship" - over a large subject population.

THE CONSOLIDATION OF POWERBy the 12th century three factors tended to favour largerand more coherent political units. First, the growing profitsarising from customs, tolls and urban expansion were moreeasily exploited by regional powers than by independentcastellans. As trade across Europe increased, the taxationof its profits at regional level made kings and other greaterlords a dominating social force. Second, the increasing useof written records and accounts gave rise to a new bureau-cracy of clerks, accountants and lawyers whom only thewealthiest could afford to employ, but who in turn allowed a

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much more effective exploitation of resources. Third, thespread of feudal relations enabled kings, on the basis of theirgrowing wealth, to impose greater obligations on theircastle-holding subjects.

SPAIN: THE RISE OF ARAGONAn example of these factors being turned to good effect isthe rise of the House of Aragon. In the late llth and 12thcenturies the counts of Barcelona (from 1137 also kings ofAragon) imposed feudal ties on the aristocracy of Catalonia,and went on to do the same in the kingdom of Burgundy forthe turbulent aristocracy of the county of Provence (map2). Although Count Pere II's defeat and death at the Battle ofMuret in 1213 brought an end to Aragonese power north ofthe Pyrenees, his successors had carved out a substantialMediterranean empire by the end of the century (map 3).

Controlling and directing the reconquest of MuslimSpain was a further lever of power in the hands of ChristianSpanish monarchs. During this period, the Christian king-doms first terrorized the successor states (tai/as) to theonce-powerful Muslim Umayyads (pages 88-89), and thenheld out against the counterattack of the Berber Almoravidsand Almohads before overrunning most of what was left ofMuslim territory in the 13th century.

ENGLAND: A PROCESS OF CENTRALIZATIONDuring the 10th and early llth centuries the Anglo-Saxonkings faced the threat of Viking conquest, and in the processforged a sophisticated and centrally controlled administra-tive machine. A network of shires was created, and royalmints enabled the Crown to enforce a standardized coinageand gain a considerable income through regular remintings.

By 1265 the Capetion kings directly orindirectly ruled large areas of France, andthe extent of English-controlled territoryhad been greatly reduced.

The English crown effectively controlledmost of the British Isles by 1300. Itsadvance into Scotland came to a halt in1314attheBattleofBannockburn.

The Norman Conquest in 1066 paradoxically reinforced theEnglish state, sweeping away aristocratic rivals to the crownand leaving William I and his successors with the mostcentralized and best administered state in western Europe.

As in Spain, royal power in England benefited fromcontrolled expansion and the distribution of any profitsarising from it. Between the llth and 13th centuries theEnglish kings conquered Wales (complete by 1295) andIreland (from 1169), and threatened to do the same toScotland until their defeat at Bannockburn in 1314 (map4). The English kings also extended their territory inFrance. By the time Henry II ascended the throne in 1154he ruled, in addition to England and Normandy (which hehad inherited from his mother), territory in western France(inherited from his Plantagenet father); further territory hadcome with his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine (map 5).

FRANCE: CAPETIAN DOMINANCEIn France, luck and political skill favoured the Capetians.The death of Henry II's son Richard I in 1199 opened theway for the French king, Philip Augustus (1180-1223), todeprive Richard's brother John of French lands, includingNormandy and Anjou, in a series of campaigns between1203 and 1206. Philip's achievements, confirmed by a deci-sive victory in 1214, transformed the political geography ofwestern Europe, with the Capetian kings now dominant(map 5). Paris became the uncontested political and admin-istrative hub of the kingdom, and an intellectual centre forthe whole of Latin Christendom.

PRANKISH KINGDOMS 200-900 pages 74-75 93EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7

THE WORLD OF THE CRUSADERS1095-1291

The backbone of the armies of the FirstCrusade was provided by knights travellingas part of their lords' households. Thecapture of Jerusalem in July 1099 after twoyears' journeying - and a series of unlikelymilitary victories - convinced survivors andcontemporaries that the enterprise had beenblessed by God.

Despite many appeals, the Christianrulers of the Crusader States were unable toattract sufficient military manpower toensure the survival of their territories. Manywestern Europeans did settle in the East, butmost regarded crusading activity as anextended penitential pilgrimage rather thanthe start of a new life as a colonial elite.Those who did settle gradually acclimatizedto an extent that pilgrims and crusadersfresh from the West found disconcerting.

Over the course of 200 years a total of five major andseveral minor crusades set out from ChristianEurope with the declared aim of either recapturing

or protecting the Holy Land (Palestine) from the Muslims.The first was launched at Glermont in central France on27 November 1095 by Pope Urban II. A vast number ofpeople - perhaps about 100,000 - were inspired to take partin a penitential military pilgrimage to recover the HolySepulchre in Jerusalem (map 1). For the Pope the expedi-tion was a response to Byzantine appeals for help in thewake of the Turkish conquest of Anatolia, offering the

opportunity to raise papal prestige through the leadership ofLatin Christendom in such a spiritually beneficial enter-prise. For the participants it was, perhaps above all else, anopportunity to earn salvation, their enthusiasm testifying tothe degree to which Christian teaching had implanted inWestern society a fear of the dreadful fate after death thatawaited people who had not atoned for their sins. However,hopes of land, booty and fame were also important.

THE CRUSADER STATESBy the time the expedition reached Jerusalem there werebarely 14,000 crusaders. They nevertheless managed tocapture the city and, over the next 40 years, establish andexpand the boundaries of four states in the surroundingregion: the kingdom of Jerusalem, the county of Tripoli, theprincipality of Antioch and the county of Edessa (map 2).

Their initial success owed a great deal to the temporarypolitical divisions in the Muslim world. The death of thepowerful Seljuk sultan Malik Shah in 1092 had plunged thesultanate into a complex civil war. Ultimately Malik Shah'sson Berkyaruk prevailed, keeping control of the area ofpresent-day Iraq and Iran, but Ridwan and Dukak, the sonsof his uncle and chief opponent, Tutush (d. 1095), still ruledin Aleppo and Damascus respectively. The brothers wereloath to co-operate with each other, with Kerbogha (theSeljuk governor of Mosul whom Berkyaruk sent to bringhelp against the crusaders), or with the Shiite FatimidCaliphate in Egypt. The Fatimids had ruled most of Syriaand Palestine through the llth century up to the 1070s, andhad themselves recaptured Jerusalem from the Seljuks onlya year before the crusaders entered the city in 1099.

The Second Crusade (1146-48) failed to take Damascus,and after 1154 the situation changed significantly. In thatyear Mosul, Aleppo and Damascus were united under theaggressive leadership of Nur al-Din, who deliberately under-pinned his authority with an ideology of holy war againstthe crusaders. The decline of the Shiite Fatimid Caliphatealso altered the balance of power. The agricultural andcommercial riches of Egypt were potentially the key to dom-ination of the Levant. However, attempts led by KingAmalric of Jerusalem between 1163 and 1169 to conquer orcontrol Egypt merely encouraged Nur al-Din to send one ofhis generals, a Kurd called Saladin, to keep the crusadersout. Saladin successfully fought off the crusaders, beforeputting an end to the Fatimid Caliphate in 1171 (map 3).

After Nur al-Din's death in 1174, Saladin gradually dis-possessed his former master's heirs, and by 1186 they hadbeen forced to recognize his overlordship. Saladin was nowable to wage war with the combined resources of Egypt andSyria, and in July 1187 he inflicted a crushing defeat on thecrusaders at the Battle of Hattin, near the Sea of Galilee.

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The crusaders' hold on the Holy Landwas threatened by the rise of Saladin andthe unification of Egypt and Syria. However,

during the Third Crusade, Richard I ofEngland came close to reversing Saladin's1187 conquest of Jerusalem.

THE THIRD, FOURTH AND FIFTH CRUSADESThe Crusader States were saved from complete extinctionby the arrival of the Third Crusade (1188-92) (map 4)-political divisions among Saladin's Ayyubid heirs and thenthe growing Mongol threat to the world of Islam (pages98-99) prolonged their existence. At the same time Westernenthusiasm for crusading only continued to grow, and infact Latin territories in the eastern Mediterranean reachedtheir greatest extent in the early 13th century.

The Fourth Crusade (1198-1204) was diverted toconquer Constantinople, and its aftermath saw the creationof a series of Latin states on former Byzantine territory(map 5). The Fifth Crusade (1217-21), with contingentsfrom Germany, Italy, Austria, Hungary, England and France,appeared close to success in Egypt before its final defeat in1221. The French king Louis IX invested enormousresources on crusading in the east, but his Egyptian expe-dition of 1249-50 ended in disaster. The powerful Mamlukstate which replaced the Ayyubids after 1250 (pages 88-89)was initially more concerned with the imminent threat fromthe Mongols, but as that receded the Mamluk advanceproved relentless, culminating in 1291 in the fall of Acre,last of the major crusader strongholds in the Near East.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MILITARY ORDERSThe crusading movement between 1095 and 1291 is strikingevidence of the militaristic nature of Western aristocraticculture. It also reflects the importance of European sea

power, especially that of Venice and Genoa, whose shipscarried many of the crusaders to Palestine. During thisperiod European maritime power grew to dominate theMediterranean, creating a base of experience for laterexpansion to the Americas and the East. The failure tomaintain crusader settlement in the Levant reflects thestrength of Muslim opposition, but also the inadequacy ofcrusader manpower and resources. Even at their greatestextent in the 1140s the Crusader States amounted to littlemore than an embattled coastal strip.

One solution was the establishment by 1139 of the mil-itary orders of the Hospital of St John and the KnightsTemplar. Effectively knights living by monastic rule, boththe Hospitallers and the Templars soon acquired extensiveproperties in the West which gave them the financialstrength the settlers lacked. From the 1140s onwards manycrusader lords found it necessary to hand over their moreexposed strongholds to the military orders, who alone hadthe means to maintain and defend them.

Soon after its inception the crusading idea was trans-ferred to other contexts. The war against the Muslims inSpain was now treated as a crusade, as was that against thepagan Slavs, Lithuanians and Baits in the north, where theTeutonic Knights - founded in the Levant in the 1190s -played a major role (pages 90-91). Also treated ascrusades were expeditions to crush heresy, such as theAlbigensian Crusade in southern France (1209-29) andthose against the Hussites in Bohemia (1420-21, 1427,1431), as well as those against political opponents of thePapacy. One such opponent was the Emperor Frederick II,who had actually taken part in a crusade in 1228-29, buthimself became the target of a papal crusade in 1240-50.

Even after 1291 crusading remained deeply rooted inWestern chivalric and popular culture through to theReformation of the 16th century, and resistance to theMuslim Ottomans could still be seen in crusading terms inthe 17th century. The Templars were suppressed in 1312 inthe wake of heresy charges brought by Philip IV of France,but the Hospitallers survived (on Rhodes until 1522, onMalta until 1798), and do so still with their headquarters inRome. In the modern Islamic world the crusading move-ment has come to be seen as evidence of the long andbloody past of Western Christian imperialism.

The Fifth Crusade was an attempt todestroy Muslim power through the conquestof Egypt, whose commercial and agriculturalwealth was the key to long-term control ofthe Near East. Ironically, more was achievedby the excommunicate crusader, EmperorFrederick II, who in 1229 recoveredJerusalem by negotiation.

Captured from the Byzantines by theSeljuk Turks in 1084, Antioch was taken bythe forces of the First Crusade in 1098. Theprincipality it served - one of the fourCrusader States - remained a Christianoutpost for nearly two centuries.

THE MUSLIM WORLD 1000-1400 pages 88-8$ THE DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE AND RISE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRES 1025-1500 pages 96-97 9 5

THE DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE AND RISEOF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRES 1025-1500

After 1025 the Byzantine Empire lackedthe infrastructure and resources to maintainthe boundaries that had been establishedunder Basil II. In the east their defeat in theBattle of Manzikert in 1071 enabled theSeljuk Turks to establish themselves inAnatolia, while the Normans took overByzantine territory in southern Italy.

Following the sack of Constantinople bythe Fourth Crusade in 1204, Byzantine landswere divided up. Territory in Europe cameunder the control of a Frankish emperor,who tried unsuccessfully to convert thepopulace to Catholicism, while the centre ofOrthodox power shifted to Nicaea innorthern Anatolia.

to its Muslim neighbours. Unfortunately for the Byzantines,subsequent emperors could not maintain the impetusachieved under Basil. They became embroiled in the eccle-siastical politics that provoked the "Great Schism" of 1054- a theological split between the Orthodox and Westernchurches that has effectively lasted ever since. The schisminvited hostility from the West at a time when Muslim powerwas regrouping. Norman adventurers took control of whatwas left of Byzantine southern Italy, just as a renewedMuslim offensive by Seljuk Turks culminated in the Battleof Manzikert (1071)-a Byzantine defeat that wiped out theeastern gains of Basil II and established the Muslim state ofIconium (Konya) in the heart of what had once beenChristian Anatolia (map 1).

THE DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIREThe Byzantine Gomnenian dynasty (1081-1185) attemptedto cope with the aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert byrebuilding diplomatic bridges with the Latin West. Arequest by Alexius I Gomnenus for modest Western mili-tary assistance was one of the factors that promoted thecrusading movement (pages 94-95). The crusades tem-porarily transformed the politics of the Near East by takingMuslim pressure away from Constantinople - only to bringthe city under increasing Western or Frankish influence.

In the 12th century Constantinople enjoyed a briefeconomic boom as a major staging post for westernEuropeans on the road to Jerusalem. However, the empire'sfinances were fundamentally weak and the Byzantinescould meet their commitments only by granting commer-cial concessions to their erstwhile dependency, Venice. Asa result the Byzantine economy became increasinglydominated by Venetian merchants in Constantinople - tothe extent that from 1171 onwards Byzantine rulersattempted to cut back Venetian interests. This promotedtension and led ultimately to anti-Venetian riots inConstantinople at a time when the empire was increasinglythreatened in the Balkans and Anatolia. Venice was now anenemy and took its revenge. In 1204 the old blind Venetiandoge, Enrico Dandolo, successfully engineered the diver-sion of the Fourth Crusade away from Jerusalem andtowards Constantinople. The sea walls were breached forthe first time and the city was captured and systematicallylooted over a period of three days. This event was to markthe beginning of the Byzantine Empire's fragmentation.

Between 1204 and 1261 Constantinople was the seat ofa Frankish emperor and Latin patriarch, ruling over subor-dinate Frankish fiefdoms: the kingdom of Thessalonica,duchy of Athens and despotate of Achaia (map 2). Venicedominated the Greek islands and made a particularlylasting mark in and around Naxos (where there was aVenetian duchy until 1566), although it proved impossibleto graft Catholicism and an alien feudalism onto ruralGreek society. Greek rule survived in Western Anatolia,based at Nicaea, and also in Epirus and in Trebizond on theBlack Sea.

It was the Greek Emperor of Nicaea, Michael VIIIPalaeologus, who recaptured Constantinople for Orthodoxyin 1261. The restored Byzantine Empire was, however,beset by the same problems as before: it was economicallyhamstrung, with Venetian and Genoese trading houses incontrol of its international commerce. Furthermore, it washedged in by quarrelling rivals - threatened to the north byBalkan Slavic peoples and in Anatolia by the Turks. By themid-14th century Greece had fallen to the Serbs (map 3),who were countered not by Byzantine forces but byadvancing Muslim power. By 1354 the Ottoman Turks werein Europe. Thereafter the Byzantine polity dwindled into adiplomatic entity based on what was effectively the city-state of Constantinople.

THE RISE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIREThe Ottoman victors were the major Turkish force toemerge from the crisis of the Mongol invasions that devas-tated the Muslim world in the 13th century and eliminatedSeljuk power (pages 98-99). Ottoman rulers claimeddescent from Osman (Uthman), the most prominent of theMuslim "ghazis" who, in the 13th century, established inde-pendent fiefdoms amid the political ruins of what hadformerly been Byzantine and Seljuk Anatolia. Ottomansociety and culture were profoundly Islamic, but with a dis-tinctive ethos derived from Central Asian nomadicantecedents. Politically, the Ottoman world was oppor-tunist and expansionist. Osman's son, Orhan Ghazi, wasable to move his capital as far west as Bursa and marry adaughter of the Byzantine Emperor John VI Cantacuzene.This marriage epitomized the steady increase of Turkishinfluence in medieval Anatolia - a process which led toByzantine culture gradually losing, or abandoning, its longstruggle with Islam in the interior of Asia Minor.

96

hen the Byzantine warrior emperor Basil II died in1025 he left an empire that had doubled in size

during his reign and presented a serious challengeW


The Ottoman capture of Gallipoli in 1354 presaged aserious Ottoman invasion of Europe (map 4). By 1365Adrianople had become the Ottoman capital Edirne.Advances into Serbia, culminating in the Battle of KosovoPolje in 1389, put an end to Serbian expansion. At the sametime the Ottomans consolidated their control of Asia Minor,and an Ottoman navy came into being, plying the waters ofthe Mediterranean, Aegean and Adriatic. Many of its cap-tains were renegade Europeans. The first Ottoman siege ofConstantinople itself was mounted in 1391. It was to bediverted only because of a renewed threat from the Mongolsunder the leadership of Timur-leng (pages 98-99).

THE DEFEAT OF CONSTANTINOPLEIt was now obvious that Byzantine Constantinople wasliving on borrowed time. It continued to function as a centreof scholarship and of an artistic style visible today in theremains of medieval Mistra in the Peloponnese. TheClassical and Post-Classical heritage of Constantinople wasstill impressive, despite the ravages of 1204. However, itslatter-day scholars were slipping away towards RenaissanceItaly, taking their manuscripts with them. Meanwhile, theOttoman Turks were developing their war machine. Sincethe 14th century Ottoman victories had been won with theaid of Balkan and other mercenaries. This recruitment offoreigners was formalized by the use of devshirme troops(recruited from Christian slaves taken into Islamic militarytraining and educated as an elite corps).

Constantinople, as a Christian bastion, continued toreceive the political sympathy of western Europe, althoughthis was bedevilled by a mutual suspicion which the tokenreunion of the Greek and Latin churches in 1439 could notdispel. The Greeks feared papal aggrandisement and theyhad long seen unruly Western mercenaries and ambitiousItalian merchants as more threatening than the OttomanTurks. It was from the East, however, that the final blow wasto fall when, in 1451, the Ottomans, under Mehmet II, laid

siege to Constantinople. Powerfully armed with artillery,some of which was of Western manufacture, the Ottomansbroke through the walls of the city on 29 May 1453 - thelast day of the Roman Empire and the first day of a matureOttoman Empire that would continue to expand until wellinto the 17th century.

In 1361 an Orthodox ruler was restoredin Constantinople in the form of theEmperor of Nicaea, but by the mid-14thcentury the Ottomans had taken control ofnorthwest Anatolia and were makinginroads into Europe. From the northwest theSerbs were also expanding, and the restoredByzantine Empire was powerless to resist.

In their siege of Constantinople in 1453the Ottomans successfully used cannon tobreak down the city's outer walls. They alsogained access to the harbour (the GoldenHorn), despite a Byzantine blockade, by thefeat of dragging their ships out of theBosporus and across a stretch of land. TheOttoman pillage of Constantinople -depicted here in a Romanian wall painting -lasted for three days and nights beforeSultan Mehmet II restored order.

As the Byzantine state declined, theOttomans moved in to fill the resultingpower vacuum, not only overcoming otherMuslim states in Anatolia, but alsoestablishing a stronghold in mainlandEurope and defeating the Serbs inKosovo in 1389. In 1453 they capturedConstantinople and, strengthened by thissuccess, they expanded westwards to controlthe Balkans as far north as Belgrade.

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 527-1025 pages 66-67 97THE OTTOMAN AND SAFAVID EMPIRES 1500-1683 pages 142-43

THE MONGOL EMPIRE1206-1405

The empire created by Chinggis Khanbetween 1206 and his death in 1227stretched from China to Persia (Iran).However, it did not survive as a unitedempire beyond 1260 when it split into anumber of khanates whose rulers went on toconquer further territories - most notablyChina in 1279.

The largest land empire ever created, the MongolEmpire was founded by Temujin, who united theMongolian and Turkish-speaking tribes roughly in the

area known today as Mongolia. In 1206 he was acclaimedruler by a council of tribal leaders and given the title ofChinggis (Genghis) Khan, usually translated loosely as "uni-versal ruler". The following year he embarked on a series ofraids into northern China, which were soon to turn into afull-scale campaign of conquest that was only completed byhis successors over 70 years later (map 1).

Meanwhile, Mongol forces were expanding westwardsalong the steppe as far as the kingdom of the MuslimKhwarazm-shah (pages 88-89). Chinggis Khan decided toredirect the bulk of his army against the Islamic world, andin a campaign lasting from 1219 to 1223 he conquered most

^ The Mongols did not follow up the total This may have been because of the news ofvictories they secured in 1241 at Liegnitz the death of the Great Khan Ogodei, but(in Poland) and Pest (in Hungary), and also perhaps due to a lack of sufficient

soon withdrew to the south Russian steppe. pasture lands in this area.

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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2

After bringing the Turkic nomadicpopulations inhabiting the steppe north ofthe Caspian and Black seas under control,Mongol forces launched a devastatingcampaign in the winter of 1237-38 against

the cities of the Russian principalities. In1240 the Battle of Kozelsk - depicted inthis illustration from a 16th-century Russianchronicle - resulted in the city of Kiev beingrazed to the ground.

of the kingdom of the Khwarazm-shah. Great destruction waswrought on the cities of Bukhara and Samarqand and in thearea south of the Oxus. A rudimentary Mongol administrativeapparatus was set up in Iran, which grew into the bureau-cracy that ruled the country into the 14th century.

There were several reasons for Ghinggis Khan's success inestablishing a widespread tribal empire which long outlivedhim. He built a large army of top-quality soldiers - the tradi-tional horse-archers of the Eurasian steppe, experts in thetactics of concerted mass assault, whom he infused with irondiscipline. An effective military leader himself, he had theforesight and talent to cultivate a cadre of extremely capableand loyal generals. He introduced several changes that laidthe groundwork for a long-term Mongol administration - theadoption of an alphabet for the Mongolian language, the basictenets of a financial system, and a system of law known asthe Yasa. Finally, he propagated an imperialist ideology,premised on the assumption that the Mongols had a heaven-given "mandate" to conquer the world. All those who resistedthis mandate were rebels against the heavenly order andcould be dealt with accordingly.

Ghinggis Khan died in 1227, on campaign in China. liewas followed as Great Khan by his second son, Ogoclei(r. 1229-41), under whose rule the empire continued toexpand. In China the Jin Empire was eliminated in 1234, andwar began with the southern Song. In the Middle East all ofIran and the Caucasus were subjugated in the 1230s, andmost of Anatolia followed in 1243. The most impressive cam-paigns, however, were those in Russia and then easternEurope, where total victories were secured in April 1241 atLiegnitz (Legnica) and Pest (Budapest) (map 2).

THE SUCCESSOR KHANATESIn the aftermath of the death of the fourth Great Khan -Mongke, a grandson of Chinggis Khan - the Mongol Empireeffectively split up into a number of successor states. In Chinaand the Mongolian heartland, Qubilai (Kublai) - a brother ofMongke (d. 1294) - established the Yuan dynasty, and hadconquered all of China by 1279. This conquest was accom-panied by much destruction, particularly in the north, butnot all aspects of Mongol rule were negative. Trade appearsto have flourished and the country was united for the firsttime in centuries. From West Asia there was an influx of cul-tural influences in such areas as medicine, mathematics and

astronomy. Mongol rule lasted in China until a series ofpopular uprisings in the 1360s, from which emerged the firstMing emperor - at which point large numbers of Mongolsleft China for the steppe.

In Central Asia the Khanate of Chaghatai - ChinggisKhan's third son - gradually coalesced under his descen-dants, while further to the west the so-called Golden Horde,ruled by the descendants of Jochi, Ghinggis's fourth son,evolved. Around 1260 there arose in Iran an additionalMongol state known as the Ilkhanate, from the title Ilkhan("subject ruler") by which the rulers were known. This statewas founded by Ilulegu, the brother of Mongke and Qubilai,who conquered Baghdad in 1258 and brought to an end theAbbasid Caliphate which had existed for over 500 years.Hulegu's troops were stopped at Ayn Jalut in northernPalestine in 1260 by the Mamluks of Egypt (pages 88-89),and the border between the two states was stabilized alongthe Euphrates - though the war between them, at timesintense, lasted until 1320. The Ilkhans, along with theirsubjects, converted to Islam around the beginning of the14th century, leading to large-scale patronage of Islamicinstitutions. In Iran, as on the steppe to the north, theMongols appear to have been absorbed by a larger nomadicTurkish population, whose size greatly increased during theperiod of Mongol domination.

In the late 14th century the Turkified and Muslimdescendants of the Mongol tribesmen in Transoxaniagathered around Timur-leng (Tamerlane), who created anempire stretching from Central Asia to western Iran(map 4). The empire did not survive his death in 1405 ashe had failed to set up an efficient administration and madeno serious provision for his succession.

THE LEGACY OF THE MONGOL EMPIRELooking at the history of the Mongol Empire as a whole -and without belittling the destructive effects of theirconquests - one clear beneficial outcome can be seen: forthe first time in history, most of Asia was under one rule,enabling the transfer of merchandise, ideas and other cul-tural elements. This legacy was to continue long after thedemise of the united Mongol state in 1260.

Among the successor states of theMongol Empire, the Khanate of Chaghataiand the Golden Horde had much incommon: in both there were largepermanently settled areas controlled bynomads living on the steppe. The relativelysmall number of Mongols, both elite andcommoners, were gradually absorbed bythe much larger Turkish tribal population,adopting Turkic languages whilemaintaining aspects of Mongol identity andculture. Around the same time theyconverted to Islam, although there werethose who resisted the abandonment oftraditional Mongol shamanism.

Timur-leng's campaigns contributedto the collapse of the Golden Horde inaround 1400. In its place a number ofsmaller hordes arose, which weregradually absorbed by the growingRussian state of Muscovy. The Tatar,Uzbek and Kazakh peoples were toemerge from the nomadic populationscontrolled by the Horde, the last twomoving eastwards around 1500 to theircurrent locations.

SLAVIC STATES 400-1000 pages 70-71 EAST ASIA 907-1600 pages 86-87 CHINA 1368-1800 pages 138-39 RUSSIA 1462-1795 pages 148-49 99

THE ECONOMY OF EUROPE950-1300

During the central part of the MiddleAges, Europe moved decisively away fromlocally self-sufficient, "closed" economies.Trade was no longer limited to transportingrelatively small quantities of high-valueluxury items destined for consumption by arich and privileged elite, but came instead toencompass a wide range of agricultural andmanufactured goods.

Between about 950 and 1300 the European economywas transformed (map 1). The motors of economicgrowth were a growing population, a developing

market structure, increasing regional and subregionalspecialization and growing monetarization, based partly onthe discovery of major new silver mines and partly on thedevelopment of commercial instruments (such as bills ofexchange and letters of credit) that allowed monetary trans-actions to extend beyond the immediate availability of coin.

RURAL AND URBAN GROWTHThe clearest evidence that the European populationincreased comes from the growing number of settlements ofall types throughout the continent. Many mark the openingup of previously uncultivated land for agriculture: place-names and archaeology tell a story of forests cut back,marshes drained and former pasture lands brought underthe plough (map 2). New markets also appeared and oldtowns expanded, with urban growth evidenced by newparishes, larger circuits of walls and new suburbs (map 3).

In France, Germany, Italy and England local secular andecclesiastical lords played decisive roles in the creation ofa hierarchy of new market towns. Founding a market townnot only opened the prospect of a new source of revenue; italso made it possible for the lord either to take payments inkind and sell them on the market for cash, or to demand thepayment of rents and dues in coin, which peasant producerscould now obtain by entering the market themselves.

Markets encouraged specialization at all levels, andurban craftsmen produced a growing volume of goods for

the market, confident that they could obtain food and cloth-ing from the same source. Similarly, farmers aimed less atself-sufficiency and more at the production of cash cropssuch as grain, grapes or wool.

Regions and sub-regions also started to specialize. By thebeginning of the 12th century Flanders had become a clotheconomy, its towns dependent on wool from England, grainand wine from the lie de France and the Rhineland, and onaccess to customers. Indeed the cloth industry had madeFlanders the richest, most densely populated and urbanizedregion of northern Europe. By the 13th century areas of spe-cialist production included the wine trade in Gascony; grainin Sicily, southern Italy and eastern Europe; salt in the Bayof Biscay, the Alps, the west of England, Saxony andLanguedoc; timber and fish in Scandinavia and the Baltic;fur in Russia; iron in Sweden, Westphalia and the Basquecountry; metalworking in the Rhineland; and cheese ineastern England, Holland and southern Poland (map 1).

MEDITERRANEAN COMMERCEItalian merchants reached Flanders as early as the begin-ning of the 12th century, but at this date links betweennorthern Europe and the Mediterranean were still fairlylimited and it is more realistic to think in terms of Europeaneconomies rather than an integrated whole. While thewealth and developing urban culture that characterizedsouthern France, Catalonia and above all northern Italy wasbased partly on the same pattern of population growth andrural development occurring in Europe north of the Alps,the southern economies also benefited from access to theflourishing commercial world of the Mediterranean (map 4).

The documents of the Cairo Geniza, an extraordinaryJewish archive amassed from the llth century onwards,vividly illustrate the growing involvement of Latin mer-chants, especially Italians, in Mediterranean commerce.From the mid-11th century their activities were increas-ingly backed by force, and during the 12th century Muslim,Jewish and Greek shipping and much of their trade were all

More intensive agricultural regimesformed the backbone of economicexpansion in Europe, providing sufficientsurpluses in basic foodstuffs to feed thegrowing number of specialist producers

offering their goods in exchange for thefood produced by the peasantry. Thedevelopment of the Chartres region, withits pattern of forest clearance and thesubjugation of the landscape, is typical.

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but driven from the Mediterranean Sea. When the SpanishMuslim scholar Ibn Jubayr went on a pilgrimage to Meccain 1183-85 he travelled entirely on Genoese ships, apartfrom the small coaster which took him across the Strait ofGibraltar and the boat in which he crossed the Red Sea.

Between the llth and 13th centuries a number ofimportant developments took place in the Mediterraneanregion: Pisa and Genoa took over Corsica and Sardinia in1015; the Normans conquered southern Italy and Sicily(secure by 1070), and Malta in 1091; the Crusader Stateswere established in Syria and Palestine after 1099 (pages94-95); Cyprus was conquered in 1191 by Richard I ofEngland (who then gave the island to Guy of Lusignan,titular King of Jerusalem); a Venetian empire was created inthe Aegean after 1204; and the Balearics, Valencia andMurcia were recaptured from the Muslims by 1243 (map 4).As a result the Latin states had complete control of theMediterranean trunk routes by the mid-13th century.Trading networks were established that would continue toflourish for centuries to come.

Part of what passed along these routes was a trade infoodstuffs, bulk raw materials and textiles. Italian, Frenchand Spanish merchants not only took European goods toNorth Africa, Egypt and the Byzantine world, but alsoplayed an increasingly dominant role in the internal trade ofthese societies. Profits from this involvement broughtenough Islamic gold to Italy to enable Genoa and Florencein 1252, and then Venice in 1284, to strike a regular goldcoinage for the first time in Latin Europe since the 8thcentury. However, the big profits of Mediterranean tradewere to be made in the luxuries for which the West wasoffering a rapidly expanding market - the spices, silksdyestuffs and perfumes of the East - and here the balancewas heavily in favour of Muslim sellers. To buy on theEgyptian markets, Latin merchants needed large supplies ofcoin and bullion.

THE ROLE OF SILVERA crucial development was the opening up from the 1160sof new European silver mines, of which the most importantwere in Germany. Interregional trade in northern Europebrought large quantities of German silver into the hands ofFlemish, French, Rhenish and English merchants who thenpaid silver to southern merchants, mostly Italians, inexchange for goods from the East.

The linchpin of the new trans-Alpine economy was theChampagne fairs, held at Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube, Lagny andProvins, where the powerful counts of Champagne couldguarantee security. These new ties brought a large amountof silver to the south - so large in fact that during the secondhalf of the 12th century the Provins denier (the coinage ofChampagne) became the standard coin for commercial pay-ments in northern and central Italy. They also broughtMediterranean commercial techniques and firms of Italianbankers to the north. With the introduction of transferablebills of exchange, the European economy was no longerlimited by the availability of precious metal. Bankers werewilling to offer enormous credit facilities to reliable clients,so that the rulers of the major European states were nowgiven the means to operate on an entirely new scale.

Expansion in sectors of the Europeaneconomy not geared to food production isstrikingly demonstrated in the phenomenonof urban growth. Towns and cities providedmanufacturinig centres and markets forlong-distance trade, whether interregionalor international. They also serviced theirlocal agricultural economies, providing themarkets and goods that made possible localspecialization and exchange.

The era of the crusades was also one ofgrowing Mediterranean commerce.European traders took some textiles andfoodstuffs east, but above all they carriedsilver coins with which to purchase thevaluable dyes and spices that came fromIndia and the Far East.

PRANKISH KINGDOMS 200-900 pages 74-75 1 0 1EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7

URBAN COMMUNITIES IN WESTERN EUROPE1000-1500

In the 14th century all the towns in thetwo urban clusters that had developed innorthern Italy and northern France andFlanders were to some degree self-governing, although only Venice assertedabsolute freedom from outside authority.

fter the collapse of the Roman Empire at the end ofthe 4th century, towns in Europe had tended toecrease in size, complexity and autonomy, particu-

larly within Latin Christendom. In 1000 Europe's fivelargest towns - Constantinople, Cordoba, Seville, Palermoand Kiev - were outside this area. However, by 1500 thepattern of urban development in Europe had undergonegreat changes: Constantinople was still one of the fivelargest towns, but the other four were now Paris, Milan,Venice and Naples. At this time around 70 per cent of theestimated 80 million inhabitants of Europe lived in thecountryside, with a further 20 per cent in small markettowns. Just three million people lived in the hundred or sotowns of at least 10,000 inhabitants, but they represented asocial, economic, cultural and political force of far greaterimportance than their number might suggest.

During the Middle Ages urban enterprise came to set thepace of social and cultural development in western Europe.By 1300, under the impulses of the new internationaleconomy of trade, finance and industry (pages 100-1), twomain clusters of towns had developed: one in northern Italy,the other in northern France and Flanders, with Londonand Cologne in close proximity (map 1).

THE ITALIAN COMMUNESBetween 1050 and 1150 Italian towns from the Alps as farsouth as Rome were controlled by communal regimes madeup of local men of property and high status. The communesachieved power partly by violent assertion but also by theformation of "peace associations", which had the declaredaim of bringing peace and order to a locality. Once in

charge, the communes directed their energies towardsmastering the immediately surrounding territory (contado)- vital for maintaining food supplies and communications.In the later 12th and 13th centuries their local control wasrepeatedly challenged by the Staufen emperors, rulers of theHoly Roman Empire (pages 90-91).

The communes ultimately emerged victorious, but thestrain of warfare, together with increasing social tensionsgenerated by large-scale immigration from the countryside,frequently fuelled recurrent factional conflicts. This resultedin the subversion of communal government and the seizureof power by partisan cliques under so-called signori, suchas the Visconti in Milan (dukes from 1395) or the Estefamily in Modena and Ferrara (dukes from 1452) (map 2).

TOWNS IN NORTHWEST EUROPEIn northwest Europe the forms of town government varied.Here too, from around 1100, communes were set up by localrevolt, or by local lords granting jurisdictional privilege.Paris and London, however, developed as royal residencesand capitals of kingdoms, while the towns of the LowCountries, although prone to turbulence, remained withinthe framework of territorial principalities. The county ofFlanders was divided into four territorial-jurisdictionalsectors known as the "Four Members", three of which weredominated by the towns of Ghent, Bruges and Ypres. Muchof the business of government was transacted not by thecount's officials, but in the regular meetings of representa-tives of the Four Members.

By the 1460s, 36 per cent of the population of Flanderswere town dwellers, half of them resident in the three big

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A

ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2

From the early 14th century only a fewcommunes in Italy escaped princely control- notably Venice, intermittently Genoa andLucca, and Florence before the Medici coup

of 1434. Much of their internal organiz-ation was grounded in occupational guildswhich exercised protectionist control oflocal vested interests.

towns, half in the 49 smaller towns (map 3). This demo-graphic pattern was even more pronounced in Holland,where 45 per cent lived in towns but no single townexceeded 16,000 inhabitants.

THE GROWTH OF URBAN AUTONOMY IN GERMANYBy the 15th century urban development in Germany -although gathering force later than in some other regions -had produced some 35 communities with over 2,000 inhab-itants and around 3,000 with some sort of recognized townstatus. About 50 of these were free cities under no princelyjurisdiction. Unlike the Italian communes, some of whichcontrolled whole regions, the German communities weremore tightly focused on their urban centres; even Metz, oneof the largest, held jurisdiction over only 250 surroundingvillages. Also unlike their Italian counterparts, they rarelyengaged in warfare. Even after trade guilds had occasionallyasserted themselves forcefully in the 14th and 15th cen-turies, the towns remained under the control of a smallnumber of noble families - 42 in Nuremberg, for example,and 76 in Frankfurt in around 1500.

By this date the German towns were enjoying a goldenage of economic growth and cultural vitality - a vitality thathad been a feature of European urban society since the 12thcentury. Among its achievements had been the Gothicarchitectural style of church building; secular buildings ofequivalent scale, such as the town halls of Florence andBruges; the spread of printing presses from the Rhinelandto over 200 towns throughout Latin Christendom between1450 and 1500; the "civic humanism" of post-communalItaly; and the "scholastic humanism" fostered by thefoundation of some 80 universities - five by 1200, a further14 by 1300, 26 in the 14th century, and 35 in the 15thcentury (pages 134-35).

THE EARLY RENAISSANCEThe great town halls of communal Italy were built mainlybetween 1260 and 1330 - around the lifetime of the civic-minded vernacular poet Dante (1265-1321), and of hisfellow Florentine, Giotto (1266-1337), whose painting cameto be seen as marking the beginning of a new sense of spaceand form. Over the following century Florence continued toloom especially large in the visual arts, with architectureand sculpture as well as painting coming to express a"classical" ideal inspired by the Graeco-Roman past.Florence also produced writers such as Boccaccio(1313-75), whose vernacular poems and prose rapidlyinfluenced French and English writing, and Petrarch(1304-74), whose humanist Latin writings became forma-tive in the education of the elite throughout LatinChristendom in the course of the 15th century.

The transmission of style, however, was not all one way.The "new art" of the painters and musicians of the towns ofthe Low Countries was much in demand in 15th-centuryItaly, and in 1500 artists and writers were, literally, citizensof a world of Renaissance culture. The career of the artistDiirer (1471-1528) moved between his native Nuremberg,Venice and Antwerp, while the humanist writer Erasmus(1469-1536) travelled constantly between Gouda, Deventer,Paris, London, Bologna, Rome, Leuven, Freiburg and Basel.Their achievement, in their own lifetimes, of Europe-widefame beyond the span of their personal travels was itself anearly product of the general spread of three urban inven-tions: the woodcut, the engraving and the printed book.

By 1500 some 34 per cent of thepopulation of the Low Countries lived intowns - an urban density equalled only inparts of northern Italy. Despite theprotection of local interests by the

occupational guilds, there was consider-able economic and cultural exchangebetween towns - so much so that Antwerphad become the leading commercial andcultural centre of western Europe.

THE ECONOMY OF EUROPE 950-1300 pages 100-1 EUROPEAN URBANIZATION 1500-1800 pages 132-33 1 0 3

CRISIS IN EUROPE AND ASIA1330-52

The merchants'"Silk Roads", whichdoubled as military routes for invaders andmercenaries, and linked up with theseaways of the Indian Ocean and the Blackand Mediterranean seas, were alsohighways for infection with the plague.Medieval international travel was slow andcompanionable: wayfarers carried hugequantities of supplies; they utilized ports,campsites, caravanserais and storehousesthat were infested with black rats whosefleas carried the plague. They also dealtextensively in the bales of cloth which sooften harboured fleaborne infection.

Part of the response of western Europeanculture to the plague was to personify deathvia various visual media. The danse macabreentered court entertainment, and artists andsculptors experimented with the grislythemes of the cadaver and the skull. This15th-century fresco from the Italian School,entitled The Triumph of Death, is a directdescendant of the genre spawned by theterrifying disease a century earlier.

In the 14th century the "Old World" may have lostbetween a quarter and half of its population as a result ofpandemic plague. The infective agent or plague bacillus

was, and is, endemic to the ecology of certain remote areasof Asia. At times environmental factors or simple mutationcan promote a dramatic rise in the numbers of the rodentfleas which are the plague's usual carriers. Facilities fortransport and travel can then promote widespread person-to-person infection and turn an isolated outbreak of bubonicplague into an epidemic and ultimately a pandemic -without the intervention of rat or flea.

The "Black Death" of the 14th-century was not the firstvisitation of plague to the Middle East or to Europe. TheByzantine historian Procopius gave a chillingly preciseaccount of the symptoms and progress of the disease as itstruck the Persian and Byzantine empires in the 540s. Thisplague reached Britain in 546 and Ireland in 552, and itsaftershocks extended late into the 7th century.

THE BLACK DEATH INVADES EUROPEThe medieval pandemics of the 6th and 14th centuries werethe unpredicted side-effects of expanding horizons andincreasing contact between East and West (map 1). Thesecond scourge of the plague reached East Asia in the early1330s and West Asia less than a decade later.

This time it may well have hit an already debilitatedpopulation. A run of rainy years and poor harvests in muchof mid-1340s Europe had lowered resistance and led to thewidespread consumption of suspect food supplies. Typicallythe plague was at its most virulent in congested urban areas,and dedicated professionals such as doctors and priests suf-fered disproportionately. Yet there were always survivors -as many as a quarter of sufferers may have lived through anattack of plague to become invested with an awe-inspiringimmunity - and there were regions, even towns, that wentlargely unscathed (map 2).

While much plague history is anecdotal and local, suchdetails can be just as telling as the massive mortality esti-mates. Pestilence halted work on the cathedral of Siena inItaly, and the building is still truncated today. The popula-tion of the Oxfordshire village of Tusmore in England waswiped out in 1348 and never restored. There were dramaticlocal responses to stress, such as episodes of penitentialflagellation and vicious outbursts of scapegoating as vulner-able groups in society, notably the Jews, were targeted as

104


the bringers of death. Such incidents were not, of course,unknown outside the plague years.

EFFECTS OF THE BLACK DEATHThe questions whether or to what extent the 14th centurypandemic changed the course of world history can only bethe subject of conjecture. In China, which suffered the firstand perhaps the most serious wave of devastation, demo-graphic collapse may have fostered the consensus that theruling Mongol or Yuan dynasty had lost the "mandate ofheaven". The Yuan were ousted in 1368 in favour of anindigenous Chinese dynasty, the Ming. In the West, the lossof manpower to pestilence may have left a decliningConstantinople too weak to prevent Ottoman incursionsinto Europe: from 1354 there were Ottoman victories in theBalkans which reached a peak at Kosovo (1389) and esta-blished a lasting Muslim government in the midst ofOrthodox Christendom. West Asia certainly saw a dramaticreduction in the population of its big Islamic cities and areversion to nomadism outside them. Perhaps the effects ofthe plague facilitated a last Mongol invasion by the armies ofTimur-leng (1369-1405), who briefly redrew the politicalmap from Afghanistan to the Mediterranean (pages 98-99}.

However, no western European states or societies col-lapsed in the wake of the plague. Great cities like Veniceexperienced short-lived administrative dislocation and thenrecovered. Social tensions were exacerbated as survivingcraftsmen, labourers and servants now had the advantageof scarcity and might resist the demands of lords, mastersor officialdom. There was an increase in the Mediterraneanslave trade as one solution to the labour shortage.

There was also a demographic shift. Thousands of set-tlements in agricultural western Europe were abandoned inthe two centuries that followed the population peak of theearly 14th century. Very few of these "lost villages" werespecifically eliminated by the plague or its accompanyingpanic, but in the aftermath of the plague, survivors from thefens and moorlands of the agricultural margins could move(with the encouragement of landowners who needed theirlabour) into the best of the farming land.

The "time of pestilence" was also a time of resilience.Survivors dutifully buried their dead and coped with thepaperwork of mortality, probate and the ricochetingfinances of societies which had lost, on average, a third oftheir taxpayers. The 14th century had none of the universalexpectation of population growth and longevity which char-acterizes the modern era. Life expectancy was less than halfthat of today and even those who survived the plague yearshad a very limited chance of reaching 70. Eyewitnessaccounts of the plague years describe a society whosepreachers used memento mori ("remember you must die")as a watchword and regularly portrayed earthly existenceas a vale of tears. The plague, which served to underline thisconcept, was easily incorporated into Christian theologicaldebate; it is also likely to have reinforced Islamic fatalismand possibly the cyclical view of history and society set outin the writings of the philosopher Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406).

Meanwhile, mainstream Western culture took refuge inthe incorporation of mortality into art and personified deathas a figure in popular stories and morality plays. Moderncommunicators still draw on this plague-time imagery ofmortality to convey an apocalyptic warning.

The plague reached East Asia in the mid-1330s and West Asia a decade later. TheCrimean port of Kaffa was an importantflashpoint for the transmission of the plagueto Anatolia, the Levant and Europe. Kaffawas a Genoese trading base which in 1347was under attack from the Kipchak Turks, inwhose ranks the plague was raging. Kaffa'spolicy of "business as usual" in a corpse-strewn environment resulted in the flight ofits business partners and they took theinfection with them: a fleet of Genoesegalleys from Kaffa carried the plague toMessina in Sicily and then, by January1348, to Genoa itself. Genoa's commercialrivals Pisa and Venice succumbed shortlyafterwards, and the pestilence went on todevastate most of Europe until it hadreached Scandinavia via the Hanseaticseaways by 1350.

THE ECONOMY OF EUROPE 950-1300 pages 100-1 1 0 5EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7

EUROPE1350-1500

he period 1350-1500 was one of major transition inthe history of Europe. Constant warfare reshaped theboundaries of kingdoms and other political entities

(map J), while the loss of over a third of the population asa result of the Black Death of 1347-52 (pages 104-5)generated economic, social and political change. It was alsoa period of crisis in the Church, as papal schism let loosechallenges to the old order of Latin Christendom.

i In the wake of the Black Death therewas an outbreak of popular revolts acrossEurope. The sudden, dramatic fall in thepopulation resulted in the contraction of thelabour force and a rise in wages. However,while living standards improved, there wasan increase in the incidence of warfare -leading to higher taxation and social unrest.

In 1328 Philip of Valois was able toassume the French crown by right of descentthrough the male line, but he waschallenged by Edward III of England,descended more directly from the lastCapetians through his mother. In 1337Philip confiscated the Plantagenet lordshipsin France (Gascony and Ponthieu); Edward'sresponse in 1340 was to adopt the title of"King of France". The resulting war, anintermittent series of conflicts, was as mucha French civil war as an Anglo-Frenchcontest. By 1453 the English had beenexpelled from all of France except Calais,and the Valois were in the process ofachieving effective authority in France.

WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPEFrom 1337 much of western Europe became the arena for astruggle between the the Valois princes and the Plantagenetkings of England for the succession to the Capetian kingshipof France. The resulting Hundred Years War (map 2) gaverise to a network of alliances linking the Valois to Scotlandand Castile, the Plantagenets to Portugal, and both at dif-ferent times to the Wittelsbach and Luxembourg dynastiesof the Holy Roman Empire. Such links helped to sustainScotland's independence from England. They also stimu-lated the emergence of a more powerful Burgundy whichbrought together the territorial principalities of the LowCountries - first, in the 1360s, as a Valois satellite, then asa Plantagenet ally (1419-35 and 1468-77), and finally as aHabsburg inheritance.

The Hundred Years War network of alliances figuredsignificantly in the warfare in the Iberian Peninsula whichresulted in the establishment of the Trastamara dynasty inCastile in 1369 and the Aviz dynasty in Portugal in 1385. Acentury later, between 1474 and 1479, two autonomousmonarchies emerged whose expansionist ambitions foundexpression, in the case of Portugal, in maritime expeditionsalong the coast of Africa, and, in the case of Castile andAragon, in the conquest of Muslim Granada (1480-92).

Italy developed as an essentially self-contained politicalcomplex, with Milan, Venice and Florence expanding intoregional territorial states by the mid-15th century. In thesouth, the Trastamaran Alfonso V of Aragon added thekingdom of Naples to his existing possession of Sicily in1442, after conflict with a Valois claimant. This was followedhalf a century later by a renewed Valois-Trastamara strugglein the post-1494 wars which turned Italy into the battle-ground of Europe (pages 146-47). In the meantime, Naplesalong with Milan, Venice, Florence and the Papacy soughtintermittently after 1455 to function as a league to secure"the concert of Italy" from outside intervention.

Germany and the Holy Roman Empire (pages 90-91),which were far less affected by large-scale warfare thanother areas, came to function as a network of princely andurban local regimes, with relatively few moments of wide-spread disruption after the 1340s. The institution of electivekingship proved largely cohesive and peaceful, and theimperial title passed in virtually hereditary succession fromthe House of Luxembourg to the Habsburgs in 1438.

EASTERN AND NORTHERN EUROPEIn east central Europe the position of the Luxembourgs andHabsburgs as rulers of Bohemia (from 1310) and Hungary(from 1387) was intermittently challenged by the rise of theLithuanian Jagiellon dynasty. To their rule of the Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth the Jagiellon dynasty added thekingship of Bohemia (1471-1526) and Hungary (1440-44and 1490-1526). In the Baltic, attempts to unite the threekingships of Denmark, Norway and Sweden were brieflysuccessful with the creation in 1397 of the Union of Kalmar.Nonetheless, from 1448 the Oldenburg dynasty maintainedits control in Denmark and most of the western Norse worldfrom Norway to Iceland. Flanking Latin Christendom, theMuslim Ottoman Empire (pages 96-97) and the OrthodoxChristian Russian Empire (pages 148-49) emerged.

RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTSIn 1309 the French Pope Clement V had taken up residencein Avignon. The monarchical style of the Papacy hadreached its peak when in 1378, shortly after its return toRome, a disputed papal election caused the Church to splitand two rival popes - based in Avignon and Rome - tooperate simultaneously (map 3). This remained the situa-tion until 1417, when the General Council at Constance(1414-18) secured the election of Pope Martin V.

At the same time parts of Europe were marked bydissent from established theological doctrine and by anti-clerical criticism. In England the Lollards, influenced byJohn Wycliffe, made no effective headway. However, inBohemia the Hussite movement, launched by John Hus,

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developed into a revolutionary challenge to the establishedorder. In 1415 IIus was burned at the stake for heresy, anevent that provoked the Hussite Wars against the HolyRoman Emperor. The Hussites achieved dramatic militaryvictories in the 1420s, but their theological and politicalimpact was contained after peace was agreed in 1434-36.

A great challenge to the Papacy came from the Gonciliarmovement. This developed into a constitutional strugglebetween reformist clergy seeking to use the church coun-cils (such as that at Constance) to reduce the authority ofthe Pope, and the bid by the Papacy to reassert the pre-1378order of church government. The Gonciliarists eventuallyhad to acknowledge defeat in 1449, the preference of layrulers for a monarchical papal ideology proving decisive.

THE EFFECTS OF THE BLACK DEATHThe dramatic fall in population during the Black Death ledto severe disruption of agricultural and industrial produc-tion and trade (map 4). It also led to smaller and moreprofessional armies, although there was an increase in theincidence of warfare, which in turn induced social tensionand revolts (among them the Jacquerie Revolt in northernFrance in 1358, the Peasants' Revolt in England in 1381,and a wave of urban revolts in northwest Europe, the Balticregion and Italy around 1375-85). The levy of war taxation,often the trigger of such unrest, was of fundamental impor-tance in the development of representative institutions,which in the form of parliaments or "Estates" became thevehicle for a heightened sense of the political communitythroughout Europe.

The initial cause of the Great Schism wasa disputed papal election in 1378. It lastedfor almost 40 years (1378-1417) becauselay political groups exploited the situation,rapidly aligning themselves behind the rivalclaimants to papal office. Thus Valois Franceand its allies in Scotland and Castilerecognized the Pope resident (from 1379)in Avignon, while England and Portugal aswell as most parts of the Holy RomanEmpire and northern and eastern Europerecognized the Pope resident in Rome.

Between about 1370 and 1500 the ruralworld was marked by depressed grainprices, partly offset by increasingdiversification from arable into pasturefarming and horticulture. With thecontraction of the labour force, wages roseand sustained the demand for a wide rangeof manufactured and other commodities,both staples and luxuries. The result was amore buoyant economy in the towns andthe fostering of technological innovation in,for example, silk weaving, printing andmetallurgical processes.

FRANCE, SPAIN AND ENGLAND 900-1300 pages 92-93 ECONOMY OF EUROPE 950-1300 pages 100-1 EUROPEAN STATES 1500-1600 pages 146-47 1 0 7

CULTURES IN NORTH AMERICA500-1500

Among the pueblos built in the southwestwere a group in Chaco Canyon. These mayhave housed members of the elite, or beencraft and redistribution centres, orcommunal religious centres occupied only onceremonial occasions. Chaco Canyon wasconnected to towns and villages severalhundred kilometres away by a network ofwide, straight roads (used only by travellerson foot, as there were neither wheeledvehicles nor pack animals). Trade was welldeveloped, linking the early pueblo peopleswith the north, the Pacific coast andMesoamerica, from where they obtainedcopper bells and live scarlet macaws prizedfor their feathers. In exchange theyprovided the Mexicans with turquoise minedin the region immediately to the south ofthe Sangre de Cristo Mountains.

'orth America in the 6th century was home to manydifferent cultural traditions. Farming communities,growing native or introduced crops, were established

in some parts of the south. Elsewhere, richly diverse ways oflife were based on natural resources.

THE SOUTHWESTBetween 200 and 900 settled communities developed in theAmerican southwest (map 1), growing crops (especiallymaize, squash and beans) introduced from Mesoamerica.These communities also began to make pottery to supple-ment their traditional basket containers. Semi-subterraneanhouses were constructed. Plazas, mounds and ballcourtsreminiscent of those of Mesoamerica appeared in theHohokam area by 600, at settlements such as Snaketown;these public spaces were probably the focus of ceremonialand ritual activities. Smaller villages clustered around themain centres, which are thought to have been the homes ofchiefs controlling the networks of irrigation canals that madetwo annual crops possible in this arid region.

Irrigation was also vitally important to the Anasazi andMogollon peoples in the similarly arid areas to the north andeast of Hohokam. Around 700 in the Anasazi area and 1000among the Mogollon, villages of semi-subterranean housesgave way to villages built above ground but containing a

subterranean ceremonial structure (kiva). These developedinto larger and more elaborate complexes of adjoiningrooms, called pueblos by the Spanish in the 16th century.Among the best known is Pueblo Bonito (map 2). Here amassive plaza containing two large kivas was surrounded bya semi-circular, five-storey, tiered complex of some 200rooms and smaller kivas, housing up to 1,200 people.

Further north the pueblos of the Mesa Verde region haddeveloped along different architectural lines. At first situatedon plateaus, by 1150 most were constructed on natural orartificial platforms on the face of canyon cliffs, such as CliffPalace. These cliff-side villages, many dominated by watch-towers, were probably designed for defence and reflectdeteriorating environmental conditions at the time.

A major shift in trade patterns took place around the14th century, when it appears that the Mogollon village ofGasas Grandes was taken over by Mexican pochtecas(merchants). It grew into a town and became a trade andcraft production centre, surrounded by a network of roadsand forts, directly controlling the turquoise sources. Mexicanarchitecture now appeared and sophisticated irrigationsystems were constructed.

In other areas favourable climatic and environmentalconditions had promoted the spread of farming into marginalregions in preceding centuries, but by the later 13th centuryconditions were deteriorating. There was widespreaddrought and many sites were abandoned, their inhabitantsmoving into more fertile areas, particularly along the banksof rivers. In the 1450s Apache and Navajo hunters began tomake raids on the fringes of the area, and in 1528 a Spanishexpedition signalled future domination by Europeans.

THE SOUTHEASTBy about 400 the extensive exchange networks of theHopewell people (pages 24-25) were in decline and funer-ary moundbuilding was going out of fashion in all but thesouthern regions of the southeast. However, by 800 the intro-duction of maize, later supplemented by beans, allowed anincreased reliance on agriculture, but concentrated settle-ment on the easily cultivated river floodplains (map 3). Asbefore, communities were linked by a long-distance tradenetwork. Many were autonomous small chiefdoms but insome areas a hierarchy developed, with subordinate chief-doms answerable to a centralized authority operating froma major centre. The largest town in this emerging mosaic ofMississippian chiefdoms was Gahokia, a powerful and pros-perous centre c. 1050-1250, which housed perhaps 30,000people in dwellings clustered around the palisaded centrewith its plaza and huge mounds.

OTHER NATIVE AMERICANSFrom 800, horticulture based on beans, squash and maizespread through the mid- and northeast (map 4). Althoughhunting continued to be important, the increased reliance onagriculture encouraged settlement in semi-permanent villages.By the time the Europeans arrived in North America in the16th century, the northeast was a patchwork of nationssettled in small territories, constantly at war but also tradingwith one another. Later some settled their differences, unitinginto the Iroquois Confederacy which became involved in thewars between rival European powers in the region.

The Great Plains had been home for thousands of yearsto small groups of buffalo (bison) hunters and small-scalehorticulturalists. The introduction of the bow and arrow mayhave increased hunting efficiency and, possibly for thisreason, several peoples moved onto the Great Plains fromthe surrounding areas. After about 900, colonists from theMississippian cultures brought maize cultivation to theMissouri region of the Great Plains. The stockades and moatssurrounding their settlements, along with evidence ofmassacres and scalpings, indicate that these groups wereconstantly at war.

Further west, in the Great Basin, hunter-gatherer groupscontinued their long-standing nomadic way of life (map 5)until it was destroyed by white settlers. Under influence from

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Mississippian towns were the ceremonialcentres for their surrounding communities,participating at this time in the religioustradition known as the "Southern Cult".Symbolic artefacts characteristic of this cult- such as copper pendants, seashells andfigurines bearing distinctive designs(including snakes, hands and weeping faces)- were found at centres throughout theMississippian cult area. Mounds in the heartof these centres were crowned by templesand sometimes the houses of the elite.

the Anasazi of the southwest, the Fremont - a number ofculturally-related groups who practised horticulture andmade distinctive figurines and other artefacts - flourishedfrom around 500 until the late 13th century, when they werewiped out by droughts. Around 1450 Apache and Navajofrom the far northwest reached the area and, after contactwith the Spanish, took up horse-breeding and hunting on thewestern Great Plains.

The Pacific coast, with its wealth of game, wild plants andfish, enabled communities to live in villages all year round.The general abundance, coupled with periodic shortages, ledto a stratified society: chiefs gained prestige by providing

lavish feasts and gift-giving displays, which might involve thedeliberate destruction of valued objects (the "potlatchsystem"). Shells were used by some groups as a medium ofexchange, and slave-raiding was also widespread. Expertwoodcarvers, these coastal groups fashioned totem poles andextravagantly decorated houses and artefacts. A detailedinsight into their life comes from Ozette, a village partlycovered by a mudslide around 1550 (and thus preserved forposterity): here wooden houses and beautifully madewooden tools, nets and other objects were found, including adecorated wooden replica of a whale's fin.

In the far north, Inuit communities spread northwardsand eastwards through the Arctic. This was made possibleby a number of innovations that improved adaptation tolife in extreme cold: igloos, snowshoes, snow goggles, dogsledges, kayaks and the larger umiaks, as well as harpoonscapable of killing sea mammals as large as whales. During thewarmer temperatures of the period from around 900 to1300, the Inuit colonized Greenland, where they came intocontact and sometimes conflict with the Vikings, who estab-lished a toehold there and on Newfoundland between 982and 1400 (pages 78-79).

adopted by the Plains peoples, these animalsrevolutionized hunting techniques, enablingefficient slaughter of buffalo and easy long-distance movement. Many peoples soonabandoned agriculture in favour of a wayof life based on horseback hunting.

Outside the southwest and southeastmany different cultures flourished,depending to a varied extent on hunting,fishing, gathering and agriculture. Thearrival of the Spanish in the 16th centurybrought horses to North America; rapidly

FROM HUNTING TO FARMISG: THE AMERICAS 12,000-100BC pages 24-25 SPAIN ADN THE AMERICAS 1492-1550 pages 120-21

THE INCA AND AZTEC EMPIRES1400-1540

Also known as Tahuantinsuyu ("theland of the four quarters"), the IncaEmpire extended from modern Ecuador tosouthern Chile. The rulers established theirauthority over the peoples they conqueredby relocating large numbers, eithersending them to work temporarily atnearby way-stations, or moving thempermanently to more distant provinces.They also ensured that provincial heirs topower were educated in Cuzco andbrought provincial cult objects to thecapital. In the provinces sacred mountainssuch as Cerro El Plomo in Chile became thesites of state-dedicated child sacrifices, andoracular centres and ancient ruined citieswere appropriated for Inca ceremonies.

The Inca ruler was believed to bedescended from the Sun God, one of anumber of deities to whom offerings weremade - as visualized in the painting on thiswooden cup. Decorated with inlaid pigments,it represents the trophy head of an Anti, anuncivilized enemy from the Antisuyu tropicalforest "quarter" of the empire. Made byInca descendants in the colonial period andinfluenced by European art, it juxtaposespre-Hispanic characters and activities withthe abstract motifs (tokapu) of traditionalInca art.

The Inca capital of Cuzco was literallythe focal point of the empire. Four avenuesemanating from the centre of the city werelinked to the empire's road system and ledto the symbolic four "quarters" of theempire. Two of these avenues also dividedthe city into ritually complementarynorthwest and southeast halves, Hanan andHurin. The stone walls of Cuzco later servedas the bases for Spanish colonial buildings.

he short-lived Inca Empire in the Andes and AztecEmpire in Mesoamerica were the last to dominate thetwo principal areas of urbanized culture which had

developed over a period of 3,000 years before the arrival ofthe Spanish. Both mobilized labour for state projects andextracted valued materials and objects from their subjects,but while the Aztecs undertook most of their building andmanufacturing projects in the imperial core - particularlyin their capital city, Tenochtitlan, under present-day MexicoCity - the Incas had broader control over their subjects anddirected projects in distant territories. In Tenochtitlan theAztecs created a remarkable assembly of large, finely carvedstone sculptures in a mere 70-year period before the fall oftheir empire to the Spanish in 1521, but little can now beseen of these. In comparison, distinctive Inca architecture,ceramics and other remains have been found throughouttheir empire, the largest in pre-Spanish America.

THE INCA EMPIREUnlike the inhabitants of Mesoamerica, who recordedhistory in manuscripts with hieroglyphic dates and picto-graphic representations of rulers and their activities, theancient Andeans used knotted strings (quipus) for record-keeping. The reconstruction of the history of the IncaEmpire is therefore problematic. Inca conquests of localneighbours around the capital of Guzco probably date fromthe 14th century (pages 84-85), and the period of greatestexpansion began around 1440 under Pachacuti, who rebuiltthe imperial capital, and his successor Tupac Yupanqui. Atits height the empire covered a 4,200-kilometre (2,600-mile) strip along western South America, encompassingcoastal and highland valleys from Quito in modern Ecuadorto southern Chile (map 1).

The Incas were great builders, and the extent of theirempire is still visible in an advanced road system of high-land and lowland routes along which armies and caravansof llamas moved. At intervals there were settlements or way-stations built of distinctive Inca stonework, such as thewell-studied site of Huanuco Pampa. These architecturalcomplexes included accommodation for local artisans andlabourers working for the state, feasting halls and ceremo-nial plazas for the wooing of the local elite, facilities forstorage, and lodgings for imperial representatives. Allaspects of production, from the acquisition of materials tothe manufacture and distribution of finished items, werecontrolled by the state.

THE INCA CAPITAL OF CuzcoGuzco was the political, cultural and ritual focal point of theempire. It was surrounded by settlements of Inca common-ers and members of the elite and their retainers, relocatedfrom sometimes distant areas of the empire. Guzco proper(map 2) was relatively small, containing only the residencesof the living ruler and royal clans reputedly descended fromprevious kings (some fictitious), plus the temples, plazas,platforms and halls for imperial ritual. Palaces and templesconsisted of rows of simple adobe or stone rooms withgabled straw roofs; where they differed from homes of com-moners was in the quality of workmanship and materials,such as finely worked ashlar masonry, gold and silver sheetsattached to walls, and elaborately dyed and plaited thatch.

THE AZTECSBecause the Aztecs kept written records, we have a betteridea of their imperial history. The empire was founded in1431, after the Aztec war of independence from theTepanecs who had previously dominated the Valley ofMexico. It was formed by an alliance of three cities -Texcoco, Tlacopan and Tenochtitlan - the last of whichquickly became the dominant city.

All Tenochca Aztec rulers were warriors, but the tworesponsible for the greatest expansions were Motecuhzoma,or Montezuma I (r. 1440-69), who also reorganized Aztecsociety and rebuilt the imperial capital, and Ahuitzotl(r. 1486-1502), who extended the empire to the border of

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modern Guatemala. Early expansion by Montezuma I andtwo other kings consolidated the highlands on all sides ofthe capital, while later thrusts by Ahuitzotl and MontezumaII (r. 1502-19) went into tropical coastal areas and temper-ate highlands to the south and east. The west and northwere blocked by the enemy Tarascan Empire and by cul-turally less complex groups to whom the Aztecs applied thederogatory term "Ghichimecs". At the time of the Spanisharrival in 1519, Aztec armies were reportedly poised toinvade the northern Maya kingdoms on the YucatanPeninsula from the port of Xicalango.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE AZTEC EMPIREThe Aztec Empire extended from the Pacific to the Gulfcoast, but imperial provinces were bordered by blocks ofunconquered territories, keeping the people of Mesoamericain a constant state of warfare. The region had well-devel-oped market and long-distance trading systems centuriesbefore the rise of the Aztecs, who tried to control thesewhere they could; however, many networks continued tooperate independently. The Aztecs did not put their ener-gies into administrative structures, and their empire lackedthe monumental road system of the Incas' polity. However,Aztec artisans were accomplished stone carvers, asevidenced by surviving temples at mountain sites likeMalinalco to the southwest of the capital.

After conquest of a province, numerous captives of warwere brought to the capital for sacrifice. As in Peru,captured deity images were put in Aztec temples, sacredmountain sites were appropriated for ceremonies andtemples, and tribute was demanded. However, conqueredgroups were not relocated; instead, loyal subjects fromTenochtitlan and nearby areas were sent to strategicallylocated colonies, while members of the foreign elite andtraders spent time in the cities of the imperial centre.

At its height Tenochtitlan, which occupied an island inthe shallow lake that dominated the Valley of Mexico, had a

population of perhaps 200,000, four times that of its nearestrival. According to contemporary descriptions, it had a hugecentral precinct in which four great causeways met. Theprecinct contained many temples and was immediately sur-rounded by the palaces of rulers and the elite. Beyond werethe neighbourhoods of commoners, where enclosed com-pounds and house gardens were organized in a grid ofstreets and canals.

Texcoco and Tlacopan on the east and west shores,along with numerous other towns as old as or older thanTenochtitlan, remained uneasy allies and potential enemiesof the capital. Thus when the Spanish arrived in 1519 theyfound thousands of Indian allies both in the valley andthroughout the empire ready to revolt against the Aztecs.

The Aztec Empire covered much of whatis now central Mexico, with one separateprovince adjacent to distant Maya territory.There were substantial unconquered areasnext to and surrounded by imperialprovinces. The empire's capital,Tenochtitlan, and its two uneasy allies -Tlacopan and Texcoco - were just threeof some 50 cities with surroundingterritories and satellite towns in the lakezone of the Valley of Mexico.

Manuscripts of the Spanish colonialperiod have made it possible to reconstructthe Aztec Empire's structure. Among themis the Codex Mendoza, which includespictures of the pre-Conquest tributes thatwere demanded from individual provinces- among them warriors' clothing, bags offeathers and dried chillies.

CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERIGA AND SOUTH AMERICA 500-1500 pages 84-85 SPAIN AND THE AMERICAS 1492-1550 pages 120-21 1 1 1

THE EARLY MODERN WORLDBefore 1500 there was a gradual overall increase in the world's population

and economy, although epidemics and widespread famine sometimes caused

a temporary decline. Then in the space of 300 years the population more

than doubled, from 425 to 900 million, and the world economy expanded

rapidly as Europe embarked on a process of exploration, colonization and

domination of intercontinental commerce.

Porcelain was amongst theChinese products for which therewas a great demand in Europe.Another was silk. The export ofboth products from Chinaensured that trade with the Westcontinued to flourish throughoutthe 16th, 17th and 18thcenturies, although Chinesemerchants did not themselvesventure outside Asia.

Despite periods of vigorousterritorial and economicexpansion, the great landempires failed to participate inthe commercial revolution led by

the countries of northern Europe

in the 17th and 18th centuries.In 1700 they still covered vastareas, but in the followingcentury the three Muslimempires - the Mughal, Safavidand Ottoman - declined as thecommercial and military powerof the Europeans expanded.

he Europeans' exploration and discovery ofthe world began in earnest in the second halfof the 15th century when the desire to find a

sea route to the East led to a series of Portuguesevoyages down the west coast of Africa. The Gape ofGood Hope was finally reached in 1488, just fouryears before Christopher Columbus set sail acrossthe Atlantic, on behalf of Spain, in search of awestward route to China. His discovery of the WestIndies was quickly followed by Spanish expeditions

to the American mainland and the creation ofSpanish and Portuguese colonies in the Caribbeanand South America. New trade routes across theAtlantic and Indian oceans were pioneered by theSpanish and Portuguese, to be taken over in the17th century by the Dutch, English and French.

Africa was both a survivor and a victim of thistransoceanic transport revolution. The economiesof its states - and the extensive trade networklinking the north, east and west of the continent -were little affected by contact with the Europeans.However, from 1450 over 12 million Africans wereforced to embark on a journey across the Atlanticas slaves destined to work in the plantations andgold and silver mines of Europe's colonies in theAmericas and the Caribbean.

EUROPEAN TRADE WITH ASIAThe Europeans were to have a greater effect on theeconomies of Asia. In South and Southeast Asia thePortuguese combined plunder with trade, and bythe 1560s they were importing about half the spicesreaching Europe from the East. With overlandEurasian trade becoming increasingly hazardous -and also costly as local rulers extorted highprotection costs - merchants from other Europeannations sought to establish themselves in the

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oceanic Asian trade. In 1600 and 1602 the Englishand Dutch East India Companies were created, andwithin a few years the Dutch company hadweakened Portuguese power in the Indian Ocean.However, local politics and rivalries between Hinduand Muslim entrepreneurs and courtier-traderscontinued to influence the patterns of Europeancommerce and imperialism.

In the first half of the 17th century a strugglebetween Grown and Parliament in England, and awar of liberation in the Netherlands (from whichthe independent Dutch Republic emerged), placedmerchant capitalists in both countries in morepowerful positions. By the 1650s they were theleading economies of Europe. A century later tradeoutside Europe accounted for 20 to 25 per cent ofthe Dutch Republic's total trade, while the figure forEngland was as high as 50 per cent.

THE EMPIRES OF ASIAThe rapid growth of northern European trade wasnot closely related to technological achievement: inthe 17th century Europe imported Asianmanufactured goods rather than vice versa, and percapita productivity in India and China wasprobably greater than in Europe. However, thetechnological superiority of India and China wasnot matched by an urge towards overseasexpansion and conquest. Under the Ming dynasty(1368-1644) Chinese voyages of exploration in theearly 15th century had reached as far as the eastcoast of Africa. Yet while these voyages helped toconsolidate China's sphere of influence in Asia,they did not lead to the creation of a far-reachingoverseas trading network. Instead, trade with therest of Asia and with Europe continued to flourishwith the aid of overland routes, short-distance searoutes and foreign merchants, resulting in anoutflow of ceramics and silk, and an inflow of silver.

China relied on intensive agriculture to supportits ever-growing population, but in the 16th centuryit was stricken by harvest failures, droughts andfamine, which in turn led to frequent rebellions.Insufficient resources were devoted to defence, andin 1644 the Ming dynasty gave way to Manchuconquerors from the north. Under the Manchus,China became preoccupied with defending its ownborders, which by 1760 had expanded toencompass a greater area than ever before (map 1).

In India the Mughal Empire - established in 1526by Muslim warrior descendants of the Mongols -was centred on cities in the country's heartland. Itsrulers financed their administration, and thearchitectural achievements for which they arerenowned, by taxing local agriculture andcommerce. However, they had little interest inoverseas trade beyond the existing involvement ofthe artisanal industries in the Muslim tradingnetworks that stretched from Arabia to Indonesia.The Portuguese, who were intent on seizing control

of these networks, used their ships' guns toovercome opposition and established trading postsaround the coast. They were followed by Dutch,English and French merchants.

The Mughal Empire was just one of threepowerful Muslim empires in the 16th century.Another was that of the Ottoman Turks, who aftertheir capture of Constantinople in 1453 hadembarked on a process of territorial expansion inAfrica, Asia and Europe. This was to continue until1683 when their last major expedition was drivenback from Vienna, the Austrian Habsburg capital.

Among the other great powers with which theOttomans came into conflict in the 16th centurywas the third representative of the political andcultural achievements of Islam at this time - theSafavid Empire (1501-1736) in Iran. Despite aresounding Ottoman victory in 1514, it was notuntil 1639 that the border between the two empires- the present-day frontier between Iran and Iraq -was firmly established.

The Mughal emperor Akbaris shown in this painting afterriding an elephant over a bridgeof boats across the River Jumna.Ruling between 1556 and 1605,Akbar was responsible for theconsiderable expansion of theMughal Empire's territory andfor creating a centralized andefficient administration.

During the Mughal period theEuropeans established tradingposts around the coast. Theybrought gold and silver from theAmericas, and so in the shortterm they stimulated the Indianeconomy. However, in the 18thcentury their activities were tocontribute to the decline of theMughals and the beginning ofBritish rule in India.

The shahs of the SafavidEmpire were great patrons ofarchitecture and art - of whichthis picture made up of tiles is afine example. Greatest of allartistic patrons was Abbas I(1587-1629). After his deaththe empire went into declineand finally collapsed in 1736.

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The Europeans' "discovery"of the world gave an enormousstimulus to cartography and theimprovement of opticalinstruments. It also heralded anew capacity for observation ofthe natural world whicheventually surpassed even thatof the Chinese. The sophisticateddepiction of spatial relationshipswhich evolved in art isexemplified in Jhe Artist's Studio(c. 1660) by the Dutch painterJan Vermeer.

THE MAJOR LAND EMPIRES OF EUROPEThe conflict with the Safavids temporarily divertedOttoman attention away from Europe, where thepower with which it most frequently came intodirect confrontation in the 16th and 17th centurieswas the Habsburg Empire. In the 1520s this empirewas little more than the largest conglomeration ofterritories and rights in Europe - among themSpain, Austria, Hungary and the former lands of theDuchy of Burgundy - since the 9th century. It wasnot welded into a more coherent empire until theThirty Years War of 1618-48, from which time theHabsburgs began the reconquest of Hungarianterritory lost to the Ottomans and thus became themajor dynastic power of central Europe.

To the northeast of the Habsburg Empire layPoland - a kingdom which through much of the17th and 18th centuries was in conflict withRussia. Under Muscovy's Grand Duke Ivan III(r. 1462-1505), Russia began a process ofexploration and expansion on land comparable withthat undertaken overseas by the western Europeanmaritime powers. By the end of the 18th centuryits empire stretched from the Baltic to the PacificOcean, and formed a world economy in miniature.

L In 1607 an English colony wasestablished in Virginia, where JohnWhite had painted this view of a NativeAmerican village in the 1580s. Furthernorth the colony of Plymouth was

established in 1620 by the PilgrimFathers, a Puritan group who hadbroken away from the Church ofEngland. Many such separatist groupswere to settle in North America.

COLONIZATION OF THE AMERICASFollowing the European discovery of the Americas- and the highly valued commodities to be foundthere - world demand for gold and silver ensuredthe gradual integration of the New World into theemerging European world economy. The Spanishconquest of Central and South America from theend of the 15th century was accompanied by thedecimation of the native Indian population - not asa deliberate act of genocide but mainly as a resultof diseases imported from Europe and a regime offorced labour. The estimated pre-conquestpopulation of about 57 million was reduced to lessthan six million by the late 16th century. A similarfate awaited the smaller North American populationwhen European colonists began to arrive in the17th century. In order to replace native forcedlabour, slavery was introduced by the Spanishconquistadores and their successors. Between 1500and 1650 about 500,000 African slaves wereimported by the Spanish and Portuguese. Fargreater numbers were subsequently imported whenthe slave system was extended to the Dutch,English and French colonies.

In the short term the Europeans' discovery of theNew World drained resources away from Spain andPortugal, who pursued their expansionist strategiesthrough conquest. Expansion in the Americas didnot become profitable for the European powersuntil the later 17th century, when a thrivingcolonial economy began to develop, based on theplantation crops of sugar in the West Indies;tobacco, rice and indigo in the central andsouthern mainland colonies; and family farms,

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At the beginning of the 16thcentury European trading routesdid not reach beyond WestAfrica. By the end of the 18thcentury they crossed the Atlantic,Pacific and Indian oceans,inextricably linking Europe, Asiaand the Americas in the growingexchange of raw materials,foodstuffs, manufactured goodsand silver.

handicraft production and intra-colonial trade inNew England and the other northern colonies.Profits from trade with the colonies at first wentprincipally to the Dutch Republic, followed closelyby England and then France.

EUROPEAN DOMINATION OF TRADEThe domination of the evolving global economy byEurope, rather than by China or the Islamicpowers, was due to a number of convergent forces,including the development of maritime enterpriseand, later, of scientific and technologicalinnovations. The division of the Church during the16th-century Reformation, between Catholic andProtestant believers, encouraged internationalrivalry and emigration to the New World. However,above all else, it was the existence of a competitivestate system in Europe, and the willingness andcapacity of European governments to mobilizemilitary and naval power in support of trade, whichsecured European hegemony. By the mid-18thcentury the octopus-like grip of the European traderoutes formed an interlocking whole, in whichAmerican bullion paid for Asian luxuries and forthe supplies of timber and other naval stores fromthe Baltic countries that were essential for furthercommercial expansion (maps 2 and 3).

The growing European appetite for colonial andAsian goods - including tea, sugar, tobacco, spices,and silks - as well as luxury items produced withinEurope, was to play a significant role in theindustrialization of western Europe, and of Britainin particular. The spread of consumerism and thedesire for market-bought products encouraged ruralhouseholds to specialize in both food productionand various types of cottage industry in order toenhance their purchasing power - with the resultthat an early "industrious revolution" operating atthe level of the household economy took place.

At the same time the commercial revolutionprovided new overseas markets for manufacturedgoods, especially in North America after around1750, as well as essential raw materials such asdyestuffs, raw cotton and silk, and iron ore. Thestruggle to protect overseas markets and colonialsources of supply stimulated war industries such asshipbuilding, armaments and metal-smelting, all ofwhich saw major technological improvements inthe 18th century. The expansion of the Europe-centred world economy thus paved the way for theIndustrial Revolution which was to take place firstin Britain, and then in Europe and the UnitedStates, with enormous repercussions for the worldin the 19th century.

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THE EUROPEAN DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD1450-1600

Ferdinand Magellan's voyage across thePacific in 1520-21 began with the perilousjourney around Cape Horn, through thestraits that now bear his name. However, theSpanish conquest of Mexico and Peru in the1520s and 1530s provided Spanishexplorers with new starting points for routesfrom South America to the East Indies.

ost civilizations knew something of the worldoutside their own territorial boundaries beforeEuropeans discovered the existence of the Americas

in the 1490s. The Greeks had circumnavigated Britain asearly as 310 BC, by the 1st century AD Rome had establishedlinks with China, while the Chinese themselves had exploredCentral Asia, reaching the Euphrates by AD 360. However,the insularity of the Chinese court in the late 15th century(pages 138-39) - leading to the destruction of most of theofficial records of Zheng He's pioneering voyages of 1405-33in the Pacific and Indian oceans - undermined any sustainedcontact with the wider world. The discoveries by Europeanexplorers were new and momentous in the sense thatexpanding geographical horizons were matched by newmental horizons.

The geographical discoveries of the late 15th centurywere neither isolated nor accidental historical events. Rather,they were part of a European expansionist phase, and were tosome degree a response to the disruption of Eurasian

commerce brought about by plague, the closure of the SilkRoad and the caravan routes during the 1360s, and the fallof Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The need tofind a direct route to the Far East, principally for trading silksand spices, provided a powerful impetus to exploration.

The Portuguese led the way with a series of expeditionsfrom 1415 to explore the west coast of Africa (pages 80-81).In 1445 the westernmost tip of the continent was rounded,and by 1460 they had travelled 3,200 kilometres (2,000miles) south as far as Sierra Leone, bringing back spices, goldand slaves. By 1474 the equator had been crossed, and in1488 Bartholomew Bias reached the Cape of Good Hope(map 1) - an important step towards the establishment of asea route to India, which was achieved by Vasco da Gama in1497-98. After Bias's voyage, mapmakers were able to showthe sea encompassing southern Africa, but the globe was stillenvisaged as a much smaller - and younger - planet than isactually the case, and was thought to be dominated by theEurasian landmass.

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When Christopher Columbus set sailacross the Atlantic in 1492 he was guidedby the assertion of the Greek geographerPtolemy (c. AD 85-150) that the circum-ference of the Earth is about 11,000kilometres (7,000 miles) shorter than itactually is and that, going west, there is noland between Europe and Asia. His beliefthat the West Indies were islands off thecoast of China was quickly discredited whenfurther Spanish expeditions began toexplore the Americas and, beyond them,the Pacific Ocean.

THE SPANISH AND THE NEW WORLDWhile Portuguese explorers searched for a passage to the Eastby a southeasterly route, the Spanish searched in a westerlyand southwesterly direction. Although they were unsuccess-ful in reaching their immediate goal, the result was thediscovery of the West Indies and the Venezuelan coast byChristopher Columbus between 1492 and 1502. Columbus,as his Spanish patrons realized, had greatly underestimatedthe distances involved in reaching Asia by a southwesterlyroute, but he nevertheless pressed on. The New World wasSpain's unexpected prize, confirmed in the Treaty ofTordesillas of 1494, and first described by the explorer andwriter Amerigo Vespucci in travel accounts published from1507. By the 1520s the Old World recognized the Americasas an enormous "new" continent between Europe and Asia.

Spanish exploitation of the Caribbean islands began withthe settlement of Hispaniola in 1493, followed by that ofCuba and Puerto Rico. These islands provided a base for theexploration of Central America, and the failure of the

Spanish to find a sea route to Asia encouraged further colo-nization and plunder. Mainland settlement began in 1509-10on the isthmus of Panama. Hernan Cortes, the first of theconquistadores, established Spanish control over the AztecEmpire in Mexico in 1521, and in South America FranciscoPizarro subdued the empire of the Incas in Peru and Boliviaduring the 1520s and early 1530s (pages 120-21). The con-quest of Mexico and Peru provided new opportunities fortranspacific exploration (map 2), and in 1527 Saavedratravelled across the Pacific from the coast of Mexico to theMoluccas. A viable return route, from the Philippines toAcapulco, was first navigated by Urdaneta in 1565 and wasfollowed thereafter by Spanish galleons. In 1567 Mendanaand Sarmiento led an expedition in search of a great south-ern continent and found the Solomon Islands. Mendanaattempted to return there to establish a Christian colony in1595, accompanied by the Portuguese navigator Quiros.They were unable to find the Solomons but instead stumbledon the Marquesas and Santa Cruz islands. However, it wasnot until the more scientific voyages of the 18th century thatthe full extent of the Pacific, from Alaska to New Zealand andthe east coast of Australia, was to be explored.

THE ENGLISH, FRENCH AND DUTCH IN NORTH AMERICAFor much of the 16th century the Spanish and Portugueseattempted to exclude northern Europeans from theirexpanding colonial empires and the new sea routes acrossthe southern hemisphere. As a result, the opening up of thenorth Atlantic world was mainly an English, French andDutch enterprise, although it was more than a by-product ofthe quest for a northwestern route to the East. The firstinitiatives were probably undertaken as early as the 1420sby Bristol merchants involved in trade with Iceland. Thesetraders were certainly exploring the coast of Newfoundlandin 1481, some time before John Cabot made his historicvoyage of 1497. Cabot, under commission from the Englishcrown, discovered 640 kilometres (400 miles) of coastlinefrom Newfoundland to Cape Breton, and by 1509 his sonSebastian had travelled as far south as Cape Cod.

In 1510 the English knew more about North Americathan any other European country did, but during the nexthalf century the French moved into the lead. In 1524Verrazano, in the service of France, sailed along the coastfrom Cape Fear to Newfoundland, thereby proving that theearlier discoveries of Columbus and Cabot were part of asingle landmass. The first steps in exploring North America'sinterior were taken ten years later by Jacques Cartier, whotravelled along the St Lawrence River as far as Montreal. Itwas not until the 1570s and 1580s that the English returnedto the area, with the voyages of Frobisher and Davis, insearch of a northwest passage via Newfoundland (map 1).The years 1577-80 also saw an important breakthrough inEnglish efforts when Francis Drake circumnavigated theworld in the search for a new transpacific route.

The northern maritime countries were fortunate toinherit the more sophisticated seamanship and navigationalskills of the Portuguese and Spanish. The art of celestial nav-igation, using the quadrant and astrolabe, was improved bythe Portuguese during the 1480s, when manuscript copies ofthe first navigational manual, the Regimento, became avail-able prior to its publication in 1509. Sebastian Cabot, anexpert cartographer, helped to spread knowledge of Spanishnavigational techniques in England. Although ships gradu-ally increased in size during the 16th century, improvementsin ship design were not, of themselves, sufficient to stimu-late the long-distance exploration which took place duringthis period. The Dutch introduced top masts and sails, aswell as the fluytschip (a flat-bottomed cargo carrier), andthese advances certainly facilitated commercial exploitationand colonization of a type that was markedly different fromthe plundering of the conquistadores and the privateeringexpeditions of Drake. However, the idea of European settle-ment in the Americas in order to exploit fully the land'snatural resources was surprisingly slow to win acceptanceand, when it did, was invariably difficult to sustain.

THE RISE OF EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL EMPIRES pages 130-31 117EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7

EUROPEANS IN ASIA1500-1790

The Portuguese seaborne empire wasbased on a series of forts linking togethertrading entrepots from the coast of Africa toSouth and Southeast Asia, and on to Chinaand Japan. This system secured Portuguesetrade with the East for nearly a century. Theempire was governed from Goa, on the westcoast of India, which had been captured forPortugal by Afonso de Albuquerque in1510. Although the Portuguese were to losemost of their eastern possessions to theDutch in the 17th century, they managed tohold on to Goa, surviving Dutch blockadesof the city in 1603 and 1639.

Although European explorers had ventured into Asiain the 1st century AD, significant European contactwith the continent only began on 27 May 1498 when

the Portuguese fleet of Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut onthe west coast of India. Da Gama had rounded the Gape ofGood Hope in search of the valuable spices and silks whichhad long reached Europe only via expensive overlandroutes. Over the next hundred years a Portuguese"seaborne empire" spread around the coasts of the IndianOcean, moving ever further east and developing a chain offorts linking Ormuz, Goa, Cochin, Ceylon (Sri Lanka),Melaka and Ternate (map 1). Japan was reached in 1542and a settlement established in China, at Macau, in 1555.

PORTUGUESE TRADING EMPIREThe motives of the Portuguese were both economic andreligious. In the pursuit of wealth, they attempted toestablish a monopoly over the spice trade to Europe andto force entry into an already extensive trading networkwithin Asia. Previously, this commerce had beenconducted by indigenous merchants along free-trade prin-ciples, but the Portuguese coerced local merchants intopaying them licence fees and seized the most lucrativetrade routes for themselves. In the service of God, theypromoted Christianity. In some cases, the two objectivesdovetailed neatly: in Japan, between 1542 and 1639, theymade more than 100,000 converts while running avaluable silk trade from Macau and advising the risingpower of the Tokugawa shogunate on military tactics.

Yet Portuguese influence in the East was to proveshort-lived. In part, it suffered from problems at home.Rivalry with Spain was intense and after the crowns of thetwo Iberian countries were united in 1580 internecine strifebecame bitter. A further problem was caused by the revivalof Asian empires, whose temporary weaknesses had beenexploited by the Portuguese. In Japan, for example, once theTokugawa (pages 140-41) had achieved victory in the civilwars, they expelled the Iberians and in 1639 outlawedChristianity as a danger to the stability of their new state.

DUTCH TRADE IN ASIAFor the most part, however, Portuguese influence waseclipsed by the rise of another European power. The Dutchhad long been involved in war against Spain (pages152-53) and took the unification of its throne with that ofPortugal as a signal to penetrate Asian waters and attackthe Portuguese Empire. Following the establishment oftheir East India Company in 1602, the Dutch pro-gressively displaced the Portuguese in Asian trade anddeveloped their own trading empire further east (map 2).They also expanded Asian trade with Europe, Africa andthe Americas, bringing Chinese porcelain into Westernmarkets and Indian cotton textiles to the slave coasts ofAfrica and plantations of the New World.

The success of the Dutch was based on superiormercantile and maritime skills, which enabled them toenforce trade monopolies with greater ruthlessness. It alsoowed something to religion since, as Protestants, they wereless interested in making converts than their Catholic rivalsand were thus perceived as less of a threat by theindigenous societies. Following the expulsion of the Iberiansfrom Japan, for example, the Tokugawa invited the Dutchto conduct Japan's external trade at Nagasaki.

Dutch maritime influence grew during the 17th centuryand remained strong east of Ceylon throughout the 18thcentury. However, it too faced eventual eclipse. One reasonfor this was that the Dutch were drawn into the politics ofthe hinterlands behind their port settlements and spentscarce resources on local wars at great cost to their trade.However, the principal reason for their demise was thebelated entry into Asian trade of the much strongerEuropean states of England and France.

THE ENGLISH AND THE FRENCH IN INDIAEnglish merchants had initially tried to break into the spicetrade of the Indonesian archipelago but after the Massacreof Amboina in 1623, when Dutch forces had destroyedtheir principal trading settlement, they were effectivelyexcluded. Instead they concentrated on India, where the

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The Europeans were drawn towards Asiaby the lure of exotic consumer goods - tea,spices and silk - and by high-qualitymanufactures such as porcelain and printedcotton textiles (chintzes).

authority of the Mughal Empire (pages 144-45) con-strained the Dutch from gaining too tight a control andoffered opportunities for competitive trade (map 3).

India was originally regarded as of limited mercantileimportance because its spices were thought to be of lowerquality than those found elsewhere. Yet this judgement wassubsequently proved to be mistaken; India also possessedan enormous cotton textile industry, the significance ofwhich became increasingly apparent as the 17th centuryadvanced (pages 194-95). Cotton textiles were alreadyestablished in the vast network of Asian trade, so the

English gained secondary access to markets from the Gulfto the China seas. There was also a growing demand inEurope for Indian textiles, and from the 1650s onwards thecloth trade became the main source of European profits inAsia. This, in turn, caught the attention of the French,whose first Asian settlement was established in India in1664, and the two newcomers steadily reduced the Dutchpresence around the shores of India. The English also usedIndia as a staging post for ventures further east, forging abroad triangular trade with China, from which tea, raw silkand porcelain were exported to the West in return forIndian silver and opium.

From the second quarter of the 18th century trade rela-tions between England, France and India began to change.Many European states put up tariff barriers against Indiantextile imports in order to protect their own dom-estic industries. This increased the importance to theEnglish of trade with China and, in turn, placed greateremphasis on their ability to gain access to Indian silver andopium. In addition the Mughal Empire, which had previ-ously confined European activities to the coasts, began tobreak up. Its successor states were soon at war with oneanother, making demands for finance and armamentswhich the Europeans found too lucrative to ignore. Fromthe 1740s England and France also began a series of warsagainst each other which were to last - with brief inter-ruptions - for the rest of the century, and end in thedomination by "British India" of a vast area of the worldfrom Arabia to the China seas.

founded their own trading capital at Batavia(Jakarta), which dominated the Indonesianarchipelago. The Spanish established traderoutes across the Pacific between thePhilippines and their American colonies.

SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE ERA OF IMPERIALISM 1790-1914 pages 196-97 1 1 9

By the mid-17th century the Dutch hadcome to dominate Asian trade, taking overPortuguese positions around the IndianOcean, especially in southwest India andCeylon (Sri Lanka). Further east they

KINGDOMS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 500-1500 pages 64-65

SPAIN AND THE AMERICAS1492-1550

Crucial to the first phase of Spanishcolonization were the four voyages in whichColumbus discovered the principal Caribbeanislands and explored major sections of themainland coast. These were followed byfurther naval expeditions mounted fromSpain - involving many of Columbus'sformer companions.

The travels of Narvaez, de Vaca, de Sotoand Coronado were not consideredsuccessful since they brought neither wealthnor property to the Spanish crown.Information they provided, however,resulted in a new understanding of themain contours of the southern part of NorthAmerica, which was reflected incontemporary maps of the area.

Acting on information gleaned fromearlier voyages around the YucatanPeninsula, Hernan Cortes led a small armyinto Mexico in search of Aztec gold in 1519.On the way he formed an alliance with theTlaxcalans, enemies of the Aztecs, and withtheir help he completed his conquest of theAztec Empire in 1521.

olumbus discovered America in the name of Spain in1492, but this famous voyage was merely the initialstep in the Spanish colonization of a large part of the

continent, a process that took place in three stages.

THE CARIBBEAN AND THE GULF OF MEXICOUntil 1518 the Spanish undertook the exploration and set-tlement of the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico (map 1).However, Spanish attempts to exploit their new territoriesby establishing trading posts in the Caribbean were unsuc-cessful, because the simple agrarian societies of the islandscould not sustain a trading economy. Instead, the Spanishestablished colonies of exploitation in Hispaniola, Cuba and

Puerto Rico, using forced Indian labour in agriculture andgoldmining. From 1510, however, the economy was under-mined by the collapse of the indigenous workforce, causedby Spanish mistreatment and by the spread of Europeandiseases to which the islanders had little natural resistance.

THE AZTEC AND INCA EMPIRESSpanish interest therefore turned to the great civilizations ofthe mainland (pages 110-11) which, in the second andmost important phase of Spanish colonization, were recon-noitred and eventually conquered in a two-prongedexploration from the islands (map 2).

In 1518 Hernan Cortes was sent by the governor of Cubaon a commercial and exploring expedition to the YucatanPeninsula. Once ashore, Cortes repudiated the governor'smandate and henceforth acted on his own initiative,acknowledging only the authority of the King of Spain. Hissmall army of military adventurers or conquistadores,having founded the town of Veracruz and symbolically scut-tled its own boats, marched to Tlaxcala (map 3). Here theyovercame initial resistance to form an alliance with theTlaxcalans, themselves resentful of Aztec overlordship.

Cortes and his Tlaxcalan allies entered the Aztec capital,Tenochtitlan, in 1519, but early in 1520 Cortes was forcedto return to the coast to meet and win over to his side ahostile Spanish army dispatched from Cuba under Narvaez.Unfortunately the greed of the Spanish left behind inTenochtitlan had alienated the Aztecs and, on Cortes'return, the Spanish were driven from the city in a series ofevents which led to the death of the Atzec emperorMontezuma. Cortes' army retreated to Tlaxcala, and in 1521they and their Tlaxcalan allies launched a successful cam-paign against Tenochtitlan. This victory brought underSpanish control the millions of central Mexicans who hadformerly been Aztec tributaries.

Meanwhile, from Hispaniola, the Spanish had organizedcolonies in Darien and on the Pacific coast of the Panamaisthmus, first crossed by Balboa in 1513. Panama was usedas a base for expeditions into Nicaragua and beyond and,

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Atahualpa, the Inca ruler, was capturedby Francisco Pizarro after being enticed toa meeting in the main square of CajamarcaHis unarmed retinue was quickly overcomeand slaughtered by the Spanish artillery.

^ Pizarro's conquestof the empire of theIncas was the first stageof the Spanish colonizationof South America. Rumoursof gold inspired three separateexpeditions in six years into themountains of what is now Colombia.

more importantly, for aseries of exploratoryvoyages in the late 1520salong the Peruvian coast,organized by FranciscoPizarro and Diego deAmalgro (map 4). Between1531 and 1533 Pizarro'ssmall army conquered theInca imperial cities ofGajamarca and Guzco, put todeath the Emperor Atahualpaand replaced him with a puppetruler, the Emperor Manco.Victory in Peru, however, was notas clearcut as that in Mexico: theIncas rebelled under Manco andbrutal civil wars broke out, bothbetween the conquistadores themselvesand later between the colonists and royalofficials sent to govern them. Amalgro and allfive Pizarro brothers were killed in these wars,and Peru was not brought under Spain's control untilaround 1560.

FURTHER INTO THE MAINLANDMexico and Peru provided the resources for the thirdand final stage of Spanish territorial gains between themid-1520s and mid-1540s. Alvarado's and Cortes'expeditions from Mexico began the process by whichGuatemala and the Yucatan were brought underSpanish control, while a number of other campaignsextended Spanish authority into northern Mexico.However, the protracted wanderings of the Narvaez, deVaca, de Soto and Goronado bands in the southernUnited States were epic failures, establishing the north-ern limits of Spanish colonization. The expeditions ofAmalgro, Valdivia and Benalcazar from Peru extendedSpanish rule into Chile in the south and Ecuador andColombia in the north, where the conquistadoresencountered independent expeditions, such asQuesada's, pushing down from the Caribbean coast.South America also had its share of heroic failures,such as Orellana's descent of the Amazon (map 4).

The Spanish also tentatively explored the Plataregion in naval expeditions mounted from Spain, themost notable of which was Sebastian Cabot'sexploration of the Parana and Paraguay rivers in1526-30. From the mid-1540s the surge of conquestswaned. By this time Spain had conquered the Americasnearly as far it was ever going to, although many areaswere not intensively colonized until the 18th century.

The relentless courage, determination and energywhich had been displayed by the Spanish conquistadoresin acquiring land, wealth and subject populations in theAmericas are probably without parallel in the history ofEuropean imperialism. However, the ferocious cruelty withwhich they treated the native populations is hard to squarewith their lofty claims that they were driven not just by thedesire to get rich but also by the ideals of bringingChristianity and civilization to the American Indians. Inpractice they recognized no authority but their own, andtheir reckless disregard for their own lives was exceededonly by their callous indifference to the welfare of thepeoples they conquered.

THE COLONIZATION OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA pages 122-23THE INCA AND AZTEC EMPIRES 1400-1540 pages 110-11 1 2 1

THE COLONIZATION OF CENTRALAND SOUTH AMERICA 1500-1780

Silver mining, which was concentratedin Mexico and based on the forced labourof American Indian workers, accountedfor over 90 per cent of Spanish-Americanexports between 1550 and 1640. In theSpanish Caribbean colonies of Cuba,Santo Domingo and Puerto Rico,however, African slave labour was usedto work the sugar and coffee plantations.

Ihe peoples conquered by the Spanish and Portuguesein the Americas embraced a very wide range of cul-tures. Within the Inca and Aztec empires there were

urban and agricultural communities in which small-scalefarmers produced ample surpluses for the noble and reli-gious classes (pages 110-11). In other regions there wereless stratified, semi-sedentary and nomadic societies inwhich people produced little beyond their own consump-tion needs. At the time of the Conquest it is probable thatthe indigenous population of Spanish America amounted tosome 40-50 million, 60 per cent of which was found inMexico and Peru, while Portuguese Brazil had a populationof 2.5 million (pie chart 1). What is certain is that untilaround 1650 all American Indian societies suffered massivepopulation losses - reducing the original totals by 90 percent. These losses, once thought to be caused by Spanishbrutality, are now largely attributed to the Indians' lack ofresistance to European and African diseases. While theIndian population declined, the European, African andmixed populations rose sharply as a result of migration fromSpain and the slave trade (pie chart 2). In the 18th centurythere was very rapid population growth among all racialgroups, particularly the mixed and African populations.

THE SPANISH EMPIREThe economic development of the Spanish Empire wasconcentrated in areas that had once been part of the Incaand Aztec empires in central Peru and central Mexico(maps 1 and 2). Here the Spanish introduced a systemknown as the encomienda, under which groups of Amer-ican Indians were allotted to a Spanish overlord, orencomendero, to whom they supplied labour and tributeand from whom, supposedly, they received protection.

In practice, the encomienda system was highlyexploitative and this, combined with the decline in theIndian population, led to its replacement by therepartimiento in Mexico and the mita in Peru. These werestate-regulated labour systems under which the Indiancommunities were required to supply labour to privateemployers (and also to the state in Mexico) in three mainactivities: mining, agriculture and textiles. The mining ofsilver and mercury, which grew rapidly between 1550 and1640, was of key importance: silver alone provided SpanishAmerica with 90 per cent of its exports. The agricultural

The Spanish crown claimed sovereigntyover all American territory to the west of theline laid down at the Treaty of Tordesillas in1494, while Portugal was given the territoryto the east. This formed the basis of the two

empires. In practice, however, Spanishwealth in South America was concentrated inPeru, while the Portuguese empire extendedacross the line along the Amazon and intothe Mato Grosso region to the south.

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1 DISTRIBUTION OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN POPULATIONOF SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE AMERICA c. 1500

sector also expanded as the Spanish set about producingcommodities previously unknown to the Indians, principallywheat, cattle, sheep, wine and sugar. The production of wooland cotton textiles was concentrated in Mexico. Economicdevelopment outside Mexico and Peru was slow or evennon-existent, and here the Spanish continued to use theencomienda system to appropriate the small surpluses offoodstuffs and cash crops, such as cochineal, which thedepleted Indian populations could produce.

In the middle decades of the 17th century the declinein the number of Indians and in the international price ofsilver caused an economic recession in Spanish America.However, recovery began around 1670 and in the 18thcentury there was rapid economic growth. In Mexico andPeru this was based on the revival of the silver exportindustry and the expansion of agriculture and textilemanufacturing. These activities used mainly wage labour.

However, the reluctance of Indians to work outside theircommunities led to the practice whereby Spanish employ-ers advanced wages and credit to Indians and used theresulting debts, which the labourers could not repay, tobring them into the workforce. In the peripheral areas,expansion was driven by goldmining in Ecuador andColombia and by the plantation production of sugar, coffeeand indigo in Mexico, the Central American isthmus, Cuba,Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador - all activities whichdepended on imported slave labour and external markets.These areas were integrated into the mainstream economyin the 18th century.

THE PORTUGUESE IN BRAZILIn Brazil, which was developed much more slowly thanSpanish America, the Portuguese began by bartering toolsand trinkets for Indian-supplied dye woods. However, theindigenous market for manufactures was soon saturated,and from c. 1550 the colonists turned to sugar production,the basis of the New World's first great plantation system.

The sugar industry depended entirely upon foreignmarkets and dominated Brazil's economic and socialdevelopment until 1700. The early sugar plantations wereworked by Indian labourers, most of them enslaved.However, their productivity was low because they camefrom cultures with little experience of settled agriculture,and their numbers were drastically reduced by exposure toEuropean diseases, particularly during the 1550s and 1560s.Consequently, by the early 17th century the colonists hadsubstituted imported African slaves. From around 1670 thesugar industry was checked by competition from Englishand French Caribbean producers, and thenceforth the mainimpetus to Brazilian economic growth came from theopening up of gold and diamond mines in the interiorregions of Minas Gerais and Goias, which were also workedby imported slaves (map 2).

SPANISH AUTHORITY IN THE COLONIESThe economic and social development of the Spanishcolonies did not take place in a political vacuum. In theearly colonial period the Spanish crown had littleauthority in America. The colonists observed the legalforms, as when they founded new townships, but in effect

In the 18th century the structure ofcolonial government in Spanish America wasreformed. The viceroyalty of New Granadawas created in 1739 in the north of Peru,and in 1776 a fourth viceroyalty wasestablished in the Rio de la Plata region.

they ruled themselves. Theylargely ignored their chiefcritics, the friars, who cameto the Americas to chris-tianize the Indians in the"spiritual conquest", andmost of whom deplored theSpanish mistreatment ofthe indigenous population.

The Spanish crown,fearful that the conquist-adores - the adventurers whohad conquered Mexico, Centraland South America - would forman autonomous and hereditary aristo-cracy, began from around 1550 toimpose its authority on its Americanacquisitions. The government's mainconcern was to curb the colonists'virtually unlimited powers over theIndians, so it whittled away the quan-tities of tribute and labour extractedby the encomenderos and trans-ferred numerous encomiendasfrom private to Crown jurisdiction.Furthermore, a royal bureaucracywas created to absorb the powersformerly held by the conquist-adores. Spanish America wasdivided into viceroyalties(map 3), each subdivided intoa small number of audiencias- substantial areas adminis-tered by a legal council - anda larger number of correg-imientos - rural districts withurban centres governedby corregidores.

From around 1640 Spain's authority in the Americasweakened as important royal powers over the colonists werecommuted in exchange for fiscal payments, and as the prac-tice of selling official posts to American-born Spaniardsbecame widespread. These posts were used to benefit theirholders, and their extended family networks, rather than toenhance royal authority. Weak government led to a stagna-tion in Spain's revenues from the New World and a declinein the empire's capacity to defend itself. The consequencesof these developments became all too apparent in the SevenYears War (1756-63), when Britain inflicted crushingdefeats on the Spanish in North America (pages 124-25).This experience stimulated the "Bourbon Reforms", a pro-gramme of economic and political reorganization throughwhich the Spanish crown attempted the bureaucratic recon-quest of its American empire.

1 POPULATION OF SPANISH AMERICAC. 1800 (all ethnic groups)

INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 1780-1830 pages 190-91 1 2 3SPAIN AND THE AMERICAS 1492-1550 pages 120-21

THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICAAND THE CARIRBEAN 1600-1763

allowing the discovery of the New World by Europeanexplorers at the end of the 15th century and beginningof the 16th, Spain and Portugal had laid claim to all

of the Americas. However, this Iberian monopoly was notaccepted by the other European powers and in the second halfof the 16th century it was pierced by hundreds of voyagesdispatched from northern Europe. Ships were sent to trade orpillage and even, in a few instances, to found colonies, althoughnone of the latter survived. From these beginnings Britain,France and Holland founded empires in America and theCaribbean in the 17th century. British colonies were set up intwo main waves: from 1607 to 1634, when settlements wereestablished in Virginia, Maryland, New England and theeastern Caribbean; and from 1655 to 1680, when Jamaica wasseized from the Spanish, the Carolinas and Pennsylvania werefounded and New York was taken from the Dutch (map 1).

Unlike the white population of theBritish mainland colonies, the population ofFrench Canada grew slowly because itseconomy was based on furs and fish, whichrequired much less labour than agriculture.

In the British mainland colonies the slavepopulation increased rapidly, but in theCaribbean harsh treatment and tropicaldiseases prevented its natural growth andencouraged the slave trade with Africa.

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In the early 17th century the French established fishingand fur-trading colonies in Canada at New France andAcadia (Nova Scotia) and settler colonies in the Caribbeanand the western portion of Hispaniola (map 2). The Dutchestablished trading factories - as on Curagao - rather thancolonies, but they founded one major colony, Dutch Guiana,taken from the British in 1665 (pages 122-23}.

THE NORTHERN COLONIESOutside the southeast and southwest regions, the indigenouspeople of North America (pages 108-9) lived mainly in semi-sedentary or nomadic societies, and the North Americancolonists never seriously attempted to live from their labouras the Spanish colonists did in parts of South America. SomeNative Americans were enslaved - as in South Carolina - butthe main contacts between Europeans and Native Americanswere through the fur trade, where furs were supplied bynative trappers, and through warfare. In general the NativeAmericans responded to the arrival and settlement of theEuropeans on the east coast by moving west, leaving depop-ulated regions to be settled by migrants from Europe. Thesemigrants were mostly people seeking economic bettermentor freedom from religious persecution. Taking advantage ofthe region's rich natural resources, they created prosperousfarming communities specializing in the production of grain,livestock and timber, and benefiting from the relativelydisease-free environment of the region.

THE PLANTATION COLONIESConditions in the plantation colonies of the southern main-land and the Caribbean were very different. Here disease wasrife, discouraging free migration and killing many of thosewho did take the risks of settlement - mainly white inden-tured servants who had little choice over their destinationsand provided several years of unpaid labour in exchange fortheir passage and a plot of land at the end of their service.Some 200,000 of these servants migrated to British plant-ation colonies, fewer to the French Caribbean, and they wereemployed in the production of tobacco and other plantationstaples for export to Europe. From around 1650, however,there was a fundamental change in the labour system of theplantation colonies. The shift from tobacco to sugar causedan explosive increase in the demand for labour which couldnot be met by Britain and France. This led to the use ofimported African slaves, first in the Caribbean and then,from 1680, in Virginia and Maryland (pages 126-27).

CONTINUED EXPANSIONIn the 18th century the populations of all the British main-land colonies had fast natural rates of growth (graphs). Inthe northern colonies this pushed agricultural settlementinto the interior. In the southern colonies the coastal regionsintensified the slave-plantation production of tobacco, towhich was added rice and indigo in South Carolina andGeorgia. Settlement also spread into the southern "back-countries" - temperate mixed farming zones - whoseeconomic and social development was akin to that of thenorthern colonies. The French mainland colonies in Canadaand Louisiana achieved a massive territorial expansion to1763, but their demographic and economic developmentwas very slow. In the Caribbean, both the British and Frenchslave-plantation economies grew rapidly.

COLONIAL GOVERNMENTNeither Britain nor France exercised much political influ-ence over their colonies until the 1660s, when Franceestablished an authoritarian system with military governorsand powerful colonial officials accountable to the king.Britain also created royal bureaucracies but their power wasshared with elected legislative assemblies. Both governmentssubjected imperial trade to strict mercantilist controls,requiring the colonies to trade exclusively with their mothercountries. The benefits reaped by Britain and France wereenormous because colonial trade was the fastest growingsector of international commerce in the period.

Colonial trade had two dimensions: the export of slave-produced staples such as tobacco and sugar from theplantation colonies to the metropolis, and a reverse streamof manufactured goods, services, and labour from Europeand Africa to the colonies. The British northern coloniesexported relatively little to Britain, but they imported vastquantities of manufactured goods from Britain, coveringtheir trade deficits by exporting foodstuffs, raw materials andshipping services to the Caribbean and southern Europe.

The strengthening of government in North America alsohad diplomatic consequences. Between 1689 and 1763Britain and France fought four major wars - conflicts thatbecame increasingly focused on colonial disputes. Britain gotthe better of these wars, especially the last, the Seven YearsWar of 1756 to 1763 (map 3). However, post-war Britishattempts to make their colonists share the burden of thehuge military costs of these endeavours also preciptated theAmerican Revolution (pages 164-65) and, with that, thecollapse of British imperial power on the mainland.

During the 17th century the British andthe French made significant inroads intoSpanish territory in the Caribbean,establishing colonies in Jamaica andSt Domingue as well as on the islands ofthe Lesser Antilles. The economies of thesecolonies were based heavily on sugarplantations worked by African slaves.

The Seven Years War, in which Britaininflicted a number of crushing military andnaval defeats on France and Spain, broughtan end to the French Empire in mainlandAmerica. Under the Treaty of Paris in 1763,Britain took Canada and all territory east ofthe Mississippi, while Spain acquired the vastterritory of French Louisiana.

CANADA 1763-1914 pages 188-89 1 2 5AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1775-83 pages 164-65EUROPEAN DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD 1450-1600 pages 116-17

SLAVE ECONOMIES OF THE WESTERNHEMISPHERE 1500-1880

Between around 1500 and 1870 atleast 9.5 million African slaves were forciblytransported to the European empires in theAmericas. It has been estimated that overtwo million more died, mainly from disease,while crossing the Atlantic on grosslyovercrowded and insanitary ships. Mostwere shipped to the Caribbean and Brazil,where high mortality rates among the slavepopulations meant that new slaves wereconstantly being imported to replenish thelabour force. Fewer slaves were imported toBritish North America because betterconditions there allowed slave populations toincrease naturally.

ive major European empires were established in theAmericas between the 16th and 19th centuries(map l).ln the economies of four of these empires -

the Portuguese, Dutch, British and French - African slaverywas the most important form of labour. In the fifth - theSpanish - African slaves played a significant and, in the18th century, an increasing role. This occurred alongsidethe exploitation of the indigenous population.

Slavery was an important element of European imperi-alism in the Americas because of the scarcity of labour inrelation to the region's abundant natural resources.Exploitation of the indigenous population was a strategyused in Spanish Mexico and Peru, where the sedentary andeconomically advanced American Indian societies providedlabour and tribute payments to the Spanish as they had totheir former Aztec and Inca overlords. However, the semi-sedentary and nomadic Native American peoples whooccupied much of Spanish North America and overwhelm-ingly predominated in the other empires, could not satisfythe white colonists' demands for labour and commodities.

Attempts to enslave these peoples proved^unsuccessful in the long run, partly because'they exhibited fearful mortality rates incaptivity and partly because colonial govern-ments generally opposed such enslavement.

A second source of labour was the largenumber of European migrants to the more tem-perate zones, such as the mainland colonies ofBritish America, but white migrants preferred tobecome independent farmers rather than wagelabourers. The shortage of such labour was evenmore acute in the tropical colonies, where the hot andhumid climate and the constant threat of diseasediscouraged free migrants from settling.

The colonists therefore turned to a third source oflabour: slaves from Africa. Since the late 15th centuryAfrican slaves had been used on plantations on European-colonized Atlantic islands such as Madeira and Sao Tome.They proved to have two great advantages for the Europeancolonists. First, they and their offspring, who were treatedas chattels, could be coerced into almost any form of work;second, their supply was infinitely more elastic than theavailability of labour from indigenous or European sources.

THE GROWTH OF THE SLAVE ECONOMIESThe first major slave economies were created in theSpanish and Portuguese empires, which imported about500,000 slaves between around 1500 and 1650. ThePortuguese concentrated their slaves in the sugar plant-ations of coastal Brazil, while the Spanish used theirs in anumber of regional economies, the most important ofwhich were the sugar and wine estates of the semi-tropicalcoastal lowlands of Peru and Mexico and the silver mines ofnorthern Mexico.

The period between 1650 and 1810 saw a massiveexpansion of slavery in all the major European empires inthe Americas (map 2). The Portuguese expanded theirsugar plantation system in Brazil and, after 1700, importedhundreds of thousands of slaves to work the diamond andgold mines in the interior of the country in the MinasGerais and Goias regions. The vast majority of the Spanish-owned slaves were employed not in Mexico and Peru buton the sugar and cocoa plantations of Cuba and Venezuelaand in the gold-mines of Colombia. These formerly peri-pheral regions of the Spanish Empire became increasinglyimportant, entering the mainstream of the Spanish-American economy in the 18th century. The British, Dutchand French poured slaves into their Caribbean andGuyanese colonies, where they produced sugar, coffee andother plantation staples. On the northern mainland theBritish and French colonists imported smaller numbers ofslaves into the tobacco-producing colonies of Virginia andMaryland, the rice and indigo economies of South Carolinaand Georgia and the sugar colony of Louisiana.

THE DEMOGRAPHICS OF SLAVERYThe conditions of life for slaves in the Americas, and inparticular their relative ability to produce new generationsof slaves, were determined by the labour requirements ofthe plantation crops that they cultivated and the diseaseenvironments in which they lived. Most were employed onlarge-scale sugar and coffee plantations in the tropical andsemi-tropical zones, where their masters underfed andoverworked them, and where they were ravaged by dis-eases such as dysentery and yellow fever. These slavepopulations experienced high mortality and low fertilityrates, which meant that the expansion of labour forcesdepended on a swelling stream of human imports fromAfrica, from where over six million slaves were importedbetween c. 1650 and c. 1800 (map 1). The extent of thenatural decline of slave populations can be gauged from theexample of the British Caribbean colonies, which importedsome 1.5 million slaves during this period, but by 1800 hadan African-Caribbean population of just over 500,000.Natural increase was experienced by only a small number

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of the slave populations - for example, thosein the tobacco colonies of Virginia andMaryland - who benefited from adequate foodsupplies, an environment less conducive to diseasethan was to be found in the tropical colonies, and aless demanding labour regime.

ABOLITION AND THE SLAVE TRADEThe period from 1810 to 1880 represented the finalera of slavery in the Americas. Although a number ofcountries abolished their transatlantic slave trades(Britain in 1807 and the United States in 1810, forexample), American slavery continued to expand. Theplantations of Brazil and of the Spanish and Frenchcolonies in the Caribbean imported nearly two millionslaves between 1810 and 1860. In Cuba the slave popula-tion more than doubled in these years, while in the sameperiod the slave population of the southern United States,mainly engaged in cotton production, increased by naturalmeans from 0.9 to 3.7 million.

The abolition of the institution of slavery, as opposedto that of the slave trade, was a long process whichextended from the 1820s up to the 1880s. The number ofslave revolts increased in the late 18th and early 19thcenturies (map 2), but with the exception of the revoltin 1791 in French St Domingue (which was to becomethe independent state of Haiti in 1804), none succeededin achieving local abolition. Instead, the end of slaverywas brought about partly by the economic decline ofthe slave economies but largely by political events- in particular, war and revolution. Several of thenewly independent Spanish-American republicsoutlawed slavery between 1824 and 1829;slavery in the British West Indies was abol-ished by a reforming British governmentin 1834; and in the United States slaverywas ended in 1865 by the victory of theUnion states over the Confederatestates in the American Civil War.

In the 17th and 18th centuries thelargest slave populations were in Brazil,the Caribbean and the southern Britishmainland colonies (part of the United Statesfrom 1783). Slave populations in the vastarea of Spanish mainland America werequite modest by comparison. The brutalconditions of slavery throughout theAmericas caused frequent slave revoltswhich were suppressed with great ferocity.

LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN POST-INDEPENDENCE 1830-1914 pages 192-93 127


THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 1861-65 pages 184-85

THE GROWTH OF THE ATLANTIC ECONOMIES1620-1775

Dutch and English cities grew throughoutthe 17th century, with migration from thecountryside causing an almost threefold risein London's population from 200,000 to575,000, while that of Amsterdam rosefrom 65,000 to 200,000. However, whileother English cities such as Bristol, Newcastleand Exeter lagged far behind London bothin size and rates of growth, Amsterdam wasmerely first among equals in the denselyurbanized Netherlands.

fter more than a century of economic growth, 1620saw the beginning of a period of economic crisis andstagnation in many parts of Europe. The economic

decline of Spain and Italy was accompanied by the migra-tion of skilled labour and capital to the north. English andDutch merchants broke into Mediterranean trade during theEleven Years Truce with Spain, from 1609 to 1621 (pages156-57). The Dutch retained and expanded their share ofBaltic commerce to achieve a near-monopoly of the region'strade by 1650, while English trade with the Baltic grewsignificantly from the 1670s. This coincided with the rise ofAmsterdam and London as important world trading centres(pages 132-33), and with a permanent shift in Europe'seconomic centre of gravity from the Mediterranean to theNorth Sea/Baltic zone - a shift reflected in population trends(graph 1 and map 1).

THE RISE OF HOLLANDThe 17th century, often described as Holland's "golden age",was also the period of England's "apprenticeship" to theDutch Republic. In the wake of the Dutch revolt againstSpain in 1572 and also after the revocation of the Edict ofNantes by the French crown in 1685 (pages 154-55),Protestant refugees were welcomed in the towns of southernEngland and the northern Netherlands. Bringing with themtheir expertise in new industries and industrial processes,including brewing, papermaking, the manufacture of glassand ceramics, and silk weaving, they made a significantimpact on the English economy. In an increasingly scientificage, the Dutch capacity for visualization was highly valued,showing itself in a range of skills associated with the "art ofdescribing": mapmaking, engraving, drawing, painting andthe making of scientific instruments. Dutch engineers wereactive in promoting drainage and embankment works incountries throughout Europe (map 2).

By the early 18th century an international division oflabour was emerging, shaped as much by government policyas by market forces. In France and England especially, newforms of economic nationalism had emerged during the

While the populations of Spain and theItalian and German states declined sharplyduring the period 1600-50, those ofEngland and the Dutch Republic continued to

grow. From around 1650 populations insouthern Europe and Germany began toincrease, while overall numbers in Englandand the Netherlands stagnated.

1660s and 1670s, embodied in policies designed to promoteoverseas and colonial trade, and industrial diversification,at the expense of competitors. Anglo-Dutch and Anglo-French rivalry was sharpened by the imposition ofprotectionist import duties and restrictions on the export ofraw materials, and above all by the English Navigation Actsof 1651 and 1660 which sought to wrest the colonial carry-ing trade from the Dutch. By the early 1670s the Dutcheconomic miracle was over, and English merchants wouldsoon displace the Dutch as the dynamic force behindEuropean and world trade (graph 2).

ANGLO-DUTCH COMPETITIONAnglo-Dutch competition was evident in many fields,including the North Sea herring fisheries, woollen textilemanufacture, textile dyeing and finishing, and by the 18thcentury, sugar refining, tobacco processing and linenbleaching. These activities all involved processing and assuch were fields in which the Dutch excelled by virtue oftheir success in controlling the markets for finishedproducts. English industry, on the other hand, was moredeeply embedded in the domestic manufacturing economy,and relied on the labour of rural households.

Trade rivalry and industrial competition created aninternational climate in which warfare became endemic,from the Anglo-Dutch wars of 1652, 1665-67 and 1672-74,to the intermittent Anglo-French struggles of 1689-1815.Military expenditure by the British state multiplied fivefoldbetween the 1690s and the Napoleonic Wars, and provideda huge stimulus to the industrial and construction sectors.Shipbuilding, the metallurgical and arms industries, civilengineering and the building and supply of naval dockyardsstimulated employment, investment and innovation throughincreased public spending.

As the Scottish political economist Adam Smith real-ized, the Anglo-French wars of the 18th century representeda struggle for economic supremacy as much as for politicalpower in Europe, India and North America. France was alate starter in the race for colonial trade and territory, butmade remarkable progress during the middle decades of the18th century, especially in the West Indies (graph 2).Nevertheless, British domination of the Atlantic economywas secure by the end of the Seven Years War (1756-63).On the eve of the American War of Independence (1775-83)British imports from the West Indies and the Americanmainland colonies far exceeded those from either the NorthSea or Mediterranean zones, and the lion's share of Britishmanufactured exports went across the Atlantic.

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In the last resort, however, the European economieswere dependent on their natural resources and the legacyof political history. This was especially true in the case ofagricultural and primary production, and the extent towhich nations and regions were able to commercialize thesesectors. Whereas the Dutch chose to develop a compact andspecialized agricultural sector and to depend on large-scalefood imports, the English chose agricultural self-sufficiency,protectionism and, after 1689, the manipulation of foodprices in the interests of producers by means of subsidizedexports. French peasant agriculture, on the other hand, con-strained by labour-intensive farming methods and a host ofgeographical, political and institutional limitations, wasstrongly resistant to commercialization. Above all, it was onthe basis of plentiful energy sources that Britain was able tosurge forward towards industrialization. The availability ofcoal released British producers from dependence on organicmaterials such as timber and charcoal at a time when Dutchpeat supplies were becoming exhausted. In short, the DutchRepublic faced the limitations of a city-state underpinnedby merchant capital - just as Britain was emerging as astrong nation-state, with a developing industrial base.

In the two centuries before 1800 Englishoverseas trade expanded steadily while thatof the Dutch Republic stagnated. France'soverseas trade accelerated more rapidlythan England's in the 18th century, showinga fivefold increase during the period from1716 to 1788-double the increaseregistered for England at this time.

^ In the period 1650-1750 there wereseveral highly commercialized centres ofproduction in western Europe, but ruralindustry, particularly the processing oftextile fibres, was to be found throughoutBritain and northwest Europe. Woollen cloth,linens, fustians and silk were the maintextiles produced. Coalmining wasconcentrated in England and Scotland, fromwhere coal was exported to nearby Europe.

A During Holland's "golden age" in the17th century, Dutch merchants - such asthe one on the right in this painting - wereto be found throughout the world, from theBaltic to the Americas and Asia. However,from the 1650s their dominant role inEuropean and world trade was increasinglythreatened by the English.

EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN 1750-1850 pages 168-69 129

THE RISE OF EUROPEAN COMMERCIALEMPIRES 1600-1800

Tin the 17th and 18th centuries thecountries of northwest Europe were at thecentre of an expanding world economy,often able to trade on terms that wereheavily in their favour. In many of thecolonized parts of the Americas and Asiathe production of a narrow range ofprimary products for export markets wasencouraged, thus planting the seeds offuture economic dependency andbackwardness.

The geographical discoveries by Europeans in the late15th and early 16th centuries gave Europe access tomany new sources of wealth: land, precious metals

and new products such as coffee and tobacco. However, inthe rush to exploit all these, the rivalry between theEuropean states produced a world divided into commercialempires. In the short term the discoveries probably actedas a drain on European commercial and financial resources,particularly those of Spain and Portugal. The profits fromthe silver mines of Spanish America and the Portuguesespice trade were substantial for those directly involved, butwhile the outflow of precious metals from the Americas mayhave quickened economic activity in Europe, it also inten-sified the inflationary pressures that were already present.

Overall, the growth of transoceanic trade (map 1) madelittle impact on the European economy before the 1550s,and it has been suggested that it was not until the late 17thcentury that commercial and industrial profits fromEuropean trade with Asia and the Americas became visibleand significant, initiating a commercial revolution. By thistime the benefits resulting from Iberian overseas trade andinvestment had become more widely diffused acrossEurope, accruing principally to the Dutch Republic,followed closely by England and, later, France.

NEW COMMERCIAL ORGANIZATIONSWhereas Spain and Portugal relied on the formation of gov-ernment agencies to promote colonial and commercialenterprise, the newer colonial states adapted existing formsof corporate organization to serve new purposes. In thisrespect, the English and Dutch East India Companies(formed in 1600 and 1602 respectively) can be seen as fore-runners of the modern multinational corporations. Ownedby shareholders, managed by boards of directors andemploying accountants and other salaried workers, theseindependent companies wielded great political power athome and abroad. Their efficiency and the impact of theirmonopoly powers have been questioned, but they undoubt-edly played an important role in the expansion andintegration of the global economy.

Trade in the Far East was enmeshed with politics anddiplomacy, and required powerful trading bodies to act onbehalf of states. However, this was not the case in thecolonies of North America and the Caribbean where, withthe exception of the Dutch West India Company(1621-1791), trade was conducted mainly by private, unin-corporated merchants. Such merchants operated throughsocial networks that were formed on the basis of religious,family and other personal ties. Before 1700 the bulk of

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transatlantic commerce was conducted by Britishmerchants operating through colonial agents, but localmerchants increased their share of trade from the earlyyears of the 18th century, especially in the northerncolonies. Although institutionalized monopoly powers werenot necessary for the development of trade with NorthAmerica, the English Navigation Act of 1651 (prohibitingimports to England from outside Europe unless carried inEnglish ships) effectively established a national monopolywhich played an important role in undermining Dutchcompetition during the following century.

As the world economy expanded the Americas, Europeand the Far East became inextricably linked through trade,shipping and bullion flows. Silver bullion from the mines ofCentral and South America enabled the northern Europeaneconomies to buy goods from Asia and the Baltic (map 2).Imports from the Baltic region, such as timber for ship-building, iron ore and naval stores, contributed to thefurther expansion of long-distance trade, while the flow ofAsian imports - silk, calico, spices and drugs - brought con-sumer goods to Europe and North America. It was not untilthe second half of the 18th century that the amount of silverbullion exported to Asia fell sharply, compensated for byrising exports of British manufactured goods.

THE STIMULUS TO COMMERCIAL EXPANSIONA major stimulus behind the commercial revolution of the17th century was an increase in consumer demand. In spiteof demographic stagnation in Europe, towns and citiescontinued to expand (pages 132-33), and as they did sonew patterns of consumption and social behaviour evolved.Contributing to the diversification of consumption habitswas the arrival of new and exotic commodities such asspices, tobacco, tea, coffee, sugar, tropical fruit, dyestuffsand Asian textiles. Such commodities resulted in, forexample, the development of coffee houses, more fashion-able clothing and household furnishings, and new domesticrituals such as tea-drinking. Maize and potatoes helped tofeed Europe's growing population in the 18th century,without competing with home-produced foodstuffs. Newindustries such as sugar refining, tobacco processing, cottonmanufacture and textile printing developed as a result oflong-distance trade and colonial development.

However, despite the benefits of trade with Asia and theAmericas, economic growth in Europe depended mainly ontrade within Europe itself, and on improvements indomestic agriculture and manufacturing. Long-distancetrade was expensive, not always profitable, and did not con-tribute a great deal to capital formation within thosecountries which were at the core of the world economy.Competition between the European states - and the conse-quent need to defend, administer and control colonialterritories - involved increased public expenditure andmore complex government administration. Furthermore,the growing European demand for imported productsresulted in balance of payments problems for the countriesinvolved, to which there were two obvious solutions: toincrease the volume of re-exported goods, and to provideshipping services. In this sense, the commercial revolutiongenerated its own momentum.

GOVERNMENT INVOLVEMENT IN COMMERCEThe countries that gained most from this economic expan-sion were nation-states such as France and England, whichwere capable of developing the machinery of strong centralgovernment alongside aggressive mercantilist policies.Mercantilism aimed to increase employment through theencouragement of overseas trade, especially the import ofessential raw materials, while protecting home industry bythe imposition of high import duties. In comparison withthe English and French variants, Dutch mercantilismremained weak and incidental, particularly in the colonialfield. The decentralized federal structure of the UnitedProvinces, together with the deeply entrenched interests ofits merchants overseas, inhibited the kind of aggressiveunity that was partly behind the increasing power of itslarger neighbours - France and England.

Coffee houses were representative of thenew social habits that evolved in Europe inthe 17th and 18th centuries as a result ofthe import from Asia and the Americas ofcommodities then regarded as exotic.

Silver from the mines of Central andSouth America reached Europe via Spainand Portugal, where it entered the arteriesof world trade. The Dutch, who were thedominant commercial power in Europe,operated as Europe's bankers in circulatingcoin and bullion, using it to purchase goodsfrom three principal areas: the Baltic, theMiddle East and East Asia.

WORLD TRADE AND EMPIRES 1870-1914 pages 208-9 1 3 1THE EUROPEAN DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD 1450-1600 pages 116-17

EUROPEAN URBANIZATION1500-1800

The process of urbanization in Europeinvolved three overlapping phases. In thefirst of these, from 1500 to around 1650,there was general growth of towns andcities of all sizes. In the second phase,between 1650 and 1750, a few large cities- most notably London, Paris andAmsterdam - expanded rapidly, while inthe third phase there was an increase in thesize and number of smaller cities and arelative levelling off in the growth of largercities. In the 16th century the mosturbanized regions in Europe - defined by

resident in towns and cities - were thenorthern and southern Netherlands, andItaly. From the early 17th century,however, urban growth subsided in the lasttwo regions while cities in the northernNetherlands expanded rapidly, in commonwith those of England and Scotland. Bycomparison, only moderate urbanizationtook place in France.

A In the mid-18th century the Monument- a column erected to commemorate theGreat Fire of London of 1666 - wassurrounded by spacious brick and stonebuildings that were a great improvement onthe wooden structures that had stood in theirplace before the Fire. There were, however,many features of London that continued topose a threat to the health and safety of itscitizens, including the streets that were oftenrutted dirt tracks strewn with mounds ofrubbish. The standard of sanitation was verypoor and was to be the cause of manyoutbreaks of cholera and typhus throughoutthe 18th and 19th centuries.

By the early 16th century a European-centred worldeconomy was emerging, characterized not only by therise of transoceanic trade but also by new and dis-

tinctive patterns of urban growth in Europe itself. Between1500 and 1800 the towns and cities of Europe came to forma single urban system, involving the integration of regionaltrading networks and the commercialization of predomi-nantly rural economies.

In 1500 the most urbanized regions in Europe were Italyand the Netherlands, but from the early 17th century thepotential for urban growth began to move steadily north-wards, with the northern Netherlands becoming the mosturbanized area while rates of urban growth in Italy and thesouthern Netherlands subsided (maps 1-4). The DutchRepublic (the northern Netherlands) approached a ceilingin the mid-17th century because in the preceding centurythere had been no increase in the number of smaller centresfrom which cities could develop. England, by contrast, con-tained hundreds of market towns and industrial villagescapable of expansion. By the early 19th century the rate ofurban growth in Britain had reached that attained by theDutch a century earlier, but at a much higher level of popu-lation. Between 1680 and 1820 the population of Englandand Wales grew by 133 per cent, while that of the DutchRepublic increased by only 8 per cent. In both countries,however, a single dominating commercial centre hademerged by 1700.

THE GROWTH OF LONDON AND AMSTERDAMLondon's meteoric growth (map 5) overshadowed that of allits rivals, including Paris (graph). In 1600 about 5 per centof the English population lived in London; by 1700 this pro-portion had reached 10 per cent, much higher than in otherEuropean capital cities apart from Amsterdam, whichcontained 8 per cent of the Dutch population. Paris, bycomparison, contained only 2.5 per cent of the Frenchpeople. The exceptional position of London may account forthe rapid development of the English economy in the late17th and 18th centuries, at a time when London wasabsorbing half the natural increase of the entire population.

This rapid expansion led to problems of overcrowdingand insanitary conditions, bringing disease and high deathrates. It was therefore only through substantial migrationfrom the countryside that London and other large citiescould continue to grow. A more healthy environment forLondoners only began to evolve with the replacement oftimber by brick as a building material, and the introductionof building regulations after the Great Fire of London in1666. In Amsterdam, efforts to create a more carefullyplanned city intensified after 1613, when construction ofthe spacious outer girdle of canals began.

THE CHANGING ROLE OF CITIESFrom the 14th to the 19th centuries the European economywas dominated by a sequence of leading mercantile cities:Venice, followed by Antwerp, Genoa, Amsterdam, andfinally London. However, these cities were gradually over-taken by nation states in the deployment of commercialwealth, capital and military power. In Germany towns andcities lost their autonomy as princes absorbed them intopetty feudal states, while in Italy the towns themselvesbecame city states. The Dutch Republic, forged in thestruggle against Spanish centralization in the late 16thcentury, emerged as something of a hybrid, a federation ofcity states dominated by Amsterdam as first among equals.As Europe's commercial and financial centre of gravityshifted from Amsterdam to London in the early 18thcentury, a strong territorial state and an integrated nationaleconomy provided the resources for a new type of com-mercial metropolis, the modern "world city".

In the advanced pre-industrial economies of Europe,dominant cities acted as centres of innovation in manyfields, especially in the luxury trades, textile finishing, sci-entific instrument making, printing, and the fine anddecorative arts. Since the 12th century, when universitieshad begun to take over the educational role of the monas-teries, European cities had played a key role in thedissemination of knowledge. To their traditional educationalfunction was added, from the later 17th century, a growing

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the percentage of the total population


In the period 1750-1850 the majorityof large cities grew at much the same rateas the population as a whole, while smallercentres experienced a much higher rate ofgrowth. The notable exception to this rulewas London, whose meteoric growthcontinued unabated.

The population of London expandedfrom about 120,000 in 1550 to 575,000 by1700. This latter figure represented 10 percent of the English population, a uniquelyhigh proportion in comparison with otherEuropean capital cities at the time.

public sphere of political debate, scientific discourse, andliterary and aesthetic criticism. Newspapers first made theirappearance in London in the 1620s, and by the 1690s theywere carrying regular advertisements for a wide range ofgoods and commercial ventures, including books, medi-cines, lotteries, real estate and auction sales. Amsterdam ledthe way in the circulation and analysis of commercialinformation, as informal business correspondence wastransformed into printed lists of commodity prices from1613 onwards.

NEW URBAN CENTRES

As population levels rose in Europe after 1750 a new patternof urban growth began to unfold. Expansion was no longerconfined to the larger cities; indeed, it was the growth ofsmall cities and the emergence of new urban centres whichlay behind an overall increase in the pace of urbanization.There are two possible explanations for this, both arisingfrom the overall growth in population. First, there was anincreased demand for food, which in turn stimulated therural sector and the expansion of regional marketing andadministrative centres. Second, the clustering of rural pro-ducers in and around industrial villages during thepreceding century had created the basis for several newmanufacturing centres that were now able to emerge inresponse to growing markets.

WORLD POPULATION GROWTH AND URBANIZATION 1800-1914 pages 210-11 133URBAN COMMUNITIES IN WESTERN EUROPE 1000-1500 pages 102-3

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE 1500-1770

From the mid-16th century botanicalgardens were established in many universitytowns, and in the following centuryacademies of science added a newdimension to the range of institutions whichpromoted learning. The most important ofthese were the Roman Accademia dei Lincei(1603),theAccademiadelCimentoinFlorence (1657), the Royal Society ofLondon (1660) and the Academic Royaledes Sciences in Paris (1665).

etween the early 16th and mid-18th centuries therewas a remarkable growth both in the understandingof the natural world and in the capacity to exploit it.

In 1500 the study of mathematics was well established inmajor universities across Europe (map 1) and by the end ofthe 16th century it was a central discipline in bothProtestant and Catholic centres of learning. The idea thatthe world should be represented geometrically formed acentral strand of the Renaissance and was especially influ-ential in the development of perspective representation byItalian painters and architects. The research of a number ofpeople - including Nicolaus Copernicus (in Krakow),Johannes Kepler (in Tubingen and Prague), Galileo Galilei(in Padua and Florence) and Isaac Newton (in Cambridge) -suggested that God's Creation had been made according toa mathematical blueprint. England was briefly predominantin the field of natural philosophy following the publication ofNewton's Principict Mathematica in 1687, but in the 18thcentury cities as far apart as Basel, St Petersburg, and Parisbecame centres of European scientific creativity.

CENTRES OF LEARNINGThe works of Aristotle formed the basis of the universitycurriculum until the end of the 17th century, whenCartesian and then Newtonian doctrines began to take holdin most of Europe. A number of factors were involved inbringing about this shift: new discoveries, as well as a morecritical attitude to ancient texts, progressively weakened thecredibility of Aristotelian styles of explanation, while thedevelopment of print and paper production meant thatinformation was available to unprecedentedly large numbersof people, particularly the new urban elites. Moreover, withthe exception of Newton's research at Cambridge,innovation in the exact sciences ceased to be university-based after the late 16th century. Instead, the princelycourts in Germany and Italy became the major centres ofcreative work, while the Roman Accademia dei Lincei at thestart of the 17th century was the first of a number of acad-emies, both metropolitan and provincial, which promotedlearning in natural philosophy and astronomy (map 1).Little of note could have been achieved without networks

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of correspondence which connected individuals in all themajor European cities, the most significant being thoseorganized in the 17th century by Marin Mersenne, SamuelHartlib and Henry Oldenburg. Many of these letters wereprinted in philosophical journals - the Journal des Savantsand the Philosophical Transactions - which were estab-lished in the 1660s.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF BOTANYFrom the late 15th century European voyages to theAmericas, Africa and Asia (pages 116-17) provided noveland extraordinary facts which greatly supplemented andeven contradicted the existing Classical texts. Botany wasgalvanized by information and samples pouring in fromplaces outside Europe. From the Americas came maize,potatoes, runner beans, pineapples and sunflowers, and by1585 peppers from South America were being cultivatedin Italy, Castile and Moravia. New drug plants includedguaiacum, Chinese root and sarsaparilla. Botany waspractised at universities with strengths in medicine, andbotanical gardens were set up to cultivate rare and exoticplants (map 1). Books such as Leonard Fuchs's De HistoriaStirpium, published in 1542, pioneered naturalisticdepictions of plants, and the number of plants recorded insuch books expanded from less than a thousand in 1500 tothe 6,000 recorded in Gaspard Bauhin's Pinax of 1623.

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTSThroughout the 17th and early 18th centuries systematicobservation and the use of experimentation and the micro-scope accelerated the development of botanical andzoological knowledge across Europe. At the same time thedevelopment of the telescope revolutionized the study ofastronomy, with major new astronomical discoveries madeby scholars in London, Danzig, The Hague and Rome.

Research into the existence and nature of a vacuumlinked developments in natural philosophy to those in tech-nology. A vacuum was impossible in the Aristotelian system,but in the 1640s experimenters in France argued that thespace at the top of a tube inverted in a bowl of mercury wasvoid of matter. At about the same time Otto von Guericke ofMagdeburg began trials with the evacuation of air from acopper surrounding. His ideas were taken up by RobertBoyle and Robert Hooke in Oxford, who constructed anair-pump with a glass receiver in 1659. The DutchmanChristiaan Huygens supervised the construction of a pumpat the Academic Royale in Paris in 1665, and a number ofinstrument makers sold different sorts of pumps in Paris inthe 1670s. London, Paris, Leipzig and Leiden all becameparticularly influential centres of pump construction in the18th century, while London alone became the mostimportant general site of instrument manufacture (map 2).

INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGYThere were also momentous developments in the area ofindustrial technology. As pits were dug deeper and deeperto extract coal and minerals such as tin and lead, steamengines emerged as a response to the need to rid mines ofwater. At the start of the 17th century a number of peopleconsidered the possibility of using steam to raise water,either for clearing mines or for producing fountains andcascades for aristocratic gardens. It is no coincidence thata pioneer of air-pump design, Denis Papin, was alsoextremely influential in the early history of the steamengine. Having worked on air-pumps with Boyle andHuygens in the 1670s, he wrote an article in 1690 describ-ing how steam could raise a piston which would then beallowed to fall due to atmospheric pressure.

Papin's article may well have influenced Thomas Savery,who produced the first workable apparatus for raising waterby fire at the end of the 1690s. Savery was the latest in aline of engine constructors based around London, andalthough his machine was practical in limited situations, itwas of no help in deep mines and suffered repeatedly fromboiler explosions.

It was the Englishman Thomas Newcomen's piston-driven atmospheric engine which would transform industryin the period before James Watt's innovations revolution-ized the design of steam engines towards the end of the 18thcentury. Newcomen's first working engine was installed inStaffordshire in 1712 (map 2). The design of Newcomen'sengine was a closely guarded secret, and for the first 15years no machine outside Britain was made to work withoutthe support and maintenance of a British engineer. Thesuccess of the Newtonian system and the dominationenjoyed by the British in the art of engine design throughoutthe 18th century are indicative of the geographical shift ininnovative science and technology which had drifted north-wards from Italy at the end of the 16th century.

^ Thomas Newcomen's engine consisted ofa cylinder fitted with a piston, which wasattached to a counterweighed rockingbeam. This, in turn, was connected to apumping rod. Steam created in the cylinderforced the piston up; cold water was thenused to condense the steam, creating avacuum in the cylinder. Atmosphericpressure subsequently caused the piston tomove down, so raising the other end of therocking beam and lifting the pumping rod.

T From the 1650s the air-pump wasdeveloped in a number of European citiesand by the 1670s air-pumps were on sale inParis. The Musschenbroek brothers thendeveloped another centre of production inLeiden, which became the most importantsupplier of air-pumps, telescopes andmicroscopes in Europe.

The first Newcomen engine was installedin 1712 at Dudley Castle in Staffordshireand the design was quickly taken up bycoalfields and other mining operationsacross the north of England, although theengine's appetite for fuel was colossal. Itsrunning costs were, however, a majorobstacle to its diffusion across Europe.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN 1750-1850 pages 168-69> URBAN COMMUNITIES IN WESTERN EUROPE 1000-1500 pages 102-3 135

AFRICA1500-1800

A Pre-modern states in Africa hadfluctuating spheres of influence which aredifficult to plot on maps. A city-state such asKano, a market empire such as Asante anda shrine town such as Ife might retain afixed central location - but the ruling courtsof the Amhara of Ethiopia, or the Mande ofMali, or the Lunda of Congo regularlymoved from place to place in the manner ofmedieval European royalty. Specialists inanimal husbandry such as the Fulani ofWest Africa, the Somali of East Africa or theTswana of South Africa became even moremobile than the rulers of farmingcommunities as they sought out the bestecological opportunities for grazing theircamels and cattle. In contrast to this,fishermen and miners had fixed settlementsand defended their economic assets.

^he three centuries^after 1500 weremarked by an

increase in interactionbetween Africa's peoples andthose of the outside world,though this increase should notbe exaggerated. On the eastcoast there was no radical changein the pattern of cultural and com-mercial exchange that had existedsince the time of the Roman Empire,but Indians and Europeans encouragedthe further exploitation of East Africa'scopper mines, mangrove forests, elephantherds, gold deposits and shore-line(map 1). Foreigners also exploited opportunities to recruitvoluntary, and more especially involuntary, migrant labourto serve as ships' crews and pearl divers, as household slavesand concubines, or as field hands in the coconut groves anddate plantations of the Middle East.

The central interior of Africa was only indirectly affectedby the globalization of Africa's external relations before1800. Local merchants and kingdoms fought over saltquarries, iron mines and fishing lakes. Africa's ongoing agri-cultural revolution took a new leap forward when traditionalgrains such as millet and sorghum were supplemented bythe slow diffusion of tropical grains from the Americas such

fisheries

as flour maize and flint maize, whilethe traditional crops of root yam and

vegetable banana were augmented by newcarbohydrates processed from cassava.

THE INFLUENCE OF ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITYIn the northern third of tropical Africa, Islam slowly perco-lated along the ever-changing dust tracks of the Sahara, upthe cataracts of the Nile and down the sailing routes of theRed Sea to bring new spiritual energy, theological ideas,commercial codes of practice, jurisprudence, the Arabicalphabet and mosque-based scholarship to the towns ofAfrica. Perambulating scholars settled in Timbuktu andKano, where local holy men synthesized their own customswith those of Mediterranean Islam. Islamic art and archi-tecture spread too - as seen in the great minarets of theNiger Valley, regularly coated in river clay, and the palacesof the Swahili east coast, which were built of carved coral.

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In western Africa, Christianity was the vehicle forreligious change and adaptation. In the Kongo kingdom,one faction seized power in 1506 with the help of foreignpriests who subsequently built chapels and schools, createda small bureaucracy and archive, and developed powerfulChristian rituals to match local ones. A hundred years laterthe Papacy sent Capuchin friars to Kongo and thesurrounding principalities with a view to spreading the newreligion into the provincial and rural areas. Rustic tradi-tionalists proved more resistant to religious change thanambitious townsmen, however, and Christianity createdfactionalism, discord and eventually a civil war.

TRADE AND COLONIZATIONThe impact of European merchants on the Atlanticseaboard of Africa was older, and initially more pervasive,than that of Christianity. Much merchant activity wascarried out at open beaches off which 200-tonne sailingvessels anchored; on lagoons where canoes plied, carryingmerchandise and slaves; and in creeks where timber vesselsthat were no longer seaworthy were permanently anchoredas floating storehouses. On the Gold Coast (map 2} thepattern of trade was different, with around 40 gold-tradingfortresses being built by European trading nations. Amongthe greatest of these castle-warehouses was Cape CoastCastle, the headquarters of the English. Its installationswere matched by the fortifications and slave-trading housesof the French on the island of Goree and, in the south, thePortuguese fortress at Luanda, which was to become Africa'slargest slave-exporting harbour on the Atlantic Ocean.

During the 16th and 17th centuries three attempts atcolonization of parts of Africa were made by foreigners. TheOttomans spread through North Africa during the early16th century, capturing cities from Cairo to Algiers andcreating an empire which only began to break up whenNapoleon attacked Egypt in 1798. The next great coloniz-ing episode was the Portuguese attempt to gain and retaincommercial dominance on both the western and easternflanks of Africa after 1570. Unlike the Ottomans, thePortuguese were unable to conquer significant parts of themainland, though they attempted to do so in both Moroccoand Ethiopia. They did, however, create Creole communi-ties on the islands and in a few fortress towns, notably alongthe Zambezi River. The part of Africa most vulnerable toforeign attack proved to be Angola, where Portuguese mer-chants became conquistadores in the Spanish-Americanstyle. The third episode of early colonization was carried outby the Dutch, who between 1637 and 1652 captured threestrategic points - the gold-trading castle of Elmina, the slave

harbour of Luanda and the prospective military base atCape Town. Although the Portuguese were able to recoverLuanda in 1648 and resume their conquest of Angola, theDutch influence there proved pervasive. At Cape Town thecreolized Dutch remained a distinctive segment of thepopulation after the British captured the city in 1806.

The African response to the European opening of theAtlantic to long-distance shipping was to build theirmarkets, their cities and their royal capitals away from thecoast and beyond the range of direct foreign interference.In Angola, where European armies penetrated 300 kilo-metres (200 miles) inland, the greatest of the Africantrading empires built the royal compounds of Lunda beyondthe reach of the conquistadores. In Asante, by contrast, theresistance to invasion was so effective that a royal city withpermanent palaces could be safely established at a strategiccrossroads little more than 150 kilometres (100 miles) fromthe coast. The Asante Empire was able to absorb severalolder kingdoms which had been brokers between the coastand the interior. The empire of Oyo partially eclipsed theancient trading city of Benin and absorbed the powerfulshrine city of Ife; a brash new trading state was created inDahomey and attracted Latin American and Europeanmerchants anxious to buy prisoners of war in exchange forfirearms and gunpowder as well as textiles and luxuries.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE SLAVE TRADEThe period 1500-1800 saw an enormous increase in thescale of the American, Mediterranean and Asian purchaseof slaves. In some areas, such as Angola, the consequencewas a demographic haemorrhage as thousands of peoplewere sold abroad each year, thereby undermining the capac-ity of communities to renew themselves. In Guinea the slavetrade caused such acute social malaise that small commu-nities became dominated by secret societies whichmanipulated a rising fear of witchcraft. In the Niger Basinwhole communities were devastated by raids which causeddeath, famine and disease on a spiralling scale. In contrastto this, some successful broker kingdoms built up theiragrarian economies with new crops and preserved their pop-ulation by refusing to sell young women captives abroad.

In the long term, however, the effects of the slave tradewere to entrench violence as a way of life and create a dam-aging intellectual climate which presumed that white peoplewere superior to black people. The decolonizing of theminds of both the perpetrators and the victims of the slavetrade was to be a slow process, further delayed by the colo-nial interlude which affected Africa during the first half ofthe 20th century.

A When the Portuguese first arrived inBenin City in 1486 they found asophisticated and wealthy kingdom. Royalpatronage was the basis for the productionof elaborate sculptures and artefacts, andthe demand for copper and brass for thiswork formed the basis for early trade withthe Portuguese. This 16th-century ivorycarving, probably intended for theEuropean market, shows a Portuguesesoldier engaged in the slave trade.

The Gold Coast and the Slave Coast werethe most intensively exploited parts of theAfrican seaboard. Here Europeans builtfortified castle-warehouses to protect theirchests of gold and stocks of textiles fromplunder and to serve as warehouses,cantonments, slave-pens and well-appointedresidences for European governors.

AFRICA 1800-80 pages 204-5 1 3 7EAST AFRICA 500-1500 pages 82-83WEST AFRICA 500-1500 pages 80-81

MING AND MANCHU QING CHINA1368-1800

A China during the Ming period was opento foreign trade, doing business with itsneighbours in every direction. Its exportswere predominantly manufactured goods,including silk cloth, ceramics, paper andbronze coins, but they also included someraw materials (such as silk). This patternchanged in the 18th century when Chinaresponded to international demand andbegan to supply large quantities of silk, teaand porcelain to the West. Having only smalldeposits of precious metals, it relied largelyon imported silver and gold to support itsincreasingly sophisticated market economy.

n 1368 the Mongols, who had ruled China since 1271,were ousted by a peasants' revolt, the leader of whichcrowned himself Emperor Taizu and founded the Ming

dynasty. The Ming period (1368-1644) marked a renais-sance in China's cultural, political and economic strength.Administrative systems for running the empire dating from221 BC were resumed, the imperial examinations for appli-cants to the civil service were reinstated, and there was anational census and land registration for the purposes oftaxation. The Spiritual School (xinxue), based on thetradition of the Ideologist School of Confucianism (lixue)was established, supporting the need for social orderaccording to the "Will of Heaven". It was to remain popularthroughout the Ming and subsequent Qjng period.

DEVELOPMENTS IN AGRICULTUREAn agricultural system based on small freeholds wasrebuilt, and initially attempts were made by Emperor Taizuto control the tax burden on the poorer farmers. Duringthe second half of the Ming period, however, ownership ofland became increasingly concentrated in the hands of afew. This led to the introduction of dual ownership, underwhich a freeholder could offer land for permanent lease.Sharecropping - a system by which a proportion of thecrops produced by the leaseholder is handed over in rent -was also common.

There were significant technological improvements inChinese agriculture. From the second half of the 16th

century new crops were adopted from the outside world,including the potato and sweet potato, maize, sugar beet,tomato, kidney bean, mango, papaya, agave, pineapple,chilli and tobacco; several improved species, such as theAmerican peanut and cotton, were also introduced. Thisresulted in an agricultural revolution, with an increase inthe use of marginal land and, as a consequence, in agricul-tural production. China's landscape and the Chinese dietwere both dramatically altered. The publication of theComplete Treatise on Agricultural Administration inaround 1625 also had a major impact. Its author, XuGuangqi, was the de facto Prime Minister, and he enthusi-astically promoted the new crops and Western technologyfor water control. As a result, the Chinese economy wasable to survive the increasingly frequent natural disastersof the second half of the Ming period.

TRADE AND EXPANSION OF INFLUENCEMing China was active in domestic and foreign trade.Trading guilds were well established in commercial centresand long-distance trade in staple products flourished(map 1). China was essentially open to foreign trade, as isevident from the outflow of ceramics and silk, and theinflow of silver that enabled China to adopt its first silverstandard. A large number of Chinese settled in SoutheastAsia, along the maritime trading routes. In addition,European Christian missionaries in China introducedWestern technology. Some, such as Matteo Ricci in the

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I


16th century, were appointed to high positions in theImperial Court.

Chinese influence was extended by the state-sponsoredvoyages of the early 15th century, led by Admiral ZhengHe. The admiral and his fleet crossed the South China Sea,the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea, visiting among otherplaces Sumatra, Calicut, Zufar and Mogadishu (map 2).The armada - consisting of 27,800 mariners on 200 ships -was well equipped with charts and compasses, and its cap-tains were knowledgeable about meteorological andhydrological conditions. Its voyages, which represent themost spectacular episode in Chinese maritime history,helped to consolidate China's sphere of influence in Asia.

Western powers presented little threat during the Mingperiod. In 1622-24 the imperial navy twice defeated invad-ing Dutch fleets: off China's south coast, at Macau andAmoy, and off the Pescadore Islands near Taiwan. OnlyJapanese pirates generally caused concern on the coasts.The real danger to the empire came from the Tatar andManchu invasions on the northern and northwestern fron-tiers, and in 1449 Emperor Zhu Qizhen was captured whilefighting the invaders. Between 1368 and 1620, 18 majorconstruction projects were carried out to overhaul the6,700 kilometres (4,200 miles) of the Great Wall (map 3).

THE DECLINE OF THE MlNG DYNASTYThe military strength of the empire gradually faded, andinternal rebellions broke out every year from 1522. Therewas a decline in the efficiency of the Ming government,partly due to interference in the process of government bycourt eunuchs, but also because rampant tax evasion threwthe government into financial difficulties. In response,around 1573 a "one-whip method" of taxation was intro-duced, intended to lower administrative costs by reducingthe number of different taxes levied, and to spread the taxburden more fairly. This reform was short-lived, however,and financial and socio-economic crises were to haunt theMing dynasty until its downfall.

The Ming dynasty ended in 1644 with the suicide ofEmperor Zhu Yiujian following the fall of Beijing to rebels.Officials of the Ming government enlisted the aid of theManchus - a hitherto nomadic people from beyond theGreat Wall who had adopted the Chinese culture - to helpthem drive the rebels from Beijing. However, once incontrol of the capital the Manchus refused to leave, and therule of the Manchu Qing dynasty (1644-1911) began. (AMing exile government survived in Taiwan until 1683 in theform of a city state with a large fleet and an extensivetrading network in East and Southeast Asia.)

EARLY MANCHU QING RULEThe legitimacy of the Manchu Qing dynasty was always inquestion, and perhaps as a consequence it made few inno-vations; its language, state machinery, legal framework andeconomic policies were all inherited from the Ming. Theearly Qing can, however, be credited with maintaining along internal peace and with expanding the Chinese empireto its greatest extent ever, by joining the Manchu territoryin Manchuria and Siberia to China, consolidating militarycontrol over the part of Turkestan known as the "NewTerritory", and developing a political link with Tibet(map 3). As a result, the population of the Chinese Empirereportedly tripled from around 143 million in 1740 to over423 million in 1846. From 1800 onwards, however, theQing dynasty was increasingly under threat from internaluprisings - caused by famine and a corrupt government -and from aggressive Western powers.

A Under the Manchu dynasty the ChineseEmpire, already extensive, trebled in size.However, with the exception of Manchuria,the territory gained was neither highlypopulated nor particularly fertile. Althoughthe vassal states of Korea and Annamprovided the empire with only a smallincome, they did form buffer zones againstpotential invaders.

^ Zheng He's fleets, which numbered 200ships, sailed on a series of voyages acrossthe Indian Ocean as far as Arabia and theeast coast of Africa, and throughout theislands of Southeast Asia. The ships returnedladen with goods and exotic plants, as wellas prisoners of war (including the King ofCeylon). Zheng's fleets used force on threeoccasions: in Sumatra in 1404, in Ceylon(Sri Lanka) in 1410, and in Sumatra in1413, mainly against Chinese pirates.

LATE MANGHU QING CHINA 1800-1911 pages 198-99 139THE MONGOL EMPIRE 1206-1405 pages 98-99

TOKUGAWA JAPAN1603-1867

A Throughout the Tokugawa period Japanremained divided into a largely stablenumber of domains, with the Tokugawa and

controlling over 25 per cent of the land.

themselves with a particular region ratherthan a domain, and economic and socialdevelopments occurred on a regional basis.

A Tokugawa leyasu was responsible forthe establishment of the TokugawaShogunateinl603. Theshogunateachieved peace throughout the islands ofJapan for two and a half centuries - butonly through the imposition of strict controlson all classes of society and a policy ofisolation from the rest of the world.

n 1603, after many decades of civil war, Japan cameunder a new structure of military government headed bythe Tokugawa family. The emperor, resident in Kyoto, no

longer had any real political power, although the Tokugawaadministration, called the Shogunate orBakuju, ruled in hisname. It discharged some of the functions of a national gov-ernment but a degree of decentralization persisted, with thecountry divided into domains, each ruled by a semi-autonomous daimyo (lord). Former enemies of the regimebecame tozama (outside) lords, while those deemedfriendly were denoted fudai and were given importantgovernment posts. Fudai domains, along with those ofcollateral branches of the Tokugawa family (shinpan), wereconcentrated in the centre of the country (map 1). Theshogunate had no power to tax within any of the domains,or, in general, to intervene in the political control of theseprivate fiefdoms. Its only income came from lands directlyowned by the Tokugawa and related (collateral) families,including, for example, the li and Matsudaira.

In an attempt to ensure their continued dominance, theTokugawa implemented controls over individual lords andthe population in general. Contacts with countries outsideJapan were restricted to a minimum, giving rise to a periodof national seclusion, or "isolation". All daimyo had to visitthe shogunal capital, Edo, regularly, and leave their familiesthere as hostages. They were compelled to engage in publicworks to restrict their finances, and public disorder withindomains could incur heavy penalties. A strict hereditarycaste system headed by the ruling samurai (warrior) caste,followed in descending order by farmers, artisans andmerchants, was enforced. The economy was based on rice,with the size and wealth of the various domains measured interms of the rice crop. The daimyo paid their warriorretainers stipends measured in rice, and the warrior casteas a whole marketed any surplus not required forconsumption to purchase other necessities and luxuries.

URBANIZATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTHAlthough the influence of the Tokugawa over the daimyoprogressively weakened, the ruling structure remainedbroadly unchanged until the fall of the shogunate in 1867.However, the very success of the regime in achieving

political and social stability stimulated changes which wereultimately to contribute to its downfall. Removal of thelikelihood that output would be plundered or destroyedencouraged both farmers and artisans to increase produc-tion, while peace made the transport of raw materials andfinished products easier (map 2).

By the end of the Tokugawa period a growing proportionof the population resided in towns of over 5,000 people, andin some areas this proportion reached over 30 per cent(map 3). The need for the ruling caste to transform theirrice income into cash stimulated the rise of powerfulmerchant families, many based in the city of Osaka. Thesemerchant houses accumulated great wealth, despite theirlow social status, and a growing proportion of the popula-tion engaged in educational and cultural pursuits.

Agricultural output increased with the aid of improvedtechniques and land reclamation, and the majority ofpeasants ceased to be simple subsistence rice producers,becoming involved, along with artisans, in the supply ofhandicrafts and other goods. The population, after growingin the first half of the Tokugawa period, stabilized. The latteryears saw the rise of manufacturing activities outside thetowns, the development of local specialities and theemergence of what has been termed "proto-industriali-zation". It is generally agreed that these economic develop-ments were a significant factor in supporting Japan'ssubsequent process of industrialization.

SOCIAL CHANGE AND UNRESTThe scale of economic growth and change in the 17th and18th centuries put pressure on the old system, with theauthorities becoming powerless to control the expandingcommercial interests and networks. Social status and wealthno longer went hand in hand, and the daimyo and theirfollowers found themselves in debt to rich merchants whowere nominally at the bottom of the social hierarchy. Thedistinctions between castes became blurred as individualsceased to confine themselves to their prescribed occupa-tions; the samurai, in particular, now had little reason todemonstrate their military role, instead becoming bureau-crats, scholars and, increasingly, anything that would makeends meet. New economic structures, such as landlordism,

140

Irelated families (shinpan) together

However, People generally identified


INCIDENCE OF PEASANT UPRISINGS IN THE TOKUGAWA PERIOD

T Peasant uprisings peaked in the 1830s- an era of famine - when unrest not onlyinvolved greater numbers than ever beforebut also spread to embrace whole regions.Rioting occurred both in towns and in thecountryside, culminating in a major uprisingin Osaka in 1837.

A Transport routes used by the rulingclass were increasingly supplemented, bothon land and by sea, by routes for thetransport of goods around the country.These routes were also used by the commonpeople, and this was a contributory factor inthe increasing mobility of the population inthe later years of the Tokugawa regime.

T The shogunate policy of bringingmembers of the samurai warrior class intothe capital of each domain, and theconcentration of c/o/m/o familiesand retainers in Edo and other towns,stimulated a substantial increase inurbanization, which in turn promotedconspicuous consumption.

threatened to undermine the traditional tribute relationshipbetween peasant and warrior. Above all, the benefits ofgrowth were not evenly spread. Not only did the ruling castelose out through their dependence on relatively fixed riceprices at a time of inflation, but the lower strata of agricul-tural workers and urban residents proved highly vulnerableto crop failures, market manipulation and arbitraryexactions by some of their rulers. Local unrest, oftenviolent, became an increasingly frequent occurrence,particularly from the late 18th century (bar chart).

The ultimate failure of the ruling caste in many areas -particularly those controlled by the shogunate and itsclosest followers - to cope adequately with the effects of allthese pressures fundamentally weakened the system,rendering it vulnerable to political and military oppositionfrom within, and Western threats from without. When, after1853, Western countries managed to breach Japan'sseclusionist policy, their presence further weakened theintegrity of an already shaky system, and contributed togrowing internal conflicts. In 1867 these resulted in thedownfall of the Tokugawa and the establishment by itsenemies of a new regime, nominally headed by the emperor,the following year.

THE MODERNIZATION OF JAPAN 1867-1937 pages 200-1 1 4 1EAST ASIA 907-1600 pages 86-87

THE OTTOMAN AND SAFAVID EMPIRES1500-1683T The Ottoman Empire, alreadysubstantial in 1500, continued to expand inthe 16th and 17th centuries, though notwithout setbacks, such as its defeat in thenaval Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Its declinecan be dated from! 683 when Ottomantroops were forced to retreat after failing intheir attempt to take Vienna.

T The area east of the Euphrates was thesubject of much dispute between theOttomans and Safavids in the 16th andearly 17th centuries, until a boundarybetween the two empires was finally agreed-with the Peace of Zuhab in 1639.

T he Ottoman and Safavid states represented twinpeaks of Islamic political and cultural achievement,and each handed down a powerful and complex

legacy to the modern Islamic world. From the mid-15thcentury to 1683 the Ottoman Empire was also one of themost successful and militarily effective states of all time.Its sultan, whom Western contemporaries called "TheGrand Signior", was regarded with immense respectthroughout Christendom. Ottoman power was based on

gunnery, the maintenance of a navy and an effectivesystem of military recruitment and training. Originally, theOttoman Janissary regiments were maintained by thedevshirme - the "gathering" of child slave recruits fromthe margins of the empire, who eventually were able toleave military service as free Muslims. However, by the17th century local, Muslim-born recruits were beginning todominate the army.

The Ottoman state displayed a high level of religioustolerance for the substantial proportion of the empire'ssubjects who were not Ottoman Turks or even Muslims.Members of minority communities became senior Ottomancommanders and administrators; indeed, the OrthodoxGreek community was probably richer and more numer-ous than that of the ruling Ottoman Turks.

The Ottoman economy was based on an agriculturalsociety which supported a system of military and religiousfiefdoms. A vital adjunct to this peasant world was providedby the empire's most notable and outward-looking commu-nities - the Greeks, Armenians, Syrians and Sephardi Jewswho dominated many of the empire's cities and towns.

Territorial expansion was intrinsic to Ottoman power(map 1). As late as the 17th century there was no sign thatpolicy-makers in Constantinople believed that Ottomanterritorial authority had reached saturation point orachieved natural frontiers. Yet this was, in effect, the case.The Ottoman threat to Italy faded and Vienna - the "RedApple of the West" in Ottoman military folklore - remaineda prize that eluded the sultans. The defeat of the last greatOttoman expedition to Vienna in 1683 marked the begin-ning of the empire's long decline.

THE SAFAVID STATEThe Safavids made their mark by nurturing the culture thatdefines modern Iran. The founder of the Safavid dynastywas Shah Ismail I (r. 1501-24), who re-established acentral government amid the political chaos into whichPersia had fallen in the aftermath of the age of Timur-leng.Ismail's partisans were the Qizilbash - red-cappedTurcoman devotees of the Safawi religious brotherhood.The shah welded the Qizilbash into a political force by

1 4 2


linking his and their ambitions to the establishment of"Twelver Shiism" as the religion of the Persian state. In thewider Islamic world, this nostalgic Shiite tradition wasincreasingly a marginal or sectarian faith, regarded by theSunni majority as heretical. In Safavid Persia, Shiismbecame the defining national creed, providing the Safavidswith an ideological focus. Unfortunately, it also exacerbatedenmities between Persia and its Sunni Muslim neighboursand rivals, the Ottomans to the west and the Uzbek raidersfrom Transoxania (map 2).

Safavid shahs - most notably Abbas I (r. 1587-1629) -were deliberate propagandists of Shiite culture. They werepatrons of representational art, usually in miniature, andundertook a magnificent building programme of religiousarchitecture, palaces and public works. The greatest splen-dours survive in Abbas I's capital, Esfahan.

THE FORGING OF A FRONTIERThe Ottoman Turks inherited from their Byzantine prede-cessors a determination to keep the Black Sea dependenton Constantinople, free from control by Central Asianrulers. When Shah Ismail and his Qizilbash forces beganto infiltrate eastern Anatolia from Tabriz in the early 16thcentury, they provoked a massive Ottoman militaryresponse. The armies of Sultan Selim the Grim were in theforefront of contemporary military capacity, and theOttoman artillery gained a dramatic victory over thelightly-armed Persians at Chaldiran in 1514.

The Battle of Chaldiran appears to have shifted thecentre of gravity of the Persian Empire to the east, but itwas not a final encounter. It led to more than 120 years ofintermittent Ottoman-Safavid conflict over land occupiedby Azeris, Kurds and Mesopotamian Arabs (map 2). (Bydiverting Ottoman attention from the Balkans, this conflictrelieved western Europe of some of the military pressureto which it had been exposed since the Ottoman elimi-nation of the Byzantine Empire in 1453.) The standardpattern in this long conflict was one of an Ottoman offen-sive countered by Persian "scorched earth" and guerrillatactics. Shah Abbas I was briefly able to set the Safavidforces on the offensive and reconstitute most of the empire

once ruled by his predecessor Ismail, but the eventualsettlement, enshrined in the lasting Peace of Zuhab in1639, favoured the Ottomans. The frontier had no logic interms of language, ethnicity or culture. It divided ratherthan defined communities, splitting Sunni from Sunni andShiite from Shiite, but it formed the basis for the frontierbetween the Ottoman and Persian empires and survived asthe Iraq-Iran border. The Safavid Empire continued untilthe invasion of its lands by the Ghilzai Afghans in 1722heralded the demise of the dynasty in 1736.

THE WORLD OF MERCHANTS AND CARAVANSThe Ottoman and Safavid states governed lands that hadbeen in contact with a wider world since antiquity. Theempires were crossed by commercial and pilgrimage routesand contained gateways by land and sea which linked theMediterranean and Levantine worlds to the Indian sub-continent, Southeast Asia and China (map 3).

Many Ottoman and Safavid traders were also Muslimpilgrims undertaking journeys to Mecca. However, a goodproportion of the traders and migrants from the Islamicempires were not Muslims but members of Christian andJewish minority groups operating in partnership withEuropeans, many of whom were based in Constantinople,Smyrna, Aleppo and Alexandria - the empire's "windowsto the West". Safavid contacts with the Western world weretenuous and bedevilled by the difficulties of the Persianterrain, but during the 16th century European adventur-ers did make their way to Esfahan and back. At the sametime, the powers of western Europe began to establish theirown sea routes to the East (pages 118-19), thus threaten-ing to wrest control of Eurasian trade from the Muslims.However, although in 1515 the Portuguese capturedOrmuz, a Gulf market for horses and spices, they lost itagain to the Safavids in 1622. Thereafter, the old trade inspices and silk - and a new trade in tea - continued to beserviced by caravan routes into the 18th century.

A The territory ruled by the Ottomans andSafavids was criss-crossed by land and searoutes used by merchants and pilgrimsalike. Sea travel was risky but could berelatively straightforward on Mediterraneanshort hops or in regions governed by thealternating monsoon winds. Overland trafficwas arduous and slow but continued to playan important role in trade with Asia untilwell into the 18th century.

A The dome of the Madrasa-yi Madar-iShah mosque is among the many splendoursof Safavid architecture built in the 17thcentury in Esfahan, the capital of Abbas I.

THE DECLINE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1683-1923 pages 178-79 143THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES 1025-1500 pages 96-97

INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS1526-1765

A On the death of Babur in 1530 theMughal Empire was little more than an areain northern India under military occupation.During the reign of Akbar, between 1556and 1605, it was much expanded andbecame a centrally governed state.

V The artisan industries of India -especially those manufacturing cottontextiles - were at first stimulated by thearrival of the Europeans in the 16th century.As a result, India became the workshop ofthe world known to Europeans.

The Mughal Empire was founded in 1526 by Babur,Sultan of Kabul. Babur was of Turkic origin and tracedhis ancestry back to Timur-leng (Tamerlane) and to

Ghinggis Khan, the Mongol Emperor of China. His advancefrom Kabul was at the expense of Afghan warlords whothemselves had spread into the plains of India,conquering the Sultanate of Delhi and establishing the Lodidynasty. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle ofPanipat in 1526 and then, until his death in 1530, progres-sively extended his sway across the Ganges Valley as fareast as the borders of Bengal (map 1).

CONSOLIDATION UNDER AKBARBabur's successor, Humayan (r. 1530-56), faced a resurgenceof Afghan power and, between 1540 and 1555, was driveninto exile while the empire was ruled by Sher Shah and hissons. In 1555 Humayan retook Delhi to restore the Timuridmonarchy, and when he died the following year the succes-sion passed to his son Akbar (r. 1556-1605). Having driventhe Mughals' enemies from Delhi, Akbar used his long reignboth to expand the empire and, even more significantly,to consolidate and transform it, converting a rulershipfounded on warrior nomadism into one based on central-ized government.

The state which Akbar constructed had a number of keyfeatures. At the top he built a "service" nobility of mans-abdars who provided administration across the empire.Many mansabdars were immigrants from elsewhere in theIslamic world, whose loyalty was owed exclusively to theemperor himself. Beneath them, Akbar incorporated theHindu Rajput chieftains who ruled over lower castes andcommoners. These chieftains possessed local power baseswhich were notionally independent of Mughal authority, buttheir status and security were enhanced by membership ofan imperial aristocracy. To facilitate their incorporation,Akbar - who was fascinated by all religions - also promoteda cultural style which crossed strict religious boundaries.Beneath the mansabdari-Rajput elite, the empire rested onthe labour of millions of peasants and artisans from whomlarge revenues were extracted.

A Following the death of Aurangzeb in1707 many regional states competed forpower, and the roles which the Europeanswere acquiring in trading and bankingbecame increasingly significant. Frequently

the regional states depended on Europeancommercial agencies - such as the BritishEast India Company - which, as a result,moved more directly into the politicalforeground during the 18th century.

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INDUSTRY AND TRADEAkbar's successors Jahangir(r. 1605-27) and Shah Jahan(r. 1627-58) continued theseimperial structures - whichmade Mughal rulership one ofthe wonders of the time. Mughalsplendour and power were com-parable only to those of theOttoman and Chinese empires(pages 138-39 and 142-43). Theywere based on the mobilization ofgreat wealth through a system of cash-taxation, which itself was made possibleby the high productivity and commercialdevelopment of the economy. India's fertileriver valleys yielded substantial agriculturalsurpluses, which in turn supported extensiveartisan industries (map 2). From at least the10th century these industries had been drawninto trading networks stretching from Arabia to Indonesia.

At the end of the 15th century Asian trade had alsobegun to attract European interest (pages 118-19). First thePortuguese, then the Dutch, French and English, reachedIndia by sea and developed trading links (map 3). Theybrought with them huge quantities of gold and silver takenfrom the Americas, further stimulating the Indian economy.

However, the European presence also spelled danger -although its character did not become fully apparent untilthe 18th century. At that point, and most notably after thedeath of the Emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707), Mughalpower went into precipitate decline (map 4). The empirewas unable to respond to invasions from abroad or torebellions at home. Even the mansabdari elite turnedagainst it, as governors (or nawabs) declared themselvesindependent and sought to establish their own kingdoms.Although the emperorship retained a symbolic significancethroughout the rest of the century (and was not formallyabolished until 1857), the real substance of Mughal powerwas weakening even by 1730.

THE EMPIRE'S COLLAPSEMany different explanations

have been put forward for thesudden collapse of so mighty and

established an empire. Nearly all of thesehave rooted the problem in Aurangzeb's

reign. He sought to expand Mughal powersouthwards, taking virtually the whole of the

subcontinent under imperial rule. However, indoing so he became involved in protracted con-

flict against opponents whom he couldneither defeat nor incorporate.

Aurangzeb's long wars in the south provedextremely costly. They stretched thefinances of the empire and promoted

changes in its internal structures. Heincreased the weight of taxation,which fomented revolt in otherprovinces. Frustrated by the HinduMarathas, he became increasingly

intolerant in his religious practices -threatening the Hindu-Muslim accord

which had marked Akbar's empire. To copewith the rising pressures, Aurangzeb also expanded themansabdari elite in ways which reduced the representa-tion of Muslim immigrants and thus increased that of localIndian powers. The empire which he bequeathed to hissuccessors in 1707 was already deeply strained.

Yet there may have been other causes of Mughaldecline, which point to the growing influence of a widerworld. Rapid commercial expansion in the 17th century,when an ever-growing number of trading posts was estab-lished, both altered the political geography of India andchanged the social balance between military and economicpower. Commerce was based on overseas trade and mostenriched the maritime provinces. It also strengthened theposition of mercantile groups and the gentry classes. TheMughal Empire, founded by warrior descendants of the"Mongol Horde" and centred on cities in India's heartland,was singularly ill-equipped to manage such developments.

* Aurangzeb attempted to establish Mughalpower in southern India. However, in doing sohe came up against foes - in particular, theMarathas - whom he could do little to contain.The Marathas introduced new forms ofwarfare, based on guerrilla tactics, whichdefied Mughal armed might. Also, as chief-tains risen from the peasantry - rather thanimposed on top of it - Maratha leadersspurned the kinds of inducements which hadmade the Rajputs susceptible to imperialinfluence. From the 1680s Maratha armiesbroke through the Mughal cordon meant tocontain them, and ravaged far and wide. TheEuropeans, who had established trading postsaround the coast, were mere observers ofevents at this time.

A The Mughals are renowned for theirarchitectural achievements, the mostfamous of which is the Taj Mahal, builtbetween 1632 and 1648 by Shah Jahan.Painting also flourished, particularly duringthe reign of Jahangir, shown here looking ata portrait of Akbar, his father.

THE BRITISH IN INDIA 1608-1920 pages 194-95 145THE MUSLIM WORLD 1000-1400 pages 88-89

EUROPEAN STATES1500-1600

Frontiers in Europe changed consider-ably between 1500 and 1560. In 1500the border between France and the HolyRoman Empire, for example, was thatdefined by the Treaty of Verdun in 843,with the addition to France of Dauphinein 1349 and Provence in 1481. The treatiesof Madrid (1526) and Cambrai (1529)fundamentally modified the border in thenorth by transferring Flanders and Artoisfrom France to the Empire.

aps of 16th-century Europe are often deceptivein that they appear to suggest that the western coun-tries - France, Spain and England - and the eastern

countries - Poland and Russia - were consolidated andcentralized, while sandwiched between them many tinyentities were grouped together to form the Holy RomanEmpire (map 1). In fact, all the European states were highlydecentralized and regionalized in 1500. France (map 2)actually saw an increase in devolution during the 16thcentury as many provinces escaped central control in theFrench Wars of Religion (1562-98).

Spain consisted largely of a union of the kingdoms ofCastile and Aragon, with Castile itself made up of a numberof component kingdoms. In 1512 Ferdinand of Aragonadded to this by annexing the kingdom of Navarre, thoughnot the portion of it north of the Pyrenees. Stability inSpain rested on the willingness of the government (centredat Madrid from the 1560s) not to touch the immunities andprivileges of these kingdoms, another of which was addedto the Spanish Habsburg realm in 1580 when King Philip IIof Spain also became King of Portugal.

Poland was divided up into counties and governorshipsdominated by the nobility, and was formally made up oftwo realms, the kingdom of Poland and the vast GrandDuchy of Lithuania. Agreements reached between 1569and 1572 turned the kingdom into an elective monarchyin which the power of the king was limited by a diet madeup of senators and delegates.

The Russian Empire came into being as a multi-ethnicempire only after the coronation of Ivan IV in 1547. It wascreated through the conquest of the Tatar khanates ofKazan and Astrakhan in the 1550s and expansion acrossthe Urals into Siberia from the 1580s (pages 148-49).Though often ruled brutally, it hardly consisted of a cen-tralized realm and, indeed, for a decade of Ivan's reign(1564-74) it was deliberately divided by the tsar into apersonal domain, in which his word was law, and the restof the country, in which the boyars (nobles) ruled.

THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIREBy the 16th century the jurisdiction of the Holy RomanEmpire was, in reality, confined to the territory north ofthe Alps. The Italian section continued formally as part ofthe Empire, with its rulers nominally invested as ImperialVassals, but as time went on this had less and less meaning.The Swiss Confederation gained exemption from imperialduties in 1499 and was formally released from imperialjurisdiction in 1648.

In 1500 and 1512 the rest of the Empire was organizedin Imperial Circles for purposes of raising taxes andadministering justice. The Netherlands was formed as theBurgundian Circle, the northern provinces of which wereformally recognized as independent of the Empire in 1648.As a result of the Lutheran Reformation (pages 154-55),many of the ecclesiastical territories were secularized after1520. The basic constitution of the Empire (the Golden

146

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^ France was composed of provinces,some of which were under centralizedcontrol (pays Selections) while othersraised local taxes through regional

assemblies (pays d'etats). Law differedwidely between regions, the main distinctionbeing between the Roman-based law of thesouth and the customary law of the north.

Bull of 1356, which defined the princes who had the rightto elect the Emperor), was modified by the Treaty ofAugsburg of 1555 to accommodate these changes, grantingprinces and cities the right to be Lutheran and recogniz-ing the secularization of church property up to 1552.

EUROPEAN DYNASTIESMost European states were to some extent dynastic - theywere regarded as a family inheritance. The collection oflands under the rule of the King of Spain in the second halfof the century (Portugal, Castile, Navarre, Catalonia, Naplesand Sicily) was the product of dynastic inheritance underthe Habsburg Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor from 1519to 1558 (pages 152-53). In the British Isles, King Henry VIIIof England claimed the throne of Ireland in 1541, and in1603 King James VI of Scotland inherited the Englishthrone, thus uniting all three kingdoms under one monarch.

In central Europe at the beginning of the 16th century,one branch of the Jagiellon dynasty of Poland ruled overPoland-Lithuania while another ruled over Bohemia andHungary. Hungary, one of the largest kingdoms of the lateMiddle Ages, was a union of Hungary itself (with powerdevolved to powerful regional magnates), Croatia and partsof Bosnia. After King Lajos II of Hungary was overwhelmedby the Ottomans at the Battle of Mohacs in 1526 (pages142-43), much of his inheritance passed to the Habsburgsthrough his sister's marriage to Ferdinand I, the brotherof Emperor Charles V.

From the 1540s the borderland between this easternHabsburg territory and the Ottoman Empire was marked bya number of territories: Hungarian Transylvania (Erdely),Moldavia and Wallachia were ruled by local princes as trib-utaries of the sultan, whose direct rule extended to Budaand the central region of Hungary. In the north the Union ofKalmar of 1397, which had brought together Denmark,Norway and Sweden-Finland under the same monarch, wasbroken in 1523 with the secession of Sweden-Finland underGustav I Vasa (pages 150-51).

DYNASTIC WARSThe ruling dynasties of Europe were all closely related to eachother, though this did not prevent the fighting of wars. Oftendescribed as "Wars of Magnificence", these were pursued forglory and the vindication of dynastic title, and wereconsidered more admirable than "common wars" fought forthe annexation of territory or other forms of gain. An exampleof this occurred in Italy (map 3) where the House of Franceand the Spanish House of Aragon - whose rights wereinherited by the Habsburg Charles V - both laid claim toNaples in the south and to Lombardy and the duchy of Milanin the north. In the latter, the richest part of Italy, the strugglewas more than one of inheritance. Francis I of France gainedcontrol of Milan in 1500, lost it in 1512 and reconquered itin 1515, but Charles V had to oppose this if his power in Italywere not to crumble. War began in 1521 (the Frenchevacuated Milan in 1522), and lasted intermittently in thepeninsula until the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559.Signed by representatives of Henry II of France and Philip IIof Spain, this treaty had the effect of liquidating Frenchambitions in Italy while maintaining French acquisitions inLorraine - Metz, Toul and Verdun (map 2). This establisheda new international order which was to survive with modifi-cations until the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.

^ In the period of intermittent war betweenFrance and the Habsburgs from 1521 to1559, France occupied the territory ofSavoy-Piedmont (1536-59) as a gatewayacross the Alps into Italy. Despite the disasterof the sack of Rome in 1527 by troops of

Charles V, papal authority over Romagna wasstrengthened, with the Venetians agreeing toevacuate Ravenna in 1530. Parma wasacquired from Milan by Pope Julius II in1512 and granted out as a duchy by PopePaul III to his son Pierluigi Farnese in 1545.

REVOLUTION AND STABILITY IN EUROPE 1600-1785 pages 156-57 147EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7

THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA1462-1795

Grand Duke Ivan III extended histerritory by annexing the neighbouringprincipalities of Novgorod in 1478, Tver in1485 and Viatka in 1489. In 1494 hepushed westwards into Poland-Lithuania,occupying Viazma and the towns of theupper Oka basin. Ivan's son, Vasili III,continued with this policy of aggressiveexpansion, taking Smolensk, Chernigov,Pskov and Riazan.

T As part of the process of expansion,ostrogs (fortified trading posts) wereestablished at strategic points. An osirogwas founded at Tomsk in 1604 and by 1607Turuchansk on the Yenisei River had beenreached. The river became the frontier ofthe empire in 1619, with another string

T he expansion of Russian rule into Europe and Asiawas a process of exploration and discovery compar-able with the contemporaneous exploration of the

oceanic world by western European peoples. It was,however, also the creation of a highly autocratic landempire. In the mid-15th century the Russian state ofMuscovy was just one of many small principalities in north-ern Europe which paid tribute to the Tatars; by the end ofthe 18th century it was at the heart of an empire thatstretched from the Baltic Sea to the Bering Strait.

The process of expansion began after Muscovy had freeditself from Tatar domination in the 1450s. Grand DukeIvan III (r. 1462-1505) and later his son, Vasili III(r. 1505-33) set about extending his territory by annexingneighbouring regions (map 1). Ivan IV became the nextgrand duke in 1533 at the age of three, and during hisminority the boyars (nobles) vied with each other forcontrol of the state. No further territorial expansion tookplace until after he was formally crowned as the first "tsar"(emperor) in 1547. However, in 1552 a successful campaignwas launched against the Tatar stronghold of Kazan, and thiswas followed by the seizure of Astrakhan on the Caspian Seain 1556. Russian territory now extended the entire lengthof the Volga, bisecting Tatar domains and dominating thepeoples of the northern Caucasus and eastern Caspian.

EXPANSION INTO ASIAIn the east the foundation in 1560 of a fortified post at Permon the River Kama brought the Muscovites to within easyreach of the Urals, where trading in furs promised to be agreat source of wealth. From 1578 the Stroganovs, a family ofmerchants who had been granted a vast tract of unexploredland by the tsar, took the lead in exploration and settlementbeyond the Urals. Their allies in this process were theCossacks, descendants of peasants who had fled fromworsening economic conditions in Russia to becomefighting guards of the frontier. The Khanate of Sibir wasconquered in 1581, and the colonists founded ostrogs -fortified trading posts - along the Irtysh and Ob rivers,controlling the lower reaches of both by 1592 (map 2).

Expansion continued to be rapid in the 17th century.The Lena River was reached in 1632, the Indigirka in 1639and the Kolyma in 1644. The explorer Dhezhnev reachedthe Bering Strait in 1648 and Khabarov got to the AmurRiver in 1649. The Khamchatka Peninsula was entered byRussian explorers in 1679. These territorial advances tookplace largely at the expense of the indigenous, oftennomadic, peoples who were powerless in the face ofRussian imperialism. Any resistance was effectively sup-pressed by punitive expeditions from the ostrogs.

RUSSIAN AMBITIONS IN THE WESTIn the west, Russian ambitions were more circumscribed. In1558, in an attempt to take land around the Baltic, Ivan IVbecame embroiled in a devastating war of 25 years whichruined both Livonia and Estonia and left the Russian armiesprostrate. By the end of his reign all Ivan's western conquests

148

of astrags being established along it.


had been lost. His death in 1584 unleashed a generation ofinstability culminating in the "Time of Troubles", a period ofpolitical and social upheaval and foreign occupation that wasnot settled until a national revolt led to the installation of anew dynasty, the Romanovs, in 1613.

At this time Russia's main western enemy was Poland,which took advantage of Russia's internal problems to takeback Smolensk and Chernigov in 1618. Another threat wasthe growing power of Sweden (pages 150-51), whichacquired Ingria and Garelia from Russia in 1617. Russia,however, was able to take advantage of the Swedishinvasion of Poland in the 1650s to conclude a treaty withthe Ukrainian Cossacks and detach them from Poland.Between 1667 and 1689 Russia also regained Smolensk andChernigov from Poland.

PETER THE GREATBy the beginning of Peter the Great's reign (1689-1725),Russia had tripled its territory in a century. In Siberia, con-solidation was now the order of the day, but in the west,Russia faced the military power of Sweden under CharlesXII. As a consequence, the Great Northern War broke outin 1700. Sweden was defeated by Russia in the Battle ofPoltava in 1709 (pages 150-51), and the outcome, formal-ized in 1721, was the acquisition from Sweden of Estoniaand Livonia, and the return to Russia of Ingria and Carelia.

The coastal fortresses of Vyborg, Reval and Riga had falleninto Russian hands, and Peter had been able to found thenew Baltic port of St Petersburg in 1703 (map 3).

Acquiring a port on the Baltic was one element ofPeter's ambitious plans to overhaul the state and"Europeanize" Russia. So, too, was the construction of anavy and the acquisition of a port on the Black Sea. Heachieved the latter when he captured Azov in 1696, but helost it again in 1711 during the Great Northern War. It wasnot regained until the reign of Anna in 1739. Thereafter,the conquest of the land surrounding the Sea of Azov(Kuban, Crimea and Taurida) had to wait until the 1780s,during the reign of Catherine II (1762-96).

WESTERNIZATION AND THE ECONOMYIn order to compete with other western powers, Russianeeded to industrialize. A few ironworks had been set up byforeigners in the 1630s in the Tula and Moscow regions, butRussia remained an overwhelmingly peasant society andlagged far behind western Europe. Peter the Great operatedan essentially mercantilist policy, patronizing certaincommercial interests in order to encourage export trade. Asa result there was rapid growth of both mining and thearmaments industry (map 3), but this "forced industrial-ization", impressive as it seemed at the time, had littleimpact on the living standards of the peasants.

A During the reign of Peter the Great thenumber of industrial plants increased fromabout 20 to around 200. Many of theseproduced armaments, while others weremining and metallurgical plants in the Urals.However, conditions for the vast majority of

THE MONGOL EMPIRE 1206-1405 pages 98-99 RUSSIAN TERRITORIAL AND ECONOMIC EXPANSION 1795-1914 pages 180-81 149

Russian people-oppressed by bothlandlords and the state-continued todeteriorate,leading to massive peasontrebellions which periodically convulsedRussiain the17th and 18thcenturies.

SWEDEN, POLAND AND THE BALTIC1500-1795

A Under King Gustav II Adolf(r. 1611-32), Sweden became a majorpower in the Baltic region. As well asmodernizing the army, Gustav introduceda number of constitutional, legal andeducational reforms before being killedin battle during the Thirty Years War.

A The Great Northern War of 1700-21,involving Sweden, Russia and Denmark atdifferent times, finally exhausted Swedishmilitary strength. Treaties in 1719-20handed Bremen and Verden to Hanover andStettin to Prussia, and in 1721 the Treaty ofNystadt conceded the loss of Livonia, Estoniaand Ingria to Russia. The overseas bases forSweden's Baltic empire were thus cut away.

A t the beginning of the 16th century the Baltic region7\ was still dominated by power blocks which had been

JL \jn place for over a hundred years. In Scandinavia theUnion of Kalmar, dating from 1397, joined togetherDenmark, Norway and Sweden-Finland in a looselygoverned monarchy centred at Copenhagen. All round thesouthern Baltic the alliance of free Hanseatic cities, such asDanzig and Liibeck, controlled trade. In the east, the Orderof the Teutonic Knights still ruled over a region thatincluded East Prussia, Estonia, Livonia and Gourland(map 1). The largest country was Poland-Lithuania, createdin 1386 when the ruler of the vast Grand Duchy ofLithuania came to the Polish throne.

The Baltic, however, stood on the verge of great changes.Economically, it was already in the process of becoming amajor supplier of raw materials to the increasingly urbancapitalist society of northwestern Europe. Poland wasbecoming a major supplier of grain, while furs and hempfrom Novgorod and Muscovy, and timber and ores fromSweden, were already major elements in European tradeand production. Consequently control of the ports, tolls andwaterways to western Europe was an increasingly importantfactor in the politics of the Baltic region.

A NEW ORDER IN THE BALTICIn 1521 a Swedish nobleman, Gustav Vasa, led a successfulrevolution in Stockholm against the Danish king, thus endingthe Kalmar Union. Gustav Vasa became king in 1523,beginning a new period of Swedish independence andnationhood. The civil wars which followed in Denmark andSweden re-established the power of the aristocracy andlimited that of the monarchy.

In the 1520s the Reformation (pages 154-55) hastenedthe disintegration of the lands of the Teutonic Order, whilein Estonia, Livonia and Courland the Order becamefragmented, leading eventually to civil war in 1556-57.The Livonian lands now became a prime object ofcompetition between Poland, Muscovy (Russia),Sweden and Denmark. During the resulting war,the emergence of Sweden as a real power inthe Baltic region was confirmed when theHanseatic port of Reval placed itselfunder Swedish protection in 1560(map 1). Thereafter, the maintenanceof this foothold in Estonia became a

major determinant of Swedish policy - though Denmark, themost powerful state in the region, opposed Swedishpretensions. In 1582 a treaty between Poland and Russialeft most of Livonia in Polish hands, and in 1595 Swedenmade good its hold on Estonia by signing the Treaty ofTeusino with Russia.

At the beginning of the 17th century Denmark wasstill the leading Baltic power, with control of the Sound -the only deep-water access to the Baltic. As a result of a warwith Sweden in 1611-13, it succeeded in expelling theSwedes from their only port on the North Sea (Alvsborg)and gaining trading access to Livonia. However, militaryintervention in northern Germany in 1625-29 was a disas-trous failure and a severe blow to Danish power.

THE RISE AND DECLINE OF SWEDENFrom 1603 Poland and Sweden fought for control of thegreat Baltic trading centres such as Riga, Dorpat and Reval.King Gustav II Adolf (r. 1611-32) of Sweden succeeded incapturing Riga in 1621 and the whole of Livonia by 1625,and the following year he occupied most of the ports alongthe Prussian coast. The war was only ended by the Truce ofAltmark in 1629, allowing Sweden to continue to milk therevenues of the Prussian ports.

By 1630 Sweden was a force to be reckoned with inEuropean politics. Having modernized his armies, KingGustav II Adolf went to war in Germany to counter thethreat to Sweden's security posed by the Habsburgs (pages152-53). With his epic march through Germany in1630-32, Sweden temporarily became the military arbiterof Europe and, despite setbacks in 1634-36, emerged in1648 as one of the victors of the Thirty Years War (map 2).

Sweden's growing ascendancy over Denmark wasrecognized in 1645 by the Treaty of Bromsebro, which gave

> In the 16th century Sweden was asmall country of just over a million people.However, with the aid of its naturalresources, it built a Baltic empire,reaching the summit of its powerbetween 1621 and 1660

1 5 0

Sweden Jamtland and Harjedalen as well as a 20-year leaseon Halland and freedom of passage through the Sound.Denmark also conceded Bremen and Verden, confirmed inthe Treaty of Westphalia (1648) which also transferredwestern Pomerania to Sweden. These treaties, however, didnot entirely settle the issue of predominance. Sweden stillneeded to assure its control of the Prussian ports, and in1655 King Charles X mounted an invasion of Poland that ledto its virtual collapse. He then moved against the Danes andin 1658 forced them to abandon their provinces on theSwedish mainland - Bohuslan, Halland, Skane and Blekinge- as well as Trondheim in Norway (returned in 1660).

The year 1660 marks in some ways the summit ofSwedish imperial power based on a military system, both atland and sea, that made Sweden the envy of Europe. Therewere, however, a number of factors that threatened to weakenSweden. The population was only a little over a million, andthe constitution was liable to sudden fluctuations betweenlimited and absolute monarchy. The possessions in northernGermany were extremely vulnerable and often lost duringwars, only to be retained by diplomatic manoeuvres.

The culmination of this was the Great Northern War of1700-21 and the Battle of Poltava in 1709 between CharlesXII and Peter I of Russia (map 2). The Treaty of Nystadt in1721 marked the end of Sweden's hegemony over the Baltic,with the loss of Livonia and Estonia to Russia as well as partof western Pomerania to Prussia (map 3).

THE DISINTEGRATION OF POLANDTo the south, Swedish military adventurism was a keyfactor, along with Russian ambitions (pages 148-49), in thedisintegration of the Polish state (map 4). Poland neverrecovered from the Swedish occupation of 1655-58, and in1667 it lost the eastern Ukraine and Smolensk to Russia.Thereafter, Poland became increasingly a plaything ofsurrounding powers. It was a major theatre of the GreatNorthern War of 1700-21, and by 1717 Peter the Great ofRussia had turned it into a Russian protectorate. When afaction of the Polish nobility began to challenge this fromthe 1760s, the protectorate ceased to serve a useful purposeand Poland was divided up between Russia, Prussia andAustria in a series of partitions from 1772 to 1795 (map 5).

A Swedish military power was based ona national standing army established after1544 by Gustav I. This was supplementedby mercenaries when a larger force wasneeded for foreign conquest. In the early17th century the army was further reformedby Gustav II Adolf, paving the way forSwedish success in the Thirty Years War(1618-48) and beyond.

T After a brief period as a Russian protect-orate, Poland was carved up in the course ofthree partitions in 1773,1793 and 1795between Russia, Austria and Prussia.

«4 Poland-Lithuania first lost ground toMuscovy (Russia) between 1503 and 1521.In 1561, however, Poland gained control ofthe Courland territory of the Livonian Order

and in 1618 regained part of the Smolenskregion. Following Swedish invasions in the1650s and renewed war with Russia, thisterritory was lost again in 1667.

REVOLUTION AND REACTION IN EUROPE 1815-49 pages 172-73 151EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7

THE HABSBURG EMPIRE1490-1700

T The Hobsburg Emperor Charles Vpresided over a vast collection of territoriesand faced formidable enemies -ValoisFrance, the Ottoman Empire and variousalliances of German princes. In 1556, afterCharles's abdication, the empire was dividedin two, with Ferdinand I ruling the Austriandomains and Philip II inheriting his father'sSpanish lands.

In 1490 the Habsburg dynasty was just one of a numberof ancient dynasties - among them the Valois of France,the Trastamaras of Castile and Aragon and the Jagiellons

of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary - that were in the processof creating major princely states. Remarkably, by the 1520sthe Habsburgs had accumulated under Emperor Charles Vthe largest conglomeration of territories and rights since theage of Charlemagne in the 9th century (map 1). The mili-tary and diplomatic system needed to rule and defend themin the emperor's name was formidable by the standards ofthe age. Yet in some ways it is a misnomer to talk about aHabsburg "empire" at this time, for Charles ruled his manyterritories largely through rights of inheritance and they allmaintained their separate constitutions.

THE EXTENT OF HABSBURG TERRITORIESCharles was the grandson of Maximilian I of the House ofHabsburg, which had ruled over domains centred on Austriasince the 13th century. Holy Roman Emperor from 1493 to1519, Maximilian gained control, through marriage, of whatwas left of the territories of the extremely wealthy Valoisdukes of Burgundy. In 1506 Charles inherited these territo-ries from his father, Philip the Handsome, and in the course ofhis reign he made a number of additions (map 2). In 1516 heinherited through his mother, Juana, daughter of Isabella ofCastile (d.1504) and Ferdinand of Aragon, Spanish territories

that included Majorca, Sicily and Naples. Milan was added tohis territories in Italy through conquest in 1522. An alliancewas formed with the Genoese Republic in 1528; the defeat ofFrench expeditions to Milan and Naples (1528-29) and theoverthrow of the French-backed Florentine Republic in 1530sealed Habsburg predominance in Italy. Thereafter, Frenchchallenges - the occupation of Piedmont in 1536-59 andinvasions in 1544 and 1556-57 - proved transitory.

In 1519 Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor, arole which brought formal prestige as the first prince ofChristendom but little more. The King of France, in anycase, regarded himself as the equivalent of the emperor inhis own kingdom and recognized no superior. Charles ruledmore directly as Archduke of the Netherlands and ofAustria. Control of the eastern Habsburg lands centred onVienna was devolved to his brother Ferdinand, who waselected heir to the imperial throne in 1531. Charles's hopesof maintaining his prerogatives as emperor were under-mined by the determination of several German princes todefy him over the ban placed on Martin Luther, who hadprovoked the first serious challenge to the Catholic Churchat the Imperial Diet at Worms in 1521 (pages 154-55).

In both the Mediterranean and central Europe Charlesdirectly confronted the power of the Ottoman Empire. TheOttomans had occupied Rhodes in 1522 and went on todefeat the Hungarian army in 1526. The Austrian territories

152


were therefore in the front line,and Vienna withstood a majorsiege in 1529 and a threat of onein 1532. The Ottoman threat wasonly held at bay by the combineddynastic and imperial power of theHabsburgs. In the western Mediterra-nean Charles sought, through the conquestof Tunis in 1535 and the disastrous expeditionagainst Algiers in 1541, to build on the foot-holds already acquired in coastal North Africa.

DIVISION OF THE EMPIRECharles reached the height of his power at the Battleof Miihlberg in 1547, when he managed to crush theforces of the Protestant rulers of Hesse and Saxony (pages154-55). He then tried to reverse many of the religious andpolitical developments in Germany since the 1520s, but hisposition quickly began to crumble. In 1552 the rebellion ofthe League of Princes in Germany allied to Henry II ofFrance forced him to accept that the inheritance was toolarge to be ruled by one man and that, as a family anddynastic concern, it had to be shared. Consequently, on hisabdication in 1556 the empire was divided between his son,Philip II, who inherited the Spanish possessions, and hisbrother, Ferdinand, who inherited the Austrian domains.

THE EMPIRE IN CENTRAL EUROPEAs Charles's deputy in Germany, Ferdinand I had consoli-dated the Habsburg family's position as central Europeandynasts. When King Louis II of Hungary was killed atMohacs in 1526 (pages 142-3), Ferdinand was elected tothe Bohemian and Hungarian thrones by the magnates, whosaw him as the best guarantor of their safety against theOttoman Turks. However, Ferdinand was opposed by oneHungarian magnate - Jan Zapolya of Transylvania, who wasbacked by the Turks - and all that he could salvage ofHungary were the territories of "Royal Hungary" (the westof modern Hungary and modern Slovakia). By the late 16thcentury these territories were elective monarchies, withlarge and powerful Protestant nobilities, whose indepen-dence Ferdinand II (King of Bohemia from 1617 and ofHungary from 1618, and Holy Roman Emperor 1619-37)became determined to crush, while at the same time revers-ing the decline in imperial power within Germany.

As a result of the Thirty Years War (1618-48) theHabsburg territories in central Europe were welded into amuch more coherent dynastic empire, though the opposi-tion of the princes of the Empire had undermined ambitionsin Germany by 1635. With the weakening of the OttomanTurks in the 17th century, the dynasty was able to begin thepiecemeal reconquest of Hungary (map 3). Largely com-plete by the end of the century, this established theHabsburgs as the major dynastic power of central Europe.

THE SPANISH EMPIREIn the west the Spanish branch of the dynasty descendedfrom Philip II (r. 1556-98) continued the trend which wasclear from the middle of Charles V's reign: the developmentof a Spanish empire that was dependent on the wealtharising from the Castilian conquest of the New World andon the deployment of military power and diplomaticalliances in Europe. Power was transmitted along a series ofmilitary routes leading from Spain to the Low Countriesknown collectively as the "Spanish Road" (map 1), andwas challenged in the late 16th century by rebels in theLow Countries and by England. Ultimately, Spain provedunable to maintain its control of the northern provinces ofthe Netherlands and agreed a temporary truce in 1609.

The axis of power between Madrid and Vienna remainedvital to the Spanish system and was reinforced as theHabsburgs in central Europe came under pressure fromrebellious nobles and Protestants. The axis was reaffirmedin 1615 and Spanish troops were deployed in central Europeand the Rhineland from 1619, while war was renewed with

the Dutch in 1621. The last phase of the Spanish militarysystem in western Europe showed that it was remarkablyresilient in the face of massive setbacks such as the rebel-lions in Portugal and Catalonia in 1640 and the defeats inthe Low Countries by France at Lens in 1643 and Rocroi in1648 (pages 158-59). Nevertheless, the Treaty ofWestphalia in 1648 forced the recognition of the indepen-dence of the United Provinces, and the Peace of thePyrenees with France in 1659 registered a serious shift inthe balance of power towards France. For the rest of the17th century, Spain and its dependencies were constantlyon the defensive. They were certainly not in a position toaid the Austrian Habsburgs, who had to contend with thelast great advance of the Ottomans (map 3). This reachedits most western limit in 1683 but would continue to pose athreat well into the following century.

A The lands which Charles V inherited in1506 consisted of most of the provinces ofthe Netherlands and the free county ofBurgundy, but not the duchy of Burgundy,which had been confiscated by Louis XI ofFrance in 1477. In the course of his reignCharles annexed Gelderland, Groningen,Friesland and the bishopric of Utrecht. Hissuccessor, Philip II, faced serious oppositionfrom the nobility from 1565 and a full-scalerevolt in Holland from 1572. This led to theformal repudiation of Philip in 1581 bywhat were to become the seven UnitedProvinces of the Netherlands.

^ During the 16th and 17th centuries theAustrian Habsburgs extended their territoryacross Hungary and along the Danube asfar east as Transylvania. However, in 1682the Ottomans claimed Hungary as a vassalstate and sent an army of 200,000 men toadvance on Vienna. The subsequent two-month siege of the city in 1683 was onlylifted when a Polish army attacked theOttoman forces and sent them into retreat.The Habsburgs eventually regained Hungaryfrom the Ottomans under the Treaty ofCarlowitzinl699.

THE HABSBURG EMPIRE: EXPANSION AND DECLINE 1700-1918 pages 174-75 1 5 3EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7

THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER-REFORMATION IN EUROPE 1517-1648T Protestantism took a number of formsacross Europe. In Germany and Scandinavialocal secular rulers promoted the establish-ment of new churches, mostly alongLutheran lines. In the Netherlands, Calvinismbecame politically predominant during thelater 16th century, while in England theAnglican Church under Elizabeth I wasCalvinist with an episcopal government.Further east, Calvinism was adopted inTransylvania (in Hungary) - and in Polandso many nobles became Protestant thatspecial provisions for their toleration had tobe agreed in 1569-71.

T

he Reformation is commonly associated with anoutraged response to the corruption of the Church inthe late 15th and early 16th centuries. In fact, the

corruption of the Church had come under attack before.What was new at this time was the emergence of a powerfulforce of religious revivalism which swept across Europe andsought an increased role for the laity in religious life.

THE IMPACT OF LUTHERANISM

The Protestant Reformation is traditionally dated from 31October 1517 when Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Thesesagainst indulgences (documents sold by the Church whichwere widely thought to remit the punishments of purgatory)were posted on the door of the castle church at Wittenburg

in Saxony. Luther's Theses provoked a hostile reaction fromthe upper hierarchy of the Church. Moreover, the circulationof printed copies of the Theses and other writings meant thatthey received the attention of a wider public than might oth-erwise have been the case. His attack on financial abuseswithin the Church, and his emphasis on the spiritual natureof Christianity and the teachings of the gospel, found supportamong a broad range of the laity.

Before 1517 reform of the Church had been seen as alegitimate objective; now Luther's call for "reformation" wasregarded as a fundamental threat to both the Church and theHoly Roman Empire. Luther was excommunicated in 1521after denying the primacy of the Pope, and later that year hewas placed under an imperial ban.

1 5 4


A number of German princes broke with Rome andadopted Lutheranism, gaining stronger political control overthe Church in their own territories as a result. This was metwith fierce opposition from Charles V at the AugsburgReichstag in 1530, and in response a League of Protestantestates - including Hesse, Saxony, Wurttemberg, thePalatinate and several imperial cities - was formed atSchmalkalden, thus splitting the Empire into two warringcamps. It was not until 1555 that Charles V was finally forcedto concede the Peace of Augsburg, granting full rights to thesecular estates of the Empire to adopt Lutheran reform.

RADICAL REFORMATIONThe reform movement spread rapidly (map 1) but for manyit was the ideas of local reformers that mattered most. By theend of the 1520s a split between the Lutheran Reformationand the radical (or Reformed) churches was clear. ThomasMiintzer encouraged a more radical view that was to culmi-nate in the "Kingdom of Zion" of the Anabaptists at Minister,while in Zurich Huldreich Zwingli led a reformation whichdiffered from Lutheranism over, among other things, thesacrament of Communion.

Protestantism in Switzerland received a blow with thedeath of Zwingli in battle in 1531, but it was ultimatelyrevived by Calvin, a humanist and lawyer born in northernFrance. Calvin, who controlled the Genevan church by 1541(map 2), gave the French-speaking world a coherent andincisive doctrine as well as an effective organization. Heproved to be the most significant influence on the emergenceof the Reformation in France from the 1540s onwards, whenhe sent out a network of preachers to the main French cities.By 1557 an underground church was in existence and in1559 it declared itself openly.

THE COUNTER REFORMATIONIn Spain and Italy, where Spanish power posed a significantblock to Protestantism, the internal reform of the CatholicChurch was pushed forward by the foundation of many newreligious orders devoted to charitable and evangelical workin the lay world, as well as by the militant Society of Jesus(Jesuits) founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534.

Within the Catholic Church as whole, the establishmentof the means to resist Protestantism was a priority. The threesessions of the General Council of Trent held between 1545and 1563 restated theological doctrine in a way whichprecluded reunion with Protestants, and a series of decreesaimed at reforming the clergy and church organization wasissued. Although the pronouncements of the Council ofTrent were not immediately translated into action, theCouncil signalled that the Catholic Church was to becomean evangelical movement, seeking to win converts bothamong heretics in Europe and the "pagans" of the overseasworld. Crucial in this process was the growing identificationbetween the Catholic Church and absolute monarchs, whohad the power, through patronage, to win back disaffectednobles to the Roman Catholic faith.

In France, although the Jesuits were at first not allowedto preach, a resurgence of Catholic piety and fundamental-ism eventually put a limit to any further expansion ofProtestantism. When Catherine de Medici (the QueenMother) ordered the liquidation of the Protestant leadershipon the eve of St Bartholomew's Day 1572, mass fanaticismled to the massacre of 10-12,000 Protestants throughout thecountry (map 3). The ensuing factional chaos enabledProtestants to extract from the French crown a lastingguarantee of religious toleration in the Edict of Nantes(1598), but this in effect confirmed their minority status.When their guaranteed strongholds (places de surete) wereremoved by the Crown in the 1620s, they were reduced to aposition of sufferance. In 1685 the Edict was revoked andaround 200,000 Protestants (Huguenots) were forced toconvert to Catholicism or flee the country.

In the Netherlands a Calvinist minority seized power inHolland and Zeeland in 1572 but had to fight a bitter andprolonged war with Spain which was to last until 1648. In

Germany the Peace of Augsburg (1555) began to breakdown. Some princes converted to Calvinism in defiance ofthe Peace, and the spread of Catholic evangelism (andProtestant fears of Catholic acts of revenge) createdenormous tension in the Holy Roman Empire, culminatingin the start of the Thirty Years War in 1618 (pages 158-59).

By the end of the war in 1648, when the Treaty ofWestphalia recognized a new order in Europe, RomanCatholicism had been re-established in France, Poland,Hungary and Bohemia. However, there was no return toreligious war and, to some extent, religious pluralism wasreluctantly accepted between, if not within, states.

^ Switzerland was a major powerhouse ofthe Protestant Reformation but was intenselydivided. The inner "forest" cantons werehostile to Zwingli and feared the power ofZurich where he was based. After his deathin 1531 Bern took up the military leadershipof Protestantism, giving its protection toGeneva which, although not technically partof the Swiss Confederation, was to becomethe centre of Swiss Protestant doctrine.

T French Protestantism was over-whelmingly urban. Crucial to its survival,however, was the support of a very largeminority of the nobility. Its greatestconcentration was eventually in a "crescent"stretching from Dauphine in the east toPoitou in the west. This was largely aresult of the course of the French Warsof Religion (1562-98) which renderedlife precarious for Protestants north of theLoire, especially after the St Bartholomew'sDay Massacre in August 1572.

EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7 1 5 5REVOLUTION AND STABILITY IN EUROPE 1600-1785 pages 156-57

REVOLUTION AND STABILITY IN EUROPE1600-1785

A The trial and execution of Charles I ofEngland, Scotland and Ireland (top) inJanuary 1649 was followed by the abolitionof the monarchy and the declaration of arepublic. Oliver Cromwell (bottom) came toprominence as a military leader during theCivil War of 1642-48 between supportersof the king and of Parliament. Whenparliamentary government failed in 1653he became Lord Protector and proceeded torule England until his death in 1658.

^ It has been suggested that a generalcrisis in the 17th century, in which wars andrevolts broke out across Europe, reflectedglobal factors - in particular, a deteriorationin climate that led to famine, massmigrations and a halt in population growth.It is in fact the case that there were plagueepidemics in Europe and China in the 1640sas well as parallel political upheavals.

I

n the 17th century the major states of Europe wereembroiled in the long conflict in central Europe knownas the Thirty Years War (pages J5S-59), which com-

bined dynastic and strategic conflict with religious struggles,the latter breaking out both within and between states. Thegrowth of armies and of military technology in this period(pages 158-59) could only be achieved through an increasein taxation that was so large as to challenge the basis onwhich states had been governed since the late 15th century.

REBELLION AND CIVIL WARWhen Spain intervened in Germany on behalf of theAustrian Habsburg emperor in 1619, and then renewed itsconflict with the Dutch in 1621, it became committed tomassive military expenditure which devastated its finances.In Castile, which had undergone a loss of population sincethe 1590s, the monarchy found the burden increasinglydifficult to bear. Unable to solve the problem by concludingpeace, the government restructured the tax system so thatthe hitherto privileged regions of Portugal, Aragon,Catalonia and Naples bore a greater share of the tax burden.This caused a national uprising in Portugal in 1640, followedby rebellions in Catalonia (1640-53) and in Naples (1647-8)(map 1). All this nearly brought down the Spanish state.

In France - governed by Cardinal Richelieu from 1624 -the steadily increasing tax burden was accompanied by anincrease in royal tax officialdom at the expense of the localmachinery of voting taxes through representative assem-blies. In addition to the massive increases in direct taxesfrom 1635 (when France formally entered the war againstSpain and the Habsburgs) and the spread of a whole range ofindirect revenues such as those on salt (the gabelle), thedirect costs of billeting and supplying the army were borneby the civil population with increasing reluctance. Fromaround 1630 numerous local revolts broke out, often sup-ported by regional notables resentful at the infringementsof their privileges by the Crown. In 1636-37 the Crown wasfaced by a large-scale rebellion in the southwest whichbrought together under the name of Croquants manypeasant communities outraged by army taxes. In lowerNormandy in 1639 theNu-Pieds rebelled against the exten-sion of the full salt tax regime to that area.

Cardinal Mazarin succeeded Richelieu as Chief Ministerin 1643 and continued the same policies of high taxes andprolonged war against Spain, even after the Treatyof Westphalia in 1648. By then the Crownfaced not only a discontented peas-antry but also oppositionfrom within the royal

bureaucracy over the suspension of salaries, and a nobilityunhappy with the exercise of power by the Chief Minister.The result was a confused period of civil war known as theFrondes, which paralysed French policy until 1653.

CRISIS ACROSS EUROPEIn Britain the attempts of Charles I to impose hisreligious policies on the Scots exposed the weakness at thecore of the Stuart monarchy. Charles attempted to governand raise revenues without Parliament throughout the1630s, but he was confronted by a tax-payers' revolt and bythe fact that he could not raise an army without some formof parliamentary grant. The summoning of Parliament in1640 triggered a sequence of events that imposed shackleson the king's powers and then provoked him to try amilitary solution. The resulting civil war (1642-48) led tothe king's execution and the proclamation of a republic in1649. Opposition in Ireland and Scotland was crushed in1649-50 by the New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell.In 1653 the republic was replaced by a military dictator-ship, with Cromwell as "Lord Protector".

During the same period, in the United Provinces of theNetherlands (formed in 1579 after the Protestant PrinceWilliam I of Orange led a revolt against Spanish Catholicrule), an attempt to impose quasi-royal rule under WilliamII of Orange collapsed and the Orangist Party was purgedfrom positions of power by the oligarchic States Party. Therewere also struggles for power in Sweden, and in the 1620sand 1630s large-scale peasant revolts broke out in theAlpine territories of the Austrian Habsburgs. Further east,Cossack rebellions flared up in the Polish Commonwealthin the 1640s and 1650s and in Russia in the 1670s.

Not surprisingly, some contemporaries saw a pattern inall this. The English preacher Jeremiah Whittaker declaredin 1643 that "these are days of shaking and this shaking isuniversal". Some modern historians have discerned a sys-tematic "general crisis" in which the political upheavals ofthe mid-17th century were a symptom of profound eco-nomic transformation. In contrast, the trend throughoutEurope after 1660 was towards political stability.

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THE ESTABLISHMENT OF STABILITYPeasant revolts continued in France until the 1670s.However, despite the continuation of severe economicproblems and the massive growth of armed forces to enablethe annexation of territory (map 2), these revolts did notseriously threaten the state. After Mazarin's death in 1661Louis XIV assumed personal rule, which deflected thediscontent of the nobility and assuaged the conflictsbetween government, officialdom and the courts. Thereafterhe ruled as absolute monarch with the aid of a centralizedbureaucratic government - a pattern which was to continueuntil 1789. Without any significant opposition, Louis wasable to impose religious uniformity in 1685.

The doctrine of "absolute power", though not new,became the keynote for many rulers eager to imitate thesplendours of Louis' court at Versailles. In east-centralEurope the Hohenzollerns - rulers of Brandenburg andPrussia - gradually increased their power after the ElectorFrederick William I came to an agreement with the nobil-ity, under which his military powers were extended inreturn for the reinforcement of their controls over their ten-antry. By the middle of the 18th century the power of thePrussian state (map 3) equalled that of the Habsburgs inVienna, who were themselves building an empire in theDanubian region (pages 152-53).

CONCERT OF EUROPEElsewhere in Europe the defeat of the monarchy led to theemergence of oligarchic parliamentary systems - Britainfrom 1689, the United Provinces from 1702, Sweden from1721. In Spain, the regime of the Bourbon dynasty, con-firmed by the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, imposed acentralized government on the French model. Thus,although major wars continued to be endemic and com-mercial rivalry both in Europe and overseas was fierce,governments were far more securely anchored than in theearlier 17th century. Religious uniformity, while stillformally insisted on, was in practice no longer so vital. AEurope in which one or other dynastic state (Spain in the16th century, France in the 17th century) threatened todominate the rest had been replaced by a "concert ofEurope" of roughly balanced powers that was to last untilthe revolutionary period in the 1790s.

^ From the 1660s Louis XIV built onacquisitions made under Cardinal Richelieuto expand French territory at the expense ofthe Holy Roman Empire. The high point ofhis achievements came in 1684 when hisacquisition of Luxembourg during a warwith Spain and the Empire was confirmed bythe Treaty of Regensburg. From 1685 thethreat he posed to other powers led to aseries of alliances being formed against him.Eventually, the Treaty of Utrecht (1713)placed limits on French expansion.

T The duchy of Prussia, founded in 1525out of the remaining lands of the TeutonicKnights, passed to the Hohenzollern electorsof Brandenburg in 1618. Under ElectorFrederick William I (1640-88),Brandenburg-Prussia did well out of thePeace of Westphalia in 1648 and theNorthern War (1655-60) to extend itsterritories. His successors continued theprocess of expansion until Frederick theGreat (1740-86) put the seal on theemergence of Prussia as a great power byhis successful annexation of Silesia in theWar of the Austrian Succession (1740-48).

REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 1789-1815 pages 166-67 1 5 7EUROPEAN STATES 1500-1600 pages 146-47

THE DEVELOPMENT OF WARFARE IN EUROPE1450-1750

THE RISING COST OF WAGING WAR INTHE 16TH CENTURY

A By the late 16th century the militaryexpenditure of the Spanish monarchy hadplaced a severe burden on Castile. Philip I Isarmies were periodically left without pay,resulting in nine major mutinies in the armyof Flanders between 1570 and 1607.

T The development of frontiers wasaccompanied by the construction of linearnetworks of fortifications, for example innorthern France and in Russia. The Habs-burgs established a militarily governedfrontier zone in Hungary and Croatia,in which soldiers (often Serbs) weresettled in villages for defenceagainst the Ottomans.

Between the 15th and 18th centuries European warfarewas massively transformed in scale and complexity,and this had a powerful impact on both state and

society. It has been argued that the transformationamounted to a "military revolution" led by the Swedes andthe Dutch in the decades around 1600. However, this viewunderestimates the role of France and Spain, and theprocess of military change is now seen as one that wasevolutionary rather than revolutionary.

ARMIES AND THE STATEThe driving force behind military change was the develop-ment of a highly competitive state structure, both regionally(as in 15th-century Italy) and across Europe. Countrieswhich had not invested in major military reorganization bythe 17th century - such as Poland - were seriously disad-vantaged, but in those countries where military expenditurewas high the impact was felt at all levels of society.Governments needed to be able to mobilize resources forwar on a large scale, and this led to many western Europeanstates becoming "machines built for the battlefield", theiressential purpose being to raise, provision and deployarmies in the pursuit of their ruler's strategic objectives.In going to war, European rulers in the 16th and 17th cen-turies were primarily concerned with safeguarding theinterests of their dynasties, as in the case of the Italian andHabsburg-Valois Wars in the 1520s to 1550s (pages 146-47,152-53), although at times religious and commercial

concerns also played a role. In addition there were severalcivil wars involving a degree of ideological or religiousdispute, such as the French Wars of Religion (1562-98) andthe English Civil War (1642-48).

ARTILLERY AND SIEGE WARFAREChanges in warfare were made possible by a number ofcrucial technical innovations. First, the growing sophistica-tion of artillery in the 15th century altered the terms of warin favour of attack. In mid-15th-century France, moreeffective, smaller-calibre bronze cannons replaced theexisting, unreliable wrought-iron version. One of the mostwidely noted features of Charles VIII's invasion of Italy in1494 was his deployment of the formidable French royalartillery. Bronze, however, was expensive, and the nextimportant development was the manufacture of reliablecast-iron guns in England during the 1540s. Cast-iron gunswere three or four times cheaper than their bronze equiva-lents, and the traditional cannon foundries of Europe wereunable to compete until the next century.

The earliest cannons were huge and unwieldy, bestsuited for sieges. The major powers - Italy, France andSpain - therefore embarked on highly expensive pro-grammes of refortification to render fortresses and citiesimpregnable to artillery bombardment. By the late 16thcentury, high and relatively thin walls and towers had givenway to earthwork constructions consisting of ditches andramparts which were to dominate the landscape of many

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use of firearms, most notably among the German reiters.Commanders now sought to organize infantry and cavalrymore effectively. However, it was still difficult to manoeuvrelarge groups of men on the battlefield, especially since themain battles consisted of vast squares of infantrymen. Thenecessity of increasing the rate of fire of handguns led to thedevelopment by the Dutch armies in the 1590s of "volleyfire", in which the infantry was laid out in long lines, firingrank after rank. The development of the "countermarch" -a combination of volley fire, advancing ranks and cavalrycharging with their swords drawn - gave the Swedish kingGustav Adolf's armies the crucial edge in the 1630s, forexample in the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631 (map 2).

All these changes meant that battles took place overlarger areas and involved greater numbers of soldiers. In1525, at Pavia, the French king's army of 28,000 men wasdefeated by a Habsburg army of 20,000; at BreitenfeldGustav Adolf had 41,000 against 31,000 Habsburg troops; in1709, at Malplaquet, a French army of 76,000 faced anAllied army of 105,000. While the maximum number sus-tainable for a whole campaign in the mid-16th centuryseems to have been about 50,000, by 1700 the number wasaround 200,000 and by 1710 France, for example, couldsustain a total military establishment of 310,000 men.

^ The Thirty Years War was in fact acomplex of wars which combined dynasticand strategic conflict with religiousstruggles, the latter breaking out bothwithin and between states. Germanybecame a battleground in which all themilitary powers developed and tested theirstrength; the armies frequently plunderedtowns, villages and farms for supplies,adding to the devastation. Each phase ofthe war saw a widening area of operations.The Holy Roman Emperor's power was at itsheight in 1629 but thereafter began tocollapse. Foreign intervention prolonged thewar from 1635 to 1648.

REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 1789-1815 pages 166-67 1 5 9

A During the 16th century foreignmercenaries frequently outnumberednational subjects in the armies of the kingsof France and Spain. Gradually the Italians,who had been the great soldiers of fortunein the 15th century, were supplanted firstby the Swiss and then by Germans fromthe Rhineland and Westphalia. Englishmercenaries served in the Netherlands inthe later 16th century, and Scots wereparticularly active in Germany duringthe Thirty Years War.

THE COMPOSITION OF ARMIES

Spanish Army of Flanders 1575

Spanish Army of Flanders 1640

French Royal Army 1552

French Royal Army 1562-69

EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7

European cities until they were dismantled in the 19thcentury. This rendered warfare much more static, with cam-paigns centring on great siege operations; some of the majorbattles of the period - Pavia (1525), St-Quentin (1557),Nordlingen (1634), Rocroi (1643) and Vienna (1683) werelinked to such sieges (map 1\ As a consequence of thesedevelopments in siege warfare, wars of rapid movement ofthe kind embarked upon by the English in 14th-centuryFrance became unthinkable.

CHANGES ON THE BATTLEFIELDArtillery had its place on the battlefield, but because of dif-ficulties in using it tactically, it was slow to gain dominance.A further agent for change was the application of a diversityof armaments, formations and tactics: heavily armed cavalrygradually gave way to massed ranks of pikemen and, fromthe early 16th century onwards, archers began to bereplaced by infantry armed with handguns. At Ravenna(1512), Marignano (1515) and Bicocca (1522), field artilleryand handguns inflicted severe casualties on pike squares. Tocombat this, large mixed infantry formations were used,armed partly with pikes and partly with muskets.

Despite these developments, the heavy cavalry did notdisappear; in fact cavalry in general was overhauled to make

THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONSBetween 1770 and the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 a succession

of revolutions, industrial as well as political, brought widespread material

progress and social change. These developments were international in

character although their global impact was unevenly distributed. They had a

common origin in the unparalleled expansion of European influence -

economic, political, demographic and cultural - throughout the world.

Mn the mid-19th century

Britain was the world's leadingindustrial nation, although the

process of industrialization wasgathering momentum incontinental Europe and the

United States. Britain's leadingposition was demonstrated bythe Great Exhibition, whichopened in London in 185 landcontained over 7,000 British andas many foreign exhibits dividedinto four main categories: rawmaterials, machinery,manufactures and fine arts, itwas housed in a specially builtiron and glass exhibition hall(the "Crystal Palace! which wasitself a fine example of British

In this period most of the Americas, Africa andAustralasia, together with much of Asia, becamedominated either by European states, or by

peoples of European culture and descent. Thisprocess, which slowly but surely transformed thecharacter of global civilization and forged themodern world, was based largely on Europe'seconomic and technological ascendancy. By themid-18th century European commercial primacywas already established, but its lead inmanufacturing was apparent only in some areas,such as armaments, ships and books, and it laggedbehind Asia in a few fields, such as porcelain andtextile manufacture.

In the later 18th and early 19th centuries therewas a new wave of economic growth anddevelopment, first in Britain and then in northwestEurope. This involved the concentration andmechanization of manufacturing in factories, andthe use of coal to generate steam power - changeswhich, while not entirely replacing domesticproduction or more traditional energy sources,revolutionized production, initially of textiles andiron and subsequently of other industries. Later

known as the "Industrial Revolution", the changesled to such a rapid increase in manufacturing thatby the middle of the 19th century Britain wasdescribed as "the workshop of the world".

THE SPREAD OF INDUSTRIALIZATIONDuring the 19th century, industrialization spreadfirst to northwestern Europe and the eastern statesof the United States, and then further afield. Thisled to an enormous increase in world trade (whichtrebled between 1870 and 1914) and in massmanufacturing. By 1900 both the United States andGermany surpassed Britain in some areas ofproduction, such as that of iron and steel. Despitethis, Britain remained the leading internationaltrader and investor, with London the centre of theworld capital market and of the international goldstandard. Britain was also the most urbanizedsociety in the world, with only a tiny minority of itspopulation directly working in agriculture.

Elsewhere, the majority of the population - evenin developed countries such as the United Statesand France - still lived and worked in rural areas,much as their forebears had done. Global trade,

engineering skills.

4

industrialization and urbanization were stillrelatively undeveloped in 1914, yet Westerninnovations had already transformed many aspectsof life throughout the world. Steam power providedenergy not only for factories but also for railwaysand ocean-going ships, which, along with thetelegraph and later the telephone, dramaticallyreduced the time and cost of long-distancetransport and communications.

POLITICAL REVOLUTIONSIn the political sphere the American Revolution of1775-83, which ended British rule over theThirteen Colonies, was followed by the FrenchRevolution, which began in 1789 and signalled anew era in the "Old World". Tom Paine, aninfluential transatlantic radical wrote in 1791: "It isan age of Revolutions in which everything may belooked for." His optimism was premature, however,for the French Revolution failed in both its Jacobinand Napoleonic forms and was followed, after 1815,by a period of reaction in Europe, led by theautocratic rulers of Russia, Austria and Prussia.

This did not, however, prevent the growth ofLiberalism in Europe, which led to revolutions inFrance and Belgium in 1830 and to reforms inother countries such as Britain. In 1848 there werefurther revolutions in France and Germany which,although not entirely successful, led to thedemocratization of political institutions in westernEurope. By the early 20th century all Europeanstates, including Russia, had representativeassemblies, most of which were elected by a wideadult male suffrage. Women were still generallyexcluded from the franchise, but this restrictionwas being challenged and undermined bycampaigners in Europe and North America. In theUnited States and the British dominions most whitemen and some women could vote, but not the non-European ethnic groups.

In most of the world non-democratic forms ofgovernment prevailed (map 1). In both the Middleand the Far East, dynastic rulers with autocraticpowers flourished until the second decade of the20th century. In the Asian, African and Caribbeancolonies of the European powers, the nativeinhabitants were generally not allowed any directvoice in government. Even in Europe, democracydeveloped under the cloak of a much older andmore absolutist political tradition: hereditarymonarchy. France was the only major Europeanpower to become a republic before 1917. Bismarck- the dominant political figure in late 19th-centuryEurope - remained Chancellor of Germany only aslong as he retained the support of the kaiser. Theimportance of hereditary dynasties in the Europeanstate system was illustrated when the murder of theAustrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand, at Sarajevo in1914 precipitated the First World War.

A The European revolutions of1848, sparked off by theoverthrow of King Louis Philippein France and the seizure of theChamber of Deputies (shownhere), largely failed in their

short-term socialist aims. In thelong term they encouraged theliberalization anddemocratization of manyEuropean constitutions.

A Ail independent countries inthe Americas embracedrepublicanism during the 19thcentury, although the franchisewas usually extremely limitedand elections were oftensuspended. By 1914 much of

governments, although outsideFrance and Portugal monarchsstill acted as heads of state. Theextent to which they actuallyexercised power varied from

country to country, as did theproportion of citizens entitled tovote. Those areas of Asia andAfrica not under Europeancontrol or influence were ruledby autocratic monarchs.

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Europe was roled by elected

A Military conflicts within

Europe in this period werecaused largely by the territorialambitions of the French, theRussians and the Prussians.Smaller conflicts arose asBelgium, Greece, Hungary, Italyand, at the very end of theperiod, the Balkan states, foughtoff colonial rule and establishedtheir independence.

T The American Civil War wasthe bloodiest conflict in Americanhistory. The unsuccessful attemptby the outnumbered Confederatesto storm the Unionists during theBattle of Gettysburg in July 1863is generally considered to be theturning point of the war.

MILITARY CONFLICTSIn the 19th century Europe was the most powerfulregion in the world both in economic and militaryterms, but it was seldom united either at thenational or the international level. The growth ofnationalist sentiment encouraged the emergence of"nation-states" such as Germany and Italy, butseveral great powers - Russia, Austria and theUnited Kingdom - were composed of differentethnic groups whose antipathies to each other wereincreased by the growth of nationalist feeling.Nationalism and territorial ambition led manyEuropean countries to attack one another. Therewere numerous wars in western Europe as well asin the unstable region of the Balkans (map 2).

The Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 generatednot only hundreds of thousands of casualties butalso the Paris Commune, in which socialists brieflyseized power. The late 19th century saw theemergence of new ideologies of egalitarianism and

class conflict - Marxism, syndicalism andanarchism - which rejected liberal democracy andfavoured "direct action" such as industrial strikesand assassination.

Europe was a divided continent long before theFirst World War (1914-18) exacerbated itsproblems. This was apparent even on othercontinents, where many wars in the late 18th and19th centuries were fought between Europeanpowers (map 3). France and Spain, for example,helped the American colonists gain theirindependence from Britain, and Britain capturedmany French, Spanish and Dutch colonies duringits struggle with Napoleon.

RESISTANCE TO IMPERIAL RULEThe period 1770-1914 has been described as the"Age of European Imperialism" because it wascharacterized by a rapid expansion in Europeaninfluence over the rest of the world. However, at notime between 1770 and 1914 was most of the worldunder direct European control. In the AmericasEuropean colonial rule was confined to theperiphery, while in the Middle East and Asiaimportant indigenous states survived despite theexpansion of European influence. The extensiveManchu Qing Empire remained largely intact untilthe second decade of the 20th century.

Japan acquired a maritime empire and rapidlydeveloped its manufactures and foreign trade withthe help of Western technology. Other Asian rulers,such as the shahs of Persia and the kings of Siam,kept their independence by playing off Europeanrivals against each other. Even in India - regardedby the British as the most valuable part of theirempire - control of about half the subcontinent wasshared with native maharajahs. In Africa most ofthe interior remained beyond direct Europeancontrol until the late 19th century. Furthermore,some native African states inflicted defeat onEuropean armies - as the Zulus did at Isandhlwanain 1879, the Mahdists at Khartoum in 1885 and theEthiopians at Adowa in 1896.

Most European colonies were of minor economicimportance to their mother countries, althoughthere were some notable exceptions. Few coloniesoutside North America attracted large numbers ofEuropean settlers, except Australia, where theinitial settlements were established with the aid oftransported convicts. Very few Europeans settled inequatorial Africa or Asia, and even India attractedonly a few thousand long-term British residents.

CHANGES IN POPULATIONIn the 19th century the distribution of the world'spopulation changed considerably. Although Asiaremained far more populous than any othercontinent, the population of Europe increasedrapidly, while that of North America exploded -largely as a result of European migration. The

162

expansion of the European empires in Africa andAsia facilitated both Asian and European migration,while the African slave trade continued to Braziland Cuba until the late 19th century.

The great majority of people who left Europe -more than 30 million over the period - migrated tothe United States. Americans, although they oftenretained some aspects of their European heritage,were proud that they had left the restrictions andconflicts of the "Old World" for the opportunitiesand advantages of the "New World" and supportedthe isolationist policy of the US government. Thecombination of a low tax burden with rapidwestward expansion and industrialization gave themajority of white Americans a very high standardof living. By the late 19th century the United Stateswas the richest nation in the world, although itsmilitary power and international status were stillrelatively undeveloped.

CROSS-CULTURAL INFLUENCESThe worldwide success of the European peoplesencouraged them to believe in their ownsuperiority, but it also exposed them to othercultures which subtly altered their own civilization.Japanese art, for example, inspired French andDutch painters and British designers, whileHinduism prompted the fashionable cult oftheosophy. In North America, popular music wasinfluenced by African-American blues and jazz.

In Latin America Roman Catholicism becamethe main religion of the native peoples, but wasobliged to make compromises with local practicesand beliefs. Outside the Americas EuropeanChristianity had little success in converting other

ethnic and religious groups. Islam, for example,remained dominant in the Middle East and much ofSouth and Southeast Asia, while Hinduismremained the religion of the majority in India. TheChinese and the Japanese largely remained loyal totheir traditional religions, despite much missionaryactivity by the Christian churches, which was oftenprompted by deep divisions between the Protestantand Roman Catholic churches.

Throughout the period the vast majority of theworld's ethnic groups remained attached to theirown indigenous traditions and had little knowledgeof other languages or cultures. Even in 1914European influence on the world was still limitedand undeveloped in many respects. The largestEuropean transcontinental empires - those ofBritain and France - did not reach their apogeeuntil after the First World War, and Europeancultural influence only reached its zenith in thelater 20th century, by which time it had beensubsumed in a wider "Westernization" of the world.

A Many of the wars outsideEurope were fought by Europeanpowers, or by people ofEuropean origin. In LatinAmerica, for example, there wasa sequence of wars of liberation,as the Spanish colonial elitesstaged successful revolutionsagainst rule from Spain.

^ One effect of the increasedcontact between Europe and thecountries of Asia during the 19thcentury was an exchange ofcultural influences. The landscapewoodcuts of Katsushika Hokusai,such as this view of Mount Fujifrom Nakahara - one of a seriesentitled Thirty-Six Views of

Mount Fuji(\m-tt)-mrecognized as having influencedthe work of Van Gogh and otherEuropean artists.

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THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION1775-83

A The Declaration of Independence wasdrafted by Thomas Jefferson (fight), withthe assistance of Benjamin Franklin (left)and John Adams (centre), and adopted bythe Continental Congress on 4 July 1776.

Tin 1763 Britain antagonized theAmerican colonists by unilaterally decidingto maintain a standing army in NorthAmerica to protect its newly acquired assets,and by prohibiting white settlement to thewest of an imposed Proclamation Line.

The American Revolution or War of Independence gavebirth to a new nation, the United States of America. Itinvolved two simultaneous struggles: a military conflict

with Britain, which was largely resolved by 1781, and a poli-tical conflict within America itself over whether to demandcomplete independence from Britain and, if so, how theresulting new nation should be structured.

Prior to the outbreak of war in 1775, the territory thatbecame the United States comprised thirteen separateBritish colonies, each with its own distinct burgeoningculture, institutions and economy (map 1). Before 1763 thecolonists, with their own colonial legislatures, had enjoyeda large measure of self-government, except in overseastrade, and had rarely objected to their membership of theBritish Empire. Changes to British policy after 1763 gradu-ally destroyed this arrangement and created a sense ofcommon grievance among the colonies.

CAUSES FOR GRIEVANCEThe spoils of the Seven Years War (1756-63) greatlyenlarged the territory of British North America and estab-lished British dominance over the continent (map 2). Inorder to police this vast area and to reduce substantialwartime debt, the British government took steps to manageits North American empire more effectively. Customs offi-cers were ordered to enforce long-standing laws regulatingcolonial shipping (Navigation Acts, 1650-96), and a seriesof measures was passed by the British parliament which forthe first time taxed the colonists directly (Sugar Act, 1764;Quartering Acts, 1765; Stamp Act, 1765). Having no repre-sentation in the British parliament, the colonists viewedthese measures as a deliberate attempt to bypass the colo-nial assemblies, and they responded by boycotting Britishgoods. Although most of these taxes were repealed in 1770,Committees of Correspondence were organized throughoutthe Thirteen Colonies to publicize American grievances.

A Between 1700 and 1770 the economicstructure of the American colonies becameincreasingly diversified and sophisticated asthe population increased sixfold to some1,500,000. Manufacturing developed on a

significant scale and there was a dramaticgrowth of trade, not only with the mothercountry and the British West Indies but also-illegally-with the French West Indiesand continental Europe.

In response to the Tea Act of 1773, a symbolic "teaparty" was held when protestors dumped incoming tea intoBoston harbour rather than pay another "unjust" tax. Thesituation worsened when the boundaries of the now-Britishcolony of Quebec were extended to the territory north ofthe Ohio River (Quebec Act, 1774). Feeling the need toenforce its authority, Britain passed the Coercive Acts of1774 (the "Intolerable Acts"), which closed Boston harbourand imposed a form of martial law. Meeting in Philadelphiain 1774, the First Continental Congress asserted the rightto "no taxation without representation" and, although stillhoping that an amicable settlement could be reached withBritain, denounced these new British laws as violations ofAmerican rights. When Britain made it clear that thecolonies must either submit to its rule or be crushed (theRestraining Act, 1775), the movement for full Americanindependence began. War broke out when British troopsclashed with the colonial militia at Lexington and Concordin April 1775.

At the start of the war, the American cause seemed pre-carious. The colonists were deeply divided about what theywere fighting for and faced the full might of the BritishEmpire. Britain had the greatest navy and the best-equippedarmy in the world, although the small size of the British armyin the American colonies - composed of regular soldiers,American loyalists, Hessian mercenaries and Native Americantribes, especially the Six Nations and the Cherokee - is evi-dence that Britain did not initially take the American threatseriously. The Americans, however, with militiamen andvolunteers, had more than enough manpower to defend them-selves, and in most battles they outnumbered British troops.Much of the fighting, especially in the south, took the form ofguerrilla warfare, at which American militiamen, aided by thecivilian population, were much more adept than the Britishregular troops. They had the advantage of fighting on theirown territory and, unlike the British, had easy access to sup-plies. By the war's end America had also won the support ofBritain's enemies - France, Spain and Holland.

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THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCEOn 4 July 1776 the Second Continental Congress adoptedThomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence. Thisdocument furnished the moral and philosophical justifica-tion for the rebellion, arguing that governments are formedin order to secure the "self-evident" truth of the right ofeach individual to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness"and that their power is derived from the consent of thosethey govern. Grounded in the notion that "all men arecreated equal", the Declaration asserted the colonists' inde-pendence from Britain and effectively cut all ties with themother country.

PHASES IN THE FIGHTINGThe fighting took place in

three distinct phases. Thefirst phase (1775-76) wasmainly located in New

England but culminated in theAmerican failure to capture

Quebec in December 1775, thusenabling the British to retain

Canada. The middle phase(1776-79) was fought mainly in the

mid-Atlantic region. The Americanvictory at Saratoga (October 1777)

proved to be a major turning pointin the war as it galvanized Franceinto entering the war on America's

side, contributing badly needed finan-cial aid and its powerful navy and

troops. The final phase took place in thesouth and west (1778-81). Naval warfare

now assumed greater importance, withFrench/American and British ships fighting for

control of the Atlantic Ocean and CaribbeanSea. Spain declared war against Britain in June

1779, followed by Holland in 1780. In September 1781the French fleet drove the British navy from ChesapeakeBay, preparing the way for the British surrender at Yorktown(October 1781), the last major battle of the war.

Occasional fighting continued for over a year, but a newBritish cabinet decided to open peace negotiations. TheTreaty of Paris (September 1783) recognized the new repub-lic and established generous boundaries from the AtlanticCoast to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes andCanada to the 31st parallel in the south. The Revolution wasnot accepted by all Americans (about one-third remainedloyal to Britain), and up to 100,000 colonists fled thecountry to form the core of English-speaking Canada (pages188-89). The ideas expressed in the Declaration ofIndependence were enshrined in the American Constitutionof 1789, which legally established the federal republic andwas subsequently used as an inspiration for other liberationmovements, most notably in France.

A The battlefronts of the American Warof Independence stretched from Quebec inthe north to Florida in the south, and fromthe Atlantic coast as far west as what is nowsouthwestern Illinois. The dense Americanforest and wilderness had a crucial impacton the movement of troops, and theproximity of almost all the battlefields toeither the sea or a river indicates the still-primitive nature of overlandcommunication.

COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA 1600-1763 pages 124-25 WESTWARD EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES 1783-1910 pages 182-83 165

REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONICEUROPE 1789-1815

A The French Revolution did not occursimultaneously throughout the country, butspread out into the countryside from urbancentres. Some areas remained stubbornlyresistant to revolutionary rule, but by themid-1790s even these were brought underthe control of central government. Thecrowned heads of Europe feared the spreadof revolutionary fervour into their owncountries, and were thus anxious to quellthe revolutionary French. However, theAustrians were eventually defeated atFleurus, while the Prussians were repulsed inAlsace, as were the Sardinians in Savoy, theSpanish in the south, and the British on theVendee coast and the Mediterranean.Avignon (a papal state) was incorporatedinto France in 1791.

The French Revolution of 1789 represented a majorturning point in the history of continental Europe, forit marked the beginning of the demise of absolutist

monarchies and their replacement by nation states in whichthe middle classes held political power. It arose partly fromattempts by King Louis XVI to overcome a mounting finan-cial crisis by summoning the Estates-General, a body ofelected representatives which had not met since 1614. Hethus aroused hopes of reform among the Third Estate (thebourgeoisie or middle classes) - hopes that could only befulfilled by an attack on the judicial and financial privilegesof the First and Second Estates (the aristocracy and clergy).While the king prevaricated, the First and Second Estatesrefused to surrender any of their privileges, and on 17 June1789 the Third Estate proclaimed itself a National Assembly.

Riots had broken out in many parts of France early in1789 (map 1) in response to a disastrous harvest in 1788that had reduced many peasants and industrial workers tostarvation. When the people of Paris stormed the Bastilleprison - symbol of royal absolutism - on 4 July 1789, anenormous wave of popular unrest swept the country, and inwhat was known as the "Great Fear" the property of thearistocracy was looted or seized. The National Assemblyreacted by abolishing the tax privileges of the aristocracyand clergy and promulgating the"Declaration of the Rightsof Man and of the Citizen", in which the main principles ofbourgeois democracy - liberty, equality, property rights andfreedom of speech - were enunciated. Other reforms fol-lowed, including the replacement of the provinces of Franceby a centralized state divided into 84 departments.

Powerless to stop these changes, the king tried, unsuc-cessfully, to flee the country in June 1791, thus provoking

anti-royalist attacks. Tension between the moderates andanti-royalists grew as French royalist armies, backed byAustria and Prussia, gathered on France's borders. In April1792 war was declared on Austria, and in September thePrussians invaded northeastern France, but were repulsedat Valmy (map 1). A new National Convention, elected byuniversal male suffrage, declared France a republic.

THE TERRORLouis XVI was put on trial and executed in January 1793.Anti-revolutionary uprisings, the presence on French soil ofenemy armies and continuing economic problems, led to asense of national emergency. The Assembly appointed aCommittee of Public Safety, dominated by the extremistJacobins and led by Robespierre. A reign of terror began,with the aim of imposing revolutionary principles by force,and more than 40,000 people (70 per cent of them from thepeasantry or labouring classes) were executed as "enemiesof the Revolution".

In order to combat the foreign threat, the Committee ofPublic Safety introduced conscription. During 1794 theFrench proved successful against the invading forces of theFirst Coalition (map 3), and victory at Fleurus in June leftthem in control of the Austrian Netherlands. In July themoderate faction ousted Robespierre, who went to the guil-lotine. Executive power was then vested in a Directory offive members, and a five-year period of moderation set in.

THE RISE OF NAPOLEONThe Directory made peace with Prussia, the Netherlandsand Spain, but launched an offensive against Austria in Italy,headed by a young general, Napoleon Bonaparte (map 2).He was brilliantly successful during 1796, forcing Austriaout of the war, but then led an unsuccessful expedition toEgypt to try and cut Britain's communications with itsIndian empire. Meanwhile, the Directory had become pro-foundly unpopular with all sections of the population, andwas overthrown by Napoleon on his return to France inOctober 1799. In 1800, following the first-ever plebiscite,from which he gained overwhelming support, he was con-firmed as First Consul of France - a position that gave himsupreme authority. He proceeded to introduce a number of

1 6 6


measures to create a centralized administrative structure,including the founding of the Bank of France in 1800.Between 1801 and 1804 a body of laws was created, knownas the Napoleonic Civil Code, which embodied many of thefundamental principles of the French Revolution and wassubsequently imposed in countries conquered by Napoleon'sarmies. In 1801 he signed a concordat with the Pope, thushelping to ensure that he received the Pope's approval whenhe declared himself emperor in 1804.

MILITARY CAMPAIGNSBy the end of 1800 France had once again defeated Austrianforces in northern Italy and by February 1801 it had madepeace with all its opponents except Britain. The followingyear it signed the Treaty of Amiens with Britain, but theresulting period of peace was not to last long, and in 1805Austria, Russia and Sweden joined Britain to form the ThirdCoalition (map 3). In October the French fleet was com-pletely destroyed by the British in the Battle of Trafalgar,but by the end of the year Napoleon's armies had inflictedheavy defeats on the Austrians and Russians at Ulm andAusterlitz respectively. They then moved on through theGerman states, defeating the Prussians in October 1806.Following his defeat of the Russians at Friedland in June1807, Napoleon persuaded the tsar to join forces withFrance to defeat Britain, which once again was isolated asNapoleon's sole effective opponent.

WAR AGAINST THE FIFTH COALITIONIn 1808 Charles IV of Spain was forced to abdicate in favourof Napoleon's brother Joseph. The Spanish revolted and theBritish sent a supporting army to the Iberian Peninsula(map 2). Elsewhere in Europe the economic hardships

resulting from the French military presence tended to makeNapoleon's rule unpopular with his subject nations. Theimposition of the Napoleonic Civil Code in countriesannexed by France, while potentially beneficial to the citi-zens of Europe, still represented an unwelcome dominationby the French. It also caused disquiet among Napoleon'sallies, the Russians, who in 1810 broke with France, even-tually joining Britain and Portugal in the Fifth Coalition.

In 1812 Napoleon attempted his most ambitious annex-ation of territory yet, launching an invasion of Russia.Although he reached Moscow in September, he found itdeserted and, with insufficient supplies to feed his army, hewas forced to retreat. In Spain the British and Portuguesearmies finally overcame the French, chasing them backonto French soil. At the same time the Prussians, Austriansand other subject states seized the opportunity to rebelagainst French rule. The Fifth Coalition armies took Parisin March 1814, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to theisland of Elba, and Louis XVIII ascended the French throne.

A year later, while the Coalition members were negoti-ating the reshaping of Europe at the Congress of Vienna,Napoleon escaped and raised an army as he marched norththrough France. Following defeat at Waterloo in 1815, hewas sent into permanent exile on St Helena. The recon-vened Congress of Vienna deprived France of all theterritory it had acquired since 1792. It could not, however,prevent the spread of revolutionary and Napoleonic ideas inEurope, as the maintenance or adoption of the NapoleonicCivil Code in a number of countries after 1815 testified.

T Napoleon's armies waged war acrossEurope in his attempt to impose French ruleand the Civil Code throughout the continent.The turning point in his fortunes came in1812 when, with an army already fightingin Spain, he embarked on an invasion ofRussia. French supply lines were stretchedtoo far to support the army through theRussian winter, and the troops were forcedto retreat, with most of the survivorsdeserting. Napoleon was eventuallycaptured in 1814 on French soil by thearmies of the Fifth Coalition, and imprisonedon the island of Elba. The final battleoccurred following his escape, when arevived French army was defeated atWaterloo, in Belgium, on 18 June 1815.

From 1793 onwards the rulers of theEuropean states formed various alliances inan attempt to counter the threat fromFrance. Britain was a common member, withother countries joining when it becameexpedient to do so. Russia also joined allfive coalitions, although from 1807 to 1810it was allied to France. Spain, a member ofthe First Coalition, became a French ally andthen puppet state from 1796 until theSpanish people rose up in protest in 1808and precipitated the Peninsular War.

REVOLUTION AND REACTION IN EUROPE 1815-49 pages 172-73REVOLUTION AND STABILITY IN EUROPE 1600-1785 pages 156-57 167

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN1750-1850

A In 1750 most English people lived in thecountryside but many worked in thewell-established local industries as well ason the land. The largest centre ofmanufacturing was London, whose productsincluded silk, gin, soap, glass and furniture.Its population had increased from anestimated 120,000 to 675,000 between1550 and 1750, and the resultant demandencouraged developments in agriculture,industry and transport. Around 650,000tonnes of coal was shipped to London fromNewcastle each year - a trade thatemployed 15,000 people by 1750.

1 PERCENTAGE OF LAND ENCLOSED INENGLAND 1500-1914

A In 1760,75 per cent of the agriculturalland in England was already enclosed andagricultural productivity had been improvingfor 200 years.

I n the late 18th and early 19th centuries Britain becamethe world's leading industrial nation in a process ofeconomic growth and change that is regarded as the

world's first industrial revolution. In some respects,however, the process was of an evolutionary nature, withchange occurring at different speeds in different sectors ofthe economy.

There were a number of reasons why the process ofindustrialization first occurred in Britain rather than anyother country in Europe. In 1750 Britain had a well-devel-oped and specialized economy, substantial overseas tradeand an average per capita national income that was one ofthe highest in Europe. Domestic textile industries, ironsmelting and the manufacturing of iron goods were well-established (map 1). The country was also fortunate in itsnatural resources, among them fertile land on which a pro-ductive agricultural sector had been able to develop. Earlyenclosure of fields (bar chart 1), together with cropimprovements and livestock breeding, meant that Britishagriculture could feed a rapidly increasing urban work-force. Supplies of coal - fundamental to the nature ofBritain's industrialization - were widespread and plentiful,and the development of a national market in coal was faci-litated by coastal trade. Navigable rivers provided initialinternal transport, while faster-flowing rivers suppliedwater power for industry and corn-milling.

The British government also played a very importantrole in establishing the conditions under which industrycould thrive. Britain was free from the internal customsbarriers and river tolls which stifled trade in Europe, whilelaws protected the textile and iron industries from foreigncompetition. Private property rights and a stable currencystimulated economic development, as did the stability pro-vided by a strong state in which warfare, taxation and thepublic debt were managed by sophisticated bureaucracies.Shipping and trade were protected by Britain's naval

supremacy, which also helped to secure trading privilegesand build up a worldwide colonial empire obliged toconduct trade using British ships.

Rapid economic progress was further encouraged byBritain's success in war, in particular the war of 1793-1815against France (pages 766-67), during which Britainremained free from invasion and escaped the economicdislocation engendered by war on the continent of Europe.The war created a demand for armaments, ships anduniforms, which in turn stimulated Britain's shipbuilding,iron-smelting, engineering and textile industries.

THE TEXTILE INDUSTRYIn 1750 a variety of textiles - silk, linen, fustian (a mixtureof linen and cotton) and, in particular, wool - had longbeen produced in Britain. The West Riding of Yorkshire,the West Country and East Anglia were centres of thewoollen industry, while the fustian industry had developedin Lancashire (map 1). The skilled workforce employed inboth industries was largely home-based and organized bymerchants who thus built up capital and entrepreneurialskills. Such skills were used to great effect in the secondhalf of the 18th century, when the cotton industry devel-oped rapidly. Technological change allowed Lancashire toproduce and sell cotton cloth more cheaply than India,where production depended on low-paid labour. Inventionssuch as Arkwright's water frame and Watt's steam-poweredrotative engine transformed cotton spinning in the lastdecade of the 18th century into a factory-based, urbanindustry. This led to an unprecedented rise in productiv-ity and production. Lancashire became the centre of theworld's cotton manufacturing industry (map 2) andexported cotton cloth throughout the world. The woollenindustry continued to be of importance, especially in theWest Riding of Yorkshire, where mechanization was intro-duced and British wool was supplemented by merino woolimported from Australia.

IRON, COAL AND TRANSPORTInnovation in iron production in the 18th century facili-tated smelting, and later refining, using coke instead ofcharcoal. Steam power, fuelled by plentiful coal supplies,began to replace man, horse and water power, encouragingthe development of the factory system and rapid urbaniza-tion near to coalfields. These developments were self-sustaining, for while steam engines increased the demandfor coal and iron, better steam-driven pumps and rotarywinding equipment facilitated deeper coalmines.

Transport developed in response to the economicchanges. Canals were constructed to carry heavy and bulkygoods, and roads were improved by turnpike trusts,opening up the national market for goods. The combina-tion of colliery waggonways and the steam engine led tothe piecemeal development of a rail network from 1825onwards which by 1850 linked the major urban centres. Italso encouraged further industrialization by generating ahuge fresh demand for coal, iron, steel, engineering andinvestment (map 3).

THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONThe economic and social effects of industrialization werecomplex and wide-ranging. Between 1750 and 1850 thepopulation of England almost trebled. By 1850 more thanhalf the population lived in towns or cities, compared withonly 25 per cent in 1800 (bar chart 2). Eleven per centlived in London, which remained the largest manufacturingcentre, and more than 60 towns and cities had over 20,000inhabitants. Such a process of rapid urbanization wasunprecedented and unplanned. Crowded and insanitaryliving conditions meant that urban death rates were con-siderably higher than those in rural areas. At the sametime, the development of the factory system generatedissues of discipline, as some workers resented capitalistcontrol of work processes and the replacement of tradi-tional skills by machines. There were outbreaks of machine

168


breaking, especially in times of trade depression. Moraldebates were prompted by the employment of women andchildren as cheap labour.

Even as late as 1850, however, when British manufac-tured goods were traded all over the world, many areas ofBritain remained rural. In some regions industries hadactually declined, among them wool production in the WestCountry and iron manufacture around Ironbridge (maps 1and 2). The vast majority of the industrial working popu-lation was employed in retailing and warehousing,workshops and small enterprises rather than in factories.Capital and technology had become less involved withagriculture and more involved with industry, especially

manufacturing, and with trade and construction related toindustry. Yet agriculture was still the largest single occupa-tion and most of Britain's food was still home-produced.

By 1850 Britain was no longer the only country to haveundergone an industrial revolution. Similar changes hadbegun to occur in continental Europe (pages 170-71),sometimes with the aid of British machinery, entrepre-neurial and financial skills. British industrial workers hadalso taken their skills to the Continent. In the second halfof the century a considerable number were to emigrate tothe United States, where the process of industrialization(pages 186-87) was eventually to lead to Britain losing itsposition as the world's greatest industrial power.

A The cotton mills of Lancashire are oftenregarded as being at the centre of Britain'sindustrial revolution. A long textile tradition,the availability of coal and the presence ofthe port of Liverpool encouraged the cottonindustry, which in turn promoted commercialand financial institutions, trade, transport,mineral extraction, engineering andurbanization. By 1830 one third ofLancashire's population worked in around1,000 cotton factories and numeroussmall workshops.

< In 1850 London, with a population of2.4 million, was still the predominantmanufacturing centre in Britain. London'sbrewing and refining industries in particularwere among the largest in the country, andmore tonnage passed through the port ofLondon than any other port in Britain.However, by 1850 the fastest-growing citieswere the northern industrial centres ofLiverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Leedsand Sheffield.

2 ESTIMATED POPULATION OF ENGLAND1750-1851

A As the population of England increased,its geographical distribution shifted in favourof the developing industrial regions. In 1750Middlesex, Lancashire, the West Riding andDevon, the most populated counties, shared10 per cent of the total English population.By 1851 the four most industrializedcounties-Lancashire, West Riding,Staffordshire and Warwickshire - containednearly a quarter of the English population.

THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF EUROPE 1830-1914 pages 170-71 1 6 9SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE 1500-1770 pages 134-35

THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF EUROPE1830-1914

A By the outbreak of the First World WarGermany's industrial development hadoutstripped that of all other Europeancountries, giving it an economic andpolitical confidence which is reflectedin this striking advertisement of 1914.

> The development of the European railnetwork followed the 19th-century patternof industrialization, starting in northernFrance, Belgium, the Netherlands andnorthern Germany, and spreading to Spain,Italy and Austria-Hungary as the centuryprogressed. The availability of resourcessuch as coal and iron ore largely determinedthe sites for the development of new heavyindustries, but elsewhere long-standinghome-based manufacture of textiles wastransformed into factory-basedmanufacture, by the use water-power ifcoal was not readily available.

The industrialization of Europe is considered to havestarted in the 1830s, some decades after the begin-ning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the late

18th century. Much debate has centred on whether Britishindustrialization "spilled over" into Europe (and if so, towhat extent), or whether European countries accumulatedtheir own technological and manufacturing knowledge.There is no question that there were substantial flows ofskilled labour, entrepreneurs, capital and technology fromBritain, and later from France and Germany, to the lessindustrialized parts of Europe. However, although the basicmodel of industrialization remained British, each countrydeveloped its own national characteristics. Substitutes werefound for the particular resources that Britain possessed butwhich other countries lacked, more organized bankingsystems supplied finance to accelerate growth, and moreaware governments supplied the ideologies and incentivesto motivate growth. As a result, industrialization in thecountries of continental Europe was more state-driven andmore revolutionary in character than in Britain. The cul-mination of this model was the abrupt industrialization ofthe USSR under the Soviet system from 1917 onwards.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENTIn the first half of the 19th century many of Europe'smodern nation-states were yet to come into existence.

Germany and Italy were still fragmented into small politicalentities, while at the other extreme lay dynastic empiresthat spanned several nationalities, such as the HabsburgAustrian Empire, the tsarist Russian Empire (whichincluded Poland), and the Ottoman Empire (which includedmuch of the Balkans). The process of industrialization oftentook place in the context of shifting political allegiances andthe forging of national identities. Political alliances and wars,such as the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, introducedborder changes that were often somewhat haphazard in eco-nomic terms. On the other hand, some of the German statesused economic unification - initially in the form of acustoms union (Zollverein) in 1834 - as a step towards polit-ical union in 1871 (pages 176-77).

Industry in its early stages was predominantly confinedto a number of rather circumscribed regions. Some, such asthe region just west of Krakow and a large area of northernEurope, cut across national boundaries (map 1). The exis-tence of coal and iron was the most important criterion fordetermining the speed at which regions developed, butlocally available resources were also important, especiallythe supply of skills in textile regions. Some of the emergingindustrial regions subsequently faded, such as the areasaround Le Havre, Leipzig and Dresden, while some newones emerged, such as that bordering the Ruhr in Germany.In general, industrialization can be said to have come to

1 7 0


regions rather than to nations. Even at the beginning of the21st century, much industrial activity in Europe is domi-nated by regional "clusters" of activity, rather than by ageneral spread of industrialization to all corners.

DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRYThe pattern of European industrialization (starting innorthwest Europe and moving northwards, southwards andeastwards) tends to support the idea that it was based onthat of Britain. It is certainly beyond doubt that the tech-nological advances developed in Britain, for example intextile machinery and steam engines, did not need to be re-invented. However, the technology often needed to bemodified to suit local conditions. For example, the type ofsteam engine most popular in Britain (developed by JamesWatt) consumed too much coal for its use to be worthwhilein regions where coal was more expensive than in Britain.As a result, water-wheels and the more efficient water tur-bines were often used to power machinery in France andItaly. Similarly, in the textile industry it was found thatmachinery developed for the manufacture of woollen andcotton cloth in Britain was not as suitable for the finer tex-tiles of France and Spain.

The scattering of industrial areas encouraged the growthof railway systems, to facilitate the delivery of raw materi-als to manufacturers and the distribution of manufacturedgoods to customers. The first track was laid in northernEurope in the 1840s, and the network had reached allcorners of Europe by 1870 (map 1). In countries such asSpain and Italy the railway was envisaged as the catalystthat would set in motion the process of industrialization,but in these countries, which were among the last to indus-trialize, the building of railway lines had little appreciableeffect. In general, railways were successful at connectingalready industrializing areas, rather than fostering thegrowth of new areas.

THE SPEED AND IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATIONThe impact of new industries and new technologies can begauged from the levels of industrialization achieved, mea-sured in terms of the volume of industrial production perperson (maps 2 and 3). In 1830 the figure for Britain wasmore than twice as high as in any other European nationexcept Belgium, and even as late as 1913 Britain remainedahead, although it was rapidly being caught by Switzerland,Belgium and, of course, Germany, whose steel productionhad by this time outstripped that of Britain (pages 216-17).Indeed, while Britain had a 13.6 per cent share of the worldindustrial output in 1913, Germany, with its much largerpopulation, had 14.8 per cent, and was thus second only tothe United States in terms of its industrial might.

The most obvious effect of industrialization was on eco-nomic growth and on the living standards of the populationsof the industrialized countries. While industrialization haddeveloped first in countries whose societies were relatively

T The degree of industrialization in Europe The Scandinavian countries of Norway,is clearly reflected in the growth ofcountries' Gross National Product (GNP).The nations of northern Europe (includingDenmark) pulled away from the rest ofEurope in terms of their national wealth.

Sweden and Finland all had a lower GNPper capita than those of southern Europe in1830, but had outstripped them by 1910 asa consequence of a period of intenseindustrialization late in the 19th century.

RELATIVE GROWTH IN GNP PER CAPITA ACROSS EUROPE 1830-1910

egalitarian, such as Belgium and France, it often had theeffect of widening social inequalities for some years. Thenational income per head, the most common indicator ofoverall prosperity and growth, rose throughout Europe(graph], but its steepest increase was in northern Europe,where industrialization took its strongest hold. So, despitethe squalor and misery of industrial regions and cities, itseems that industrializing nations as a whole, and certainsectors in particular, enjoyed long-term economic benefits.

^ Britain, with its head start, steamedahead of the rest of Europe in terms ofindustrial output per capita in the first halfof the 19th century, but Belgium, withreadily available sources of coal and ironore, also experienced an increase in outputof more than 100 per cent. Elsewhere innorthern Europe, and in Switzerland,industrialization made considerableheadway, although the intenseindustrialization of northern France andGermany is not reflected in the per capitafigures of those countries, since the majorityof the population was still engaged inagricultural production.

T Countries underwent their main periods

of industrialization at different times.

Belgium experienced a spurt early on and

then again at the turn of the century, while

others, in particular the Scandinavian

countries, were relatively late developers.

Germany also started comparatively slowly

but increased the volume of its industrial

production per person by 240 per cent

between 1880 and 1913.

THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1870-1914 pages 216-17 1 7 1THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN 1750-1850 pages 168-69

REVOLUTION AND REACTION IN EUROPE1815-49> The Congress of Vienna resulted inseveral major boundary changes. Francehad its borders returned to those of 1792,Poland was divided once again and 39German-speaking states were organized intothe German Confederation, dominated byPrussia, which was given half of Saxony.Austria lost its possessions in northwestEurope to the Dutch in the newly createdUnited Netherlands, but was given much ofnorthern Italy by way of compensation.

T During the 1820s and early 1830srebellions broke out across Europe, withliberals calling for an end to absolutemonarchy in Spain and Portugal and in theItalian peninsula. The Greeks, with the helpof the French, British and Russians, drovethe Ottomans from Morea. The Russians alsointervened to crush rebellion in Poland in1830, having defeated their own DecembristRevolution in 1825. The French broughtabout a degree of constitutional reformfollowing the replacement of Charles X byLouis Philippe in 1830, and Belgiumachieved independence from the UnitedNetherlands the same year.

Following their initial victory over Napoleon in 1814,the major European powers met at the Congress ofVienna (1814-15) to decide on the future political

map of Europe. The Congress was dominated by three prin-ciples: territorial compensation for the victors, therestoration and affirmation of the ruling royal dynasties, andthe achievement of a balance of power between the majorEuropean states. As a result of their deliberations theGerman Confederation was formed, replacing the HolyRoman Empire (map 1). Elsewhere, national boundarieswere redrawn, often with little regard to ethnic groupings,thus planting the seeds of nationalist tensions.

There was a shared conviction that the spread of repub-lican and revolutionary movements must be prevented. InSeptember 1815 Russia, Austria and Prussia formed a "HolyAlliance", agreeing to guarantee all existing boundaries andgovernments and to uphold the principles of Christianitythroughout Europe. The alliance was subsequently joinedby the other major European powers - with the exception ofBritain, the Pope and, not surprisingly, the Ottoman sultan- and over the next 40 years there were several occasionswhen the autocratic rulers of Europe took military action tosuppress uprisings in states other than their own.

REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITY IN THE SOUTHIn 1820 there was an explosion of revolutionary activity inSpain. Following the defeat of Napoleon, a liberal consti-tution had been introduced in 1812, but this had beenannulled by King Ferdinand VII on his return from exile in1815. In 1820 his authority was challenged by an armyrevolt, supported by riots across Spain (map 2), with theresult that the liberal constitution was re-established.

172


Insurrections in Naples, Piedmont and Portugal in thesummer of 1820 also attempted to introduce constitutionalforms of government, and initially met with some success.However, Tsar Alexander I of Russia persuaded theAustrians and Prussians to support him in threatening mil-itary intervention, and in March 1821 Austria sent an armyto crush the revolts in Piedmont and Naples. In December1825 Russia faced revolutionary action on its own soil whena group of military officers tried unsuccessfully to preventthe accession to the tsardom of Nicholas I, preferring hismore liberal-minded brother. The following year the con-tinuing instability in Portugal prompted the British tointervene, in this instance with the intention of aiding thepreservation of its constitutional government.

In Greece a revolution broke out in 1821 with the aim ofshaking off Ottoman rule and uniting the whole of theancient Hellenic state under a liberal constitution. TheOttomans enlisted support from the Egyptian viceroyMuhammad Ali, whose troops seized a large area of thecountry by 1826, when Russia, France and Britain inter-vened to defeat the Muslim forces. However, the LondonProtocol of 1830, which proclaimed Greek independence,fell far short of the aspirations of the revolutionaries in thatit only established a Greek monarchy in southern Greece,under the joint protection of the European powers (map 3).

UNREST IN THE NORTHBy 1830 revolutionary passions were rising in France. KingCharles X dissolved an unco-operative Chamber of Deputiesand called an election, but when an equally anti-royalChamber resulted, he called fresh elections with a restrictedelectorate. Demonstrations in Paris during July forced himto abdicate in favour of Louis Philippe, whose right to callelections was removed. His reign, known as the "JulyMonarchy", saw insurrections as industrial workers andmembers of the lower middle class, influenced by socialistand Utopian ideas, demanded an increased share of politi-cal power, including the vote.

Nationalist resentment at decisions taken at theCongress of Vienna led to insurrection in both Belgium andPoland in the 1830s. In Belgium, which had been given tothe United Netherlands in 1815, riots broke out in 1830 andindependence was declared in October. In the kingdom ofPoland, an area around Warsaw that had been given to theRussian tsar, a revolt by Polish nationalists resulted in abrief period of independence before the Russians crushedthe movement in 1831, and subsequently attempted todestroy Polish identity in a campaign of "Russification".

Britain also experienced a degree of social unrest. Amass protest in Manchester in 1819 was crushed and 11people were killed by troops in what became known as the"Peterloo Massacre". Inequalities in the electoral systemprovoked a strong movement for reform, which resulted inthe Great Reform Bill of 1832. This expanded the electorateby 50 per cent and ensured representation from the newlydeveloped industrial centres. Further calls were made by theChartists for universal suffrage, with petitions presented toParliament in 1838 and again in 1848.

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848By 1848 many of the European countries were sufferingfrom an economic crisis; the failure of the potato and graincrops in 1845-46 was reflected in the price of food. Therewas political discontent at different social levels: peasantsdemanded total abolition of the feudal system, industrialworkers sought improvements in their working conditions,and middle-class professionals wanted increased politicalrights. In Italy and Germany there were growing movementsfor unification and independence (pages 176-77).

Revolutionary agitation began in Paris in February 1848,forcing the abdication of Louis Philippe and the establish-ment of the Second Republic. It then spread across centralEurope (map 3). The Habsburg Empire, faced with demandsfor a separate Hungarian government, as well as demon-strations on the streets of Vienna, initially gave in to the

demands of the Hungarian nationalists and granted them aseparate constitution. This, however, was annulled somemonths later, leading to a declaration of independence byHungary. The Austrian response was to quell the revolt in1849 with the help of Russian forces (pages 174-75).

Discontent in Austria spilled over into the southernstates of the German Confederation, and liberals in Berlindemanded a more constitutional government. As a result,the first National Parliament of the German Confederationwas summoned in May 1848.

FROM REVOLUTION TO REACTIONIn June 1848 struggles between the moderate and thradical republicans culminated in three days of rioting onthe streets of Paris. In crushing the rioters the more con-servative factions gained control, a trend that was repeatedin Prussia, where royal power was reaffirmed. The secondhalf of 1848 was marked by waves of reaction that spreadfrom one city to another. The restoration of Austrian controlover Hungary was achieved partly by playing off againsteach other the different ethnic groups within the empire.However, despite the suppression of the 1848 revolutionaries, most of the reforms they had proposed werecarried out in the second half of the century, and at leastsome of the nationalist movements were successful.

A Rebellions broke out across Europeduring 1848, inspired by the success of theFrench in abolishing their monarchy inFebruary. The Habsburgs faced rebellions inHungary and in the Italian cities of Milanand Venice, which were supported byPiedmont. Although the revolutions in Italy,Germany and Hungary were all defeated,the liberal constitutions, unification andindependence they were seeking dideventually come about.

THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND OF GERMANY 1815-71 pages 176-77 1 7 3REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 1789-1815 pages 166-67

THE HABSBURG EMPIRE:EXPANSION AND DECLINE 1700-1918> During the 18th century the HabsburgEmpire took every opportunity to expandits territory at the expense of itsneighbours. As a result of the War of theSpanish Succession, the Habsburgs gainedterritory in the Netherlands and Italy.They fared less well in the east, however,where territory taken from the OttomanEmpire in 1718 was regained by theOttomans in 1739.

A During her 40-year reign Empress MariaTheresa centralized control of the Habsburgterritories through improved administrativesystems, and won popular support with hersocial reforms.

I

he Spanish Habsburg dynasty ended in 1700 with thedeath of Charles II. King Louis XIV of Francesupported the claim to the Spanish throne of Philip,

Duke of Anjou, who was his infant grandson and the great-nephew of Charles. The British and Dutch, fearing Frenchdomination, supported the claim of the Austrian ArchdukeCharles, and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14)ensued (map 1). The outcome, formalized in the Peace ofUtrecht (1713/14), was a compromise under which Philipattained the Spanish throne on condition that he renouncedany claim to France, and the Austrians gained control of ter-ritory in Italy and the Netherlands.

During the 18th century the Austrian Habsburgs werethe major dynastic power in central Europe. They werethreatened, however, when on the death of Charles VI ofAustria in 1740 other crowned heads of Europe refused torecognize his daughter Maria Theresa as his successor. Inthe resulting War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48),Bavaria, France, Spain, Sardinia, Prussia and Saxony joinedforces against Austria, the Netherlands and Britain in anunsuccessful attempt to oust Maria Theresa.

REFORM OF THE MONARCHYDuring her long reign (1740-80) Maria Theresa embarkedon transforming the diverse Habsburg dominions into a cen-tralized nation state, and initiated many progressive reformsin the spheres of education, law and the Church. Her min-ister, Hagwitz, put the Habsburg finances on a more stablefooting, and these reforms reduced the rivalry betweenethnic Germans and Czechs. When Joseph II succeeded hismother in 1780, he was able to build on her centralizingpolicies, and although his most radical reform - that of thetax system - was abolished by his successor, Leopold II,before it was given a chance to work, Joseph is generallyconsidered to have been a strong and enlightened monarch.

In the years immediately after the French Revolution of1789, and during the period of Napoleon's leadership, theHabsburg Empire became involved in a succession of warsagainst France (pages 166-67), as a result of which ittemporarily lost much of Austria, as well as territories innorthern Italy and along the Adriatic. Under the peacesettlement negotiated at the Congress of Vienna in 1815,the Habsburgs renounced their claim to the Netherlands inexchange for areas in northern Italy (map 2).

Austria was by this time largely under the control ofForeign Minister Metternich, who used his influence to per-suade the other major European powers to assist Austria incrushing revolts in Spain, Naples and Piedmont. His ownmethods involved the limited use of secret police and thepartial censorship of universities and freemasons.

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-49The years 1848 and 1849 saw a succession of largely unsuc-cessful uprisings against the absolutist rule of the Habsburgmonarchy (pages 172-73). Although reforms of the legaland administrative systems (known as the "April Laws")were set to take effect in Hungary later that year, they didnot apply to the rest of the Habsburg territories.

The unrest started in Vienna in March 1848 (as a resultof which Metternich was dismissed) and spread to Prague,Venice and Milan. A Constituent Assembly was summonedto revise the constitution, but its only lasting action was toabolish serfdom. By the autumn the unrest had reachedHungary as a number of ethnic groups within the empire(map 3) made bids for greater national rights and freedoms.In December the ineffectual Ferdinand I abdicated in favourof his nephew, Francis Joseph. Not feeling bound by theApril Laws, Francis Joseph annulled the Hungarian consti-tution, causing the Hungarian leader Louis Kossuth todeclare a republic. With the help of the Russians (who

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T

A T L A S O F W O R L D H I S T O R 4 Y : P A R T 411 4

feared the spread of revolutionary fervour), and the Serbs,Groats and Romanians (who all feared Hungarian domina-tion), the Austrian army succeeded in crushing the revoltin 1849 (map 4).

From 1849 onwards an even more strongly centralizedsystem of government was established. Trade and commercewere encouraged by fiscal reforms, and the railway networkexpanded. Coupled with peasant emancipation - for whichlandowners had been partially compensated by the govern-ment - these measures led to a trebling of the national debtover ten years. Higher taxes and a national loan raised fromwealthier citizens led to discontent among the Hungariannobles, who wished to see the restoration of the April Laws.In 1859 war in the Italian provinces forced the Austrians tocede Lombardy (map 2).

CRISIS AND CHANGESeveral factors combined in the 1860s to create a period ofcrisis for the Habsburg Empire. It was becoming clear thatPrussia, under Bismarck, presented an increasing threat, butAustria was unable to keep pace with military developmentsbecause of the insistence of the international banks that itbalance its budget. Unrest in Hungary was presenting athreat to the monarchy, and also making it difficult tocollect taxes and recruit for the army. A centralized gov-ernment was unacceptable to the Hungarian nobility, butprovincial government would be unworkable because ofethnic conflict. Austria was forced to reach a constitutionalsettlement with Hungary in 1867, forming the DualMonarchy of Austria-Hungary. Although Francis Joseph wascrowned head of both, and there were joint ministries forfinance, foreign policy and military affairs, each nation hadan independent constitution and legislature.

Encouraged by the constitutional change of 1867, manyof the ethnic groups within the Dual Monarchy becameincreasingly vocal in their demands for the right to promotetheir language and culture, if not for outright autonomy. InHungary, although other languages were not actuallyrepressed, a knowledge of Hungarian was necessary foranyone with middle-class aspirations. Croatia was grantedpartial autonomy within Hungary in 1878, but continued tobe dominated by its larger partner. There were alsodemands for greater autonomy from the Czechs in Austria,which were resisted by the German-speaking majority.

T Throughout the 19th century the ethnicminorities within the Habsburg, andsubsequently the Austro-Hungarian, Empire

did not generally seek independence.Instead they sought to gain greater localautonomy within a reformed monarchy.

THE RISE OF SERB NATIONALISMBosnia, predominantly inhabited by impoverished peasants,was administered by the Austro-Hungarian Empire underterms agreed at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. It wasannexed in 1908 in order to protect Habsburg trade routesto and from the Dalmatian coast. The resulting incorpora-tion of a large number of Serbs into the empire was activelyopposed by Serbian nationalists and was to contribute to theoutbreak of the First World War in 1914. Following thedefeat of the Austro-Hungarians in the war, the Treaty ofSaint-Germain (1919) broke up the empire, granting auton-omy to its constituent nations and reducing Austria andHungary to less than a quarter of their former area.

A In 1815 the Austrian Habsburgsregained territory they had gained andthen lost during the Napoleonic Wars.However, they were forced to give it up inthe mid-19th century during the process ofItalian unification, and in 1867 werepersuaded to grant Hungary equal status tothat of Austria.

^ The unrest in Hungary in 1848 and1849 was largely an expression of Magyarnationalism, and as such was opposed bythose from minority ethnic groups, inparticular the Croats. In 1849, with LouisKossuth appointed president of anindependent republic of Hungary, theAustrians accepted Russian assistance,offered in the spirit of the Holy Alliance, andthe rebels were eventually crushed at theBattle of Timisoara.

THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1871-1914 pages 216-17THE HABSBURG EMPIRE 1490-1700 pages 152-53 175

THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND OFGERMANY 1815-71

A In 1859, following a war waged byPiedmont and France against the AustrianHabsburgs, Lombardy was liberated fromAustrian rule. The autocratic rulers ofFlorence, Parma and Modena were alsooverthrown and provisional governments setup under Piedmontese authority. France wasgranted Savoy and Nice by Piedmont.

In May 1861 Garibaldi answered requestsfor support from Sicilian revolutionaries andlanded an army in western Sicily. Heproceeded to rout the Neapolitan army in aseries of battles and to proclaim himselfruler of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. ThePiedmontese, anxious to unify the whole ofItaly, despatched an army southwards totake the Papal States, and Garibaldi waspersuaded to hand over his authority in thesouth to King Victor Emmanuel II.

Venetia was ceded by Austria to Italy,following Austria's defeat of 1866 at thehands of the Prussians, whom Italy hadsupported. Rome and its surroundingterritory was seized by Italy in 1870.

Among the most important developments in 19th-century Europe was the unification of Italy andGermany as nation-states - a process that funda-

mentally altered the balance of power in the continent.Although nationalist feeling had been stimulated by theFrench Revolution of 1789, and was originally associatedwith liberal ideas, unification was actually the result ofdiplomacy, war and the efforts of conservative elites ratherthan of popular action. German unification was promotedby Prussia, the most powerful German state, in order toprotect its own domestic political stability; in Italy,Piedmont played this role for similar reasons.

ATTEMPTS TO UNIFY ITALYThe Napoleonic Wars (pages 166-67) had a dramatic effecton Italy. Napoleon redrew boundaries and introducedFrench political and legal ideas. At the Congress of Viennain 1814-15 the major European powers attempted toreverse these changes by restoring deposed leaders, includ-ing members of the Habsburg dynasty, and givingconservative Austria effective control of Lombardy andVenetia in northern Italy (map 1). These developmentswere a major setback for Italian nationalists, who sought toremove foreign interference and unite Italy. The movementfor national unification, or Risorgimento, continued to grow,despite the suppression of revolts in the 1820s and early1830s (pages 172-73). A major figure in this movement was

A The Congress of Vienna in 1814-15restored boundaries within Italy that hadbeen lost under Napoleon's rule. It also

restored members of the conservativeAustrian Habsburg dynasty to power inModena, Parma and Tuscany.

the idealist Giuseppe Mazzini, who hoped the people wouldoverthrow their existing rulers, both Italian and foreign.

In 1848 a wave of revolutionary fervour swept the citiesof Europe - including those in Italy, where the rebelsattempted to dispense with Austrian domination and to per-suade local rulers to introduce constitutions. King CharlesAlbert of the kingdom of Sardinia hoped to defuse the revo-lutions by expelling the Austrians from Lombardy andVenetia, but military defeats at Custozza and Novara forcedhim to abdicate in 1849 in favour of his son VictorEmmanuel II. In Rome, Venice and Florence republics werebriefly established, but France intervened to restore PopePius IX to power and the Austrians reconquered Lombardyand restored the conservative rulers of central Italy.

THE RISE OF PIEDMONTModerate nationalists concluded that the best hope forItalian unification lay with Piedmont, which was economi-cally advanced and had introduced a relatively liberalconstitution. The Piedmontese prime minister, CountCamillo di Cavour, had already decided that foreign helpwould be needed to remove Austrian influence and achieveunification, and reached a secret agreement with NapoleonIII of France at Plombieres in 1858. Accordingly, whenCavour embarked on a war with Austria in 1859 France supported him; Austria was defeated and forced to cedeLombardy to Piedmont (map 2).

Piedmont's subsequent role in uniting Italy was partly aresponse to the actions of Giuseppe Garibaldi, one of theradicals who had created the Roman Republic in 1848. In1860 Garibaldi led an expedition of republican "Red Shirts"(also known as Garibaldi's Thousand) through the Kingdomof the Two Sicilies, whose conservative ruler he defeated(map 2). Piedmont, anxious to preserve its constitutionalmonarchy, sent a force to annex the Papal States. Garibaldithen transferred the territory he had conquered to thePiedmontese king, who became head of the unified kingdomof Italy proclaimed in 1861. The remaining territories ofVenetia and the Patrimony of St Peter were annexed duringthe subsequent ten years.

1 7 6


THE GERMAN CONFEDERATIONBefore the Napoleonic Wars Germany consisted of over 300states, loosely bound in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806Napoleon dissolved the empire, replacing it with a newConfederation of the Rhine comprising states in southernand western Germany, but excluding Austria and Prussia.The Confederation became a French satellite; its constitu-tion was modelled on that of France and it adopted theNapoleonic legal code. It was dissolved after the defeat ofthe French at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 (pages 166-68).

The German Confederation, created as a result of theCongress of Vienna in 1814-15, included 39 states, thelargest and most powerful being Austria and Prussia (map3). A diet (parliament), presided over by Austria, was estab-lished at Frankfurt, but plans to create a federal army andachieve constitutional harmony among the states failed.

As in other parts of Europe, 1848 saw a wave of revolu-tionary activity in Germany (pages 172-73). Followingunrest in Berlin, the Prussian king, Frederick William IV,introduced constitutional reforms and seemed sympathetictowards German unification. Middle-class German national-ists established a parliament at Frankfurt which drew up aconstitution for a future German Empire. However, theywere divided over whether to pursue a "Greater Germany",to include Catholic Austria, or a smaller grouping, dominatedby Protestant Prussia. The parliament fell apart in July 1849and by the end of the year the old order had been restored inboth Germany and the Austrian Empire.

Although Austria and Prussia tried to co-operate duringthe 1850s, Prussia was already outstripping Austria in eco-nomic terms (pages 170-71). In 1834 Prussia hadestablished a Customs Union (Zollverein) that bound theeconomies of the north German states closely, while exclud-ing Austria (map 4). Industrialization made Prussia therichest German state, and increased its military power rel-ative to that of Austria.

V German unification can be seen as theannexation by Prussia of the smaller statesof the Confederation. Following Prussia's

display of military strength in France in1870-71 the southern states acceded toPrussian demands for a unified Germany.

THE EXPANSION OF PRUSSIAThe leading role in German unification was played by Ottovon Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor between 1862 and1871. Bismarck, who had come to see Austrian and Prussianinterests as incompatible, sought to secure Prussian influ-ence over northern and central Germany, and to weakenAustria's position. He hoped that success in foreign affairswould enable him to control Prussia's liberals. In 1864Austria and Prussia jointly ousted Denmark from control ofthe duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, but the two powersincreasingly competed for control of the GermanConfederation. When Bismarck engineered a war withAustria in 1866 (Seven Weeks War), most German statessupported Austria. Prussia, however, enjoyed advantages inmilitary technology and defeated Austria quickly, signallingthe end of the German Confederation and making Germanunification under Prussian leadership more likely.

In 1867 Bismarck secured the creation of a NorthGerman Confederation (map 4). Each member stateretained some autonomy, but the Prussian king, William I,became the Confederation's president, responsible fordefence and foreign policy. Although the south Germanstates were apprehensive about Prussian domination,Bismarck used their fear of the territorial ambitions ofNapoleon III of France to persuade them to ally withPrussia. Bismarck needed to neutralize France if he was toachieve German unification on his terms, and he thereforeprovoked a war over the succession to the Spanish throne.In the resulting Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) France wasdecisively defeated, losing the largely German-speakingareas of Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia.

In January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, theGerman Empire was declared, merging the south Germanstates with the North German Confederation. The newempire had a federal constitution, leaving each state withsome powers, but the Prussian king became emperor andmost government posts were put into Prussian hands. Withwell-developed industrial regions in the north and east(pages 170-71), a united Germany represented a powerfulnew economic force in Europe.

A During 1870-71 the Prussians, underKaiser William I and Chancellor Bismarck,defeated the French army and laid siege toParis. This display of strength convinced thesouthern German states to join with theNorth German Confederation in a unifiedGermany - dominated by Prussia.

T The German Confederation wasestablished following the end of theNapoleonic Wars in 1815. It comprised 39German-speaking states, by far the largestof which was Prussia, and included statesunder the control of the Habsburg Empire.

THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1871-1914 pages 216-17 1 7 7REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 1789-1815 pages 166-67

THE DECLINE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE1683-1923

T Between 1699 and 1739 the Ottomanslost large areas in the Balkans, althoughthey regained the Morea from Venice in1718, and Serbia and Wallachia from theAustrian Habsburgs in 1739.

T

he decline of the Ottoman Empire is often said to datefrom the massive defeat of the Ottomans outsideVienna in 1683, but despite the territorial losses

resulting from the subsequent Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699,the 18th-century Ottoman state remained the biggest polit-ical entity in Europe and western Asia (map 1). Although theeffectiveness of the empire's prestige troops, the Janissaries,was weakened by increasing internal unrest, Ottoman forceswere able to hold Serbia. They also got the better of their oldRenaissance opponent, Venice, by recovering the Morea in1718 (map 2}.

During the 18th century the major European statesbecame more of a threat to the Ottomans. There were large-scale Russian encroachments around the Black Sea in the

later part of the century, and in 1798 a French army underNapoleon Bonaparte made a devastating, if shortlived, sur-prise attack on Egypt, the empire's richest Muslim province.It was clear that the weaponry and the military capacity ofthe European states were moving ahead of those of theirIslamic counterparts. At the same time, Europe's ideologicalconflicts reverberated among the Ottoman Empire'sChristian subjects, encouraging bids for separatism andliberty which usually had Russian backing. Whole commu-nities in the Caucasus switched their allegiance from theOttoman (and Persian) states to the Russian Empire, anddisaffection spread among the prosperous and previouslyco-operative Greeks of the empire's heartlands. In 1821 thewestern Greeks struck out for independence, and by 1832they had won a mini-state (map 1).

THE SLIDE INTO DEPENDENCY

The Ottoman state responded to its losses with a programmeof expensive remilitarization, as well as political and eco-nomic reform and development, funded precariously fromwhat were now seriously reduced revenues. The strategy forsurvival was to replace the empire's traditional patchwork ofcultural and religious communities with a new modelOttoman society in which there was one legal system, onecitizen status and one tax rating for all. This was progressive,liberal 19th-century policy, but it attacked vested interestsin the provinces and among the Muslim clergy.

The reform movement engendered a limited revival ofinternational confidence in the Ottomans. During theCrimean War of 1853-56, British and French armies foughtto defend Ottoman interests against Russian military escala-tion in exchange for an Ottoman commitment to equality ofstatus for its Muslim and non-Muslim subjects. This was a dealthe Ottoman state was unable to honour; twenty years afterthe Crimean campaign, the Ottoman authorities were stillemploying ill-disciplined troops to contain unruly BalkanChristians, provoking an international outcry and eventuallythe resumption of full-scale war with Russia. Under the agree-ment reached at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the region'spolitical map was redrawn (maps 1 and 3). "Turkey inEurope" became a much-reduced presence.

178

T The Ottoman Empire reached its furthestextent in the mid-17th century, but when its

troops failed to take Vienna in 1683European powers took advantage of theirdisarray and seized territory in centralEurope. The subsequent disintegration of theempire took place over the next 240 years.

The British took control of Egypt in 1882,and the Middle Eastern territories were lost

as a result of an Arab uprising during theFirst World War.


A Following Russia's defeat of theOttomans in 1878, the Treaty of Berlinawarded an area of the Caucasus to Russia.

This land was returned in 1921 by BolshevikRussia to those fighting for theestablishment of the Turkish Republic.

THE RISE OF THE "YOUNG TURKS"The new sultan, Abdul Hamid II, swiftly shelved the consti-tution he had adopted as the price of survival in 1876. Heruled in the tradition of the Ottoman dynasty - as a despot.His empire had two faces: a westward-facing and cosmopoli-tan Constantinople, run by European-educated officials whomight also be slave-owners, governing a society that facedeast. The empire's political geography was now predomi-nantly Middle Eastern, and Abdul Hamid was keen to exploit

his status as caliph (senior ruler in the Islamic world) whichgave Ottoman agents access to Muslim communities world-wide, including those living under the British Raj.

Pan-Islamic policies met widespread, if covert, criticismfrom those within the Ottoman elite who would have pre-ferred a state with a nationalist Turkish identity to one witha more diffuse Ottoman or Islamic facade. The empire's faultlines were exposed by a new political force: the Committeeof Union and Progress (GUP), a successful, originally con-spiratorial, pressure group dominated by Turkish nationalistarmy officers, commonly nicknamed the "Young Turks". TheGUP was committed to the retention of "Turkey in Europe"and relatively dismissive of the empire's Middle Easternprovinces and peoples. In 1908 they forced the sultan torenew the long-suspended constitution of 1876, and the fol-lowing year deposed him in favour of his more pliant brother.

The GUP set out with democratic ideals but found thatthese were incompatible with the empire's ethnic divisions.Showpiece general elections served chiefly to demonstratethe voting power of the minorities, particularly the Arabs.GUP administration survived only by becoming increasinglydictatorial, particularly when it faced a new round of terri-torial losses. It was in an attempt to remedy this situationthat the leader of the GUP, Enver Pasha, with German mili-tary assistance, took the Ottoman Empire to war in 1914.

Between 1914 and 1916 the empire survived a series ofAllied invasions (pages 218-19). Casualties were immenseand the loyalty of the empire's minority populations wassuspect, with thousands of Christian Armenians massacred fortheir pro-Russian sympathies. Apathy and disaffection amongthe empire's Arab Muslims was even more dangerous. In 1916the Hashemi "sharif", governor of Mecca, raised a desert armywhich, allied with the British, successfully detached allremaining Arab provinces from Turkish control.

THE BIRTH OF THE NEW TURKEYPost-war schemes for dismembering the empire and reduc-ing the Ottoman sultanate to puppet status were built into theTreaty of Sevres (1920), which the sultan's administration inConstantinople meekly accepted, thereby losing any lastshred of credibility. An alternative Turkish nationalist gov-ernment was set up at Ankara, led by Mustafa Kemal, laternamed "Atatiirk" (Father of the Turks). By 1923 the Ankararegime had won diplomatic and military recognition from allits former antagonists, including the Greeks, who had beendefeated by Kemal's forces in 1922.

The Sevres agreement was replaced by the more gener-ous Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which legitimized Ankara'sright to govern an independent Turkish Republic in a regionbroadly corresponding to modern Turkey. The Ottoman sul-tanate was abolished by the treaty and the archaic caliphatefollowed it into extinction in 1924.

A The Treaty of Sevres (1920) strippedthe Ottomans of the remains of theirempire, and divided Anatolia into European"spheres of influence", leaving only a smallportion to be directly ruled by the sultan.The Greeks, who saw the Turkish defeat asan opportunity to claim territory in westernAnatolia with a substantial Greekpopulation, had dispatched troops toSmyrna in 1919. Between 1920 and 1922their troops established a firm grip on theregion. During this time, however, Turkishnationalists became increasingly organizedunder the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, andin August 1922 a Turkish nationalist armyattacked the Greek forces and drove themfrom Anatolia in disarray. The otherEuropean powers, recognizing theoverwhelming Turkish support for Kemal,withdrew, and the Republic of Turkey wasfounded in 1923.

A As President of Turkey (1923-38),Mustafa Kemal ("Atatiirk") instigated aseries of reforms that created a modernsecular state from the remains of theOttoman Empire.

THE MIDDLE EAST SINGE 1945 pages 260-61 1 7 9THE OTTOMAN AND SAFAVID EMPIRES 1500-1683 pages 142-43

RUSSIAN TERRITORIAL AND ECONOMICEXPANSION 1795-1914

T Between 1795 and 1914 Russia soughtto expand its territory in all possibledirections but met with resistance fromAustria, Britain and France when itthreatened their interests in the Balkans inthe 1850s. Expansion to the south and eastwas intermittent up until the 1880s, when itwas halted by British power and by internalfinancial difficulties. To the east, the RussianEmpire extended even onto the continent ofNorth America, as far as northern California,until Alaska was sold to the Americans for$7.2 million in 1867. To the southeast,Russia continued to exert its influence inManchuria and Mongolia in the early yearsof the 20th century, despite its defeat at thehands of the Japanese in 1905.

During the 19th century Russia continued a process ofterritorial expansion that had begun in the 1460s butwhich was now largely confined to Asia. Victory over

Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815 brought the acquisition of thewestern part of Poland ("Congress Poland") and confirma-tion of earlier gains in Finland in 1809 and Bessarabia in1812 (map 1). However, this marked the end of expansionto the west and in fact Romania soon cut its ties with Russiaand in 1883 made an alliance with Germany and Austria.In the southwest the Transcaucasian territories wereacquired between 1801 and 1830 and the route to themfinally secured by the conquest of Ghechenia - completed in1859 - and Gherkessia in 1864.

In Central Asia, Russia seized large areas, often movingin where there was a political vacuum it could fill andperhaps resources it could exploit (although it failed toactually exploit them until the 1920s). The conquests began

in the 1820s and accelerated from 1853 onwards. In 1885,however, Russian troops clashed with Afghan forces atPendjeh and came up against another imperialist power,Britain, which sent a stern warning that Afghanistan was notfor the taking.

In the mid-19th century Russia also turned its attentionto the eastern end of Asia, acquiring the regions north andsouth of the Amur River. This enabled it to establishVladivostok - the vital warm-water port that gave year-round maritime access to the Far East. The Trans-SiberianRailway - built between 1891 and 1904 - linked Vladivostokto Moscow, and brought the potential for trade with the FarEast. It tempted Russian policymakers to take overManchuria in order to provide a more direct route to thecoast, despite warnings from economic pressure groups thatthey should be concentrating on expanding internal marketsin Siberia. The dream of eastern expansion reached both itsapogee and its catastrophe in the Russo-Japanese War of1904-5, which resulted in a humiliating defeat for Russia.The limits of the empire were thus finally set.


ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTThe economic development of the Russian Empire (map 2)was continuous throughout the 19th century and into the20th century, but four periods can be distinguished. Firstthere was slow and steady growth from 1800 to 1885, inter-rupted by setbacks in the 1860s when the iron industry inthe Urals was adversely affected by the emancipation of theserfs. (Many who had been forced to work in the mines fledfrom the region on being freed.) Then, from 1885 to 1900,there was rapid government-induced growth, with a one-sided emphasis on railway building and heavy industry.Economic stagnation, prolonged by the effects of therevolution of 1905-7 (map 3), constituted the third period.The final period, from 1908 to 1914, was a time of renewedeconomic growth on a broader front.

It was during this last period that the big rush toemigrate to Siberia began, stimulated by the governmentitself, with the intention of solving the problem of landshortage in European Russia that had contributed greatly tothe rural disturbances of 1905-7. Emigration to Siberiaincreased rapidly (graph) and the population of Siberia rosefrom 5.7 million in 1897 to 8.2 million in 1910. Settlementwas concentrated along the Trans-Siberian Railway, whichprovided a link back to the west for a developing capitalistagriculture and the gold, copper and coal mines.

THE 1905 REVOLUTIONRussia's economy expanded in the 1890s with little attentionto infrastructure and a complete refusal to link economicwith political changes. This created tremendous tensions inthe Russian social fabric, which were exacerbated by thegovernment's repressive measures and its attempts at agigantic foreign-policy diversion. "What we need to stem therevolutionary tide," said the reactionary, anti-SemiticMinister of the Interior Plehve in 1903, "is a small, vic-torious war". However, the result of the Russo-Japanese Warof 1904-5 was precisely the opposite: the "revolutionarytide" nearly swept away the whole tsarist system. Only theloyalty of parts of the imperial army at the decisive moment,in December 1905, saved the situation for Nicholas II.

The revolution of 1905 (or, more accurately, 1905-7)started under liberal slogans, and indeed the demand forrepresentative popular government on the Western modelwas a common denominator throughout. It developed,however, into something much more threatening than amere change of political regime. The workers who went onstrike in 1905 set up councils, or "soviets", in every majorcity of the Russian Empire (map 3). These institutions actedas local organs of power, initally side by side with the oldauthorities, and in some cases led armed revolts that aimedat the complete overthrow of the imperial government.They were to resurface in 1917, with a decisive impact onRussian and world history.

The revolution of 1905 was not simply an urban move-ment of Russian workers and intellectuals. Agriculture hadbeen neglected by the state in its drive for industrialization,and since the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 it hadexperienced either stagnation or a slight improvement,interrupted by the dreadful famine of 1891. It is hardlysurprising that the peasants lost patience. The peasantrevolts of 1905-7 were the first large-scale risings since the18th century, and they forced the government into anabrupt change of policy (the Stolypin Reforms of 1906-10).This was, however, ultimately ineffectual, since the govern-ment carefully side-stepped the peasants' major grievance:the issue of gentry landholding. The peasant movementwould revive with a vengeance in 1917 (pages 222-23).

The non-Russian nationalities also revolted in 1905,demanding autonomy or independence, depending on theirlevel of social and national maturity. These demands wouldalso resurface in 1917, leading to the complete disinte-gration of the Russian Empire, although the formation of theSoviet Union in 1922 delayed the establishment of inde-pendent national states on the territory of the formerRussian Empire for nearly 70 years.

A Industrial expansion occurred mainly inengineering, metalworking and mining,with the development of engineeringaround Moscow and oil extraction aroundBaku particularly noticeable. Overall, theperiod 1800-1914 saw a clear shift in thecentre of economic gravity from the Uralsto the Ukraine and Poland.

T During the years of revolution, 1905-7,urban revolt was widespread acrossEuropean Russia, with strikes and armeduprisings. In some cities workers organizedthemselves into Soviets. Revolts also tookplace in large cities in Siberia and CentralAsia, where there was a substantial Russianor Ukrainian population. Rural revolt, on the

other hand, was most intense in the Ukraineand to the south of Moscow, in provinceswhere land was held in common by thepeasants and redivided every 20 yearsaccording to family size. This led to astrongly developed sense of community,making the peasants sympathetic to socialistrevolutionary agitators.

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 1917-39 pages 222-23 1 8 1THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA 1462-1795 pages 148-49

THE WESTWARD EXPANSION OF THEUNITED STATES 1783-1910

A The expedition of Meriwether Lewis andWilliam Clark in 1804-6 succeeded in itsquest to find a route from the Mississippi tothe Pacific. Like so many pioneeringjourneys in the West, it relied heavily on thelocal knowledge of Native Americans.Sacajawea (pictured here with Clark) - aShoshone woman who had lived with theMandan - was particularly valuable to theventure as a translator.

Throughout the 19th century American pioneersmoved inexorably westwards across the AppalachianMountains in search of good farmland and new oppor-

tunities. Either through diplomacy, conquest or purchase,millions of acres of new territory came under United Statescontrol to form the transcontinental nation that we recog-nize today. This enormous landmass was swiftly occupiedby settlers, and as these new areas gained large populationsthey were admitted to the Union as states.

In 1783 the new nation extended from the Atlantic coastwestwards as far as the Mississippi River (map 1). Its terri-tory was subsequently enlarged in two great expansionistmovements. Firstly, with great astuteness, Thomas Jeffersonbought a great swathe of the Midwest from France in 1803for a meagre $15 million. The "Louisiana Purchase", as itwas known, instantly doubled the size of the United States.West Florida was annexed in 1813, while under theAdams-Onis Treaty of 1819, Spain ceded all of East Floridato the United States and gave up its claim to territory northof the 42nd parallel in the Pacific northwest.

The second wave of expansion involved the acquisitionof Texas, Oregon and California. In 1835 American settlersin Texas staged a successful revolt against Mexican rule,winning the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836, and the Republicof Texas was born. The Mexican War (1846-48) between theUnited States and its weaker southern neighbour resultedin the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), which gave theUnited States not only California but a huge region in thesouthwest (map 1).

A The United States expanded westwardsto the Pacific by a series of financial deals,negotiated settlements and forcibleannexations. As each new territory wascolonized by American settlers and a viablegovernment formed, it became eligible foradmission to the Union as a state andentitled to representation in Congress.

For many years, Britain had contested America's claimsto the Oregon Country. Its Hudson's Bay Company con-trolled the region but, in the face of growing Americanimmigration in the west of the region, Britain surrenderedmost of the area south of the 49th parallel to the UnitedStates in the Oregon Treaty of 1846 (map 2). With theGadsden Purchase in 1853, the United States owned all theterritory of its present states except for Alaska (purchasedfrom Russia in 1867) and Hawaii (annexed in 1898).

EXPLORERS OF THE WESTAt the beginning of the 19th century part of the impetus toventure west came from the desire to increase trade - notonly with the Native Americans but also with Asia. Reportsfrom the expedition of Lewis and Clark (1804-6) (map 3)provided valuable information about the natural wealth of

A Settlement took place in a number ofstages, often as a result of the displacementof people from areas within the United

States caused by political and economicdevelopments. Many European economicmigrants also became American pioneers.

the West. Zebulon Pike (1804-7) explored the sources of theMississippi and visited Colorado and New Mexico, whileStephen H. Long (1817-23) investigated lands near the Redand Arkansas rivers. As well as these government agents,traders and fur trappers, such as Jedediah Smith, travelledextensively between the Missouri and the Pacific coast. Itwas they who opened the Santa Fe Trail between NewMexico and Missouri in 1821, while "mountain men",hunting in the Rockies in the 1820s, spread word of theriches to be found there.

WESTWARD MIGRATIONThe American people flowed west in several distinct migra-tion waves (map 2). The War of 1812 against Britain led tomany people overcoming their fear of opposition fromNative Americans and travelling westwards to find new agri-cultural land. Thousands of newcomers established smallfarms in what was known as the "Old Northwest" (now partof the Midwest). Most of the first settlers were southernerswho had been displaced by the growth of the plantationsystem with its slave labour force. By 1830 their settlementsfilled southern Indiana and Illinois and were overrunningMissouri. In the following decade newcomers from thenortheast settled around the Great Lakes, and by 1840almost all the Old Northwest had been carved into states.Many pioneers had also moved into the newly acquired ter-ritory of Florida and into the land bordering the Gulf ofMexico. Most settlers here came from the southeast, lookingfor fields where they could grow cotton. Small farmers hadbeen followed by large-scale planters, who brought slaves tothe region - the majority from the eastern states. Once set-tlers had occupied the entire area, pioneers began to pushbeyond the Mississippi.

Many Americans believed in "manifest destiny", the ideathat America was destined by God and by history to expandits boundaries over the whole of North America. After 1843,each spring, eager adventurers gathered at Independence,Missouri to organize wagon trains to travel the overlandOregon Trail across the Great Plains (map 3). This earlytrickle of settlement was hugely accelerated by the discov-ery of gold in California in 1848. When gold fever swept thenation, more than 100,000 "Forty-Niners" poured intoCalifornia. Although relatively few found gold, many stayedon as farmers and shopkeepers.

Utah was settled not by profit-seeking adventurers butby Mormons searching for an isolated site where they couldfreely worship without persecution. The journey of theMormons to the shores of Great Salt Lake in 1847 was oneof the best-organized migrations in history.

Much of the West remained unsettled even after thefrontier reached the Pacific Ocean. During the Civil War(1861-65) pioneers settled in the region between the Rocky

182


Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, and after the war ranch-ers and farmers occupied the Great Plains west of theMississippi. Cattle ranching on the open ranges involveddriving herds over long distances along recognized trails(map 3), from the pasture lands to the railhead and on tomarket. However, the "cattle kingdom" was short-lived. Thepastures became exhausted, and the Homestead Act of 1862encouraged farmers to move from the east onto free or low-cost land. The settlers enclosed the pasture lands, barringthe roving cattle herds. This settlement was greatly facili-tated by the new east-west railroads (pages 186-87).

THE NATIVE AMERICANSAs the pioneers moved westwards they ruthlessly took overland from Native Americans and fighting often broke out(map 4). The US government sent in support for the settlersand federal troops won most encounters of the so-calledIndian Wars (1861-68, 1875-90). Settlement of the Westlargely brought an end to the traditional way of life of theNative Americans. Farmers occupied and fenced in much ofthe land, and white settlers moving west slaughtered buffaloherds on which many Native Americans depended for theirsurvival. At the same time, the federal government pushedmore and more Native Americans onto reservations.

In the short period of one century, the United Statesexpanded from being an infant rural nation confined to theAtlantic coast to a transcontinental powerhouse, with alarge rural and industrial population. This territorial expan-sion occurred at a phenomenal speed and settlementproceeded rapidly, despite formidable physical and humanobstacles. Having established its own internal empire fromthe Atlantic to the Pacific, the USA was now in a position tochallenge European supremacy on the world stage.

Tin 1806 a government-fundedexpedition, led by Lewis and Clark,established a route between the MississippiRiver and the west coast. Alternativeoverland routes were established bypioneers seeking land or gold, and bysurveyors looking for railroad routes.

A During the 18th century the DelawareNative Americans made a slow westwardmigration and in 1830 the Indian RemovalAct also forced the southern tribes westward.Demands by white settlers for more land ledto the establishment of Indian reservationsand a series of bloody conflicts.

THE INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES 1790-1900 pages 186-87 1 8 3THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1775-83 pages 164-65

THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR1861-65

CASUALTIES OF THE CIVIL WAR

UNION: Total area represents 2,200,200

CONFEDERATE: Total area represents 800,000

A The Union was able to muster manymore troops than the Confederacy, andsuffered a smaller proportion ofcasualties. Overall, 20 per cent of soldiersin the Civil War died-the majority ofthem as a result of disease.

T Although it was the issue of slavery thatprompted the Southern states to secedefrom the Union, the situation was notclearcut, with four of the Union states -Delaware, Maryland, Missouri and Kentucky- permitting slavery. Kansas joined theUnion as a free state in 1861.

The American Civil War was fought between theNorthern states (the Union), who wished to maintainthe United States of America as one nation, and the

Southern states (the Confederacy), who had seceded to formtheir own nation. The causes of the war included the long-standing disagreements over slavery and its expansion intothe new territories, as well as conflicts over economic dis-parities between North and South and the division of powerbetween the federal government and individual states.

Although slavery had been a marginal issue in the found-ing of the Republic, abolitionists began to attack thisSouthern institution in the early 19th century. Followingthe Missouri Compromise of 1820, which forbade slavery inthe Louisiana Purchase (pages 182-83) north of 36° 36',many thought that slavery would gradually die out as thetobacco industry declined. After 1830, however, the openingup of virgin lands in the Deep South to the cotton economy(map 1), coupled with the ever-increasing demand ofEuropean textile mills for raw cotton, suddenly enhancedthe value of slave labour.

THE SECTIONAL DIVIDEAmerican politics began to divide according to sectionalinterests, focusing on the status of slavery in the newwestern territories. The Compromise of 1850 forbadeslavery in California (map 2}, while the Kansas-NebraskaAct of 1854 opened up these two territories to slavery -leading to much violence in Kansas.

Against this background, the Republican Party wasformed to prevent further expansion of slavery, although inthe controversial Dred Scott decision in 1857 the SupremeCourt ruled that Congress could not exclude slavery fromthe territories.

The issue of slavery came to the forefront during thepresidential election of 1860. The Republican candidate,Abraham Lincoln, was hostile to slavery and opposed itsextension to new territories, although he had pledged not tointerfere with it where it already existed. Following his elec-tion as President in 1860, however, South Carolinaimmediately seceded from the Union, a decision followedby Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana andTexas. These seven states formed the independentConfederate States of America early in 1861 and they wouldbe joined by four more (Virginia, North Carolina, Tennesseeand Arkansas) once war was declared.

A The census of 1860 revealed that therewere nearly four million slaves in thesouthern United States, the majority ofwhom were agricultural workers. They were

considered vital to the profitability of cottonproduction, which had expanded to meet anincreased demand from the rapidlyindustrializing countries of western Europe.

THE OUTBREAK OF WARWar broke out on 12 April 1861 when Southern forcesopened fire on federal-owned Fort Sumter. Arguing thatsecession was illegal and that the Union must be preserved,Lincoln took this as a declaration of war. Given the South'sdependence on European imports, the strategy of the Northwas to starve the South into submission by encirclementand blockade (map 3).

The Confederacy won some early victories in 1861-62,successfully repelling Union attempts to capture theircapital at Richmond, Virginia. The Union was forced (in par-ticular by the defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run in July1861) to disband its militia in favour of a new army of500,000 volunteers. As the war progressed, however, bothsides were forced to introduce conscription to raise troops.

While the Union cause seemed imperilled in the east, inthe southwest Union forces were successful in their attemptto seize control of the Mississippi, culminating in thecapture of New Orleans, the largest city and most importantport in the Confederacy. The Confederate attempt to invadeMaryland in September 1862 was thwarted at the Battle ofAntietam. This encouraged President Lincoln to sign theEmancipation Proclamation on 1 January 1863, which freedall slaves in the Confederacy. Although it did not apply toUnion states in which slavery was still permitted (map 2), itnevertheless gave the conflict a new moral purpose: topreserve the Union and abolish slavery. Freedom for theslaves took place gradually as the Union armies movedsouthwards, and the Proclamation helped break down theopposition to recruitment of African-American soldiers. Bythe war's end, 186,000 of them had served in Union armies,albeit in segregated regiments under the command of whiteofficers and at vastly reduced levels of pay.

As the war progressed, the Union's greater manpowerand superior economic and industrial resources began toprevail. The Union victory at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania inJuly 1863 proved to be the major turning point. TheConfederacy was never strong enough again to undertakeanother major offensive. The next day the Confederate gar-rison of Vicksburg, Louisiana, which had been besieged bythe Unionists since mid-May, surrendered. Not only had theConfederacy suffered huge and irreplaceable losses in theeast, but it was also now split in two, with Union troops con-trolling the Mississippi. The second half of 1863 saw furtherdecisive battles in the west in the Tennessee campaign, withthe Confederate forces being driven back into Georgia.

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In 1864 the Union implemented two simultaneous cam-paigns. The first, centred on Virginia, saw some of thefiercest fighting of the war (map 3 inset), with no realvictory for either side, although this war of attrition gradu-ally depleted the human and material resources of theConfederates. In the second Union campaign Atlanta wascaptured, followed by General Sherman's "scorched earth"march through Georgia to Savannah and then norththrough the Garolinas, which caused much devastation andfamine in its wake. Wilmington, the Confederate's lastremaining seaport, was effectively closed down at the begin-ning of 1865 as a result of the Union naval blockade ofSouthern ports. At the outset of the war, the Confederacyhad believed that the demand from Britain and France forcotton would force them to enter the war on its behalf. Asthe war progressed, however, the two countries decided notto risk intervention for a losing cause.

The Confederate General Robert E. Lee was forced toevacuate Petersburg and Richmond, and surrender toGeneral Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House on 9April 1865, effectively ending the war. By the end of May,the last Confederate forces had laid down their arms.

THE FIRST MODERN WARIn many ways the Civil War was the first "modern" war. Itwas fought by mass citizen volunteer and conscript armies,rather than by professional soldiers. Railroads played acrucial role in the movement of troops and raw materials,while telegraphs were used for military communication aswell as for virtually immediate Press reporting. The war alsosaw the first use of rudimentary iron-clad battleships,machine-guns, trench systems and dugouts.

The Civil War was fought at the cost of enormous loss oflife (pie charts), but it had the ultimate effect of preservingthe United States of America as one nation by settling thedispute over the division of power between the federal gov-ernment and individual states in favour of the former. It alsoeffectively ended the institution of slavery, although it didlittle to resolve the problem of race relations, which reacheda climax a century later (pages 240-41). Furthermore, asthe final decades of the 19th century were to reveal, theCivil War brought many economic benefits to the North,under whose leadership the United States haddeveloped, by the end of the century, into the world'sgreatest industrial power.

A Most of the fighting in the Civil Wartook place on Southern territory, with theConfederates adopting defensive tactics onfamiliar terrain, and the Union side forcedto maintain lengthy supply lines. The Unionside devised the "Anaconda Plan", by whichthey first encircled the Southern states byland and sea, and then split them up byseizing control of the Mississippi River in thespring of 1863 and marching throughGeorgia in the winter of 1864-65.

INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES 1790-1900 pages 186-87 1 8 5WESTWARD EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES 1783-1910 pages 182-83

THE INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF THEUNITED STATES 1790-1900

During the course of the 19th century the UnitedStates was transformed from a simple agrarianrepublic into a modern industrial nation. This

process of industrialization occurred in two main phases.In the first, from 1800 to the Civil War (1861-65), develop-ments in transportation and manufacturing, and anincrease in population, resulted in a capitalist commercialeconomy. In the second phase a dramatic acceleration inthe rate of change after 1865 led to the creation of themodern American industrial superpower.

EARLY INDUSTRIALIZATIONChanges in transportation provided the main catalyst forindustrialization: improved national communication createdlarger markets and greatly facilitated the movement ofgoods, services and people. The earliest manifestation of thisdevelopment was the laying down of hard-surfaced roads,known as turnpikes, mainly in New England and the mid-Atlantic states. During the "Turnpike Era" (1790-1820)more than 3,200 kilometres (2,000 miles) of road wereconstructed, the earliest being the Lancaster Pike (1794)between Philadelphia and Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Themost famous turnpike, the government-financed NationalRoad, had crossed the Appalachian Mountains fromMaryland to Virginia by 1818 and reached Illinois by 1838.These roads provided an early stimulus to economic devel-opment and westward expansion.

The turnpikes were followed by advances in river andlake transportation. The first of the commercially successfulsteamboats started operating on the Hudson River in 1807,but these ships became more widely used further west,travelling up and down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and

<4 The development of canal and railroadsystems, coupled with the navigation ofrivers by steamboats, enabled a two-way

trade flow whereby raw materials from thewest and south were transported to the eastand returned as manufactured goods.

A The industries of the United Statesbenefited from rich natural resources,particularly coal and metal ores, which weretransported to the industrial regions along anetwork of railroads, navigable rivers andcanals. Industrial conflict occurred from the1870s onwards as workers demanded ashare of the country's increased wealth.

1 8 6

A T L A S O F W O R L D H I S T O R Y : P A R T -

their tributaries. The steamboats stimulated the agriculturaleconomies of the Midwest and the south by providing quickaccess to markets for their produce at greatly reducedprices, and enabled manufacturers in the east to send theirfinished goods westwards.

The first half of the 19th century also witnessed wide-scale building of canals. In 1816 there were only 160kilometres (100 miles) of canal; by 1840 this figure hadrisen to 5,321 kilometres (3,326 miles) (map 1). The ErieCanal was completed in 1825, connecting Albany, New Yorkto Buffalo on Lake Erie, thereby giving New York City directaccess to the growing markets of Ohio and the Midwest viathe Great Lakes, and to the Mississippi via the Ohio River.

The first railroad was opened between Baltimore (whichfunded the project) and Ohio in 1830. Other cities followedBaltimore's example, and, with the markets of Ohio, Indianaand Illinois in mind, 5,324 kilometres (3,328 miles) of trackhad been laid by 1840 - a figure which trebled over the nextten years. In the 1860s federal land grants encouraged rail-road building to link together all parts of the nation andenable the quick and inexpensive movement of goods andpeople over great distances (map 1).

The introduction of the telegraph in 1837 furtherenhanced the speed of communication. By 1861 there were80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of telegraph cable in theUnited States, connecting New York on the Atlantic withSan Francisco on the Pacific coast.

DEVELOPMENTS IN MANUFACTURINGAlongside developments in transportation, the early 19thcentury also saw the transition from craftwork in homes andin small shops to larger-scale manufacturing with machines.Domestic US manufacturing began to flourish when importswere scarce during the War of 1812 against Britain. Thetextile industry spearheaded these developments, withFrancis Lowell founding, in 1813, the first mill in NorthAmerica that combined all the operations of converting rawcotton into finished cloth under one roof: a "factory" systembased on machine technology. These early forms of manu-facturing were concentrated in the east and mainly processedthe products of American farms and forests.

A primary factor in the industrial growth of the UnitedStates was an abundance of raw materials (map 2). In addi-tion, the country benefited from a large and expandinglabour force, which also provided a vast domestic marketfor industrial goods. By 1860 its population had reached31.5 million, exceeding that of Britain.

INDUSTRIALIZATION AFTER THE CIVIL WARIn 1860 American industry was still largely undeveloped.Most industrial operations were small in scale, hand-craft-ing remained widespread and there was insufficient capitalfor business expansion. This situation changed fundament-ally after the Civil War (pages 184-85), with the rapiddevelopment of new technologies and productionprocesses. Machines replaced hand-crafting as the mainmeans of manufacturing, and US productive capacityincreased at a rapid and unprecedented rate. Industrialgrowth was chiefly centred on the north, while the southlargely remained an agricultural region.

More than 25 million immigrants entered the UnitedStates between 1870 and 1916 (bar chart). Mass immigra-tion, coupled with natural growth, caused the population tomore than double between 1870 and 1910 to reach 92million. In the new industrialized nation great cities and anurban culture flourished (map 3).

In the late 19th century mass industrialization was stim-ulated by a surge in technological innovation and improvedfactory production methods, enabling goods to be producedfaster, in greater quantity and thus more cheaply than everbefore. The typewriter was introduced in 1867, followed bythe cash register and the adding machine. Electricity wasfirst used as a power source in the 1870s, while internationaltelegraph cables and the invention of the telephone assistedcommunication in the latter part of the century.

Railroad-building likewise increased at a dramatic rate,providing a great stimulus to coal and steel production andrivalling the steamboat and canal barge as a means of trans-portation. By the 1880s a nationwide network of railroadsenabled goods to be distributed quickly and cheaply through-out the country, often over great distances from the point ofproduction (map 2).

The highly profitable railroads provided the model for thedevelopment of the modern corporations that financed anddirected this great industrial expansion. In order to eliminatecut-throat competition between companies and to encour-age capital investment for further expansion and greaterefficiency, enterprises were increasingly consolidated intolarge-scale units, often monopolies, owned by limitedliability shareholders. The federal government helped tocreate an entrepreneurial climate in which business andtrade could flourish without undue hindrance.

As a result of these developments the United States wastransformed, by the end of the 19th century, from anessentially agrarian economy into a country in which half ofits now culturally diversified population lived in its ever-growing cities. It had replaced Britain as the world's leadingindustrial power, and was thus set to dominate the globaleconomy in the 20th century.

A By 1900 the population of the UnitedStates had reached 76 million, half of whomlived in the large cities that had grown inthe northern industrial region.

T The pattern of migration to the UnitedStates was influenced partly by political andeconomic developments in Europe. Beforethe 1890s most immigrants came fromnorthern and western Europe, in particularfrom Ireland following the Potato Famine inthe 1840s, and from Germany. By 1900the majority of migrants were from centraland eastern Europe, Russia and Italy.

THE UNITED STATES SINGE 1900 pages 240-41 187THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1775-83 pages 164-65

E U R O P E A N I M M I G R A T I O N T O T H E U N I T E D S T A T E S

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CANADA1763-1914

A Since the 17th century French-speakingCanadians had largely settled along the StLawrence River. However, in the 1770s and1780s American Loyalists, escaping from thenewly formed United States, migrated to thesouthwestern part of the old province ofQuebec and to the British colony of NovaScotia, necessitating the creation of anothercolony, New Brunswick.

A In 1792 Alexander Mackenzie led anexpedition from Lake Athabasca to find anoutlet to the Pacific Ocean. The explorersbraved the rapids of the Peace and Fraserrivers before emerging on the west coastof North America at Bella Coola thefollowing year.

>• Expansion west into the prairies andalong the west coast during the 19th centurywas preceded by journeys of exploration,which were often undertaken by fur traders.The completion of the Canadian PacificRailroad in 1885 provided a huge boost totrade across Canada, and numeroussettlements developed along its route.

During the 18th century territorial rivalry between theFrench and British in North America graduallyincreased, coming to a head in the Seven Years War

of 1756-63. Although the British initially suffered defeats,their troops rapidly gained the upper hand after the appoint-ment of General Wolfe in 1757 and by 1760 they hadeffectively defeated the French. France surrendered Canadato Britain in the Treaty of Paris in 1763, and Britain founditself in the unprecedented situation of having a colony witha large white population of approximately 6,500, who werenon-English-speaking and Roman Catholic. The Britishparliament passed the Quebec Act in 1774, which greatlyenlarged the territory of Quebec (pages 164-65), guaran-teed freedom of religion to French Canadians (at a timewhen Roman Catholic subjects in Britain were effectivelyexcluded from political participation), and recognized the

validity of French civil law. These measures succeeded insecuring the loyalty of the Canadians at a time of increasingdiscontent in the British colonies elsewhere in America.During the American Revolution (1775-83) (pages 164-65)attempts by the Thirteen Colonies first to secure Canadiansupport, and then to invade the region, failed.

The creation of the United States of America had signi-ficant repercussions for Canada. It not only defined theCanadian-American border (with Britain giving up all landsouth of the Great Lakes) but also fundamentally altered thecomposition of Canada's population. Between 40,000 and60,000 Americans who remained loyal to the British crownflooded into Canada during and after the war, creating thebasis for Canada's English-speaking population (map 1).

THE CONSTITUTIONAL ACT OF 1791The loss of the Thirteen Colonies encouraged Britain totighten its rule over its remaining North American posses-sions. Acknowledging the bicultural nature of the Canadianpopulation and the loyalists' desire for some form of repre-sentative government, the Constitutional Act of 1791divided Quebec into two self-ruling parts - English-speak-ing Upper Canada (now Ontario) and French-speaking,largely Catholic, Lower Canada (now Quebec) - dominatedby a British governor and an appointed legislative council.There were also significant English-speaking pockets inLower Canada, most notably the dominant merchant classin Montreal and farmers in the eastern townships. Canadianindependence was further secured when repeated Americaninvasions were repelled in the War of 1812.

WESTWARD EXPANSIONCanada's survival as an independent country ultimatelydepended on population growth and economic develop-ment. In the east, internal communications were improvedin the first half of the 19th century through the construc-tion of roads and canals. Canada's western Pacific regionshad been opened up in the last decades of the 18th centuryby explorers such as Alexander Mackenzie (map 2), SimonFraser and David Thompson, with fur traders and theBritish Hudson's Bay Company (which also controlled vasttracts in the northeast of the country) following swiftlybehind. In the central region, south of Lake Winnipeg,settlement was encouraged by the Scottish philanthropistLord Selkirk, who set up the Red River colony for Scottish

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immigrants in 1812. Two British colonies were founded onthe Pacific coast: Vancouver Island (1849) and BritishColumbia (1858), which united in 1866.

FROM UNION TO CONFEDERATIONCanadian discontent with oligarchic rule led to two shortrebellions in both Upper and Lower Canada in 1837 and1838, forcing Britain to reassess how best to keep Canadawithin the empire and how to unite the French and EnglishCanadians. The resulting Act of Union of 1840 combinedUpper and Lower Canada into the new Province of Canadaand by 1848 Canadians had gained a degree of self-govern-ment. Under this system, however, both Canada West andCanada East (formerly Upper and Lower Canada respec-tively) had equal representation in the province's legislativeassembly. This did little to ensure national unity andencouraged political stalemate; further problems arose after1850, when the population of Canada West exceeded thatof Canada East, with the former unsuccessfully demandingrepresentation by population.

During the 1850s and 1860s calls grew to dissolve thisineffectual union and to replace it with some form of federalgovernment by which each part of Canada could control itsown affairs while a central government protected nationaldefence and common interests. Constitutional change wasalso spurred on by external events. Britain increasinglywanted Canadians to shoulder the burden of their owndefence, while Canada felt increasingly threatened by fearsof an anti-British American invasion during the AmericanCivil War (1861-65) and by the reality of raids across itsborders in the 1860s by Fenians (Irish Americans demand-ing Irish independence from Britain). After conferences inCharlottetown and Quebec (1864), the British NorthAmerica Act was signed by Queen Victoria in 1867.

This act created the largely self-governing federation orDominion of Canada under the British crown, with a con-stitution based on the British parliamentary system. Itinitially comprised only four provinces (map 3), with a pop-ulation of 3.5 million people, only 100,000 of whom livedwest of the Great Lakes. The driving ambition of the"Fathers of the Confederation" was to unite all of the

remaining British colonies in North America in order toachieve the economic and social development necessary fora viable nation, especially in the face of ongoing Americanexpansionism.

In 1870 the government vastly extended Canadian ter-ritory by purchasing Rupert's Land from the Hudson's BayCompany (map 3); while the company retained its tradingstation and forts, it gave up its monopoly of the area whichhad long been difficult to enforce. The province of Manitobawas created in the same year, following the Red RiverRebellion by settlers of mixed French and Native Americanancestry, led by the metis Louis Riel. In 1871 BritishColumbia joined as Canada's sixth province after thepromise of a transcontinental railroad (completed in 1885)linking it to eastern Canada (map 2}. Similar financialincentives enabled Prince Edward Island to become theseventh province in 1873, although Newfoundland remaineda proud self-governing colony until 1949.

Realizing that population growth was necessary fornational survival, the Canadian government actively pro-moted immigration from the British Isles and the UnitedStates and, towards the end of the century, from central andeastern Europe; this once more changed the cultural andethnic mix of Canada's population. The new settlersmoved primarily to unoccupied lands on the prairies(map 2), which enabled the provinces of Alberta andSaskatchewan to be created in 1905. In 1912 the remainingparts of the former Hudson's Bay Company lands wereadded to Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba.

TENSIONS BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND FRENCHThe position of French Canadians as a cultural minoritywithin the Confederation led to ongoing tension, exacer-bated by Canada's decision to send volunteer troops to fightfor the British Empire in the Boer War (1899-1902). Thesituation reached crisis point when, in 1917, the Canadianparliament introduced conscription. Ironically, the fact that55,000 Canadians lost their lives fighting for the empire inthe First World War led ultimately to the transformation ofCanada into a fully independent sovereign nation under theStatute of Westminster in 1931.

A Between the establishment of theoriginal four provinces of the Dominionof Canada in 1867 and the outbreak of theFirst World War in 1914, the political mapof Canada changed dramatically. As thepopulation grew in the newly settledterritories, provinces were created andfederated to the central government inOttawa. In 1912 Manitoba and Ontario weregreatly enlarged to the north, with theannexation of land from the NorthwestTerritories. Further boundary changesoccurred in 1927, when the colony ofNewfoundland was enlarged at the expenseof Quebec, and in 1999, when the NunavutTerritory - administered by its majorityInuit inhabitants - was created.

THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 1600-1763 pages 124-25 1 8 9

INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THECARIBBEAN 1780-1830

T In 1800 the majority of Latin Americawas under Spanish control, administered byviceroys and captains-general. ThePortuguese were still in control of Brazil andthe British ruled in Guiana, where they hadtemporarily expanded to take over theadjacent Dutch territory (now Surinam).The French had taken control of SantoDomingo from the Spanish but were to loseit in 1809. They had already lost the colonyof Saint Domingue in 1804, when it becameindependent Haiti. The Spanish territorywas rich in minerals and included Potosi,the silver-mining capital of the world,although its resources were by now on

n 1800 (map 1) few people, either in Europe or theAmericas, could have anticipated that 25 years later allof Spain's mainland American colonies would be inde-

pendent republics. Several colonial rebellions had occurredduring the late 18th century, but they had all been defeated,and should not be interpreted as antecedents of indepen-dence. The most significant of these uprisings, in Peru, wasinteresting for what it revealed about the fundamental alle-giances of Spanish American Creoles (those of Spanishdescent, born in the colonies). In 1780 a Creole revoltagainst Spanish tax increases was superseded by an anti-Spanish rebellion among the American Indians, led byTupac Amaru. The small minority of Creoles hastily jetti-soned their own protest in favour of helping the colonialauthorities to suppress this revivalist Inca movement - atthe cost of 100,000 lives, most of them Indian.

CREOLE ALLEGIANCEThe Creoles' fear of the African, Indian and mixed-racepeoples, who made up approximately 80 per cent ofSpanish America's population in the late 18th century,meant that many of them looked to Spain to defend theirdominant social and economic position. This rationale wasstrengthened after a slave revolt in the French Caribbeancolony of Saint Domingue in 1791 led to the founding, in1804, of Haiti, the first African-Caribbean republic in theAmericas. Most Creoles calculated that their interestsultimately depended on Spain, despite an expanding list ofgrievances against the mother country. It was not untilNapoleon invaded Spain in 1808, and installed JosephBonaparte in place of the Bourbon King Ferdinand, thatsome Creoles began to reconsider their options. They werepresented with three main choices: to support JosephBonaparte; to declare allegiance to the provisional Spanish

A Venezuelan-born Simon Bolivar wasinvolved in two failed insurrections before hissuccessful campaigns against the Spanish inNew Granada in 1817-22, resulting in thecreation of a new Republic of Gran Colombia.

During this time Jose de San Martin, aidedby Bernardo O'Higgins, had been liberatingChile. Leaving O'Higgins behind as presidentof the new state of Chile, San Martin travellednorth to take Lima and to attempt to liberatewhat was to become Peru. In 1822 he wasforced to seek help from Bolivar, and inSeptember 1822 retired from command.Bolivar subsequently completed the liberation

of Peru at the Battle of Junin. In this hewas aided by Antonio Jose de Sucre, whowent on to win the final battle against theSpanish at Ayacucho in 1824.

The following year Bolivar made atriumphal visit to the region, during whichhe established the independent republic ofBolivia, which was named in honour of the"Great Liberator". Bolivar himself returned toColombia but was unable to hold together therepublic he had created, and in 1830 (theyear of his death) it broke up into the threemodern-day states of Venezuela, Colombiaand Ecuador.

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I


authorities that rapidlydeveloped in resistance toFrench rule in the name ofFerdinand; or to establishautonomous ruling authorities.It was the third option that wasadopted by most Creoles, even thoughthey took care to emphasize that thiswas a temporary measure until Ferdinandregained the Spanish throne.

Creoles were, however, dissatisfied withSpanish rule on two main counts: commercialmonopoly and political exclusion, both of whichstemmed from attempts in the second half of the 18thcentury by the Bourbon kings to extract more revenue fromthe colonies. Spain's commercial monopoly had beentightened up, and Spanish Americans were unable to exploitlegally what they perceived as lucrative tradingopportunities in the British and US markets. Taxes had beenincreased and collection vigilantly enforced. A new systemof colonial administration had been introduced thatinterfered with well-established informal mechanisms forallocating power and resources within Spanish Americansocieties. Bourbon absolutism aimed to strengthen theposition of peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) at theexpense of Spanish Americans. By the end of the 18thcentury, Creoles accounted for a far smaller proportion ofthe upper levels of the colonial bureaucracy than in 1750.

INDEPENDENCE FROM SPAINDuring the first two decades of the 19th century there was agradually developing sense among elite Creoles in SpanishAmerica that their interests might best be served by self-government. This redefinition of their position was enhancedby an incipient sense of national identity that had beendeveloping within creole communities throughout the 18thcentury - an idea of being distinct not only from Spaniardsbut also from each other. The political ideas of the FrenchEnlightenment, although probably less influential in thedevelopment of independence movements than was oncethought, were certainly of importance to some of theirleaders, notably the Venezuelan, Simon Bolivar.

During the 1810s, as Spain oscillated between reformistliberalism and absolutism, Spanish Americans first declared,and then fought for, their independence (map 2). Never-theless, the battles between republicans and royalistsremained fairly evenly balanced until events in Spain during1820-21 provided the final catalyst to the creation of a poli-tical consensus among Creoles that was needed to secureindependence. Once it had become clear that Spanish liber-alism, which returned to power in 1821, was bent onrestoring the pre-1808 relationship between Spain and theAmerican colonies, commitment to independence becamewidespread throughout Spanish America - with the excep-tion of Peru, where memories of the Tupac Amaru rebellionremained vivid. Peru was eventually liberated in 1824 byBolivar's troops, after the retreat of the Spanish had beeninitiated by an invasion from the south led by the ArgentineJose de San Martin. By 1826 the last royalist troops had beenexpelled from South America, and Spain's empire in theAmericas was reduced to Puerto Rico and Cuba (map 3).

INDEPENDENCE FROM PORTUGALBrazil's independence was partly the result of colonialgrievances, although less severe than those felt by SpanishAmericans. However, in overall terms, it was even moreattributable to events in Europe than was the decoloniza-tion of Spanish America. The Portuguese monarchyimplemented milder versions of the Bourbon reforms in thelate 18th century, but in general the local elite played a fargreater role in governing Brazil than their counterparts inSpain's colonies. The main event which triggered an increas-ing awareness of Brazil's distinct identity was the PortuguesePrince Regent's establishment of his court in Rio de Janeiroin 1808, after he had fled from Napoleon's invasion of

T i n a remarkably short space of time,from 1818 to 1825, the Spanish wereousted from Central and South America,leaving only the strongholds of Cuba andPuerto Rico in the Caribbean. The ruler ofBrazil, Dom Pedro, had declared itsindependence trom Portugal in1822, crowning himself emperor.A successful revolt in the southern areaof the country resulted in an independentUruguay in 1828.

Portugal. This representeda shift in political powerfrom Portugal to Brazilwhich was to proveirreversible. When theFrench were ousted fromPortugal in 1814, thePrince Regent chose tostay in Brazil, whichwas raised to the statusof a kingdom equal tothat of Portugal. AsKing John, landownersresented his bowing toBritish pressure to endthe slave trade, whilemerchants were unhappyabout increasing Britishpenetration of the Brazilianmarket, but these issues werecauses of disaffection rather thanrebellion. It was attempts by the Portuguese government in1821 to return Brazil to its pre-1808 colonial status that wasthe main cause of its declaration of independence in 1822under Pedro I - the region's only constitutional monarchy.

Brazil was unique in that it won its independencelargely without the damaging consequences of civil war andeconomic collapse that occurred elsewhere in the region.In Spanish America mineral production plummeted to lessthan a quarter of its level before its independence struggles,industrial output declined by two-thirds, and agriculture byhalf. Socially, independence brought relatively little change.The corporate institutions of Spanish colonialism remainedintact, the Church remained strong, and militarism wasstrengthened. Creoles simply took over the property aban-doned by fleeing Spaniards and established themselves as anew oligarchy, which regarded the masses with at least asmuch disdain as their Spanish predecessors had done.

A Simon Bolivar was instrumental in theliberation from Spanish rule of much ofSouth America. However, he failed in hisattempts to hold together the Republic ofGran Colombia, and died disillusioned.

THE COLONIZATION OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA 1500-1700 pages 122-23 LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 1830-1914 pages 192-93 191

LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEANPOST-INDEPENDENCE 1830-1914

A In the years following independencemost countries became involved in wars overtheir boundaries. Argentina lost the FalklandIslands to the British in 1833, but secured

Patagonia in 1881. Both Peru and Bolivialost out to Chile in the War of the Pacific in1879, surrendering territory rich in nitratesand, in Bolivia's case, an outlet to the sea.

The newly independent republics of Spanish Americafaced formidable challenges of reconstruction in theyears following their wars of independence. The first

problem was territorial consolidation. Their boundarieswere roughly based on colonial administrative divisions, butnone was clearly defined, and nearly all Spanish-Americancountries went to war to defend territory at some pointduring the 19th century (map 1). The only nation on the

continent that consistently expanded its territory at theexpense of its neighbours was Brazil.

FOREIGN INTERVENTIONForeign powers were active in the

region throughout this period, andacted as a significant constraint

on the ability of the newstates to consolidate their

sovereignty. Spain wastoo weak to do muchbeyond defending itsremaining colonialpossessions, but it

fought two wars overCuban independence

(1868-78 and 1895-98)before US military inter-

vention in 1898 led to theSpanish-American War and

the secession of Cuba andPuerto Rico to the United States.

Following a three-year militaryoccupation Cuba was declared an

independent republic, albeit with aclause in its constitution (the "Platt

Amendment") stipulating the right ofthe USA to intervene in its internal affairs

Mexico, which achieved independence in1821 following a civil war, subsequently lost large

amounts of territory to the USA. It was briefly ruled bythe Austro-Hungarian, Maximilian von Habsburg, as

emperor (1864-67), supported by French troops. Britainhad colonies in Guiana and British Honduras, and consoli-dated its commercial and financial dominance throughoutmost of the region, especially in Brazil and Argentina.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTSThroughout the 19th century Latin American economiesremained dependent on the export of raw materials (maps1, 2 and 3), continuing patterns of production established incolonial times. Although there has been considerable debateabout the wisdom of this policy, in practice they had littlechoice. The colonial powers had left behind scant basis forthe creation of self-sufficient economies, and the indepen-dent states simply did not have the resources necessary forsuch development. Attempts were made to encourage indus-trialization in Mexico, Colombia and Brazil in the 1830s and1840s, but they all succumbed to competition fromEuropean imports.

The export of primary products brought considerablewealth to Latin America, especially once the development ofsteamships and railways in the 1860s had modernizedtransportation. In the last quarter of the 19th century LatinAmerican economies were able to benefit from the overallexpansion in the world economy fuelled by European andUS demands for raw materials and markets for their manu-factured goods (pages 208-9). At the time it made economicsense for Latin America to exploit its comparative advan-tage in the world market as a supplier of raw materials.Although this strategy later proved to be flawed, it did resultin rapid economic growth and a wave of prosperity amongLatin American elites in what became known as "la belleepoque" of Latin American development (c. 1880-1914).On the eve of the First World War, the region was producing18 per cent of the world's cereals, 38 per cent of its sugarand 62 per cent of its coffee, cocoa and tea.

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ELITIST POLITICSPolitics in 19th-century Latin America was entirely an eliteaffair, with electoral contests typically involving at most tenper cent of the population and dominated by rivalrybetween liberals and conservatives. Most of the republicshad adopted liberal constitutions based on that of theUnited States, but these were to prove an inadequate blue-print for the authoritarian reality of Latin American politics.

The major challenge in most countries was to consoli-date central state authority over remote and often rebelliousareas. Until well into the 1850s local leaders, known ascaudillos, raised armies to fight for their interests, holdingsway over their followers by a combination of charisma,blandishment and brutality. In these circumstances, manyliberal statesmen found themselves obliged to pursuedistinctly illiberal policies. As the century wore on, LatinAmerican liberalism, which came to power in most LatinAmerican countries during the 1850s and 1860s, took on anincreasingly conservative cast. One distinctive legacy ofliberalism was an appreciable reduction in the wealth of theCatholic Church, particularly in Mexico, although liberalsdid not succeed in diminishing the religious devotion of themajority of the populations.

SOCIAL CHANGESConditions barely improved for the Latin American masses.Indeed, American Indians had good reason to feel that theirplight had been less onerous under colonial rule, when theyhad at least enjoyed a degree of protection from the Spanishcrown against encroachments on their communal lands. Theattempts of liberal governments to turn Indian peasants intosmallholders by forcibly redistributing their lands left mostIndians worse off, particularly those in Mexico.

Slavery was abolished in Central America as early as1824 (map 3), and in the Spanish South American republicsduring the 1850s (map J), but it continued in Portuguese-dominated Brazil, where a weak emperor was reluctant toantagonize the powerful plantation owners. Brazil did notpass legislation to end the trade in slaves until 1850 and ittook until 1888 - the year before Brazil declared itselfa republic - for slavery itself to be abolished. Even inconditions of allegedly "free" labour, however, the lack ofalternative work meant that many former slaves had littlechoice but to join a floating rural proletariat, subject toseasonal work in exchange for pitiful wages.

During the middle part of the 19th century the popula-tions of most Latin American countries more than doubled(bar chart), and by the end of the century Latin America'sintegration into the world economy was beginning to bringabout changes in the socio-economic structure whichindependence had not. Urbanization, industrialization andtheir consequences continued from the 1880s onwards. Thelate 19th century saw the emergence of a middle class based

LATIN AMERICAN POPULATION IN 1820 AND 1880 (in thousands)

on professionals and state bureaucrats. Trade unions amongthe working classes - most of which were organized byEuropean immigrants to Argentina or Brazil - first becameactive during this period, and public education programmeswere initiated in the larger countries. It was not until afterthe First World War, however, that the political conse-quences of all these socio-economic changes were tomanifest themselves.

A Mexico was substantially reduced in sizeduring the mid-19th century. It lost Texas toan independence movement in 1836 andCalifornia, New Mexico and Arizona afterbeing defeated in the 1846-48 war with the

United States. (Mexicans rarely needreminding that the California Gold Rushbegan in 1849.) Further territory was cededin 1850 and again in 1853, as a result ofthe Gadsden Purchase.

T Most of Central America and the largerCaribbean islands had gained independenceby 1910. The smaller islands remainedEuropean colonies, while the United Statesretained control of Puerto Rico.

A The 19th century saw large populationincreases in most Latin American countries.Many countries experienced a doubling of

their numbers between 1820 and 1880,while the population in the economicallysuccessful Argentina quadrupled.

INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 1780-1830 pages 190-9 LATIN AMERICA 1914-45 pages 226-27 193

THE BRITISH IN INDIA1608-1920

T The pressures of British expansionprovoked hostile reactions from manyIndian states, leading to a number of wars.The British army consisted mainly of Indiansoldiers, known as sepoys, who themselvesmutinied against British authority in 1857.This is regarded in India as the country'sfirst war of independence.

A n English East India Company fleet first reachedIndia in 1608 and, over the course of the nextcentury, the Company developed its trade steadily

around the coasts of the subcontinent. It quickly estab-lished trading posts, known as "factories", starting at Suratin 1619 and followed by Madras in 1634, Bombay in 1674and Calcutta in 1690.

Although originally entering the "Indies" trade inpursuit of spices, the Company made most of its fortunefrom cotton textiles, whose manufacture was highlydeveloped in India. However, until the second quarter ofthe 18th century, there was little to suggest that the Britishpresence in India heralded an empire. Europeans ingeneral were economically outweighed by indigenoustrading and banking groups and were politicallysubordinate to the great Mughal Empire (pages 144-45).

The turning point, which was to lead to Britishsupremacy in India, came only in the mid-18th centurywhen the Mughal Empire began to break up into warringregional states, whose needs for funds and armaments pro-vided opportunities for the Europeans to exploit. Anotherfactor was the growing importance of the English East IndiaCompany's lucrative trade eastwards towards China, whichenhanced its importance in the Indian economy, especiallyin Bengal.

BRITISH-FRENCH RIVALRYConflicts between the European powers started to spill overinto Asia, with the French and British beginning a strugglefor supremacy that was not finally resolved until the endof the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. In southern India from1746 the British and French backed rival claimants to theNawabi of Arcot. In the course of their conflict RobertClive, who rose from a clerkship to command the EnglishEast India Company's armies and govern Bengal, intro-duced new techniques of warfare borrowed from Europe.These not only prevailed against the French but opened upnew possibilities of power in the Indian subcontinent.

In 1756 Siraj-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Bengal, reactedto the growing pretensions of the British by sacking their"factory" at Calcutta and consigning some of their officersto the infamous "Black Hole". Clive's forces moved north inresponse and defeated Siraj-ud-Daula's army at Plassey in1757 (map 1). This created an opportunity for the conver-sion of the Company's economic influence in Bengal intopolitical power; the defeat of the residual armies of theMughal emperor at Buxar in 1764 completed this process.

However, it was to take another 50 years for the Britishto extend their dominion beyond Bengal, and a further 100years for the limits of their territorial expansion to beestablished. First, they faced rivalry from other expandingIndian states which had also adopted the new styles ofwarfare, most notably Tipu Sultan's Mysore (defeated in1799) and the Maratha Confederacy (defeated in 1818). Itwas not until the annexation of Punjab in 1849 that thelast threat to the Company's hegemony was extinguished(map 2). Even after this, the process of acquisition wascontinued: smaller states that had once been "subsidiary"allies were gobbled up and Baluchistan and Burma werebrought under British control, in 1876 and 1886 respec-tively, as a means of securing unstable borders (map 3).Nor was political stability within the empire in Indiaachieved with any greater ease. Most notably, in 1857 the"Great Mutiny" of Indian soldiers in the Bengal army sawthe British lose control of the central Ganges Valley andface rebellion in the heartland of their empire.

EFFECTS OF BRITISH RULEThe carrying forward of the imperial project in the face ofso many problems was a reflection of the importanceattached to India by the British. In the course of the 19thcentury it became "the jewel in the crown" of the BritishEmpire, to which it was formally annexed in 1858 whenthe English East India Company was dissolved. Althoughthere was little "white" settlement and most of its economy

194

A The expansion of British powerin India was piecemeal. It was facilitated bya system of "subsidiary alliance" under whichthe English East India Company suppliedtroops to a ruler in return for cash paymentsand trading privileges. This gave theCompany control of territories that remainedformally under the rule of Indian princes.


^ The rapid growth of India's railwaynetwork was an important factor in thetransition from subsistence farming tocommercial agriculture. As it became easierto transport produce from the countryside tothe ports so the demands of the Britishmarket for specific products came to bereflected in the crops grown. During theAmerican Civil War (1861-65), forexample, when the supply of raw Americancotton to the Lancashire cotton mills driedup, many Indian farmers switched to cottonproduction. When the war ended and themills reverted to American cotton, the Indianmarket collapsed, leaving farmers unable toreturn to food production.

and key social institutions remained in indigenous hands,India was manipulated to yield singular advantages toBritain. Its most significant role was to supply a large armywhich was extensively used for imperial defence aroundthe world. In addition, India became a captive market forthe products of Britain's industrial revolution, a majorexporter of agricultural commodities and an important areafor the investment of British capital, especially in therapidly expanding railway network (map 4).

What effects British rule had on India remains a con-troversial question. The agricultural economy grew, withexpanding foreign trade and British capital providing therudiments of a modern transport infrastructure. However,the once-great textile industry declined and few otherindustries rose to take its place. Ambiguity also markedBritish social policy. A strong imperative, especially fromthe 1840s onwards, was to "civilize" India along Westernlines, introducing "scientific" education, a competitivemarket economy and Christian ethics. However, a conser-vative view held by some in the British administration inIndia warned against disturbing "native" custom. After the

Mutiny, such conservative counsels won out and werereinforced by a deepening British racism, which deniedequal rights to Indian subjects of the British monarch.

The reactions of Indian society to British rule wereextremely mixed. Some groups mounted a ferociousdefence of their traditional rights, but others respondedpositively to what they regarded as modernizing trends,especially taking up Western education. For such groups,the racism of the late-Victorian British and their turningaway from earlier liberal ideals proved disappointing andfrustrating. An Indian National Congress had been formedin 1885 to advance the cause of Indians within the empire.However, by the early 1900s it had already begun to rejectthe politics of loyalism and to express more fundamentalobjections. As the shadow of the First World War fell acrossthe Indian landscape, the British Empire, which had suc-ceeded in bringing India into the 19th century, was fastlosing its claims to lead it through the 20th. In 1920-22,shortly after the war, Mahatma Gandhi launched the first ofthe mass civil disobedience campaigns which signalled thebeginning of the end of British rule in India.

A As the frontiers of Britain's empire inIndia slowly stabilized, over a third of thesubcontinent remained governed by Indianrulers, although the British used trade anddefence agreements to exert their influenceover these areas.

INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS 1526-1765 pages 144-45 1 9 5SOUTH ASIA SINGE 1920 pages 248-49

SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE AGEOF IMPERIALISM 1790-1914

A Britain acquired Pinang (1786), ProvinceWeilesley (1800), Singapore (1819) andMelaka (1824), which were constituted(with the addition in 1846 of Labuan inBorneo) as the Straits Settlements in 1826,in order to service its trade with China. Itsconquests in Lower Burma following theSecond Anglo-Burmese War (1852)-including Pegu and the seaports ofMartaban, Bassein and Rangoon - weredesigned to protect India's eastern frontier.Meanwhile, the victory of the Dutch overWahhabi-influenced Muslim reformers inwestern Sumatra in the Padri War(1821-38) enabled them to undertakelimited expansion along the east and westcoasts of Sumatra. Dutch authority wasestablished in Jambid 834), Indragiri(1838), Singkil and Barus (1839-40), butattempts to move further north werethwarted by the combination of theresurgent power of the Sultanate of Acehand the influence of the mainly British andChinese merchants in the Straits Settlements.

T?ihe outbreak of the Revolutionary and NapoleonicWars in Europe in April 1792 marked the beginningof a more intense European imperial involvement

with Southeast Asia - an involvement which reached itspeak between 1870 and 1914. By then nearly the whole ofSoutheast Asia was under European rule, the majorexception being Ghakri-ruled Siam (modern Thailand).

BRITISH, DUTCH AND SPANISH COLONIALISMBritain's emergence as the leading commercial and seabornepower in the region was confirmed after 1795 when its navalforces, operating from Madras and Pinang in the Strait ofMalacca, captured Dutch East India Company possessionsthroughout the Indonesian archipelago. By 1815 Britaincontrolled Java and the Spice Islands (Moluccas), and wassoon to establish itself in Singapore (1819) and in Arakanand Tenasserim in Lower Burma following the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26) (map 1). Although Java washanded back to Holland in 1816, Dutch power in Indonesiaremained totally dependent on British naval supremacyuntil the Second World War.

Commercially and militarily Britain owed much toIndia. British India (pages 194-95) provided the troops for

its colonial conquests in Southeast Asia, and Bengal opiumwas the mainstay of Britain's lucrative trade with China(pages 198-99). Between 1762, when the English East IndiaCompany was granted a permanent trading post in Canton(Guangzhou), and the 1820s, when Assam tea productionbegan, total Bengal opium exports increased 1,500 per centfrom 1,400 to 20,000 chests per annum, and exports ofChinese tea tripled from 7,000 to over 20,000 tonnes.Britain's interest in Southeast Asia in this period was drivenby its need to find trade goods saleable in Canton inexchange for tea, and by its desire to protect its sea lanes.

Elsewhere, before the 1860s, European expansion wasslow. Dutch control of fertile Java was only consolidatedfollowing the bitterly fought Java War (1825-30), and Dutchfinances only improved following the introduction of the"Cultivation System" (1830-70). This required Javanesepeasants to grow cash crops (mainly sugar, coffee andindigo) for sale at very low prices to the colonial govern-ment. By 1877 this had produced 832 million guilders forthe Dutch home treasury, which represented over 30 percent of Dutch state revenues. In the Philippines, Spanishpower was checked in Muslim-dominated Mindanao andSulu by the strength of the local sultans, while on the main

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island of Luzon, the seat of Spanish colonial authority sincethe late 16th century, the emergence of an educated mixed-race - Filipino-Spanish-Chinese - elite, known as theilustrados ("the enlightened ones"), began to challenge thepolitical predominance of the Iberian-born friars and theMadrid-appointed colonial administrators.

SOUTHEAST ASIAN RESISTANCEThe existence of newly established dynasties and kingdoms,especially in mainland Southeast Asia, complicated the taskof the European colonialists. From the mid-18th centuryonwards Burma, Siam and Vietnam had all experiencedextensive political renewal under the leadership of newdynasties. This encompassed a revitalization of TheravadaBuddhism and Confucianism; the subjugation of minoritypopulations to new state-sponsored forms of culture,religion, language and governance; the development ofChinese-run revenue farms and commercial monopolies;and the limited acquisition of Western military technology.

The principal reason for the British annexation of LowerBurma between the 1820s and 1850s was to check theexpansionist policies of a succession of Konbaung mon-archs. French involvement in Indochina, which began withthe capture of Da Nang in 1858, was spurred by the anti-Catholic pogroms initiated by the Vietnamese emperorMinh-mang (r. 1820-41) and his successors.

The political and cultural self-confidence of theSoutheast Asian rulers went hand in hand with rapideconomic and demographic growth. After a century of stag-nation, the exports of Southeast Asia's three keycommodities (pepper, coffee and sugar) increased by 4.7 percent per year between 1780 and 1820, with Aceh aloneaccounting for over half the world's supply of pepper - 9,000tonnes - by 1824. In the same period the region's popula-tion more than doubled to over nine million. This meantthat when the Europeans began to move in force against theindigenous states of Southeast Asia after 1850, they encoun-tered fierce resistance. It took the Dutch 30 years(1873-1903) to overcome Acehnese resistance, and whenthe British eventually moved into Upper Burma in

November 1885 and overthrew the Konbaung monarchy, itrequired another five years of sustained operations to"pacify" the remaining guerrilla fighters.

In the Philippines the energies unleashed by the emer-gence of indigenous resistance movements proved too muchfor the incumbent colonial administration. Two years(1896-98) of armed struggle by the ilustrado-\ed Filipinorevolutionaries brought the Spanish administration to itsknees and facilitated the intervention of the United States,which acquired the Philippines from Spain in the Treaty ofParis (December 1898). However, three more years were topass before the military forces of the Philippine Republicwere finally subdued in a series of bitter campaigns whichrequired the deployment of over 60,000 American troops.

NATIONALIST MOVEMENTSApart from the Chakri monarchs in Siam (whose powerlasted until 1932) none of the Southeast Asian dynastiessurvived the height of Western imperialism intact (map 2).Instead, new Western-educated elites emerged to take theirplace, eventually demanding political rights and recognitionof what they saw as legitimate nationalist aspirations.

Between 1906 and 1908 the foundation of the YoungMen's Buddhist Association in Rangoon and the "BeautifulEndeavour" (Boedi Oetomo) organization of Javanesemedical students in Batavia (Jakarta) led to the develop-ment of more radical forms of nationalism. In Vietnam thistook the form of the anti-French agitation of the "Confucianscholar activists", such as Phan Chu Trinh and Pham BoiChau, both of whom advocated the use of violence againstthe colonial state. Meanwhile, Japan's victory over tsaristRussia in 1904-5 (pages 200-1) had given the lie to themyth of Western superiority. The fact that Western colonialauthority rested for the most part on very small numbers oftroops and armed police - 42,000 for a population of 62million in the case of the Dutch in Indonesia - made it vul-nerable both to external attack and internal subversion. Therise of Japanese militarism during this period and the emer-gence of increasingly well-organized Southeast Asiannationalist movements sounded its death knell.

A Prince Dipanogora (1785-1855), leaderof the Javanese forces against the Dutch inthe Java War (1825-30), attempted torestore Javanese control of the island and toenhance the role of Islam. Widely reveredas a Javanese "Just King", he ended hisdays in exile in Celebes (Sulawesi).

T The heyday of Western imperialism inSoutheast Asia was brief, but it left aproblematic legacy. The introduction by thecolonialists of Western-style bureaucracies,education, capitalist means of productionand communications systems - especiallythe telegraph (which was introduced intoSoutheast Asia in 1870-71), railways andsteamships - led to the demise of oldermonarchical forms of authority and the riseof Western-educated, nationalist elites.

EUROPEANS IN ASIA 1500-1790 pages 118-19 1 9 7SOUTHEAST ASIA SINGE 1920 pages 250-51

LATE MANCHU QING CHINA1800-1911> The First Opium War was the Britishresponse to attempts by the Qing rulers torestrict trade to the government-monitoredcustom houses of Canton (Guangzhou), andto ban the damaging import of opium.British gunships bombarded Chinese portsalong the full length of its coast in 1840 andagain in 1841-42, even venturing up theYangtze to Nanjing, until the Chinese agreedpeace terms which allowed for the openingup of "treaty ports" (mop 2). Not satisfiedwith the outcome, however, the Britishjoined forces with the French in 1856 toexact further concessions in the SecondOpium War. China was defeated again bythe French in 1885, and lost control ofKorea to the Japanese in 1895.

CHINA'S TRADE DEFICIT WITH INDIA

Three-year average, in millions of pounds:

total value of imports from India

total value of opium imported

«,»««* total value of exports to India

A Throughout the period 1800-37 thetotal value of imports from the English EastIndia Company increased steadily, whileChinese exports remained fairly static.Opium imports grew during this period,leading the Chinese to impose restrictionsand the British to use force in order toprotect their market. Following thedefeat of China in the Opium War of1840-42, the value of opium importedmore than doubled.

> During the Sino-Japanese War of1894-95 the Chinese defenders were easilyovercome by the more modern weaponry ofthe invading Japanese. As a result of itsdefeat, China was forced to cede the islandof Taiwan to Japan.

Ttihe 19th century was a turbulent period for China,during which the Western powers posed an ever-increasing threat to the sovereignty of the Manchu

dynasty. With most of South and Southeast Asia already col-onized, China represented the final target in the Asian world.

China had enjoyed sizeable surpluses in trade with theWest since the 17th century, exporting increasing amountsof raw materials - in particular tea, sugar and raw silk - inthe face of growing competition from Japan and India.However, it had also become economically dependent on theWest, as it had few precious metals and needed the inflow ofsilver from foreign trade to facilitate the expansion of itsinternal trade. In 1760 the Manchu Qing government hadrestricted the activities of foreign traders to just four ports,thus facilitating the collection of duties from these traders.By the late 18th century this had led to a system underwhich Canton (Guangzhou) was the sole port for foreigntrade and all activities had to go through the government-monitored chartered trading houses (cohung). Westernersattempted, but failed, to persuade the Qing government toreform its restrictive policies, and it became clear that suchpolicies could not be shaken off by peaceful means as longas Qing sovereignty remained intact.

THE OPIUM WARSWestern traders soon found ways to get around the cohungsystem, and smuggling was widely practised. More signifi-cantly, the British discovered an ideal commodity to sell inChina: opium. In the China-India-Britain trade triangle,China's tea exports were no longer offset by silver bullion butby opium, and from the beginning of the 19th century abalance of trade rapidly developed in favour of the English

1 9 8


A During the Taiping Rebellion the Qinglost control of much of China's most fertileregion, resulting in a 70 per cent drop in tax

revenues. The Qing army was largelyunsuccessful against the rebels, which wereonly crushed with the aid of Western troops.

East India Company (graph). China's hard-earned silverbegan to flow out in large quantities, causing severe deflationin the economy. The Manchu Qing, who did not want to seethe resulting loss of tax revenue, responded by imposing atotal ban on the opium trade. This triggered the invasion, in1840, of British gunships, against which the Qing armedforces proved to be no match. The First Opium War (map 1)came to an end in 1842 when, under the Treaty of Nanjing,the victorious British secured the lifting of the ban on theopium trade and the opening up to trade of the "treaty ports"(map 2). The state monopoly was over.

The events of 1840 heralded the end of China as a worldpower in the 19th century. British and French allied forcesextracted further concessions from China in the SecondOpium War in 1856-60 (map 1}, while the Russiansannexed around 1 million square kilometres (386,000 squaremiles) of Chinese Siberia north of the River Amur, andfurther territory in Turkestan. Furthermore, China's controlover its "vassal states" in Southeast Asia was weakened whenAnnam became a French colony after the Sino-French Warin 1883-85, and China was forced to relinquish control ofKorea after the Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95 (map 1).

These successive military and diplomatic defeats cost theChinese Empire dearly in terms of growing trade deficits andof mounting foreign debts, mainly incurred by war repara-tions. China was forced to adopt what amounted to afree-trade policy. By the end of the 19th century a series oftreaties had resulted in the country being largely divided upby the foreign powers (map 2). Although China remainedtechnically independent, its sovereignty was ruthlesslyviolated - a situation that led to the anti-foreign, anti-Christian Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901.

INTERNAL STRIFEPartly as a result of the numerous concessions made to theforeign powers, there was an upsurge in nationalism and inthe widespread antipathy to the Qing rulers, who originatedfrom Manchuria and were therefore not considered"Chinese". In the struggle for their own survival, the Qingrulers leaned increasingly towards the West, relying onWestern troops, for example, to help suppress the TaipingRebellion (map 3). However, while employing the supportof the West delayed the demise of the Manchu Qing govern-ment for half a century, in the long term it proved a fatalstrategy. In 1911 the Nationalists, who until then had beenonly loosely organized, rose up in armed rebellion (map 4).The revolution began in Hankou on 10 October 1911, andalthough the Qing troops recaptured the city on 27November, the movement to secure independence had by

this time already spread across southeast and central China.Bowing to pressure from the Western powers, whose tradinginterests were likely to be disrupted by civil war, the Qingemperor signed a truce with the rebels on 18 December,which stipulated his abdication and the elevation of hisgeneral, Yuan Shikai, to the position of President. The inde-pendent provinces recognized Nanjing as their new capital,and elected the Nationalist leader Sun Yat-sen as provisionalPresident on 1 January 1912, although he stepped down on14 February in favour of Yuan Shikai.

A By the end of the 19th century Chinawas effectively "carved up", with all itsmajor ports and trading centres allocated bytreaty to one or other of the major Westernpowers. In order to ensure a constant supplyof goods for trading, the Western powers

areas of the Chinese hinterland. In addition,Britain was granted a lease on the territoryof Hong Kong and the Portuguese gainedthe territory of Macau.

^ The 1911 revolution started with theNationalists seizing control of Hankou on10 October. Similar uprisings in most of themajor cities then followed rapidly. Only inthe northeast, and in the province to thesouthwest of Beijing, were rebellionssuccessfully put down by Qing troops.Following the truce of 18 December,Emperor Xuantong abdicated, and control ofBeijing passed to General Yuan Shikai. TheNationalists subsequently established theircapital in Nanjing.

THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA 1911-49 pages 224-25 1 9 9MING AND MANCHU QING CHINA 1368-1800 pages 138-39

areas of the Chinese hinterland. In addition,

THE MODERNIZATION OF JAPAN1867-1937

A As part of the plan to modernize Japanafter the restoration of the emperor in1867, the feudal domains were abolishedand replaced by centrally administeredprefectures. By 1930 the economy hadbeen transformed into one characterized byurbanization and industrialization.

T Japanese acquisitions in the late 19thand early 20th centuries included theKorean Peninsula and the island of Taiwan,both of which provided raw materials for theindustrializing Japanese economy. In 1932Japan added to its overseas possessions byadvancing into Manchuria.

T

he collapse of the Tokugawa regime in 1867 initiateda period of momentous change in Japan, in whichsociety, the economy and politics were transformed.

After more than 200 years of isolation, in the 20th centuryJapan emerged onto the world stage as a major power.

The new leaders believed that to achieve equality withthe nations of the West, Japan had to pursue an aggressiveforeign policy, and for this it needed a viable and modernmilitary capability, backed up by a modern industrial sector.It would be a mistake to exaggerate the role of the state inthe transformation of Japan into a modern industrial power.However, the government played a leading role in setting thetone for change and in laying the framework within whichnon-government enterprises could take the initiative.

A NEW CONSTITUTIONThe new government moved swiftly, rapidly disbanding theold caste hierarchy, abolishing the domains (pages 140-41),and ruling the country from the centre through a system ofprefectures (map 1). All this was done in the name of theemperor, who had been the focus of the anti-Tokugawamovement. However, disagreement within the new rulingoligarchy, and problems in dismantling the social, economicand political structures of the Tokugawa government, meantthat the new imperial constitution did not take effect until1890. The constitutional structure arrived at involved main-taining a balance of power between the various elites: theemperor, the political parties within the diet (legislativeassembly), the privy council, the military and thebureaucracy. This system remained in place until 1945,with different groups dominant within it at different times.

Democratic participation was limited. Universal malesuffrage was not granted until 1925, women were barredfrom political life, and there were draconian restrictions onlabour activity as well as on ideologies and organizationsdeemed to be potentially subversive. The concept of the"family state" was promoted, according to which theemperor - said to be descended from ancient deities - wasthe benevolent patriarch of the Japanese. Any criticism ofthe "emperor-given" constitution was regarded as treason.

Three emperors reigned under this constitution: theMeiji Emperor (r. 1867-1912), who became identifiedwith the national push for change; the Taisho Emperor(r. 1912-26), who was mentally impaired and made nolasting impact; and the Showa Emperor (Hirohito), whotook over as regent from his father in 1921, and reigned inhis own right from 1926 until his death in 1989.

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MODERNIZATION OF THE ECONOMYIn their efforts to compete with the West, Japan's leadersstudied and imitated Western economies, borrowing ideasas they saw fit. The legal and penal systems and themilitary were all remodelled along Western lines. Financialand commercial infrastructures were "westernized", andtransport networks were improved; railway mileage, forexample, expanded rapidly (map 2 and graph). A systemof compulsory education was implemented from the turn ofthe century. Agricultural output (based on rice) increasedsubstantially, and then levelled off from the First World War(1914-18) onwards, but there was sustained growth in com-mercial agricultural products, especially silk cocoons.

Up to 1914 manufacturing remained largely focused onhandicraft production of traditional products for the domes-tic market, which in turn enabled capital accumulation forthe growth of larger-scale, mechanized production. By theend of the Meiji period, factory-based silk reeling and cottonspinning were both major export industries, and the firstheavy industrial plants had been established. The FirstWorld War gave a major boost to manufacturing growth, andafter 1918 the industrial structure was transformed. By1930 the percentage of the population in many prefecturesworking on the land or in fishing had fallen substantially(map 1). The relative contribution of agriculture to theGross National Product had declined dramatically. Theservice sector had grown, and light industry (especially tex-tiles), while remaining crucial in exports, had beengradually overtaken by heavy industry.

During the 1920s and 1930s some industrial sectorscame to be dominated by business groupings calledzaibatsu, who controlled multiple enterprises and hugeassets. Some zaibatsu came under fierce attack in the wakeof the Depression (1929-33), when falling prices and generalinstability brought agricultural crisis in some areas, andincreasing internal political conflict. Despite the growth ofthe Japanese economy in the 1930s, living standards weresqueezed and the distribution of benefits was unequal.

JAPAN AND THE WORLDOne of the most pressing concerns of the new governmentwas to rid the country of the "unequal treaties" imposed onJapan by the Western powers towards the end of theTokugawa period. These treaties, forcing Japan to open itsports to trade with the West, had been an importantcontributory factor in the collapse of the Tokugawa regime.Japan eventually achieved a revision of the treaties in 1894,

and in 1902 an alliance was concluded with Britain.Relations with her neighbours were rarely harmonious,however, as Japan gradually encroached on theirsovereignty (map 3). Conflict with China over interests inKorea brought war between the two countries in 1894-95,resulting in a Japanese victory and the acquisition of Taiwan(Formosa). Tension with Russia culminated in the war of1904-5. Although the Japanese victory was less than clear-cut, it gave Japan a foothold in Manchuria and the freedomto annex Korea as a colony in 1910. In all its overseas terri-tories, but particularly in Korea, Japanese rule was harsh.After the First World War (1914-18) the League of Nationsmandated the former German colonies of the Caroline,Marshall and Mariana islands (except for Guam) to Japan.

Relations with China remained tense as Japan sought toobtain increasing concessions in the wake of the 1911Revolution, and to strengthen her control of Manchuria,regarded by the Chinese as an integral part of China'sterritory (pages 224-25). In 1927 Japanese troops inManchuria were involved in the murder of a leading warlord,and in 1931 engineered an "incident", in the wake of whichthe Japanese army, acting initially without the sanction ofTokyo, occupied the territory. The following year the puppetstate of Manchukuo was established. Tension between Japanand China finally erupted into full-scale war in 1937.

* In the Battle of Tsushima Strait in May1905 (mop 5) the Russian fleet wasoverwhelmed by the Japanese under thecommand of Admiral Heihachiro Togo.Russian losses of men and ships vastlyexceeded those of the Japanese and as aresult of this humiliation, and other losseson land, the Russians conceded defeat inSeptember 1905.

T The rapid development of a railwaynetwork was one feature of the dramaticchanges in transport and other parts of theinfrastructure that occurred from the 1870s.

THE WAR IN ASIA 1931-45 pages 234-35 2 0 1

A The nationalization of much of therailway system in 1906 more than trebledthe extent of Japan's state-owned lines.

GROWTH OF RAILWAY MILEAGE1872-1942

TOKUGAWA JAPAN 1603-1867 pages 140-41

THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUSTRALIA ANDNEW ZEALAND SINCE 1790

T Early exploration of Australia and NewZealand was confined to the coastline, whichwas explored and charted by James Cook inthe 18th century and, at the beginning ofthe 19th century, by separate expeditionsaround Australia under the leadership ofMatthew Flinders from Britain and theFrenchman Nicholas Baudin. In the mid-19thcentury explorers ventured into Australia'sinhospitable interior. Without the survivaltechniques of the Aboriginal populationmany perished from lack of water (mostfamously, Burke and Wills). In New Zealand,however, Dieffenbach and Brunner bothtook Maori guides, who were largelyresponsible for the white men's survival.

he history of both Australia and New Zealand longpredates the arrival of Europeans in the late 18thcentury. Australia had been inhabited by its Aboriginal

population for around 60,000 years, while New Zealand hadbeen home to the Polynesian Maori (who called it Aotearoa)for around 1,000 years. During the 17th century Dutchexplorers charted the western and northern coasts ofAustralia, and in 1642 Abel Tasman sighted Van Diemen'sLand (later Tasmania) and followed the coastline of NewZealand (map l).ln 1769-70, during his first Pacific voyage,James Cook charted the coast of New Zealand and landed onthe eastern coast of Australia, which he claimed for Britain.

The first British colony was founded at Port Jackson(Sydney) in January 1788, with the arrival of around 750convicts, guarded by just over 200 marines and officers.(Over the subsequent 60 years a further 160,000 convictswould be shipped out to penal colonies established all roundthe eastern and southern coasts.) As the land immediatelyaround Sydney was unsuitable for agriculture, the colonyrelied heavily on intermittent supplies of foodstuffs shippedout from England throughout the 1790s.

THE GROWING ECONOMYInitially, economic activity in Australia was confined towhaling, fishing and sealing, but in the early 1820s a routewas developed to the inland plains and, with access to vastexpanses of pastoral land, newly arrived free settlers turnedto sheep-rearing. The wool they exported to Britain becamethe basis of Australia's economy, and further colonies basedon this trade were established over the next three decadesin Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia and Queensland.

The ever-increasing demand for pasture brought the set-tlers into conflict with the Aboriginal population. As well asseizing land and using violence against the Aborigines, thesettlers carried with them alien diseases such as smallpoxand influenza. These imported diseases had disastrous con-sequences for the indigenous population, whose numberscertainly declined (to an extent that can only be estimated)and would continue to do so until the 1930s (bar chart).

Large-scale immigration of non-convict, mainly British,settlers accelerated from the 1830s, as more agricultural ter-ritory was opened up (map 2). It was further encouraged bygold strikes in the 1850s. The development of overseas trade,

dependent on coastal ports, and the expansion of miningindustries helped to foster an increasingly urban society.Australia's population grew dramatically from 405,000 in1850 to 4 million by the end of the century.

The Australian colonies developed political systemsbased on that in Britain, and most became self-governingduring the 1850s. The creation of the Commonwealth ofAustralia in 1901 promoted freer trade between the stateswithin this federation and facilitated a joint approach todefence. However, one of the first measures taken by theCommonwealth was to adopt the "white Australia policy",designed to exclude non-white immigrants.

WHITE SETTLERS IN NEW ZEALANDNew Zealand was initially treated by the British as anappendage of New South Wales. It only became a separatecolony following the controversial Treaty of Waitangi in 1840,which provoked decades of conflict between the whitesettlers and the Maori, mainly because the treaty, which gavesovereignty to Britain, was not clearly translated for the Maorichiefs who agreed it. While the Maori population declined, thesettler population grew dramatically during the second halfof the 19th century. Wool and gold formed the basis of thecolony's economy, and with the invention of refrigerated ship-ping in the 1870s the export of meat became increasinglyimportant (map 3). Tension over land triggered the MaoriWars of 1860 to 1872, after which large areas of Maori landwere sold or confiscated by the government.

New Zealand evolved quickly to responsible government,and a central parliament, including Maori representatives, wasestablished in 1852. By 1879 the country enjoyed almost uni-versal male suffrage, and women obtained the vote in 1893.In 1907 New Zealand became, like Australia, a self-governingdominion within the British Empire, although its economyremained heavily dependent on British markets.

BREAKING TIES WITH BRITAINUntil the 1950s both Australia and New Zealand retainedclose political ties with Britain, fighting alongside Britain inthe two world wars. Britain's inability to defend the regionadequately during the Second World War, however, encour-aged both countries to enter into defensive arrangementswith the United States, leading to the ANZUS Pact of 1951.

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A Australia's economy expanded duringthe 19th century as territory in the east wasopened up to dairy farming and, inQueensland, to sugar cultivation. The successof the colony of South Australia, founded in1836, was based on wool and grainproduction, and by the 1860s wheat hadbecome an important export product. Suchcultivation, however, contributed to the hugedecline in the Aboriginal population.

V Although New Zealand's economysuffered during the collapse in commodityprices in the 1880s and early 1890s, thegovernment borrowed heavily to subsidizepublic works, including the railway system.These measures encouraged immigrationand led to a decline in the proportion of thepopulation who were Maori - a trend thatwas reversed somwhat after the 1930s.

Economic ties with Britain also declined after 1945,especially once Britain joined the European EconomicCommunity in 1973. Australia and New Zealand haveincreasingly focused on economic diversification and indeveloping ties with the United States, Japan and othercountries of the "Pacific Rim" (pages 242-43).

MAORI AND ABORIGINAL RIGHTSOne of the most important recent political developments hasbeen campaigns in both New Zealand and Australia toachieve fairer treatment for the Maori and Aboriginal popu-lations. A cultural reawakening among the Maori was evidentby the beginning of the 20th century (in the Ratana move-ment), and Maori political campaigning began in earnest inthe 1920s and 1930s. Participation in the Second World War,urbanization and reviving population figures (bar chart)helped strengthen Maori assertiveness, and in the 1970s leg-islation was introduced to address grievances dating back tothe Treaty of Waitangi. It took another 20 years and furtherprotests, however, before any land was returned to the Maori,most of whom inhabit North Island.

Australia's Aborigines had begun to assert their identityand demand an end to discrimination during the 1930s, butit was not until 1967 that they won equal citizenship. In theearly 1970s the federal authorities began to promote thereturn of land to Aboriginal communities, but although thenumber of Aborigines is rising, they remain the most dis-advantaged sector of Australian society.

AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC 10,000 BG-AD 1000 pages 26-27 203

AFRICA1800-80^ In the mid-19th century Europeantraders operated from bases on the coast,supplied with goods by the African tradingnetwork. In the south the dominant Zulunation caused the dispersal of other ethnicgroups throughout the region.

A The city of Timbuktu served for centuriesas a trading post for trans-Saharancaravans. By the 19th century it haddeclined in importance but was still a focusof curiosity for Europeans, for whom travelin the region was made dangerous byMuslim antipathy to Christians. In 1853-54the German explorer Heinrich Barth spentsome time there in the course of anextensive expedition (mop 3), and theillustration above was published in hisaccount of his travels.

t the beginning ofthe 19th century theinterior of the African con-

tinent was little known to outsiders,although there had been contact withthe wider world since antiquity, espe-cially through trading activity. TheNorth African coastal region was firmlyintegrated into Mediterranean tradingsystems, while well-established trans-Saharan trading routes (map 1), basedon exchanges of slaves, salt, gold andcloth, secured the dominance of Islamfrom the north coast to West Africa.

As the century progressed, trade inWest Africa continued to be orientated tothe north, but the Atlantic slave trade,initiated by the Portuguese in the 16thcentury, became an increasing focus ofeconomic activity. It is estimated that over 12million slaves were despatched to the Americasbetween 1450 and 1870, of whom a quarterwere exported during the 19th century. Thepolitical, social and economic reverberations ofEuropean competition for slaves along the westand central African Atlantic coast extended far intothe interior. Slaves were exchanged for firearms, metalgoods, beads and other manufactured goods. With theformal abolition by Britain of the slave trade in 1807 (anddespite the defiance by other European countries of this banfor many years after), ivory, rubber, palm oil, cloth, gold andagricultural products assumed ever greater importance astrading commodities.

In East Africa trading activities were somewhat lessdeveloped, as was urbanization and the formation of states.Nevertheless, Indian Ocean ports such as Mombasa,Bagamoyo, Kilwa and Quelimane were important inbringing Bantu-speaking Africans into commercial contactwith Arabs, Indians and Portuguese (map 1). The slavetrade in this region remained relatively unaffected by itsformal illegality until the latter part of the 19th century.

ENCROACHMENTS BY EUROPEANSAt the start of the 19th century the European presence inAfrica was largely restricted to the coastal regions ofnorthern, western and southern Africa. The Frenchinvaded the Algerian coast in 1830 and also established a

presence on the west coast. Spain hadbeen in control of the Moroccan ports of Geuta and

Melilla since the 16th century. The Portuguese were inpossession of large parts of Angola and Mozambique. InWest Africa, British interests were expanding into thehinterland from the slave-trading regions of present-daySierra Leone, Nigeria and Ghana. British influence in theregion was consolidated after 1807, when the Royal Navytook on the role of enforcing an end to the slave trade andmerchants extended the domain of legitimate commerce.A major area of British expansion was in southern Africa,where the Gape Colony was wrested from Dutch control in1806. The frontiers of this settler society expandedthroughout the 19th century and a second British colony,Natal, in the east of the region, was established in 1845.

AFRICAN POLITICSDynamic changes occurred, sometimes intensified byEuropean contact, at other times with little reference toencroachment from the outside. In southern Africa themfecane migrations, occasioned by the rise of the Zulu state

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<4 The first European "explorers" in Africawere those that ventured into regions inWest Africa already well known to Berbertraders, but hitherto considered toodangerous for Christians. From the mid-19thcentury onwards Europeans madeexpeditions into central Africa. Their motiveswere mixed. David Livingstone summedthem up as: "Christianity, commerce andcivilization", but the pursuit of scientificknowledge also played a part.

during the 1820s, caused a massive dispersal of populationthroughout the region and resulted in the emergence ofseveral new polities or nations, such as those of the Kololo,the Ndebele, the Swazi and the Ngoni (map 1). This politicalturbulence was exacerbated by the arrival in the southernAfrican interior from the 1830s onwards of migrant BoerVoortrekkers, attempting to escape control by Britishcolonists. They sought to establish independent states, largelyin territory depopulated as a result of the mfecane, althoughthey came into conflict with the Zulu in Natal, most spectac-ularly at the Battle of Blood River in 1838. Many moved onagain when the British annexed the republic of Natal in 1845.

In West Africa the advance of Islam, associated with theFulani jihad of 1804, resulted in the disintegration of long-established kingdoms, such as the Yoruba empire of Oyoand the Bambara state of Segu, though the Fulani wereresisted in Borno. By the 1860s the Fulani caliphate ofSokoto was pre-eminent in the region, having absorbedmuch of Hausaland into its aegis.

In Egypt the autocratic modernization strategy adoptedby Muhammad Ali in the early decades of the century trans-formed this province of the Ottoman Empire into anindependent state in all but name; Egyptian authority wasextended southwards and the Sudan was invaded in1820-22 in order to secure the upper Nile and find a morereliable source of slaves.

Around Lake Victoria in East Africa, the kingdoms ofBuganda, Bunyoro and Karagwe were linked by the tradingactivities of the Nyamwezi to the Swahili- and Arab-dominated coastal region, extending outwards fromZanzibar. To the north, in Ethiopia, the ancient Christianstate centred on Axum was fragmented and in disarray untilthe mid-19th century. Thereafter, under the leadership ofJohn IV and Menelik II, the Ethiopian Empire underwentconsolidation and expansion; Ethiopia has the distinctionof being the only African state to have successfully resisted19th-century European colonial occupation.

RIVAL RELIGIONSThe creation and expansion of new states and societies,whether originating from within Africa or from externalforces, were accompanied by cultural change and accom-modation. Religion was a key aspect of such change(map 2). In North and West Africa, conquest and thespread of Islam were closely associated, although one didnot presuppose the other. Christianity had been present inNorth Africa from the 2nd century and, though checked bythe rise of Islam, had become firmly established in CopticEthiopia. Efforts to convert other parts of Africa toChristianity had been led by the Portuguese from the 15thcentury. It was in the 19th century, however, that intenseCatholic and Protestant proselytization occurred; some,indeed, see missionaries as crucial precursors of Europeancolonialism. Christianity did not, however, replace indige-nous African religious traditions in any simple manner.Adaptation and coexistence was more the norm and, inmany instances, African forms of Christianity emerged thatwould later serve as an important ideology in mobilizingresistance to European colonialism.

EUROPEAN EXPLORERSAlong with trading and missionary activity, explorers playedan important role in "opening up" Africa to Europe(map 3). At the start of the 19th century the interior ofAfrica was barely known to the outside world. Expeditions,whether motivated by scientific and geographic curiosity orthe search for natural resources and wealth, attracted con-siderable popular interest in Europe; the exploits oftravellers and explorers were celebrated both in terms ofindividual achievement and as sources of national pride.Among the best-known 19th-century expeditions werethose that explored the sources of the Nile, the Congo, theZambezi and the Niger. The exploration and mapping ofAfrica proved of considerable importance to the drawing ofcolonial boundaries in the late 19th century.

A During the 19th century the two mainreligions - Christianity and Islam -competed for domination of the Africaninterior. The Muslim religion spread southfrom North Africa (although the CopticChristians held out in Ethiopia) and inlandfrom Arab trading bases in East Africa. TheChristian churches sent out missionariesfrom European colonies in the south, eastand west of the continent, with the Catholicsand Protestants vying for converts.

THE PARTITION OF AFRICA 1880-1939 pages 206-7 2 0 5AFRICA 1500-1800 pages 136-37

THE PARTITION OF AFRICA1880-1939

A The South African (Boer) War of1899-1902 was one of the longest andcostliest in British imperial history. In theinitial phase the Afrikaners secured notablevictories, but in 1900 their main towns werecaptured by the British. General Kitchenerfinally defeated them by burning theirfarmsteads and imprisoning civilians inconcentration camps. In the Peace ofVereeniging (May 1902) the Afrikaners losttheir independence. In 1910, however, theUnion of South Africa gained independenceunder the leadership of the Afrikanergeneral Louis Botha.

Between 1880 and 1914 the whole of Africa was parti-tioned between rival European powers, leaving onlyLiberia and Ethiopia independent of foreign rule

(map 1). The speed of the process was bewildering, evenmore so when one considers that most of the African land-mass and its peoples were parcelled out in a mere ten yearsafter 1880. European competition for formal possession ofAfrica was accompanied by intense nationalist flag-wavingand expressions of racial arrogance, contributing in no smallmanner to the tensions that resulted in the outbreak of theFirst World War.

Many explanations have been given for the partition ofAfrica. Some lay particular stress on economic factors: theattractiveness of Africa both as a source of raw materials

A The partition of Africa was formalized atthe Berlin Conference of 1884-85, attendedby all the major European nations. It wasagreed that a nation that was firmly

established on a stretch of coast had theright to claim sovereignty over theassociated hinterland on which its tradedepended for the supply of goods.

and as a virtually untapped market for finished goods duringEurope's "second" industrial revolution. Others view thepartition of Africa in terms of intra-European nationalistrivalry, emphasizing the prestige associated with possessionof foreign territory and the ambitions of individual states-men and diplomats. Another explanation relates to geo-political concerns, in particular the strategic designs ofmilitary and naval planners seeking to preserve lines ofcommunication, such as the route to India through the Suez

206


Canal (opened 1869) and around the Cape. A variant of thistheory emphasizes conditions on the ground, claiming thatEuropean powers were sucked further and further intoAfrica as a result of local colonial crises and trading oppor-tunities. Technological advances (including the telegraph),as well as more effective protection against disease, facili-tated the "scramble for Africa".

One of the first examples of colonists fighting forfreedom from European domination occurred following thediscovery of diamonds and gold in territory controlled byAfrikaner farmers (descendants of Dutch settlers, known tothe British as "Boers"). Prospectors of all nationalitiesflooded into the region, and Britain was concerned about apossible alliance between the Afrikaners and the Germansto the west. In October 1899 the Afrikaners took pre-emptive action, besieging British troops massing on theirborders (map 2). British reinforcements won several majorbattles, but the Afrikaners then adopted guerrilla tacticswhich were eventually overcome by the ruthless approachof General Kitchener.

RELATIONS BETWEEN AFRICANS AND EUROPEANSThe partition of Africa cannot be satisfactorily understoodwithout taking into account the dynamics of African societiesthemselves. In some instances colonial expansion was madepossible by indigenous leaders who sought to enrolEuropeans as convenient allies in the struggle to establishsupremacy over traditional enemies. Trading and commer-cial opportunities encouraged certain groups of Africans tocement ties with Europeans. Some African leaders provedadept at manipulating relationships with European powers totheir own advantage, at least in the short term; elsewhere,land or mineral concessions were made to Europeans in thehope that full-scale occupation could be averted.

In a number of celebrated instances (map J), Africansresisted the initial European colonial advance, or rose inrebellion soon after. Common informal means of resistanceincluded non-payment of taxes, avoidance of labourdemands, migration, or membership of secret religious soci-eties. Usually, Africans sought some sort of accommodationwith the advancing Europeans in order to avoid outright con-frontation. Appearances are therefore deceptive: although themap indicates European possession of virtually all of Africaby 1914, in many areas control was notional. Portuguesecontrol of Mozambique and Angola was especially tenuous.In non-settler societies and beyond major towns and centres,many Africans were more or less able to ignore the Europeanpresence and get on with their own lives.

LABOUR MARKETS AND TRADEPerhaps the surest measure of the intensity of colonial ruleis the extent to which Africa was integrated into the worldeconomy (map 3). In southern Africa, the discovery andexploitation of diamonds and gold created huge demands forAfrican labour. Migrant workers came from as far afield asMozambique, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Demandsfor agricultural labour threatened the viability of indepen-dent African cultivators in the region, although in someareas - as in the case of cocoa production in the Gold Coastand Nigeria, for example - colonial systems relied onindigenous peasant cultivators, who were frequently able toprosper from their participation in export markets. Forcedlabour was widely used by agricultural concession compa-nies in Mozambique and Angola, and by the rubberplantations of the Belgian Congo.

COMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURERailway networks werre built that linked coastal ports to thehinterland and served as a major stimulus to trade and com-modity production. Railways proved particularly importantfor the development of mining as well as for commercialagriculture. They were also vital for the supply of labour andwere crucial for the economic development of the region.

After the initial phase of railway construction, road-building programmes, especially in the inter-war years,

brought some of the most remote areas into direct contactwith the colonial economy. The arrival of trucks stimulatedthe re-emergence of an African merchant class, particularlyin West Africa. Rapid urbanization, a remarkable feature ofthe colonial era, was stimulated by the development of trans-port links and of internal and external trade.

EDUCATION AND RELIGIONIn much of colonial Africa the spread of education wasclosely linked to religious change. Christianity in particularunderwent exponential growth. The spread of Western edu-cation, building on earlier missionary endeavours, tendedto be geared to the requirements of colonial regimes - pro-viding skilled workers, clerks and petty officials. ManyAfricans eagerly embraced education, often as a means ofsocial advancement. Thus, the spread of literacy opened upnew horizons and possibilities that could not easily be con-trolled by the colonial powers. It is striking that many of theearly African nationalists were the products of missioneducation - men who became politicized when the oppor-tunities opened up by their education were denied them bythe inequalities inherent in colonial rule.

Education and Christianity were not, however, univer-sally welcomed by Africans. While offering social mobilityto many, these agencies also threatened the power of tradi-tional elites. Frequently, forms of Christianity evolved whichcombined African belief systems and traditions withWestern ones. The Bible also offered fertile ground for rein-terpretation in ways that challenged European rule.

Colonialism was the source of great and profoundchanges: economic, political, social, cultural and demo-graphic. Significant and wide-ranging as these changes were,however, innovations were seldom imposed on a blank slate.Rather, colonial institutions were built on existing struc-tures and moulded according to circumstances. Far fromcapitulating to alien rule, many African societies showedgreat resilience and adaptability in surviving it.

T The export of raw materials from Africaaffected agriculture and labour marketsthroughout the continent. Although miningoperations and large plantations werecontrolled by colonists, small-scale peasantproduction did survive in many places andbenefited from export markets. Railwayswere crucial to economic development, inparticular for the transportation of mineralores. Their effect, however, was mixed:because they tended to disturb moretraditional forms of transport, the areasthey bypassed often suffered economically.

AFRICA SINGE 1939 pages 256-57 2 0 7AFRICA 1800-80 pages 204-5

WORLD TRADE AND EMPIRES1870-1914

A The strengthening of colonial rule waslinked to a number of economic and politicalfactors, including the need for raw materialsto supply rapidly industrializing economiesand the desire to find new markets for

manufactured goods.

A There was a particularly sharp increasein world trade between 1900 and 1910, withthe build-up of armaments by Britain andGermany - and the associated demand forraw materials - a contributory factor.

T he late 19th century witnessed dramatic changes,not only in the world economy but also in therelationship between the manufacturing countries

and those regions of the world from which raw materialswere obtained. The volume of international trade more thantrebled between 1870 and 1914 (bar chart 1) alongsidelarge-scale industrialization in Europe and the UnitedStates, and the spread of colonial rule, particularly in Asiaand Africa. By 1913 Britain had been replaced by the UnitedStates as the world's leading manufacturing nation, but itstill handled more trade than any other country (barchart 2). London remained the world's leading financialcentre through its operation of the international gold stan-dard, which defined the value of the major currencies andso facilitated trade.

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONSThe enormous expansion of international trade was greatlyhelped by technological developments, especially in trans-port and communications. Sailing ships gave way to largerand faster steam vessels, which required coaling stationsstrategically placed around the globe (map 1), and mer-chant shipping fleets expanded to cope with the increasedvolume of trade. Voyages between continents were facili-tated by the opening of the Suez Canal (1869) and thePanama Canal (1914). Railways also helped to increasetrading activities, notably in North America and AsiaticRussia. The electric telegraph network made business trans-actions between continents easier (map 2). These techno-logical developments also encouraged massive migrations,including that of 30 million Europeans who emigrated toNorth America during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

The creation of wealth in the industrialized countriesled to growing interest in investing some of that wealth inthe developing countries. By financing railway building ormining development in these areas, industrial economieshelped to increase imports of food and raw materials, andto create larger export markets for their manufacturedgoods. Britain, France, other European countries and laterthe United States made substantial overseas investments

(map 2 and pie chart), and were anxious to safeguard thesefrom political instability and from rivals.

FACTORS INFLUENCING IMPERIAL EXPANSIONIn the late 19th century the world economy was becomingmore integrated, with different regions increasingly depen-dent on one another. Inevitably, competition betweenstates intensified, spilling over into the political sphere.Britain's early lead as the first industrial power was linked,by many observers, to the expansion of the British Empirefrom the late 18th century onwards, above all in India.Other countries tried to emulate Britain by building upempires of their own. As business conditions worsened inthe 1870s and 1880s, a growing number of countries alsosought to protect their home markets, imposing tariffs tolimit the influx of foreign goods. The attraction of untappedmarkets in Africa and Asia intensified as a result.

Political factors in Europe also contributed to thegrowth of imperialism. National prestige was always amajor consideration, but it became even more so as inter-national rivalries heightened (pages 216-17). The newlyformed countries of Germany and Italy, as well as thedeclining state of Portugal, saw the acquisition of coloniesas a way of asserting their status as world powers. Overseasexpansion also helped to divert attention from the domes-tic social problems created by industrialization andpopulation growth. Further motivation was provided byChristian missionaries, who were effective in lobbyinggovernments to defend their activities overseas.

2 0 8

1 THE GROWTH OF WORD TRADE


Political and economic changes taking place withinnon-European societies created important opportunities forthe European powers to increase their influence. Local"elites" - groups who became wealthy through trade andcollaboration with European powers - often facilitated thecolonization of an area. Territory was sometimes acquiredin order to protect existing colonial interests from rivals,or because it was particularly valuable for strategic, ratherthan economic, reasons. Often, however, the colonizingpowers found that in order to support a limited initial claimit became necessary to expand inland from coastal basesand establish further trade links.

Although no single factor can explain the growth ofimperialism in this period, the results were neverthelessfar-reaching, as evidenced by the "scramble" for overseasterritories in the 1880s and 1890s. By 1914 nearly all ofAfrica had been divided up between the European powers- chiefly Britain, France and Germany - which had alsoextended their control of Southeast Asia and the Pacific.China, also highly prized by the Western powers because ofthe enormous potential market it represented, escapedformal partition only because the Western powers couldnot devise a means of dividing it that was acceptable to allof them. Even here, however, European influence wasstrengthened following victory for Britain and France in the"Opium Wars" of 1840-42 and 1856-60 and the openingof "treaty ports" (pages 198-99).

The European powers were not alone in their enthusi-asm for overseas expansion. After defeating Spain in thewar of 1898, the United States inherited many of theformer Spanish colonies, notably the Philippines andPuerto Rico. Japan, too, lacking economic resources to fuelits rapid modernization, increasingly looked to China andKorea. It was the Europeans, however, who gained mostfrom this phase of imperialism. By 1914 the British Empirecovered a fifth of the world (map 1) and included a quarterof the world's population, while the second-largest empire,that of France, had expanded by over 10 million squarekilometres (4 million square miles) since 1870.

Although this phase of activity generated great tensionamong the colonial powers, aggravating their already exist-ing mutual suspicions and feelings of insecurity, it was

accomplished without direct conflict between them. (Thepartition of Africa, for example, was largely the result ofdiplomatic negotiation at the Berlin Conference of1884-85.) The actual process of laying effective claim toterritories was, however, often accompanied by extremeviolence against indigenous populations, in campaigns ofso-called colonial "pacification".

THE CONSEQUENCES OF COLONIAL RULEImperial control had far-reaching consequences for the newcolonies. Their economies became more dependent on, andmore vulnerable to, fluctuations in international trade.Transport and other infrastructures tended to be developedto meet the needs of colonial, rather than local, needs.Artificial colonial boundaries frequently included differentethnic or linguistic groups, sowing the seeds of future divi-sions. Initially, the social and cultural impact of colonialrule was limited, but Western education, medicine and reli-gion eventually led to a devaluing of indigenous cultures.Although the colonial powers lacked the resources toemploy force on a routine basis, they maintained theirdominance of a region by repeated assertions of theirsuperiority, alliances with local interest groups and occa-sional displays of firepower.

2 THE VALUE OF FOREIGN TRADE 1913(exports plus imports in millions of dollars)

FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN 1914(in millions of dollars)

A European overseas investment wasconsiderable. Its aim was to ensure acontinuing supply of raw materials and tostimulate new markets for finishedproducts. The United States, which was lessreliant on overseas trade, made acomparatively small investment given thesize of its manufacturing output.

A In 1913 the United Kingdom was stillthe largest trading economy, with Germanysecond. The United States was by this timethe world's leading manufacturer, but withits rich supplies of raw materials andenormous internal market it had less needfor external trade.

T By 1914 an extensive intercontinentaltelegraph network facilitated the conduct ofoverseas business and enabled stockmarkets to communicate with each other.European nations not only invested in theircolonial possessions in Africa and Asia, butalso in projects in North and South Americaand in other European countries.

THE BREAKDOWN OF EMPIRES SINGE 1945 pages 246-47 209THE RISE OF EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL EMPIRES 1600-1800 pages 130-31

WORLD POPULATION GROWTHAND URBANIZATION 1800-1914T Population growth in the 18th and 19thcenturies was unevenly distributed. Europe'spopulation trebled, with Britain experiencinga near fourfold increase. The United Statessaw the most spectacular growth, caused bysettlers flooding into the country, althoughthe number of Native Americans, alreadydecimated by war and foreign diseases,continued to decline.

High population growth around the worldwas matched by the development of largeconurbations. In 1800 there were some 40cities in the world with a population ofbetween 100,000 and 500,000, of whichnearly half were in Asia. By 1900 many ofthese had more than doubled in size andnew cities had sprung up in the UnitedStates. There were now about 80 cities witha population of between 250,000 and500,000, but only just over a fifth of thesewere to be found in Asia.

I t is estimated that between 1500 and 1800 the world'spopulation more than doubled, from 425 to 900 million.Then, from around 1800 the rate of increase began to

accelerate so that the world's population almost doubled injust 100 years, reaching over 1,600 million in 1900. Thisdramatic increase was unequally distributed around theworld (map J). In some regions it was caused by a a higherbirth rate, in others by a decline in the death rate, but inmost cases it was due to a combination of the two.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POPULATION INCREASEThe birth and death rates in each country were affected bya range of socio-economic factors. One of the main ones wasthe increasing supply of food, which reduced the number ofpeople dying from malnutrition, and improved people'soverall health, causing them to live longer. The AgriculturalRevolution in 18th-century Europe had led to the use ofmore efficient farming techniques, which in turn hadincreased food production. The expansion of the inter-national economy and improvements in transport alsocontributed to improved food supplies by enabling large

quantities of cheap food to be transported from NorthAmerica and elsewhere to Europe.

Industrialization was another major factor in the popu-lation growth of the 19th century. Although initially itcreated a new urban poverty, in most industrial countriesthe living standards of the working classes rose from themid-19th century onwards as new employment opportuni-ties became available. Medical advances made childbirthless dangerous, and the increasing use of vaccination helpedprevent major epidemics. While in western Europe the useof birth control led to a drop in the birth rate from the 1880sonwards, at the same time birth rates in Asia began to rise.

INTER-CONTINENTAL MIGRATIONOne consequence of the rise in population was an unprece-dented intercontinental migration of people (map 2).Although it is usual to distinguish between "voluntary"migrants - including those seeking improved economicprospects - and "involuntary" migrants - such as thoseensnared in the slave trade - for many individuals themotives for emigrating were mixed. They might involve both

2 1 0


"push" factors, such as poverty at home, and "pull" factors,such as the availability of work in the country of destina-tion. Between the 1880s and the outbreak of the First WorldWar in 1914 around 900,000 people entered the UnitedStates alone each year, the majority settling in the industri-alizing north and east of the country (pages 186-87). Beforethe 1890s most of these migrants came from northern andwestern Europe, but subsequently the majority came fromcentral and southern Europe. Europeans were particularlymobile during this period, settling not only in the UnitedStates but also in Latin America, Canada, Australasia, SouthAfrica and Siberia.

Migration on this unprecedented scale was facilitated bythe revolution in transport, which substantially reduced thecost of transatlantic travel, and by the investment ofEuropean capital overseas, which created opportunities forrailway building and economic development. Chinesemigrants settled in Southeast Asia, Australia and the UnitedStates, to work in mines and plantations or to build rail-ways. Pressure on resources in Japan also led many of itscitizens to emigrate to Manchuria and the Americas.

INCREASING URRBANIZATIONIn addition to witnessing a large increase in overall popu-lation levels, the period 1800-1914 saw an increasingconcentration of the world's population in cities (map 1).This was due both to population growth and, especially inEurope and the United States, to the development of newindustries in the towns. At the same time, technologicalchange in agriculture, particularly in Europe, led to a con-traction in the demand for labour in rural areas.

At the beginning of the 19th century the country withthe most rapid rate of urbanization was Britain, with 20 percent of the population of England, Scotland and Wales livingin towns of over 10,000 people (as against 10 per cent forEurope as a whole). By 1900 around 80 per cent of Britain'spopulation lived in towns of over 10,000 people, andLondon's population had increased to over 5 million.However, despite the fact that by 1900 many large cities haddeveloped around the world, the majority of people stilllived in rural areas.

Urban infrastructures were often unable to meet the newdemands being made on them, leading to inadequatehousing stock, water supplies and sewage disposal. Suchconditions were a factor in the cholera epidemics thataffected many European and North American cities fromthe 1840s to the 1860s. As a result, measures to improvepublic health were introduced in the 1850s, and the lastmajor European outbreak of cholera was in Hamburg in1892. Improvements in transport, especially in the railwaysystem, encouraged the building of suburbs, which greatlyeased the problem of urban overcrowding.

^ Rapid industrialization gave rise to urbangrowth that was frequently uncontrolled andunplanned. The overcrowded housing thatresulted often led to squalor and disease.

T As the wider world became known toEuropeans, many of them left their nativecountries in search of a better life forthemselves and their families. The earliestof these European migrations was to theAmericas. Around 30 million people leftEurope between 1815 and 1914 bound forthe United States, driven across the Atlanticby rising unemployment at home in times ofeconomic depression and, in the case of onemillion Irish emigrants, the disastrous potatofamine of the mid-1840s.

Sometimes migrants left Europe in orderto avoid persecution of various forms, aswas the case with the Russian Jews, whofrom the 1880s were the target of officiallyencouraged pogroms. Later Europeansettlers headed for South Africa and beyond,to Australia and New Zealand. Elsewhere inthe world millions of Chinese and Japanesemigrated in search of work, the majority toSoutheast Asia but a sizeable number to thewest coast of North America.

The slave trade caused a massiveinvoluntary migration of Africans to theAmericas and also to Arabia.

EUROPEAN URBANIZATION 1500-1800 pages 132-33 2 1 1CHANGES IN POPULATION SINGE 1945 pages 274-75

The 20th century is often portrayed as a time of barbarism, when

increasingly powerful weapons killed on an enormous scale, oppressive

dictatorships flourished and national, ethnic and religious conflicts raged.

Yet it was also a time when people lived longer, were healthier and more

literate, enjoyed greater participation in politics and had far easier access

to information, transport and communication networks than ever before.

The two world wars wereresponsible for perhaps morethan 80 million deaths. The FirstWorld War was essentially aEuropean territorial disputewhich, because of extensiveEuropean empires, spread as farafield as Africa and SoutheastAsia. The Second World War alsostarted as a European conflict,but spread to the Pacific whenJapan seized territory. In theinter-war period disputes brokeout over territory in SouthAmerica and East Asia, butelsewhere the reluctance of thecolonial powers to becomeembroiled in territorial disputesmaintained an uneasy peace.

The devastating Japaneseattack on the US fleet in PearlHarbor, Hawaii, on 7 December1941 marked the point at whichthe Second World War became atruly global conflict.

I

he world in 1900 was dominated by thenation-states of Europe, of which the mostpowerful were Britain, France, Russia,

Austria-Hungary and Germany. The country withthe greatest industrial output in 1900 was theUnited States, which for the first half of the centurychose to remain outside the struggle for supremacybetween the European nations. Power, however,increasingly shifted away from Europe. The colonialempires which underpinned it disintegrated and the

United States became the leading world power inthe second half of the century.

The first half of the century was dominated bythe Russian Revolution of 1917 and the two worldwars. The wars resulted in unprecedented numbersof casualties. Eight and a half million people diedfighting in the First World War of 1914-18, withperhaps up to 13 million civilians dying from theeffects of war. During the Second World War asmany as 60 million people are believed to havedied, a quarter of whom were killed in Asia and thePacific (map I). Of the total number of casualtiesin the Second World War it is estimated that halfwere civilians. The scale of the killing was largelydue to the increasingly lethal power of weaponry.This reached so terrifying a peak with the inventionand use of the atomic bomb at the end of theSecond World War that thereafter the major powerssought to prevent local conflicts from escalatinginto major international wars.

THE COLD WARAfter 1945 there was no reduction in bitterinternational conflict, but it took a new form. Thewar in Europe was fought by an alliance of thecommunist Soviet Union with the capitalist statesof Europe and the United States against the fascistregimes in Germany and Italy. Following the defeat

20TH CENTURY AND BEYOND

T

5

of fascism, the United States and Soviet Unionemerged as bitterly opposed superpowers with theresources to develop huge arsenals of nuclearweapons. From 1947 a "Gold War" developedbetween them and their allies, in the course ofwhich they gave support to opposing sides inconflicts in, for example, Korea, Vietnam, Angolaand the Middle East, while the two superpowersremained formally at peace. The collapse ofcommunism in Eastern Europe and the SovietUnion in 1989-91 brought the Gold War to an end.

LOCAL CONFLICTSWhile there was no global war in the second half ofthe century, there were many local wars (map 2),which were waged with increasing technologicalexpertise and precision. Some were wars ofindependence from colonial powers, most of whichhad given up their empires by 1970. Otherconflicts, such as the Korean War (1950-53) andVietnam War (1959-75), were struggles for nationalcontrol between communists and non-communists,each side backed by one of the superpowers. TheUnited Nations, established in 1945 with the aim ofstabilizing international relations, failed to bringabout world peace, but helped to avert or negotiatethe end of some conflicts.

Some of the most persistent campaigns ofviolence during the 20th century were conductedby powerful governments against people of thesame nation but of another political persuasion,social class, ethnic group or religious belief. In theSoviet Union under Stalin (1929-53) tens ofmillions of people were sent to their deaths inforced-labour camps. In Argentina and Chile in the

1970s thousands of political opponents of thegovernment simply "disappeared", while inCambodia in 1975-79, Pol Pot's brutal experimentin social restructuring resulted in the death of overone million people.

"Ethnic cleansing" was a term first used todescribe events in the Balkans in the 1990s, but itis a concept that regularly scarred the 20thcentury. The Ottoman Turks deported an estimated1.75 million Armenians from eastern Anatoliaduring the First World War. In Europe under theNazis, between the mid-1930s and 1945, six millionJews, along with other minority groups, died inconcentration and death camps.

^ The opening of the gates inthe Berlin Wall-symbol of thepost-1945 East-West division ofEurope and of the Cold War -heralded the end of communismin Europe. Mass demonstrationsand political pressure from theSoviet president, MikhailGorbachev, forced the EastGerman government toannounce the relaxation ofborder restrictions. On the nightof 9 November 1989 thousandsof East Berliners flooded throughthe border to the West, many ofthem taking the opportunity ofdemonstrating their contempt forthe East German authorities byclimbing on, and breaking down,the Berlin Wall.

T As European colonial controlwas largely destroyed between1945 and 1970, new nation-states were created. One resultwas an increase in localizedwars, largely arising fromboundary disputes, and in civilwars caused by conflicts betweendifferent ethnic groups orbetween those with conflictingreligious or political beliefs. Anestimated 25-30 million peopledied in these wars, two-thirds ofwhom were civilians.

2 1 3

Voting in governmentelections, which at the beginningof the 20th century was theprerogative of only a smallproportion of the world'spopulation, is now considered afundamental civil right for bothmen and women. Democracyreached South Africa in April1994, when the black populationwas allowed to vote in stateelections for the first time.

HEALTH AND WEALTHDuring the 20th century enormous improvementsin social and economic conditions took place,although the improvements were not evenlydistributed around the world. Those countries inEurope, North America and Asia that had gonethrough a process of industrialization in theprevious century reaped the benefits, especially inthe more stable economic environment of the yearsbetween 1945 and the early 1970s, when there wasa general improvement in the standard of living forthe majority of their citizens. In other countries,most notably those in Southeast Asia, rapidindustrialization took place from the 1970s.

Advances in medical technology transformed thelives of people in, for example, Europe, NorthAmerica and Japan, but were by no means widelyavailable outside the most affluent nations. Thedramatic decline in infant mortality rates andincreased life expectancy in many countries duringthe second half of the 20th century can largely beascribed to improved living standards, of whichbetter medical care was just one part.

The world's population doubled between 1940and 2000 (to reach six billion), with 90 per cent ofthe total growth in the 1990s taking place in thenon-industrialized regions of the world. Populationincreases were often accompanied by rapidurbanization, frequently unplanned andunsupported by improvements in the urbaninfrastructure. Such rapid demographic changecaused increasing social pressures, which couldlead to social instability and conflict.

The supply of food and water became an overtlypolitical issue during the later 20th century.Political and environmental factors resulted inperiods of famine in some regions of the world,notably sub-Saharan Africa, while in WesternEurope and North America improvements inagricultural technology and subsidies led to gluts of

certain foods, which were then stored to preventfalling prices. By the end of the century theincreasing demand for water was threatening tolead to conflicts as, for example, the damming ordiversion of a river by one country caused watershortages in others.

THE WORLD ECONOMYThe First World War profoundly changed Europeanpolitics and society and destabilized the European-dominated world economic system. This led toreduced levels of trade and high unemployment -problems which reached crisis point in the GreatDepression of 1929-33 and were still there at theoutset of the Second World War in 1939.

Following the war, international agreements andinstitutions were established to prevent further crisesand to stabilize and expand world trade. Partly inconsequence, the period from the late 1940s until theearly 1970s was an economic "golden age" for theindustrialized countries. This economic boom cameto an end when oil prices soared in the 1970s. Bothrich and poor countries suffered the consequences asunemployment rose to levels comparable with thoseof the inter-war years. Many developing countrieswere encouraged to take out huge loans, the

T During the 20th century a growingnumber of women became activelyinvolved in politics. Their role waslargely confined to the grassroots level,with the number of women holding

government posts remaining low.However, as with this woman speakingout against the detention of politicalprisoners in Indonesia in 1995, theyoften found a voice in protest politics.

214

repayment of which had a detrimental effect on theirsubsequent economic and social development.

THE SPREAD OF DEMOCRACYAlthough at the beginning of the 20th century anumber of countries had elected governments, innone of these was there universal suffrage - the rightof every adult citizen to vote. A few countries hadgranted the vote to a high proportion of adult men,but only New Zealand had extended the vote towomen. As the century progressed, representativedemocracy and universal suffrage spread to allcontinents, although it was frequently fragile as, forexample, when military rulers seized control in someLatin American countries in the 1970s, or in severalAfrican countries in the 1980s and 1990s.Authoritarian communist governments, which hadruled in the Soviet Union for over 70 years and inEastern Europe for over 40 years, collapsed in1989-91, bringing democratic institutions to morethan 400 million people. At the end of the century,however, the fifth of the world's population who livedin the People's Republic of China (established by theCommunist Party in 1949 after a long civil war),together with citizens of many Middle Easterncountries, still did not enjoy full political rights.

GLOBALIZATION AND NATIONALISMThe defining feature of the closing decades of the20th century and the start of the 21st century wasconsidered by some to be "globalization", withmultinational corporations moving their operationsaround the world in accordance with their needs, andindividuals travelling and communicating with oneanother across frontiers with unprecedented ease.

However, it was questioned whether what wasoccurring was globalization or the "Americanization"of developing economies and of many aspects ofinternational culture. Others stressed the significanceof the new regional economic groupings which hademerged in the second half of the century (map 3).

An equally strong feature was nationalism -expressed both by nations attempting to avoiddomination by superpowers, and by groups withinnation-states who felt oppressed on economic,religious or ethnic grounds. It was accompanied bythe growth of religious extremism and terrorism. Theattacks on the United States on September 11, 2001,were a dramatic indication of the threat posed to theglobal community by international terrorist groups.

A Since the Second World Warthere has been a worldwidetrend towards the creation oftrading blocs betweenneighbouring states anderstwhile enemies.

T Skyscrapers have become anincreasingly dominant feature ofAmerican cities since the end ofthe 19th century, symbolizing theenormous wealth of the UnitedStates and its position as theworld's most powerful nation. Thephoto shows the financial districtof San Francisco.

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THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR1871-1914

»

fter the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 Europe underwenta period of domestic transformation and upheaval thatpermanently altered its make-up. New nation states

such as Italy were created, while the great multi-ethnicempires of the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary began toweaken. For much of the 19th century a balance of powerexisted in which no single European nation was strongenough to dominate, or attempt to dominate, the whole con-tinent. This balance could not, however, endure for ever.

THE RISE OF GERMANYThe great European powers that had fought the NapoleonicWars - Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria and France - weregrowing at different rates. The most startling change occurredin the centre of Europe. Prussia, which had been the small-est of the great powers, had by 1871 been replaced by aformidable, dynamic Germany, which single-handedlydefeated the Austrian Empire in 1866 and then France in1871 (resulting in the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine)(map 1). The rise of Germany effectively altered the conti-nent-wide balance of power.

The Industrial Revolution had changed the basis ofnational strength, making a country's production of coal, ironand steel, and the sophistication of its weaponry, even moreimportant than the size of its population. Between 1871 and1913 Germany moved from being the second strongest tobeing the leading industrial power in Europe (bar charts) -an economic strength that from 1890 was combined with a

A In an attempt to isolate France thenewly unified Germany made alliances withAustria-Hungary, forming a huge powerbloc in central Europe. These alliances alsoincluded Germany's arch-rival Russia (1881)and Italy (1882).

^ The system of alliances between the^countries of Europe in 1914 ensured thatwhen Austria threatened Serbia followingthe assassination of Archduke Ferdinand,all the major European powers rapidlybecame involved.

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confrontational and heavy-handed foreign policy. In 1881 theGerman Chancellor, Count Otto von Bismarck, had con-cluded an alliance with Russia and Austria-Hungary, knownas the "Three Emperors' Alliance" - a move intended to keepFrance isolated. To counterbalance this alliance with Russia(a country that might more realistically be seen as a threat),he also entered into a "Triple Alliance" with Austria-Hungaryand Italy in 1882 (map 1). After Bismarck's fall in 1890,however, German foreign policy became increasingly con-cerned with the desire for expansion, both in Europe andfurther afield, in Africa and Southeast Asia. The Germans feltthat unless they acquired a large and profitable empire theywould eventually be left behind by their giant rivals: Russia,the British Empire and the United States.

THE DOUBLE ENTENTEMeanwhile, France, which had been alternately fearful andresentful of German strength since the loss of Alsace andLorraine in 1871, broke out of its isolation in 1894 bymaking an alliance with Russia. Neither country was a matchfor Germany on its own. France had neither sufficient pop-ulation base nor industrial resources, while Russia, stillrelatively undeveloped industrially, could not properly utilizeits enormous population and resources, as was demonstratedin the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 (pages 200-1).

The Franco-Russian alliance (the "Double Entente") wasa first step towards the creation of an anti-German coalition,but if Germany's growing power was to be effectivelyopposed, Britain had to be included. For much of the 19thcentury Britain had tried to distance itself from Europeanaffairs - a policy sometimes termed "splendid isolation".With a massive and growing global empire and the world'sfirst industrialized economy, Britain saw little profit inactively intervening on the Continent. At the end of thecentury, however, its isolation seemed considerably lesspalatable as its economic dominance disappeared with theindustrialization of other European countries and the UnitedStates. Meanwhile, the criticisms levelled at its role in theSouth African (Boer) War (1899-1902) (pages 206-7)showed that much of Europe (and a sizeable proportion ofthe British people) resented its imperial domination.

THE TRIPLE ENTENTEIt was by no means certain that Britain would side with theFranco-Russian alliance. France and Russia had been consid-ered Britain's greatest enemies during most of the 19thcentury, and in 1901 the British and German governmentsdiscussed signing an alliance of their own. However, asGerman power continued to grow, Britain signed an ententewith France in 1904 and with Russia in 1907. Neither of theseagreements was in fact a formal pledge of British mili-tarysupport for France and Russia in the event of a Germanattack, but Britain's resolve was hardened by the growth ofthe German navy; urged on by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, theGermans had, since 1898, been building up their navalstrength, and by 1909 it seemed possible that they couldachieve naval supremacy. Since naval supremacy had alwaysbeen one of the cardinal elements of British policy, the Britishgovernment, led by its very anti-German Foreign SecretarySir Edward Grey, reacted by dramatically increasing produc-tion of British battleships. The subsequent naval constructionrace, won by the British, increased the rivalry between thecountries and made it more likely that Britain would inter-vene if Germany went to war with France and Russia.

THE BALKANSThis still did not mean that war was inevitable. For the firstpart of 1914 Europe seemed peaceful. The issue that brokethis calm was a crisis in the Balkans (map 3), an area ofsoutheastern Europe that had been under Ottoman rule forcenturies (pages 178-79). During the second half of the 19thcentury Serbia, Bulgaria, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Albania allagitated for independence. Austria-Hungary and Russia bothcoveted these areas, and in 1908 Austria annexed Bosnia intoits empire. Russia was forced to accept this arrangement

because of German support for Austria. Bosnia was a multi-ethnic area populated by Groats, Serbs and Muslims ofTurkish and Slavic descent. Serbian nationalists opposedAustrian rule in Bosnia, seeking to include the region in alarger Serbian national state. When Archduke FranzFerdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, visited Sarajevo, thecapital of Bosnia, in June 1914, he and his wife were assassi-nated by a Serbian nationalist. Austria's response was to setabout crushing Serbian nationalism permanently. TheRussians opposed Austrian attempts to dominate Serbia,while Germany promised to support any move the Austriansmade. When the Russians duly mobilized their entire armedforces, the Germans and then the French called up theirarmies. As military goals became central to each nation's poli-cies, the outbreak of the First World War became inevitable.

A In October 1912 Montenegro, Greece,Serbia and Bulgaria declared war on theOttoman Empire. As a result, the Ottomansrelinquished almost all their lands insoutheast Europe in 1913, to the advantageof the victorious states. A second war thenerupted between Bulgaria and Serbia overterritory in Macedonia - a war which Serbiawon, supported by Montenegro, Romaniaand the Ottoman Empire. These two BalkanWars, in creating a militarily strong andambitious Serbia, inflamed existing tensionsbetween Serbia (supported by Russia) andAustria-Hungary and thus contributed tothe outbreak of the First World War.

^Between 1890 and 1913 all the majorindustrialized nations of Europe increasedtheir production of steel, but Germanyoutstripped them all with a massive700 per cent increase. Coal, vital to theprocess of industrialization, was also minedin increasing quantities. This development ofheavy industry was a necessary preconditionfor the manufacture of modern weapons,notably battleships.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-18 pages 218-19 2 1 7THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND OF GERMANY 1815-71 pages 176-77

THE FIRST WORLD WAR1914-18

A After the Germans' initial attack hadbeen repulsed by the Entente Powers, bothsides dug an extensive network oftrenches, often only a few hundred metresapart. Modern artillery and machine-gunsmade these trenches easy to defend anddifficult to attack. On the first day of theBattle of the Somme, I July 1916, whenthe British attempted to break throughGerman lines, 20,000 British troops losttheir lives, with 1,000 killed in two attackson the short sector between Hebuterneand Gommecourt alone.

^While the outcome of the First WorldWar was finally decided on the WesternFront, fighting took place in many areas ofEurope and the rest of the world. On theEastern Front the Russians, after someinitial success, were forced back by anarmy equipped with modern weaponry forwhich they were no match. The Italiansbecame bogged down in a small area ofnortheast Italy, but were finally drivenback following the Battle of Caporetto inOctober 1917. Troops of the OttomanEmpire became involved in fierce fightingwith those of the British Empire in theTigris Valley. The Arabs assisted the EntentePowers by staging a revolt against theOttomans, eventually driving themnorthwards as far as Damascus.

n 1 August 1914 the German army crossed theBelgian border and the First World War began. Thearmies of the Triple Entente (Britain, France and

Russia) implemented plans drawn up in preparation for anyGerman aggression. The French "Plan 17" called for a light-ning invasion of Alsace-Lorraine on Germany's westernborder, and the Russians began the task of assembling theirmassive army and launching it against Germany's easternfrontier (map 1). The Germans had devised their famous"Schlieffen Plan", according to which the German armywould move through Belgium into France, sweeping aroundParis and encircling the French army (map 2) before theslower-moving Russians could muster their forces on theGermans' Eastern Front.

If executed properly the Schlieffen Plan might haveresulted in a German victory in 1914, but although theGerman army made quick progress through Belgium, theirChief of General Staff, von Moltke, became increasingly con-cerned about Russian strength and transferred troops awayfrom France to the Eastern Front. The Germans thereforehad to turn south sooner than intended, allowing the Frencharmy to throw all available troops against their exposedflank on the Marne River (map 2). This "miracle" of theMarne was the first crucial turning point of the war.

The Schlieffen Plan was a political, as well as military,failure for the Germans. By invading Belgium, the Germans

had ignored long-standing treaties guaranteeing thatcountry's neutrality, and convinced the British of the needto enter the war. Germany thus found itself hemmed in ontwo sides by the Entente Powers, with only the support ofAustria-Hungary, and later Turkey and Bulgaria.

THE WESTERN FRONTStalemate quickly ensued on the Western Front, as theGermans, British and French built long lines of trenchesstretching from the Swiss border, through northern Franceto the English Channel. Long-range artillery pieces, accu-rate rifles and, most importantly, machine-guns gave thedefenders a crucial advantage over the attacking forces.Industrialization and a well-developed railway system(pages 170-71) also meant that more ammunition andother vital supplies were available than ever before and thatlarge armies could be transported from area to area as thesituation dictated. For the next three years the WesternFront was a brutal killing field (bar chart). The destructivenature of modern warfare was particularly demonstrated in1916 when the Franco-German struggle over Verdun andthe British offensives on the Somme led to the slaughter of1.7 million men (map 3). The following year the Frenchoffensives against the retrenched German position on theSiegfried/Hindenburg line caused such heavy French casu-alties that there was mutiny among French troops.

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FIGHTING AROUND THE WORLDThe picture on other fronts was more fluid, but just asbloody. On the Eastern Front a large Russian army washeavily defeated at the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914(map _/) , and although the Russians saw limited success in1915, ultimately their large, but poorly organized, forceswere pushed back. The Germans made deep advances intoEuropean Russia in 1916, and by 1917 the morale of theRussian army and of its people was beginning to crack. Theensuing Russian Revolution and the triumph of theBolsheviks led to Russia signing an armistice agreementwith Germany at the end of 1917 (pages 222-23).

In the Middle East fighting also moved back and forthover a considerable area. Initially, the Entente Powers faredbadly, with British, Australian, New Zealand and Frenchsoldiers being pinned down and forced to withdraw from theGallipoli Peninsula during 1915 and early 1916, andBritish Empire force from India surrendering to theOttomans at Al Kut in April 1916. Soon, however, the tidbegan to turn. An Arab uprising against Ottoman rule in thesummer of 1916 pushed the Ottomans out of much of theArabian Peninsula, and in December 1917 the British cap-tured Jerusalem. Despite these victories, the events in theMiddle East had no decisive influence on the outcome of theFirst World War, which could really only be decided on thebattlefields of Europe.

In Africa fighting broke out in all German colonies, butwas most protracted in German East Africa where, in 1916,British, South African and Portuguese forces combinedunder General Smuts to counter the German forces.

In 1915 the Italian government, a signatory of the TripleAlliance (pages 216-17), joined the Entente Powers,following promises of Austrian territory. In the next twoyears hundreds of thousands of Italians were slaughteredbefore an Austrian-German force inflicted defeat on theItalian army at the Battle of Gaporetto in October 1917.

THE ENTRY OF THE UNITED STATESBy 1917 the fortunes of the Entente Powers within Europewere at a low ebb, and a German victory seemed a distinctpossibility. A disastrous German foreign and strategic policywas, however, to throw away their chance of victory.

It had been assumed by both sides before the war beganthat large fleets of battleships would engage in a decisivebattle for naval supremacy. As it turned out, neither theGermans nor the British were willing to expose their surfacefleets unduly, and only one large sea battle took place: theBattle of Jutland in 1916. It was a rather confused affair,with the Germans inflicting the greatest damage but beingforced back to port. In the end it changed very little.

In preference to surface fighting, the Germans turnedearly in the war to submarine warfare as a means of cuttingoff vital imports to Britain. By sinking merchant shipswithout warning, however, the Germans inflamed USopinion. At first, after the sinking of the liner SS Lusitaniain 1915, the Germans backed off, but in February 1917, ina dangerous gamble, they renewed their unrestricted sub-marine warfare around the British Isles. They were hopingto knock Britain out of the war before the United Statescould intervene - a rash gamble that failed when theAmericans declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917.

THE FINAL PUSHFollowing the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with theRussians on 3 March 1918, the Germans were able to con-centrate their resources on the Western Front. BetweenMarch and July 1918 the German army hurled itself againstthe French and British lines, making significant break-throughs and advancing further than at any time since1914. German resources were not, however, sufficient tofinish the job. As US troops and supplies flooded intoEurope, the German advance petered out, and the Germanarmy began to crumple in the face of a counteroffensive.Unable to increase their supply of men and weapons, theGermans realized that they had lost the war. Theyapproached the Entente Powers for peace terms - and at11.00 am on 11 November 1918 the fighting ceased.

A The original German "Schlieffen Plan"to encircle Paris from the northwest wouldalmost certainly have resulted in a rapidvictory. Instead, the German army wasforced to retreat following the successfulMarne offensive by the French, and the twosides dug themselves in for a war of attritionthat was to last four years. In March 1917,anticipating the Nivelle offensive by theEntente Powers, the Germans withdrew tothe Siegfried/Hindenburg Line. A Germanoffensive in 1918 was initially successful,but their much smaller army wasoverstretched, while the Entente Powerswere now reinforced by US troops. TheGermans were driven back until, inNovember 1918, they were forced torequest a truce.

T The two sides were unevenly matched interms of the number of men they mobilized.The proportion of casualties (which includesthose wounded, killed, reported missing inbattle or dying from disease, and prisonersof war) was also uneven, with the EntentePowers suffering a casualty rate of 52 percent against that of 67 per cent for theCentral Powers.

THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1871-1914 pages 216-17 2 1 9OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1918-39 pages 220-21

TROOPS AND CASUALTIES

OUTCOMES OF THE FIRSTWORLD WAR 1918-29

A As a result of the Paris PeaceConference of 1919 the Austro-HungarianEmpire was dismantled. Most of it wasformed into small nation-states, includingthe new state of Czechoslovakia. In thesouth, however, several ethnically distinctregions were amalgamated with previouslyindependent states to form Yugoslavia,under the domination of Serbia. Germanylost territory in the east to the recreatedPoland, while a demilitarized area wasestablished along Germany's border withFrance. The newly formed Union of SovietSocialist Republics, threatened by anti-revolutionary forces, was in no postition toresist moves to carve up territory on itswestern borders.

he First World War changed the map of Europe andthe Middle East for ever. Centuries-old empires(map 1) were destroyed and new national states

were created. The most important event in establishing thenew Europe was the Paris Peace Conference (January-June1919), which resulted in the Treaty of Versailles. The con-ference was called by the victorious Entente Powers afterGermany had asked for an armistice in November 1918.Most of the countries involved in the war were representedin some way, but the decision-making power was held bythe delegations of the "Big Three": the British, led by PrimeMinister David Lloyd George, the French, led by PremierGeorges Clemenceau, and the United States, led byPresident Woodrow Wilson.

The negotiations were delicate and often stormy. In adesire to destroy German power, the French called for thedivision and disarmament of Germany and for such hugereparations that the German economy would have beencrippled for decades. The Americans, on the other hand,sought to establish a stable Europe and a new League ofNations to guarantee global security. They believed that thepeace should be based on President Wilson's famous"Fourteen Points" and should be as magnanimous as pos-sible. The British were stuck in the middle: they wished to

see a reduction in German power, but were wary of weak-ening the Germans so much that they would be completelyunder French domination or unable to trade. (Germanyhad been Britain's main European pre-war trading partner.)

THE TREATY OF VERSAILLESThe Treaty of Versailles, when signed in June 1919, repre-sented a compromise between these different positions.The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were given to France,while a large slice of eastern Germany was given to there-established Polish state (map 2). The German city ofDanzig, which was surrounded by countryside populatedby Poles, was made a "Free City". Germany was also sub-jected to humiliating internal restrictions: the Rhineland,Germany's industrial heartland, was to be demilitarized(leaving it open to the threat of French invasion), while theGerman air force was ordered to disband, the armyreduced to 100,000 men and the navy limited to a smallnumber of warships. The treaty also stripped Germany ofits imperial possessions in Africa and the Pacific, but sincethis empire had added little to German national strength,its loss did little to weaken it.

For all of its losses, Germany fared much better thanits closest ally, Austria-Hungary. This multi-ethnic empire

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was broken up by the Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919) intoa host of smaller national states (map 2): Poland,Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Austria andHungary. Italy, which had entered the war in 1915 becauseof the promise of booty from Austria-Hungary, wasrewarded with a sizeable chunk of new territory.

RUSSIAN TERRITORIAL LOSSESThe greatest territorial losses of any country in Europewere those suffered by Russia, which had, under the tsar,been allied to France and Britain, but lost the war againstGermany on the Eastern Front. After the Bolshevik revo-lution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War (pages222-23), the Soviet regime found itself incapable of holdingon to much of its empire in Europe. Finland and the Balticstates of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania soon won their inde-pendence, while the province of Bessarabia was added toRomania (map 2). The greatest loss of Russian territorywas to the newly created Poland, which gained further ter-ritory as a result of a brief war with Russia in 1921.

As a result of the Paris Peace Conference, nine newstates (including Austria and Hungary) were constructedfrom various parts of Germany, Austria-Hungary andRussia. Whether or not this was a good thing for theEuropean balance of power remained to be seen. BothGermany and the Soviet Union were eager to regain muchof the territory they had given up against their will. Insoutheast Europe, meanwhile, a variety of different nation-alities that had been held in check by Austria-Hungarywere now exposed to a whole new set of tensions.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONSThe Versailles treaty also called for the establishment of aLeague of Nations, an idea championed by PresidentWilson of the United States. Unfortunately, the Americanpublic was not persuaded of its necessity, and after a bitterdebate in the Senate the United States decided to stay outof the League and refused to ratify the Treaty. The Britishand the French had been unable to master German mightwithout American aid, and despite its losses Germanyretained the potential to dominate Europe - demonstratedby the recovery in its industrial output during the 1920s.

THE DISMANTLING OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIREThe First World War finally broke up the Ottoman Empirebut still left much of the Middle East in limbo. Most of theregion was assigned to British or French control (map 3)

A In the 1920s France, anxious to isolateGermany within Europe, created a series ofalliances with some of the newly createdeastern European states. The most

significant alliance of the 1920s was the"Little Entente", intended to provide mutualprotection to the boundaries of itssignatories, and a united foreign policy.

under League of Nations mandates. Even areas that gainednominal independence - Egypt and the new Arab kingdomswere heavily reliant on Britain for their defence anddevelopment. The one state that grew in strength duringthe immediate post-war period was, surprisingly, Turkey.Shorn of its imperial burdens, the Turks, led by Atatiirk,countered an invasion attempt by Greece in 1922, brutallyquelled Armenian nationalists sympathetic to the Greeks,drove out the British and French and established theTurkish Republic in 1923 (pages 178-79).

THE LONG-TERM OUTCOMES OF THE PEACEThe Versailles treaty has been harshly criticized and,indeed, has been seen as one of the fundamental causes ofthe Second World War. In 1923, in response to Germany'sinability to pay war reparations, the French moved theirarmy into the Rhineland. The German mark collapsed invalue and by 1924 Germany was gripped in a cycle of hyper-inflation that saw some people taking home their paypackets in wheelbarrows. By the late 1920s, however,Europe seemed to be on the way to establishing a new equi-librium; the economies of all the major European countrieshad recovered and were experiencing strong growth.

The French saw the new eastern European states as apotential future bulwark against Germany and were eagerto knit them into a defensive alliance system (map 4). Fora while the strategy seemed quite successful, as easternEurope developed a new stability. Czechoslovakia evolvedinto a democracy, Poland became a nation-state capable ofdefeating the Soviet Union and establishing friendly rela-tions with its neighbours, while Yugoslavia seemed able toaccommodate a multi-ethnic population. Perhaps if theprosperity of the 1920s had continued for longer, easternEurope might have become stable enough to surviveGerman and Russian attempts to take back their lost lands.

The Great Depression that started in 1929, and affectedthe economy of every country in Europe to some extent,brought to an end Europe's brief period of co-operation andrecovery. This financial crisis served as the catalyst for therise to power of the German Nazi party (pages 230-31),which swept aside the settlement laid out in the Versaillestreaty and ended attempts to find peaceful solutions toEurope's complex problems.

A The Treaty of Sevres (1920) dividedthe defeated Ottoman Empire into Britishand French mandates in the Middle East,intended as temporary administrationsleading eventually to independence.Kuwait, nominally independent, remainedstrongly influenced by Britain, as wasEgypt. Large areas of Turkey were placedunder European control, until Turkishresistance forced the withdrawal of allforeigners and led to the founding of theRepublic of Turkey in 1923.

A President Woodrow Wilson of the UnitedStates arrived at the Paris Peace Conferenceadvocating a liberal approach to worldaffairs, including an end to colonial rule andthe setting up of a League of Nations tomaintain world peace. While the othervictorious powers forced him to compromiseon some of his aims, the League of Nationswas included in the Treaty of Versailles. ToWilson's disappointment, however, theUnited States Senate rejected Americaninvolvement in such an organization andrefused to ratify the treaty.

THE GREAT DEPRESSION 1929-33 pages 228-29 221THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-18 pages 218-19

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION1917-39

A In the period immediately after theBolshevik Revolution of 1917 Lenin (left}and Stalin (right) worked closely together,and in 1922 Stalin was appointed Secretary-General of the Communist Party, while Leninremained head of the government. Shortlybefore his death, however, Lenin made itclear that he did not regard Stalin as asuitable successor - information that Stalinignored and repressed in his drive tobecome leader of the Soviet Union.

^ After sweeping away the ProvisionalGovernment in November 1917 theBolsheviks faced widespread opposition bothwithin and outside Russia. The Treaty ofBrest-Litovsk in March 1918 ended the warwith Germany but led to a civil war in whichthe Entente Powers initially supported the"Whites" (anti-Bolsheviks) against the"Reds" (the Bolsheviks). Admiral Kolchakformed an Eastern Front in Siberia and in1919 advanced beyond the Volga. In thesouth, resistance was led by Denikin but hewas brought to a halt short of Orel. In thenorth, Yudenich led his troops to the suburbsof Petrograd, but was then driven back.Wrangel, taking over what was left ofDenikin's forces, defended the area aroundSevastopol for some time but was finallyforced to withdraw in November 1920.

Meanwhile, the Poles were attempting togain as much as they could of Lithuania,White Russia (Byelorussia) and Ukraine.They got as far as Kiev but then had towithdraw as the Red Army advanced in turntowards Warsaw. When the Poles regainedthe initiative Lenin decided to sue for peaceand, under the Treaty of Riga in October1920,10 million Ukrainians and Russianswere assigned to Polish rule. By the end ofthe year military operations were over andthe communist (Bolshevik) government wasin control of what was left of Russia.

he Russian Revolution - one of the formative eventsof the 20th century - was precipitated by pressuresarising from the hardships experienced during the

First World War. A popular uprising in March 1917 led tothe abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the creation of aliberal Provisional Government, which was soon forced toshare power with the socialist Petrograd Soviet of Workers'and Soldiers' Deputies. As the revolution spread, Sovietssprang up in many cities, peasants seized land from thegentry and soldiers deserted. A dual system of governmentdeveloped, with the Soviets largely controlling those leaderswho took their authority from the Provisional Government.

During the subsequent months the ideological riftbetween the two bodies widened, with the ProvisionalGovernment delaying the setting up of a ConstituentAssembly (which was to decide on major economic andpolitical policies), concentrating instead on a continued wareffort. The Petrograd Soviet, meanwhile, came increasinglyunder the influence of the Bolshevik movement, led byLenin, which secured popular urban support with its slogans"peace, bread and land" and "all power to the Soviets". InNovember 1917 the Bolsheviks carried out a successfulcoup, seizing control of the Winter Palace, seat of theProvisional Government. Lenin then set about establishinga dictatorship of the proletariat and a one-party system.

CIVIL WARThe new Bolshevik government arranged an armistice withthe Central Powers in December 1917, formalized in theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. Under the terms ofthe treaty Russia relinquished control of its westernterritories. Anger at these losses and at the closure of therecently elected Constituent Assembly fuelled opposition tothe retitled Communist (Bolshevik) Party. Civil war brokeout, during which anti-communist "White" armies andforeign interventionists opposed the Red Army, led by LeonTrotsky (map 1). The Red Army was initially pushed back,but its military superiority over the comparatively disunitedWhite armies enabled it to regain control of Central Asia,the Caucasus and Ukraine, although territory was lost in thewar with Poland in 1920. This war did not spread therevolution into Europe, as Lenin had hoped it would.Outside Russia proletarian support for communism waslimited (map 2] and when the Soviet Union was founded in1922 it was confined to the territories of the old empire.

In order to back up the efforts of the Red Army, Lenintook rapid steps to impose nationalization and centraliza-tion in a process known as "war communism". However,revolts by peasants in the spring of 1921 forced him to intro-duce the New Economic Policy (NEP), based on concessionsto the peasantry and a semi-market economy. Although the

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NEP enabledLenin to consolidate >power, many convincedcommunists saw it as aslide towards a capitalistsociety. Lenin, at his death inJanuary 1924, thus left twoconflicting models of socialist advance: warcommunism and the NEP. The struggle for power among hisclosest followers was to be fought out partly on the issue ofwhich policy should be taken as the true Leninist line.

STALIN'S RISE TO POWERThe struggle was won by Stalin, who outmanoeuvred rivalssuch as Trotsky and Bukharin. Faced with foreign hostility,and convinced that the revolution should achieve an indus-trial, proletarian society, Stalin launched his drive to catchup with the West in ten years with a return to the central-ization and utopianism of the civil war years. The First FiveYear Plan was adopted in 1928, its aims being to developheavy industry, which had been devastated during the civilwar, and collectivize agriculture. Industrial advance wasindeed impressive, although at the cost of enormous waste,inefficiency and suffering, as wildly over-optimistic targetsfor output were set. The population of the big cities nearlydoubled between 1928 and 1933, and the urban infrastruc-ture could not keep pace. Targets concentrated on heavyindustry, and although they were not met, the economy wastransformed. In the Urals, the Donbass and Kuzbass coal-fields, the Volga area and Siberia, huge new metallurgicalenterprises were developed (map 3). Magnitogorsk, theTurksib railway (between Tashkent and Semipalatinsk), theDneprostroi hydro-electric complex and the White SeaCanal all date from this time. They were also all built par-tially with prison camp labour, for the First Five Year Plansaw a vast expansion of the concentration camps of the civilwar. The secret police were deeply involved in the economy.The forcible establishment of collective farms, with the

deportation to Siberia ofkulaks (rich peasant farmers)

helped control the peasantry. Itwas, however, an economic disaster,leading to a catastrophic famine.Opposition to the speed and force of

the changes led to the great terror of1937-38, with show trials of party leaders and the

deportation of millions of citizens to labour camps acrossthe country. The scale of the famine, the horrors of collec-tivization, and the extent of the terror were not revealed tothe Soviet public until the late 1980s. In 1939 the Stalin cultof personality was at its height and, to many sympathisers inEurope, this was indeed a brave new world.

A The First World War and civil war had adevastating effect on Russia's industrialoutput, reducing it by 1920 to one-fifth ofits 1913 level. Manufacturing had recoveredby 1928 when the First Five-Year Plan waslaunched. This succeeded in transformingthe Soviet economy, creating hundreds ofnew mining, engineeering and metallurgicalenterprises in established industrial areas,and new factories in the empty lands of thenon-Russian republics.

< The Bolsheviks assumed that theirrevolution would spark off revolutionsacross Europe, and in 1918-19 it looked fora while as if this would happen. A sovietrepublic in Hungary, led by Bela Kun,survived five months in 1919, and others inBavaria and Slovakia lasted four and threeweeks respectively. The Spartakist uprisingunder Rosa Luxemburg in Berlin in January1919 was crushed by the new WeimarRepublic and further insurrections inGerman towns were unsuccessful. Strikesspread across Europe from northern Italy tothe Baltic, but the European revolution theBolsheviks hoped for failed to materialize.

THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPE 1945-89 pages 236-37 2 2 3RUSSIAN TERRITORIAL AND ECONOMIC EXPANSION 1795-1914 pages 180-81

THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA1911-49

A From 1934 tol 936 the Communistsorganized a series of retrenchments in theface of Kuomintang attacks. From theirsouthern bases they embarked on lengthyjourneys to the north, by way of themountainous west. The most famous -known as "the Long March" - was thatundertaken by the First Front Army, led byMao Zedong. The casualty and drop-out rateon the marches was high: of 300,000soldiers who set out, only 30,000 arrived inYan-an. The Fourth Army (led by a politicalrival of Mao) was denied access to Yan-anand sent away to remote Gaotai, where itsuffered heavy losses after confrontingsome well-equipped Kuomintang troops.Meanwhile, the Japanese, with the help oftheir Manchu collaborators, were firmly incontrol of Manchuria (which they renamedManchukuo) and were poised to launch afull-scale invasion and occupation of the restof China in 1937.

he Revolution of 1911, which had seen the overthrowof the last Manchu Qing emperor and the establish-ment of the first Republic, failed to solve any of

China's economic or social problems (pages 198-99). Themost important and urgent goals for the new governmentwere the unification and defence of the country, but theywere not easily achieved. The presidential term of the rev-olutionary leader Sun Yat-sen lasted for barely six weeksafter his inauguration in January 1912, and in December1915 President Yuan Shikai attempted to restore the monar-chy by crowning himself emperor. The attempt was afailure, as was that made by General Zhang Xun and thedethroned Qing Emperor Xuantong in 1917. Both attempts,however, provided opportunities for local warlords tore-establish their power at the expense of central govern-ment. Over the next 30 years, although a fragile equilibriumexisted between the various warlords and other interestgroups, the Chinese Republic was in virtual anarchy.

CIVIL WARThe first North-South War broke out in 1917 and resulted ina chain reaction that led to full-scale civil war and the estab-lishment of a number of governing regimes across thecountry. To challenge the authority of the northern war-lords, Sun Yat-sen formed his own southern governments inGuangzhou in 1917, 1921 and 1923. He also set aboutcreating a united Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) and forginglinks with the still very small Communist Party, which wasgrowing under the control of the Comintern (an interna-tional communist organization founded in Moscow in 1919).In 1924 Sun Yat-sen was invited to Beijing to discuss thepossible unification of China, but he died there in March1925 without concluding an agreement, and the secondNorth-South War began the following year.

The Kuomintang was nominally unified at the end of1928 under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek, and gradu-ally gained control of strategic regions. It was not, however,until the end of 1930 that real unification of the party wasachieved through the military defeat by Chiang of a rivalfaction. For Chiang and the Kuomintang the next main taskwas to deal with the Communists, who now had an effectivecommand structure and were armed. They were alsoentrenched in their main "Red Bases" in rural areas in thesouth and had considerable influence over the urbanpopulation (map 1).

Despite the fact that both the Kuomintang andCommunists had a nationalist goal, they were more often

enemies than allies, competing for the same power. Mostearly Communists were also radical nationalists, and manyhad been heavily involved in the activities of theKuomintang under Sun Yat-sen, making them doubly threat-ening to Chiang's regime. Consequently, immediately afterthe unification of the Kuomintang, Chiang launched fivemilitary campaigns to encircle and suppress theCommunists in a rural area of Jiangxi province, where thecommunist "Central Soviet Area" was located. In October1934 he finally succeeded in overpowering the Communists,forcing them to abandon their Jiangxi base and, under theleadership of Mao Zedong, embark on the gruelling LongMarch to the north. During 1935 Chiang's army was equallysuccessful in expelling units of the Red Army from otherRed Bases in the central region of the country, so that by1936 the Communists who had survived the journey wereconfined to an area in the province of Shaanxi around thecity of Yan-an.

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A Despite the political and economicturmoil of the first half of the 20th century,China still developed a railway network.Together with the country's system ofnavigable rivers, the railways provided

transport for the manufactured goods andmetal ores produced by the Chinesebusinesses that thrived as foreign firms, hitby the Great Depression of 1929-33, failedor withdrew from China.

JAPANESE AGGRESSIONChiang's strategy was similar to that of any new ruler: toeliminate political and military competitors and reunite thecountry. During the 1930s, however, his aims were largelyfrustrated by domestic and international conditions. Inparticular, as Japan developed its imperialist policy towardsmainland East Asia, successive Japanese governmentsturned their attention on a weak and fragmented China.From 1894 to 1944 they launched a series of invasions: onBeijing in 1900, Shandong in 1914, Manchuria in 1931 andRehe in 1933, followed by a full-scale assault on east andsoutheast China from 1937 to 1944 (pages 234-35).

The Communists, from their stronghold in Yan-an,turned their attentions to fighting the Japanese. Theyproved themselves a dynamic and efficient political and mil-itary force, and took the opportunity to play the nationalistcard and thus rebuild their popularity. By contrast, Chiang'sconcentration on suppressing his domestic rivals was bynow out of tune with the wishes of the general populace - somuch so that in December 1936 two of Chiang's top mil-itary commanders mutinied in order to shift Chiang'sattention to fighting the Japanese. This became known asthe "Xi-an Incident", and resulted in the first example of co-operation between the Kuomintang and Communists sincethe death of Sun Yat-sen. In January 1941, however, theKuomintang troops ambushed and annihilated the mainforce of the Communist-controlled New Fourth Army, thusdemonstrating just how fragile this co-operation was.

The war against the Japanese (1937-45) created oppor-tunities for communist propaganda, recruitment andmilitary training which proved to be invaluable when thecivil war between the Kuomintang and Communists wasresumed immediately after the Japanese surrender. Thistime the Communists were unbeatable: in their three mainmilitary campaigns in the second half of 1948, theKuomintang were finally overpowered (map 2). TheCommunists gained control of the mainland, theKuomintang fled to Taiwan, and the People's Republic wasestablished in October 1949. Putting the unification of Chinabefore the defence of China had cost the Kuomintang dearly.

ECONOMIC EXPANSIONDuring the period between the 1911 Revolution and thebirth of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chineseeconomy struggled to survive the civil wars, the Japaneseoccupation of large areas of the country and the misman-agement of the Kuomintang. Some indigenous industrialgrowth did occur along the coast and main waterways (map3). This was largely due to the impact of the First World War(1914-18) and the Great Depression (1929-33), when theindustrial powers relaxed their grip on the Chinese market,creating opportunities for local businesses to become estab-lished. Furthermore, while the Western gold standardcollapsed during the Depression (pages 228-29) - resultingin severe financial crises in the West - China, which had itsown silver standard, remained largely unaffected.

A Sun Yat-sen trained as a doctor in theearly 1890s, but he subsequently turned hisattention to revolutionary activity and wasexiled between 1896 and 1911 beforebecoming the first President of the Republicof China in 1912.

T In 1945, at the end of the Second WorldWar, the Communists (backed by Soviettroops) were the first to move into areaspreviously colonized by the Japanese. Theyquickly established a strong foothold in thenortheast (both militarily and in terms ofpopular support) from which to launch theiroffensive against the Kuomintang, who hadspent much of the previous eight years inthe southwest. Fierce fighting ensued forthree years, with only a temporary truce in1946. Despite US backing, Chiang Kai-shekand the Kuomintang forces were eventuallyforced to retreat to Taiwan.

LATE MANGHU QING CHINA 1800-1911 pages 198-99 2 2 5THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA SINCE 1949 pages 254-55

LATIN AMERICA1914^5

A Venustiano Carranza was leader of theconservative faction in the MexicanRevolution, and came to power in the faceof opposition from the more radicalEmiliano Zapata and "Pancho" Villa.Although elected to the presidency in 1917on the basis of proposed agrarian and socialreforms, his government's failure to meetits promises led to his overthrow andexecution in 1920.

> Following the declaration of war onGermany by the United States in April 1917,most Central American and Caribbean states,heavily under the influence of the USA,followed its lead. On the other hand, noneof the countries of South America wentfurther than breaking off diplomaticrelations - with the exception of Brazil,which sent naval units to assist the Allies andcontributed substantial amounts of food andraw materials to the war effort.

In the Second World War nearly allCentral American and Caribbean countriesdeclared war on the Axis powers at thesame time as the USA, and Mexico followedsoon afterwards. By February 1942 all thecountries of South America except Argentinaand Chile had severed relations with theAxis powers, aligning themselves with theAllies as "associated nations". While mostdeclared war over the next two years, somehung back until, by early 1945, it becameclear that failure to do so could lead toexclusion from the projected United Nations.

T he first half of the 20th century saw many majorchanges in the economic and social structure of thecountries of Latin America. Export-led growth based

on the production of primary products (mostly minerals oragricultural goods), which had resulted in appreciableeconomic expansion before 1914, was shown to be severelyflawed. At the same time the oligarchies whose socio-political dominance had been well-nigh absolute for most ofthe 19th century found their control of the state challengedby an emerging middle class. Meanwhile the majority of thepopulation, who had previously been excluded from partici-pation in the state, began to feature in both cultural andpolitical debates. Finally, the dominant imperial power of the19th century - Britain - was displaced by the United States.

VULNERABLE ECONOMIESThe problems underlying Latin America's dependence onthe production of raw materials were initially felt as a resultof the dislocation of world trade during the First World War(1914-18). Latin America, which at this stage relied largelyon foreign banks for supplies of credit and on foreign ship-ping for transporting its goods, found itself isolated frominternational finance and trade. Production fell, imports(including food) were in short supply, and there was a highlevel of mass unrest. The disadvantages of export-led growthbecame increasingly clear: Latin American economies,especially the smaller ones, found themselves over-relianton one or two products, the prices of which were vulnerableto fluctuations in the weather, the emergence of new centresof production or substitute products and raw materials.

Economic growth tended to follow a "boom-bust" cycle,which made it difficult for countries to plan ahead or allo-cate resources rationally. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 andthe ensuing Great Depression (pages 228-29) led to the col-lapse of the world market on which Latin America hadrelied for its exports. In the 1930s Latin American countriescould do little more than try to defend themselves againstthe effects of the Depression. However, a consensus beganto develop - at least in the more advanced economies(Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Mexico) where a limited indus-trial base oriented towards the internal market had alreadyevolved - that Latin America needed to adopt an economicstrategy of urgent industrialization.

POLITICAL CHANGEThe early 20th century saw the first active participation bythe Latin American middle classes in political life. These

disparategroupings ofprofessionals,small businessowners, bureau-crats and industrialistslacked the economic powertheir counterparts in 19th-century Europe enjoyed as a resultof the leading role they played in indus-trialization. Even so, governments thatreflected the expanding political role of themiddle classes came to power in most of the leadingcountries during this period, for example in Argentina(1916), Chile (1920), Peru (1919) and Mexico (1920). Theirchallenge to oligarchic power was incomplete and compro-mised - except in Mexico, which in 1910-20 experiencedthe world's first major social revolution of the 20th century.The outcome was to consolidate the political and economicdominance of a bourgeoisie committed to capitalist mod-ernization. The revolution destroyed the political position ofthe oligarchy, and their economic strength was eroded overthe next two decades by means of a programme of agrarianreform that redistributed large landed estates.

In all the major Latin American countries during theearly decades of the 20th century, the issue of how to incor-porate the majority of the population into national life beganto be debated. Immigration and internal migration meantthat the poor were becoming increasingly visible in therapidly expanding towns and cities (map 1). Intellectualsand politicians, in particular those from the middle classes,became increasingly aware of the political importance ofthe poorer sections of society. National identities based on"the people" were proposed: images of American Indiansand gauchos (Argentine cowboys) were celebrated asnational archetypes. This did not necessarily mean that thepoor themselves were treated any better, although measureswere taken in Mexico to improve the lot of the Indians.

INCREASING US INFLUENCEThe Spanish-American War of 1898, which had resulted inthe ejection of Spain from Latin America by the UnitedStates, signalled the rise of the United States as an imper-ial power in the region (map 2). Although Washington wasreluctant to adopt a 19th-century style of colonialism (onlyPuerto Rico was governed as a colony), the United Statesconsolidated its dominance in both trade and investment

226

in raw material production, especially minerals. By the endof the 1920s it had effectively displaced the Europeanpowers from Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean.

During the Second World War the US administrationensured the production of raw materials necessary to theAllied war effort by means of Lend-Lease aid agreements.Consequently, by 1945 the United States had also securedhegemony in South America. Increasing US dominance inLatin America during this period is reflected in the factthat, whereas many Latin American states had remainedneutral in the First World War (map 3), most followed theUnited States into the Second World War after the Japanesebombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941 (map 4). Bythis stage it was apparent to the governments of LatinAmerica that only the United States could launch aneffective defence of the western hemisphere.

THE RISE OF THE MILITARYOne final change that occurred during this

period, which was to have a major effecton Latin American politics after theSecond World War, was the rise of themilitary. With the consolidation ofcentral state control in mostcountries during the late 19thcentury, the armed forces had beguna process of professionalization,mostly with the help of Europeanadvisers, which by the 1920s hadgiven them a strong sense ofcorporate identity. Military coups took

place in Argentina, Brazil and Peru in1930. At this stage the military was

content to intervene only briefly in thepolitical process, but it was increasingly

acquiring the conviction - subsequently toprove so detrimental to the maintenance of

democracy in Latin America - that it alonewas the institution which could best serve the

national interest.

T At the beginning of the 20th century theUnited States professed itself reluctant tobecome a colonial power along the lines ofsome European countries in Africa and Asia.However, it was anxious to protect its owneconomic interests in the Caribbean andCentral America. The "Platt Amendment",a clause in the Cuban Constitution of 1901and in the treaty of 1903 between theUnited States and Cuba, entitled the UnitedStates to intervene in Cuban internal affairs- a right it exercised on more than oneoccasion. Elsewhere, it moved swiftly torepress regimes it felt might jeopardizefavourable trading arrangements.

A During the period 1920-50 the capitalcities of all Latin American countriesincreased in size by between 100 and 300per cent. Rapid urbanization was caused inpart by the large number of European

immigrants, but also by the movement ofpeople from rural areas into the cities. By1950 over 50 per cent of the populations ofcountries such as Uruguay, Argentina, Chileand Venezuela lived in urban areas.

LATIN AMERICA SINGE 1945 pages 258-59 227LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN POST-INDEPENDENCE 1830-1914 pages 192-93


THE GREAT DEPRESSION1929-33

A The Depression caused industrialproduction in the United States and Canadato decline by over 30 per cent, leading tomassive unemployment, particularly in theUnited States. People migrated in searchof work, some of which was a direct resultof US-government spending under the New

Deal launched in 1933. It is noticeable,however, that the highest expenditure percapita was not necessarily in those areasmost depressed, such as the Deep South,but in areas where the Democratgovernment was most anxious to winpolitical support at the next election.

T Every country in Europe experienced adrop in industrial production during theDepression, with the northeast being worsthit. In Germany dissatisfaction with the highunemployment rate provided a platform onwhich Hitler and the Nazi Party came topower in 1933.

he Great Depression of 1929-33 was the most severeeconomic crisis of modern times. Millions of peoplelost their jobs, and many farmers and businesses

were bankrupted. Industrialized nations and those supply-ing primary products (food and raw materials) were allaffected in one way or another. In Germany and the UnitedStates industrial output fell by about 50 per cent, andbetween 25 and 33 per cent of the industrial labour forcewas unemployed.

The Depression was eventually to cause a complete turn-around in economic theory and government policy. In the1920s governments and business people largely believed, asthey had since the 19th century, that prosperity resultedfrom the least possible government intervention in thedomestic economy, from open international economic rela-tions with little trade discrimination, and from currenciesthat were fixed in value and readily convertible. Few peoplewould continue to believe this in the 1930s.

THE MAIN AREAS OF DEPRESSIONThe US economy had experienced rapid economic growthand financial excess in the late 1920s, and initially the eco-nomic downturn was seen as simply part of theboom-bust-boom cycle. Unexpectedly, however, output con-tinued to fall for three and a half years, by which time halfof the population was in desperate circumstances (map l).ltalso became clear that there had been serious over-produc-tion in agriculture, leading to falling prices and a rising debtamong farmers. At the same time there was a major bankingcrisis, including the "Wall Street Crash" in October 1929.The situation was aggravated by serious policy mistakes ofthe Federal Reserve Board, which led to a fall in moneysupply and further contraction of the economy.

The economic situation in Germany (map 2) was madeworse by the enormous debt with which the country hadbeen burdened following the First World War. It had beenforced to borrow heavily in order to pay "reparations" to thevictorious European powers, as demanded by the Treaty ofVersailles (1919) (pages 220-21), and also to pay for indus-trial reconstruction. When the American economy fell intodepression, US banks recalled their loans, causing theGerman banking system to collapse.

Countries that were dependent on the export of primaryproducts, such as those in Latin America, were already suf-fering a depression in the late 1920s. More efficient farmingmethods and technological changes meant that the supplyof agricultural products was rising faster than demand, andprices were falling as a consequence. Initially, the govern-ments of the producer countries stockpiled their products,but this depended on loans from the USA and Europe. Whenthese were recalled, the stockpiles were released onto themarket, causing prices to collapse and the income of theprimary-producing countries to fall drastically (map 3).

NEW INTERVENTIONIST POLICIESThe Depression spread rapidly around the world because theresponses made by governments were flawed. When facedwith falling export earnings they overreacted and severelyincreased tariffs on imports, thus further reducing trade.Moreover, since deflation was the only policy supported by

PERCENTAGE OF INDUSTRIAL WORKERS UNEMPLOYED IN 1933

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economic theory at the time, the initial response of everygovernment was to cut their spending. As a result consumerdemand fell even further.

Deflationary policies were critically linked to exchangerates. Under the Gold Standard, which linked currencies tothe value of gold, governments were committed to maintain-ing fixed exchange rates. However, during the Depressionthey were forced to keep interest rates high to persuadebanks to buy and hold their currency. Since prices werefalling, interest-rate repayments rose in real terms, making ittoo expensive for both businesses and individuals to borrow.

The First World War had led to such political mistrustthat international action to halt the Depression was impos-sible to achieve. In 1931 banks in the United States startedto withdraw funds from Europe, leading to the selling ofEuropean currencies and the collapse of many Europeanbanks. At this point governments either introduced exch-ange control (as in Germany) or devalued the currency (asin Britain) to stop further runs. As a consequence of thisaction the gold standard collapsed (map 4).

POLITICAL IMPLICATIONSThe Depression had profound political implications. In coun-tries such as Germany and Japan, reaction to the Depressionbrought about the rise to power of militarist governmentswho adopted the aggressive foreign policies that led to theSecond World War. In countries such as the United Statesand Britain, government intervention ultimately resulted inthe creation of welfare systems and the managed economiesof the period following the Second World War.

In the United States Roosevelt became President in 1933and promised a "New Deal" under which the governmentwould intervene to reduce unemployment by work-creationschemes such as street cleaning and the painting of postoffices. Both agriculture and industry were supported bypolicies (which turned out to be mistaken) to restrict outputand increase prices. The most durable legacy of the NewDeal was the great public works projects such as the HooverDam and the introduction by the Tennessee Valley Authorityof flood control, electric power, fertilizer, and even educationto a depressed agricultural region in the south.

The New Deal was not, in the main, an early example ofeconomic management, and it did not lead to rapid recov-ery. Income per capita was no higher in 1939 than in 1929,although the government's welfare and public works policiesdid benefit many of the most needy people. The big growthin the US economy was, in fact, due to rearmament.

In Germany Hitler adopted policies that were more inter-ventionist, developing a massive work-creation scheme thathad largely eradicated unemployment by 1936. In the sameyear rearmament, paid for by government borrowing, startedin earnest. In order to keep down inflation, consumption

was restricted by rationing and trade controls. By 1939 theGermans' Gross National Product was 50 per cent higherthan in 1929 - an increase due mainly to the manufactureof armaments and machinery.

THE COLLAPSE OF WORLD TRADEThe German case is an extreme example of what happenedvirtually everywhere in the 1930s. The international economybroke up into trading blocs determined by political allegiancesand the currency in which they traded. Trade between theblocs was limited, with world trade in 1939 still below its 1929level. Although the global economy did eventually recoverfrom the Depression, it was at considerable cost to interna-tional economic relations and to political stability.

4 COUNTRIES ON THE GOLD STANDARD 1929-34

A Countries around the world that suppliedraw materials for the factories of theindustrialized nations were hit by the dropin production during the Depression. Chile,for example, saw its exports drop by over80 per cent, and India and Brazil suffereda fall of over 60 per cent.

<4 The gold standard linked currencies tothe value of gold, and was supported byalmost every country in the world. From1931, however, countries began to leave thestandard, leading to its total collapse by1936. Although at the time this was seen asa disaster, it actually presented opportunitiesfor recovery in many countries, allowinggovernments to intervene to createeconomic growth.

THE RISE OF FASCISM 1921-39 pages 230-31 2 2 9OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1918-39 pages 220-21

THE RISE OF FASCISM1921-39

A Benito Mussolini started his political lifeas a socialist and was imprisoned for hisopposition to Italy's expansionist activities inLibya in 1911-12. By the 1920s, however,he had changed his views and used hisconsiderable rhetorical powers to whip uppopular support for his fascist policies ofnationalism, anti-socialism and state controlof industry and the economy.

^ The Treaty of Versailles of 1919assigned the disputed Soar region to Leagueof Nations protection, and denied Germanymilitary access to the Rhineland, the regionof western Germany bordering France.However, a plebiscite in Saarland in 1935produced 90 per cent support for Germanrule, and in 1936 Hitler ordered troops intothe Rhineland as a gesture of defiance.

In March 1938 the German Anschluss(annexation) of Austria was achieved withsupport from Austrian fascists, and inOctober, following the Munich Pact (drawnup by Britain, France, Germany and Italy),Germany took over all regions ofCzechoslovakia with a population more than50 per cent German. The Czech government(by then under a dictatorship) ceded the restof Bohemia-Moravia in March 1939, withSlovakia becoming a German puppet state.On 1 September the Germans began theirattack on Poland, and the British and Frenchdeclared war. They did not, however, sendtroops to aid Poland, which, attacked fromthe east by the Soviet Union and heavilyoutgunned, was forced to surrender.

n the years between the two world wars, a political andsocio-cultural phenomenon known as fascism arose inEurope. Its exact form varied from country to country,

but it was most commonly characterized by chauvinisticnationalism coupled with expansionist tendencies, anti-communism and a ruthless repression of all groupspresumed dissident, a mass party with a charismatic leaderwho rose to power through legitimate elections, and adependence on alliances with industrial, agrarian, militaryand bureaucratic elites.

FASCISM IN ITALYFascism first gained prominence in Italy, where the NationalFascist Party (PFI) was founded by Mussolini in 1921.Mussolini possessed a talent for arousing enthusiasm andgiving a sense of power and direction to a society in crisis.Through coercion, indoctrination and the creation of thecult of himself as "II Duce" (the leader), he was able tobalance the different interests of his supporters. His nation-alist rhetoric attracted war veterans, while his promise todeal with the threat of revolutionary socialism won thesupport of the lower middle classes and a proportion of thepeasantry. Some workers saw the fascist syndicates as anappealing alternative to socialist unions, while landownersand industrialists made large donations to fascist groupsbecause they battered peasant and labour organizations intosubmission. Most importantly, the political establishmenttolerated fascism and helped pave the way for Mussolini'srise to power; with the much celebrated "March on Rome"in 1922, Mussolini, now Prime Minister, signalled the begin-ning of a new era.

Mussolini's foreign policy wavered between aggressionand conciliation. In 1923, two weeks after capitulating to

A As part of his plan to revive Italian Italy's Libyan territory, but in 1935national pride, Mussolini sought to create an launched a successful assault on Ethiopia.Italian empire comparable to those of He also extended Italy's territories on theBritain and France. He not only expanded eastern Adriatic coast.

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the British over the "Corfu incident", he occupied Fiume(map 1), before concluding a treaty of friendship withYugoslavia in a failed attempt to break the "Little Entente"(pages 220-21). In 1935 Italy formed an accord with Franceand joined in condemnation of German rearmament beforeinvading Ethiopia in October 1935, thereby alienating itselffrom both Britain and France. A rapprochement withGermany was inevitable, and in 1936 the "Rome-BerlinAxis" was formed. Italy joined Germany in assisting theNationalists in the Spanish Civil War, further alienating itselffrom the rest of Europe, and in May 1939 signed the "Pact ofSteel" with Germany. In April 1939 it attacked Albania.

FASCISM IN GERMANYHitler's rise to power in 1933 can be seen partly as a productof the harshness of the Treaty of Versailles (1919), whichplaced an economic noose round the neck of the WeimarRepublic. The Great Depression in the early 1930s (pages228-29) weakened the Republic further, while Hitler'sNational Socialist German Workers' Party (the "Nazis") wasincreasing its support. In 1932 it became the largest singleparty and Hitler was appointed Chancellor in January 1933.

Hitler's absolute belief in the superiority of the "Aryanrace" led to a series of legislative measures (1933-38) aimedat excluding Jews from German government and society,culminating in a programme of extermination: the "FinalSolution" (pages 232-33). The regime's emphasis on ideo-logical conformity led to heavy censorship, while the Nazismobilized the German youth to provide a new base of masssupport. The first phase of Hitler's economic plans aimed toreduce the level of unemployment, while in the secondphase Germany was intended to achieve self-sufficiency bothin industry and agriculture, a goal by no means realized.

Hitler's foreign policy was, however, more successful(map 2). With the backing of an army that had beenincreased to more than twice the size allowed by the Treatyof Versailles, he managed to end German isolation in Europethrough the Anglo-German Naval Pact of 1935 and toremilitarize the Rhineland in 1936. In 1938 Austria wasvirtually incorporated into the Reich, as was the German-populated Sudetenland - an act accepted by Britain andFrance with the signing of the Munich Agreement inSeptember 1938. Further gains took place in March 1939,

A During the Civil War Spain became abattleground for fascist Germany and Italy(which backed the Nationalists) and the

communist Soviet Union (which backed theRepublicans). Semi-fascist Portugal allowedGerman supply lines across its territory.

and the signing of the Pact of Steel with Italy in May 1939was followed by the Non-Aggression Pact with the SovietUnion in August. Confident that Britain would notintervene, Hitler invaded Poland on 1 September 1939. TheSecond World War had begun.

THE SPANISH CIVIL WARThe Spanish Civil War (1936-39) arose following the col-lapse in 1930 of Miguel Primo de Rivera's seven-yeardictatorship, and the three-year rule of the left-wing PrimeMinister Azana, whose egalitarian reforms provoked bitteropposition on the part of the Establishment. In 1933 Azana'sgovernment was succeeded by a series of centre-right coali-tion governments, which dismantled his reforms andresulted in social unrest. By the time of the 1936 electionsSpain was polarized into two political camps, each consist-ing of a broad alliance: the Popular Front (Republicans) -made up of socialists, communists, liberals and anarchists -and the National Front (Nationalists) - comprising monar-chists, conservatives and a confederation of Catholics. ThePopular Front won the elections and Azana formed a newgovernment, intending to reintroduce all his earlier reforms.The army resolved to take action against the Republic.General Franco, previously exiled by Azana to the Canaries,invaded Spain from Morocco and laid siege to Madrid inNovember 1936 (map 3). He was supported in his campaignby the fascist Falange, a party founded in 1933 by de Rivera.

The conflict attracted international interest, with Italyand Germany supporting the Nationalists and the SovietUnion the Republicans. The German bombing of the Basquetown of Guernica caused an international outcry, butneither Britain nor France was prepared to confront Hitlerover his assistance to Franco. When the Soviet Uniondecided to end its assistance to the Republicans, aNationalist victory was assured. By spring 1939 Franco'sgovernment was recognized by most of Europe, and Spainentered an era of ruthless repression.

RIGHT-WING DICTATORSHIPSIn the 1920s and 1930s a number of right-wing dictatorshipswere established in Europe, both in agrarian and industri-alized societies (map 4). They were undoubtedly influencedin their rhetoric and practice by the German and Italianmodels, but were also shaped by each country's indigenousfeatures. Many of these dictators were uncharismaticfigures, who actually regarded fascist movements andorganizations as a threat to their rule. Only the Nazidictatorship, with its aggressive expansionism, racism, andnationalist and militarist ideology, represented the fullexpression of fascism.

A During the 1920s and 1930s right-wingdictatorial regimes were established acrossEurope and the Iberian Peninsula. However,many dictators, such as Horthy in Hungaryand King Carol of Romania, regarded fascistorganizations as a threat to their rule. Evenin Spain, under General Franco's regime, theinfluence of the fascist Falangists wasreplaced by the traditional bastions of order:army, Church and monarchy.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR IN EUROPE 1939-45 pages 232 -33 2 3 1OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1918-29 pages 220-21

THE SECOND WORLD WAR IN EUROPE1939-45

A During the Second World War almost thewhole of Europe came under Axis control.After Germany's invasion of western Europe,and its attempts to bomb Britain intosubmission, for three years the war wasconcentrated on the Eastern Front, withGerman troops sweeping across the westernSoviet Union. During 1942, however, theybecame bogged down, with losses in thenorth outweighing gains in the south. InFebruary 1943 the Soviet Union broke thesiege of Stalingrad and the Germans wereforced to retreat. At the same time, theirforces in North Africa were also fleeing to thesafety of Italy. The Germans fought a strongrearguard action, however - in the east, inItaly and, from June 1944, in westernEurope, with the Allied troops eventuallymeeting up just west of Berlin in May 1945.

The war in Europe (1 September 1939 - 7 May 1945)was not one war but many. It began as a struggle forsupremacy in Europe, but soon engulfed North Africa,

the Atlantic and the Soviet Union. In December 1941, withJapan's attack on Pearl Harbor and Germany's declaration ofwar against the United States (pages 234-35), the conflictbecame truly global.

The French and British decision to contest Hitler's bidfor European hegemony, after his invasion of Poland, tookthe Nazi leader by surprise. The practical implications were,however, limited. Belated rearmament meant that Franceand Britain could do little to prevent Germany and theSoviet Union dismantling Poland under the German-SovietNon-Aggression Pact of 23 August 1939. Nevertheless, theAllies - at this stage, Britain, France and the Polish govern-ment in exile - were confident that Hitler could be forcedby economic pressure into compromise. The initial seven-month period of calm, known as the "Phoney War", thusfavoured the Allies, but a spate of spectacular military oper-ations in the spring and summer of 1940 saw first Denmarkand Norway fall to the Germans, then Belgium and theNetherlands (map 1). France was brought to its knees in sixweeks. Puppet regimes, or direct rule from Germany, wereimposed on the occupied territories, while an area ofFrance, plus its overseas empire and fleet, was allowed toform the "Vichy" regime under Marshal Petain (map 2).

During the next year Berlin consolidated and extendedits political influence and control. Hitler's fascist partner,Mussolini, brought Italy into the war on 10 June, and the"Axis" was further strengthened with the signing of the

Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy and Japan on 27September. The Balkan states soon became German satel-lites (map 2), and the remaining neutrals were forced togrant substantial economic concessions. Berlin, however,failed to achieve its strategic objectives. Against expecta-tions, Britain refused to sue for peace and withstood theBlitz over the autumn of 1940. Unable to mount an invasionof Britain, the German foreign ministry and navy embarkedon an "indirect strategy" against Britain.

Germany's submarine fleet was given the task of sever-ing Britain's tenuous communications with the neutralUnited States. However, although the U-boats cut deep intoBritain's reserves and posed a danger until the early summerof 1943, the indirect strategy failed to meet German expec-tations. Moreover, Italian efforts in 1940-41 to carve out aMediterranean empire complicated rather than comple-mented Germany's war plans. Britain's maritime andimperial resources allowed it to inflict a series of humiliatingsetbacks on Italian forces in Egypt and Greece. Hitler wascompelled to come to the aid of his ally and was drawn intocampaigns of little strategic importance and marginal eco-nomic benefit, which ultimately delayed his invasion of theSoviet Union by several weeks.

THE EASTERN FRONTOn 22 June 1941 Hitler began his attack on the SovietUnion (long regarded as the Nazis' principal ideologicalopponent, despite the 1939 pact). As well as massive mili-tary casualties, over three million Soviet prisoners of warwere deliberately killed, through starvation or overwork,

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A During the final months of the war arace took place between the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union for control of Germanterritory. The two armies eventually metwest of the German capital Berlin and the

Austrian capital Vienna. They agreed todivide these symbolically important citiesinto zones of occupation, with the SovietUnion controlling the surrounding territoriesand thus holding the upper hand.

and millions of civilians were enslaved in German farms andfactories, where many of them died. By the time winter setin, German forces had reached the suburbs of Moscow,encircled Leningrad and controlled huge swathes of Sovietterritory (map 1).

The Soviet Union was ill-prepared to meet the Germanonslaught. As military resistance crumbled, industrial plantwas relocated away from the advancing German forces. Aidwas forthcoming from Britain and the United States, andalthough it was not critical, it did cover important shortfallsin transportation and communications. On learning thatJapan had decided against attacking the Soviet Union in theeast, Stalin transferred troops from Siberia to meet theGerman attacks in 1941. Better prepared for the harsclimatic conditions, the Soviet forces counterattacked thefollowing spring, and while Germany made impressive gainsin the south, in an effort to control the Soviet Union's oilresources, the retaking of Stalingrad by the Soviets inFebruary 1943 marked a turning point. Soviet success at themassive tank battle of Kursk in July began Germany's longretreat westwards, which ended when Berlin fell to Sovietforces two years later. In terms of the number of casualtiessuffered and of the resources expended, the Second WorldWar in Europe was predominantly a struggle between theSoviet Union and Germany.

THE "FINAL SOLUTION"The war against the Soviet Union allowed Hitler to set intrain the second component of his racial war: the elimina-tion of European Jewry and those considered "defective".During 1942 death camps were erected in the occupiedterritories to exterminate Jews, gypsies, homosexuals andother "racial enemies" (map 2). By the end of the war somesix million Jews, along with hundreds of thousands of othervictims, had been gassed in the death camps, or starved,executed or worked to death in concentration camps. Ofthose that survived the camps, many died as they wereforced to march away from the advancing Allies.

THE DEMAND FOR A SECOND FRONTGiven the enormity of the struggle facing the Soviet Union,Stalin demanded immediate support from his western allies.In practical terms, however, there was little that could bedone. Until late 1943 the contribution of Britain's strategicbombing offensive was meagre, and was maintained largelyto placate Soviet demands for a second front. In November1942, however, Anglo-American forces landed in FrenchMorocco and Algeria and, in conjunction with British forcesin Egypt, drove the Axis back to Tunisia (map 1). After fivemonths of fighting, the two Allied pincers met outside Tunisand finally ejected Axis forces from North Africa by mid-May 1943.

Against the wishes of the Soviet Union and the UnitedStates, both of whom favoured landings in northern France,Britain insisted on mounting landings in Sicily and Italy.While these campaigns knocked Italy out of the war, theyfailed to provide a strategic breakthrough into centralEurope. Competing strategic priorities and the U-boatmenace to the Atlantic convoys meant that it was only inJune 1944 that the Western Allies felt sufficiently confidentto create a second front by landing troops in Normandy.

German defences did not, however, crumble. Despite theAllies' massive economic, military, intelligence and techni-cal superiority, dogged German resistance forced the Alliesto fight every step of the way. In the face of inevitable defeat,an opposition cabal tried to assassinate Hitler in July 1944,but was quickly crushed. Indeed, only in the Balkans andFrance did armed resistance to German domination meetwith any real success. Nazi Germany had to be ground downby aerial bombardment and huge land offensives.

The political consequences of the total defeat ofGermany were enormous. Mutual suspicions between theAllies quickly emerged as thoughts turned to the post-warworld and the division of the spoils (map 3). Culturally, thewar dealt a blow to western European civilization and con-fidence from which it has struggled to recover. Though itbegan, and was largely fought, in Europe, the Second WorldWar spelt the end of European influence across the globe.

A Despite the non-aggression pact with theSoviet Union, signed by Foreign Ministervon Ribbentrop in August 1939, NaziGermany still regarded the communistSoviet Union as its natural enemy, andlaunched an attack in the summer of 1941.This poster offered the German people thestark choice of "Victory or Bolshevism".

T Nazi Germany retained control in itsconquered territories by installing puppetgovernments in the Balkans and its ownadministrations in Poland and the westernSoviet Union. Italian and German troopsjointly occupied Greece until the Italiansurrender in 1943. Concentration anddeath camps were constructed, to which"undesirables", and in particular Jews,were transported from across Europe.

THE GOLD WAR 1947-91 pages 244-45 2 3 3THE RISE OF FASCISM 1921-39 pages 230-31

THE WAR IN ASIA1931-45

Te war in Asia can be seen as a series of conflicts thateventually escalated, with the Japanese attack onPearl Harbor and Southeast Asia in December 1941,

into a single element within a larger global conflagration. Itbegan in September 1931 when the Japanese army setabout seizing Manchuria as a first step in Japan's construc-tion of an economically self-sufficient bloc under its control.By 1933 the conquest of Manchuria was complete and forthe next four years there was relative peace in East Asia.

THE SINO-JAPANESE WARIn 1937 an incident outside Beijing rapidly developed into afull-scale war between Japan and China (map 1). TheJapanese forces proved to be superior in battle to theirChinese counterparts and by the end of 1938 Japan hadseized large areas of China and had forced Chiang Kai-shek'sgovernment to retreat to Chongqing. However, despite thescale of the defeat, the Chinese refused to surrender, a factwhich Japan blamed on Western support.

^ Fierce fighting took place following theJapanese invasion of China in 1937, butdespite a series of defeats, the Chineserefused to surrender.

V The rate of the Japanese advance inSoutheast Asia and the Pacific took theAllied forces by surprise. Dutch, British andUS territories fell like dominoes until Japanover-stretched itself in the Battle of Midwayin June 1942. French Indochina, under theVichy government, was sympathetic toJapan, as was Thailand. Japan ruled over itsnew territories with an iron fist and engagedin atrocities against both native populationsand European prisoners of war.


Japan's answer to this problem was to try to use the warin Europe to its own advantage. In the summer of 1940,following the German offensive into western Europe (pages232-33), Japan sought, through diplomatic means, greateraccess to the raw materials of the Dutch East Indies, FrenchIndochina and Thailand. At the same time, in an effort todeter the United States from intervening in East Asia, itsigned the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy. Inresponse, the United States and Britain introduced a policyof economic sanctions, culminating, in July 1941, in anembargo on oil exports to Japan. Faced with completeeconomic collapse or war with the Allies, the Japanesechose the latter and on 7 December 1941 launched a rapidoffensive into the western Pacific and Southeast Asia in thehope of establishing an impenetrable defensive perimeter.

THE PACIFIC WARThe speed and effectiveness of the Japanese attack, sym-bolized most notably by the assault on Pearl Harbor, tookthe US, British and Dutch forces by surprise and led to aseries of humiliating defeats for the Western Allies in thefirst six months of the war. In February 1942 the Britishfortress at Singapore surrendered and by May the last USgarrison in the Philippines had capitulated (map 2). Japan'svictories led it to portray itself as the "liberator" of Asia fromEuropean imperialism. During the course of the war nomi-nally independent states were established in Burma and thePhilippines, and Japan's ally Thailand was allowed to annexareas of Indochina, Burma and Malaya. In reality, however,Japan ruled over its newly conquered territories with aniron fist and engaged in atrocities against the native popu-lation and European civilian detainees and prisoners of war.

The euphoria of victory was shortlived. In June 1942Japan suffered its first major reverse when its naval expedi-tion to seize the island of Midway ended in disaster with the

loss of four aircraft carriers. From this point Japan was onthe defensive and was out-manoeuvred strategically by theUnited States, which, through its "island-hopping" campaignin the western Pacific, was able to isolate the majorJapanese bases such as Truk and Rabaul (map 3). In addi-tion, Japan's war effort was undermined by the fact that itlacked the resources to replace its losses, with US sub-marines cutting the supply routes to Japan.

By 1945 it was clear that Japan was on the retreat, butthe Americans feared that it would still cost many morelives to bring about its defeat. This was confirmed when theinvasion of Okinawa in the spring of that year led to 10,000American casualties. At first it was hoped that conventionalbombing of Japanese cities and Soviet entry into the war inAsia would persuade Japan to capitulate, but by the summerhopes had turned to the use of the newly developed atomicbomb. The dropping of atomic bombs in early August onHiroshima and Nagasaki - which resulted in the death of140,000 people - and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria,proved to be the final blows for Japan, and on 15 AugustEmperor Hirohito announced the country's surrender.

Although Japan's attempt to carve out an empire hadbeen defeated, the region did not return to the pre-warstatus quo. In Southeast Asia the war helped to inspire therise of indigenous nationalism, which in turn laid the seedsfor the wars of national liberation that were to continue intothe 1970s (pages 250-51). In China the ineffectiveness ofChiang Kai-shek's regime and its dismal war record ledmany to look to the Chinese Communist Party as an alter-native government and civil war soon erupted (pages254-55). For the United States the war demonstrated theimportance of the western Pacific to its national securityand led to a permanent commitment of American forces tothe region. Japan, meanwhile, eschewed militarism andsought economic expansion by peaceful means.

A It took the Allies more than three yearsto regain territory that had fallen to Japanover a six-month period. Indeed, whenJapan surrendered on 15 August 1945,following the dropping of atomic bombs onHiroshima and Nagasaki, its troops stilloccupied a large part of Southeast Asia.

JAPAN SINGE 1945 pages 252-53 2 3 5THE MODERNIZATION OF JAPAN 1867-1937 pages 200-1

THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPE1945-89

A Nikito Khrushchev emerged victoriousfrom the struggle for power that followedStalin's death in 1953, and went on todenounce Stalin's "reign of terror". He wasdeposed by conservative elements within theparty in 1964 and his grandiose agriculturalschemes and confrontational foreign policy,which had led the world to the brink ofnuclear catastrophe during the Cuban MissileCrisis of 1962, was subsequently criticized.

T The 15 constituent republics of the SovietUnion were formed in the 1920s and 1930s,largely along ethnic lines. They weredominated by the Russian Federation, by farthe largest and wealthiest of the republics.Russia was itself divided for administrativepurposes into regions that had variousdegrees of local autonomy.

^he Soviet Union emerged from the Second WorldWar victorious, but devastated by the loss of 26million people. Despite territorial gains in the west

(map 1) there was a severe shortage of labour, aggravatedby the deportation to Siberia or Central Asia of returningprisoners of war, intellectuals from the newly gained terri-tories and whole nations accused of collaboration with theGermans (including the Volga Germans, Crimean Tatarsand Chechen-Ingush). The post-war Soviet Union consistedof 15 soviet republics, some of which also containedautonomous republics, regions and national areas (map 2).

After 1945 Stalin sought to re-establish control of theSoviet Union. Collective farms that had been destroyedduring the war were reinstated, efforts were made todevelop heavy industry, and the government returned tothe use of terror as a way of controlling the population.Stalinism was extended wholesale to Eastern Europe, andby 1948 communist parties were in full control throughoutthe region (map 1). The economic development of theEastern bloc was regulated from 1949 onwards by theCouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) anddefence aims were unified in 1955 with the signing of theWarsaw Pact. Only Yugoslavia, where Tito had come topower independently of the Red Army, developed a non-Stalinist form of communism.

KHRUSHCHEV AND BREZHNEVStalin died in March 1953 and by 1956, following a secretspeech criticizing Stalin, Khrushchev had triumphed overhis rivals. Political prisoners were released from the labourcamps, and fresh emphasis was placed on the importanceof agriculture, housing and the production of consumergoods. In order to achieve this economic change of direc-tion at least partial decentralization was considerednecessary. At the same time, Khrushchev poured moneyinto nuclear and space research: the Sputnik satellite waslaunched in 1957, and in 1961 Yuri Gagarin made the firstmanned space flight.

The results of this new approach were mixed. Increasedliberalization led to dissident movements in Russia andrevolts across Eastern Europe. In 1956 both Poland andHungary rose against Soviet rule. In Poland the CommunistParty, under Gomulka, persuaded Khrushchev that areformed communism would not threaten party control,but Hungary, which wanted to leave the Warsaw Pact, wasinvaded. Khrushchev improved relations with Yugoslavia,but his policies led to a split with China by 1960. DespiteKhrushchev's successful visit to the United States inSeptember 1959, relations with the West were soured by

A In 1948 communist parties, supported by Yugoslavia refused to align itself with thethe Soviet Union, were in control in Eastern Soviet Union, Albania broke its economicEurope, and from then on communication ties in 1961, and from 1968 Romaniabetween East and West was limited. developed a degree of independence.

the shooting down of a US reconnaissance plane over theSoviet Union in 1960, the building of the Berlin Wall in1961, and the siting of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba in1962 (pages 242-43).

Khrushchev was ousted by the Politburo in 1964, buteconomic reforms continued under Brezhnev and Kosyginuntil the invasion, in 1968, of Czechoslovakia, whereDubcek threatened the Communist Party's monopoly onpower. The Soviet Union then settled into a period charac-terized by a return to a centralized economy, with quotasthat enforced quantity rather than quality. With thegrowing competition in armaments and space technology,and the Soviet Union's intervention on the side of thesocialists in the Afghan Civil War, the Cold War intensified.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTThe post-war period saw a whole series of grandiose plansfor scientific management of the economy. AlthoughStalin's plan for the "Transformation of Nature", throughwindbreaks and shelter belts across the Ukraine, wasshelved in 1953, Khrushchev's "Virgin Lands" scheme togrow maize across northern Kazakh SSR (map 3) wasimplemented. The resulting soil erosion ruined 40,000square kilometres (15,440 square miles) of land and forcedthe Soviet Union to import grain. His scheme of the early1960s for supranational economic sectors across EasternEurope, with the north concentrating on industry and thesouth on agriculture and raw materials, failed due to

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Romanian nationalism and caused Albania to establishcloser links with China. A plan in 1971 for a giant com-puter grid to manage the whole Soviet economy was neverimplemented, and neither was the scheme to build a canalsystem that would have reversed the flow of severalSiberian rivers in order to irrigate Central Asia.

Since 1917 "progress" had been envisaged as smokingfactory chimneys and increased industrial production.However, Soviet economic growth rates of 5-6 per cent inthe 1960s dropped to 2.7 per cent in 1976-80, and to 0 percent in the early 1980s. Defence costs, the Afghan War andsupport for the countries of Eastern Europe were morethan the economy could sustain. Rising expectations and awidespread black market led to labour unrest. Subsidies onfood and housing took up large parts of the budget, andpoor-quality consumer goods left people with little onwhich to spend their wages, resulting in money being putinto private savings instead of back into the economy.

There were, however, successes in military and spacetechnology, and in drilling for oil and natural gas, althoughexploitation of the Eastern bloc's rich mineral resourcesled to serious pollution - both in industrial areas and inpreviously untouched landscapes (map 3). The dangersinherent in using poorly built and inadequately managednuclear power to generate electricity were brought hometo the world by the explosion at the nuclear power plant atChernobyl in 1986, although a larger, but unreported,nuclear accident had already occurred in 1957 at the testsite "Chelyabinsk 40" in the Urals.

In Eastern Europe economic decline also set in fromthe mid-1970s onwards. As loans from Western banksbecame harder to arrange, and the Soviet Union endedits subsidized oil exports in the mid-1980s, wages

in Poland fell by 17 per cent in the period 1980-86. InYugoslavia wages fell by 24 per cent over the same period.Declining living standards, environmental issues, pollutionand related health concerns heightened demands for arelease from Soviet domination.

MIKHAIL GORBACHEVWhen Gorbachev came to power in 1985 it was clear thatthe economy needed radical reform and that the cost tothe environment and to people's health had been cata-strophic. Pipelines were leaking oil into the permafrostacross northern Russia, and most of Russia's major riverswere polluted, in particular the Yenisei estuary aroundNorilsk. Grand projects, such as the building of theBaikal-Amur railway, had enabled the development offurther mining enterprises, but in so doing had contributedto the destruction of the fragile ecosystem of Siberia.Damage to Lake Baikal from industrial effluent was an issueon which a growing green lobby focused, as was the drying-up of the Aral Sea, which lost 75 per cent of its volume and50 per cent of its area between 1960 and 1989 due to over-use of its tributaries for irrigation.

Gorbachev's policies of glasnost (openness), pere-stroika (restructuring) and democratization initiatedreforms that were to lead to the withdrawal of Soviettroops from Afghanistan in 1989, and tothe ending of Soviet control ofEastern Europe.

EASTERN EUROPE SINGE 1989 pages 264-65 13 7

T Heavy industry was central to thedevelopment of the Soviet economy, butcaused severe soil and water pollution inmany areas. Even the empty wastes ofnorthern Russia were exploited for thevaluable coal, oil and metalsfound there.

FORMER SOVIET REPUBLICS SINGE 1989 pages 262-63RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 1917-39 pages 222-23

WESTERN EUROPESINCE 1945

n the five decades after the end of the Second World WarWestern Europeans experienced an unprecedented

, increase in material prosperity. This was the outcome ofalmost uninterrupted economic growth which, by the endof the 20th century, had led to average per capita incomesmore than three and a half times as high as in 1950, withthe income gap between "rich" and "poor" countries withinWestern Europe much smaller than in the immediate post-war years. This rise in the material standard of living wasassociated with the increasing integration and interdepen-dence of the European economies and their reliance oneconomic links with the rest of the world, underpinned by aprofound structural transformation in which the relativeimportance of the agricultural sector declined. It was alsoassociated with increasing political integration.

PROBLEMS OF POST-WAR ECONOMIC RECONSTRUCTIONAt least 40 million people died throughout Europe duringthe Second World War and there was extensive damage tofactories, housing, transport and communications systems.In 1945 Western European countries were faced with imple-menting the transition from war to peace, reconstructingindustries and re-establishing international trade and pay-ments. The length of time it took for pre-war output levels tobe restored largely corresponded to the amount of damageinflicted on individual economies by the war (map 1).

The immediate post-war period saw severe food short-ages and a large number of displaced people. Economic

T The European Economic Community(EEC) was set up by the Treaty of Rome in1957 and was renamed the EuropeanCommunity (EC) in 1967. As a first steptowards stabilizing European currencies,

the European Monetary System came intoforce in 1979. The Treaty of European Unionwas signed at Maastricht in February 1992,and the single European currency system(Euro) was launched on 1 January 1999.

A Those countries that experienced landfighting ended the war in 1945 with realGDP levels below those of 1938, whilethose that had not been subject to landfighting came out of the war with realincomes above their pre-war levels (theUnited Kingdom and neutral Spain,Sweden and Switzerland).

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recovery was soon got under way. A major constraint,however, was that Western Europe relied heavily onimports, especially from the United States, but had neitherthe currency reserves nor export dollar earnings to pay forthem. To preserve their foreign currency reserves, Europeangovernments restricted imports from neighbouring coun-tries, resulting in a low level of intra-European trade. Inorder to combat these problems and build Europe into astrong trading partner for the future, the United Statesannounced the European Recovery Program (ERP orMarshall Plan). From 1948 to 1951 ERP funds enabled thecountries of Western Europe to continue importing goodsfrom the United States, and thus helped speed up theprocess of economic recovery. In return the United Statesput pressure on Western Europe to build and maintain con-stitutional democracy as a bulwark against the spread ofcommunism and the revival of fascism.

Perhaps the most significant contribution of the ERPwas the revitalization of intra-European trade through itssupport, in 1950, of the European Payments Union (EPU).This restored limited convertibility between European cur-rencies while allowing member countries to maintaincontrols on imports from the dollar area. By 1958 the EPUhad fulfilled its role, but the rapid expansion in trade hadresulted in the increasing integration of the Europeaneconomies - a process that many sought to take further.

EUROPEAN INTEGRATIONEarly French post-war plans for reconstruction called forthe expansion of the national steel industry, while relyingon unrestricted access to coal from the German Ruhr area.In 1950 France suggested the formation of a commonmarket for coal and steel. With the "Benelux" countries,West Germany and Italy, it negotiated the Treaty of Pariswhich, in 1951, created the European Goal and SteelCommunity (EGSG). Its success encouraged member statesto push economic integration further to create a customsunion and common market - the European EconomicCommunity (EEC) - which began to operate in 1958. Thisincreased the liberalization of internal trade and providedaccess to a larger market, while offering a protective shieldagainst non-members; it also enabled the implementationof common policies. The EEC grew, via the EuropeanCommunity (EC), into the European Union (EU) of 15countries in 1995 (map 2). In 2004 this was enlarged by theaddition of a further ten countries.

In 1959 the United Kingdom, which at that point hadnot signed up to the EEC, founded the European Free TradeAssociation (EFTA), and was joined initially by six othercountries (map 2). Unlike the EEC/EC/EU, with its supra-national institutional arrangements, EFTA was intergovern-mental in nature. Yet with many of its members eventuallyjoining the economically and politically more powerfulCommunity, EFTA gradually lost its significance.

ECONOMIC GROWTH IN POST-WAR EUROPEBetween 1950 and the mid-1990s all of Western Europeexperienced an increase in material prosperity (bar chart),despite variations in the rates of economic growth betweencountries. Moreover, by 1994 the gap in per capita incomebetween the poorest and the richest economies was muchsmaller than in 1950. After 1973 practically all theseeconomies experienced a slow-down in growth whoseextent, however, differed between countries.

Western Europe's post-war growth was closely associatedwith changes in the employment structure that saw a large-scale shift of resources out of agriculture and industry,especially into services (map 3).

POST-WAR POLITICSCloser economic integration was accompanied by gradual,though incomplete, political convergence. Institutions ofparliamentary democracy had never previously been firmlyestablished in southern Europe. The army-backed dictator-ship of General Franco in Spain lasted until his death in

1975, but was followed by the restoration of the monarchyof King Juan Carlos, and free elections in 1977. Greeceexperienced a bitter civil war, a military coup in 1967, andseven years of dictatorship that gave way to a democraticsystem only in 1974. Democracy did not come to Portugaluntil 1985. Elsewhere in Western Europe democraticsystems did not escape problems. Post-war France wentthrough frequent changes of government until stability wasachieved under Charles de Gaulle in the 1950s. Italy notonly had many short-lived governments throughout thesecond half of the 20th century but endured a serious crisisof corruption at all levels of government in the 1990s.

The 1960s saw short-lived left-wing activism, especiallyin Italy and Germany. In Germany the environmentalistGreen movement had limited electoral success in the1970s. The challenge to consitutional democracy in the1980s and 1990s came from extreme right-wing, essentiallyracist, movements, which were most successful electorallyin France and Italy. Through most of the period from 1945to the end of the century, power swung like a pendulum, orwas shared, between moderate social democratic or Labourparties and moderate conservative parties. This was thecase under voting systems based on proportional represen-tation that encouraged negotiation between politicalgroupings and, as in Britain, a "first-past-the-post" adver-sarial system that encouraged competition between them.

^ During the second half of the 20thcentury employment patterns changedacross Europe with the decline of theagricultural sector and the rise, in particular,of service industries.

AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH OFGDP PER CAPITA THROUGHOUTWESTERN EUROPE

A Western Europe experienced particularlyrapid economic growth from 1950 until theearly 1970s. The large productivity gapseparating Europe and the United States inthe late 1940s was rapidly reduced, andrepair to war-damaged economies andchanges in economic policy also createdgrowth. The price of raw materials remainedlow and there was little competition fromthe Asian economies. From the early 1970sonwards, however, although the WesternEuropean economies continued to grow, theydid so at a much slower rate.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR IN EUROPE 1939-45 pages 232-33 2 3 9

THE UNITED STATESSINCE 1900T After the Second World War people beganto migrate from the industrialized northeastand Midwest to the Pacific region, where high-technology industries were being developed.By the end of the century California was notonly the most populous state but also aninternational economic powerhouse.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN1900

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ince 1900 there have been many dramatic changes inthe nature of society in the United States. In 1900 thepopulation was around 76 million, of whom more than

half lived in either the northeast or Midwest (pie charts).Over 87 per cent were white and just over 10 per cent wereAfrican American. The life expectancy of an American bornin 1900 was 47 years, and only 4 per cent of the populationwas over 65 years old. A large percentage still lived onfarms, and in the years before the motorcar the railroadsserved as the lifeblood of the nation.

Over the coming decades great social, racial, technolog-ical and economic changes were to create a very differentcountry. By the end of the century there were more than270 million Americans. They were more racially diverse,more spread out (map J), lived longer (76 years onaverage), were older (nearly 13 per cent were over 65) andgenerally richer (with an average Gross National Productper capita over five times that of the world average).

During the 20th century huge numbers of Americansmigrated to the west and southwest in search of new jobsand greater opportunities. This mobility of labour helpedthe USA to remain a more flexible and productive economicpower than other countries and was part of a realignmentin the economy which saw the percentage employed inservices increase from 40 to 76 per cent between 1920 and1998. Meanwhile, employment in agriculture fell from 25 to5 per cent and in industry from 35 to 19 per cent.

IMMIGRATION AND CIVIL RIGHTSImmigration to the USA reached a peak in the early years ofthe 20th century, but from the 1920s onwards a morerestrictive approach was adopted. A quota system was intro-duced for each nationality, based on the percentage of theexisting US population of that nationality. This enablednorthern European immigrants to be favoured at theexpense of those from other regions of the world.

In 1965 the quota system was replaced by a permittedannual total of immigrants. There was an increase in thenumber of Hispanic Americans (people originally fromLatin America, Cuba and Puerto Rico) in US society. By theend of the century they made up over 10 per cent of thepopulation and were the fastest-growing group in thecountry. The size of other ethnic groups also increased dra-matically, in particular those from Japan, the Philippines,

South and Southeast Asia. The Native American populationalso grew in the last decades of the century, although lessdramatically: at the end of the 20th century they made uparound 1 per cent of the population.

In 1900 African Americans were politically and sociallymarginalized, the majority living on farms in the Deep South(map 2} where their parents or grandparents - if not theythemselves - had been slaves. While they were supposedlyguaranteed equal rights by the constitution, most southernstates, politically dominated by whites, enforced segrega-tion. In many places they were discouraged from voting bypoll taxes, literacy tests and other intimidatory tactics.

The industrial boom of the early 20th century, coupledwith two world wars, created a need for factory workers inthe northeast and Midwest. Many African Americansmigrated there to find work and established neighbour-hoods, with their own traditions and cultures, in cities suchas New York, Detroit and Chicago. Their political power wasstill curtailed and, with the famous exception of HenryFord's automobile plants, African Americans were usuallygiven less prestigious and lower-paid jobs than whites.

The Civil Rights movement began in the 1950s withpressure both from above and below. In 1954 the famousSupreme Court decision Brown v Board of Educationattacked the notion of state segregation. In the 1950sAfrican Americans protested against enforced segregationand in Montgomery, Alabama they forced the town author-ities to let them sit with whites on town buses (map 3).Subsequently, not only the South but the USA as a wholewas forced to confront the issue of racial inequality. The1960s were particularly turbulent, with legal victories forequality being won in the face of continuing racism.

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTSThese social changes acted as a catalyst for some importantpolitical changes in the USA. At the beginning of the 20thcentury the country's two major political parties, theRepublicans and the Democrats, were more sectional group-ings - often with competing interests - than ideologicalentities. The Democrats were loyally supported by the bulkof southern whites, for reasons stretching back toRepublican rule during the Civil War, and were also oftenbacked by a large number of farmers from poorer westernstates and different ethnic coalitions in the large cities. By

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<4 Encouraged by a ruling of the SupremeCourt in 1955 against state segregation ineducation, the African-American citizens ofMontgomery, Alabama followed the lead ofRosa Parks, who refused to give up her busseat to a white man. They began a boycottof the city's segregated bus system thatlasted more than a year, ending in a legalvictory. In 1960 sit-in protests started inrestaurants and retail outlets, while in 1961Freedom Rides - buses filled with protestersagainst segregation - began crossing theDeep South, culminating in a march onWashington in 1963 by 250,000 people.African-American discontent was expressedifl urban riots from the mid-1960s onwards,spreading to California on the west coast.

A In 1900 African Americans remainedconcentrated in the southern states. NativeAmericans were scattered throughout theWest, on reservations and territories towhich they had been forcibly resettled inthe 19th century. Hispanic Americans livedmainly in states that had been part ofMexico before 1848. By the end of the 20thcentury the population of many states hadbecome more ethnically diverse (map 3).The non-white percentage of the populationin the northeastern industrial regions, and in

California, Texas and New Mexico, hadincreased markedly, partly as a result ofinternal migration, but also due to a largeinflux of migrant workers, many of whomwere illegal immigrants. Successive USgovernments have placed restrictions onimmigration, starting with the law of 1862prohibiting Chinese immigration. However,illegal immigrants continue to find their wayinto the country, the majority crossing theborder from Mexico, while others brave thedangers of the sea crossing from Cuba.

contrast, the backbone of the Republican Party was themiddle-class business community and farmers in the north-east and Midwest, though the party also garnered a largepart of the working-class vote. There were other, smaller,parties, including the Socialists, but they invariably per-formed poorly at election time.

The situation began to change significantly during theera of the Great Depression (1929-33) and the subsequentNew Deal policies of Democrat President Franklin D.Roosevelt (pages 228-29). Previously, African Americanshad, when allowed to vote, almost always supported theRepublicans (the party of Abraham Lincoln), but Roosevelt'smassive increases in government social spending causedboth they and many working-class white voters to switchallegiance to the Democrats. As a result, the Democrats tookover the Republicans' previous role as the natural party ofgovernment, and from the 1930s regularly won a majorityof the seats in Congress, especially in the House ofRepresentatives. However, during the 1980s a reverse migra-tion of southern whites, often evangelical Christians, intothe Republican Party created a situation of approximatebalance. The parties have now developed more distinctiveideologies, with the Republicans on the whole supportingfewer taxes, less government regulation and smallergovernment welfare plans than the Democrats.

Many of the changes that have occurred since 1900 haveled to an ongoing and emotional debate about what exactlyit means to be "an American". The traditional idea of a"melting pot", whereby immigrants were expected to shedmany of their old customs in order to become fullyAmerican, has been challenged, particularly on the Left, bythe idea of a "great mosaic". Ethnic minorities are nowencouraged by some to maintain their separate identities,although other factions have fought this idea, believing thatit could undermine the cohesion of the American nation.

A The Reverend Martin Luther King startedhis political life as leader of the Montgomerybus boycott. His policy of passive resistance,to which he adhered in the face of criticismfrom more militant African-Americanleaders, was based on the teachings ofGandhi. He was a powerful orator, famousfor his "I have a dream" speech, firstdelivered in 1963. Despite importantlegislative victories won by the civil rightsmovement, protests became increasinglyviolent in the mid-1960s - a situation thatwas exacerbated when Dr King wasassassinated in 1968.

THE INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES 1790-1900 pages 186-87 2 4 1

THE ROLE OF THE UNITED STATESIN THE WORLD SINCE 1945

A As the United States has become morepowerful economically it has extended itsarea of involvement beyond the Americancontinent to Africa, Southeast Asia andEurope. Although it has sometimesconsidered it necessary to employ force todefend its interests, in many instanceseconomic backing or, conversely, the threatof trade sanctions has been sufficient toachieve its objectives.

.

t the end of the Second World War the United Statesdominated the globe. It not only had the world'slargest navy and air force, but it also dwarfed all other

national economies. With most major European and Asiancountries devastated by war, the United States produced halfof the world's goods in 1945. The question facing the UnitedStates was what it should do with its tremendous power.

Before the Second World War US foreign policy had beenunpredictable. With much of the country firmly isolationist,there was no national consensus as to what part the UnitedStates should take in world affairs. Most Americans seemedcontent to play a dominant role in North, Central and SouthAmerica (pages 226-27) but had little interest in intervening inconflicts elsewhere. After the Second World War many of thoseresponsible for US foreign policy, such as President Trumanand Secretary of State George Marshall, considered isolation-ism was untenable given the strength of the Soviet Union.

Although the United States and the Soviet Union had beenallies during the war, this relationship had been forced onthem by necessity and a huge ideological rift still existed. Inthe period following the end of the war the Soviets increasedtheir domination of Eastern Europe (pages 236-37), andmany Americans worried that if the USA withdrew its forcesfrom Western Europe the USSR would eventually dominatethe whole continent. The USA, committed to free enterprise,and hitherto dependent on Europe for a large part of its exporttrade, was alarmed at the prospect of communist governmentsrestricting trade with the non-communist world. Likewise, theSoviet government, led by Stalin, was suspicious of a WesternHemisphere dominated by the USA, and expressed doubt thatcapitalism and communism could peacefully coexist for long.

THE COLD WAR YEARSThe perceived threat posed by the Soviet Union eventuallyproved decisive in the development of the United States intoan economic and military world power. President Truman

committed the USA to a policy of "containment", involvingresistance to the spread of communism anywhere in theworld. In 1949 the USA played a key role in the formation ofthe North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (map 1),which committed it to defending Western Europe. By thistime the "Gold War" between the USA and the USSR was areality and would continue to dominate international rela-tions for the next four decades (pages 244—45).

There was a slight thaw in relations during the 1970s,when the USA (under presidents Nixon, Ford, and Garter) andthe USSR (under General Secretary Brezhnev) adopted apolicy of "detente", whereby the two countries tried to estab-lish closer links of mutual understanding. However, this policyproved very controversial in the United States; many saw it asa capitulation to communism and called for greater con-frontation with the USSR. In 1980 Ronald Reagan, one of theharshest critics of detente, was elected US president. He com-mitted his country to rolling back the "evil empire", as hedescribed the Soviet Union, and began the largest peacetimemilitary build-up in the history of the United States.

Reagan and his advisers gambled that they could bankruptthe Soviet Union without causing all-out war and without dam-aging the US economy. In the end the policy seemed to work.The USSR, even though it devoted a far larger proportion of itseconomy to military expenditure than did the USA, found itimpossible to match the advanced technology of its rival. By1989 Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev recognized thatdrastic changes were needed in order to reduce internationaltension and expand the Soviet economy. Gorbachev's liberal-ization led ultimately to the break-up of the Soviet Union inDecember 1991 (pages 262-63), as a result of which the UnitedStates lost its major adversary and the Gold War came to an end.

INTERVENTION WORLDWIDEThe policy of the United States during the Gold War waseventually successful in destroying Soviet power, but it had

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A In February 1945, Churchill, Roosevelt,and Stalin met at Yalta to discuss plans forthe post-war division of Europe. As theleading superpower, the USA realized that

its pre-war isolationist policy was no longertenable, and that it had a major role to playin the reconstruction of Europe and in theencouragement of democratic regimes.

damaging repercussions for US international relations insome parts of the world. The USA often felt it necessary tooverthrow or undermine regimes largely because they wereinfluenced by communist ideas, while at the same timesupporting manifestly corrupt and oppressive right-wingregimes considered friendly to the USA. Cuba, Guatemala,El Salvador, Nicaragua and Panama all had their govern-ments either supported or besieged according to whetherthey were perceived by the US government as loyal orthreatening (map 1). The most extreme example of USintervention was the Vietnam War. President Kennedy com-mitted US ground troops to Vietnam in the early 1960s in aneffort to "save" Vietnam and its neighbouring countries fromcommunism (pages 250-51), but even with more than500,000 troops fighting in Vietnam the US governmentcould not "save" a people who did not wish to be saved.During the war 60,000 US military personnel and twomillion Vietnamese lost their lives, with millions moreVietnamese left wounded, orphaned, and homeless.

TRADING LINKS AND GLOBALIZATIONThe United States strengthened trade with its Americanneighbours during the second half of the 20th century, andalso looked westwards to the rapidly growing economies ofSoutheast Asia and East Asia. Various trade agreementsreflected this shift of focus: the founding of the Organizationof American States (OAS) in 1948, the signing of the NorthAmerican Free Trade Agreement in 1992 (effective from1994), and the founding of the Asia-Pacific Economic Go-operation Organization in 1989 (map 2). In the 1990s, USeconomic recovery encouraged the nation to play a leadingrole in the push towards more open global trading markets.

THE WAR ON TERRORISMOn 11 September 2001, terrorists piloted two passenger aircraftinto the World Trade Center, New York City. Millions watched ontelevision as the towers collapsed. A third aircraft destroyed partof the Pentagon in Virginia, and a fourth jet crashed inPennsylvania. More than 3,250 people died in the attacks. TheUnited States produced evidence linking the attacks withOsama bin Laden, a Saudi dissident based in Afghanistan andleader of al-Qaeda, a loose network of terrorist groups.

On 8 October 2001, after building an international coali-tion against terrorism, US President George W. Bushlaunched air strikes against Afghanistan, targeting al-Qaedabases and the Taliban government, which had refused tohand over bin Laden. In December 2001, Afghan oppositionforces, backed by US and British special forces, overthrewthe Taliban regime and an interim government took office.President Bush pledged a huge increase in US militaryspending to continue the "war on terrorism".

As part of this war, a US-led invasion of Iraq waslaunched on 20 March 2003. The regime of Saddam Husseincollapsed within three weeks and the invaders became anoccupying force. This was still in place when a democrati-cally elected Iraqi government was formed in 2005.

A The North American Free TradeAgreement (NAFTA), a tariff-free treatybetween the USA, Canada, and Mexicosigned in 1994, was followed by even moreambitious attempts to create wide free-tradeareas. Both the Organization of AmericanStates (OAS) and the Asia-Pacific EconomicCo-operation (APEC) Organizationproclaimed their intention of establishingfree trade between their member states, in2005 and 2020 respectively.

^ On September 11,2001, terroristspiloted two hijacked passenger aircraft intothe twin towers of the World Trade Center,New York City. The towers collapsed, killingover 3,250 people - a higher number offatalities than at Pearl Harbor in 1941.

THE UNITED STATES SINGE 1900 pages 240-41 2 4 3

THE COLD WAR1947-91

A The phenomenal force of the nuclearbomb, which had been so effectivelydemonstrated in Hiroshima and Nagasaki inAugust 1945, dominated the Cold Waryears, with both sides building up hugearsenals of weapons. In 1963, in the wakeof the near-disastrous Cuban Missile Crisis,the United States and the Soviet Unionagreed a test-ban treaty. However, despitethe Strategic Arms Limitation talks, whichculminated in the signing of treaties in 1972(SALT I) and 1979 (SALT II), and theStrategic Arms Reduction Talks (START),which opened in 1982, the destructivecapacity of the two superpowers continuedto grow.

+ At the end of the Second World WarKorea, previously a Japanese colony, wasdivided along the 38th parallel. North Koreacame under the control of a communist-inspired, Soviet-backed regime, while SouthKorea was supported by the USA. In June1950 North Korean troops advanced acrossthe 38th parallel in a bid to unify thecountry. They had nearly gained control ofthe entire peninsula when United Nations(mostly US) troops landed both in thesoutheast of the country and at Inchon,behind North Korean lines.

The UN troops advanced almost to theborder with China, which reacted to thisapparent threat to its territory and launchedan attack in support of the North Koreans.For the next two months the UN troops wereon the defensive, but by June 1951 theyhad driven the Chinese and North Koreansback to a line north of the 38th parallel.Protracted negotiations followed, with atruce eventually being signed in July 1953.The war had resulted in an estimated fourmillion casualties.

Ihe Gold War was an ideological, political and diplo-matic conflict in the years 1947-91, between theUnited States and its allies on the one hand and the

communist bloc led by the Soviet Union on the other.Characterized by extreme tension and hostility, it had adetrimental effect on international relations in this period.

At the Yalta Conference in February 1945 the UnitedStates, the Soviet Union and Britain had agreed that freeelections would be held throughout Eastern Europe. It soonbecame apparent, however, that the Soviet Union underStalin intended instead to fill the political vacuum inEastern Europe with communist governments loyal toMoscow. By 1948 the governments of Poland, EastGermany, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Czechoslovakiahad been transformed from multiparty coalitions, as envi-saged by the Yalta Declaration, to governments composedentirely of communists who adhered strictly to the ideolo-gies, policies and practices of the government in Moscow(pages 236-37). The "Iron Curtain", dividing the commu-nist regimes from the rest of Europe, had fully descended.

THE TRUMAN DOCTRINEDespite these events in Europe, President Truman of theUSA hoped that some form of co-operation with the USSRcould continue. In February 1947, however, when theBritish announced that they were no longer able to provideeconomic and military support for the Greek and Turkishgovernments, the USA felt compelled to intervene. Not todo so might allow Greece, in particular, to fall to the com-munists, thus creating a threat to US global interests andnational security. The result was the "Truman Doctrine",

which stated that the USA would oppose any further expan-sion of communist territory and would provide a financialpackage to help Greece and Turkey defend themselves fromexternal interference. This was followed by the MarshallPlan, which provided $13.5 billion in economic aid to thewar-torn countries of Europe. It was hoped that this wouldcombat the spread of communism across the continent, butit was only partially successful because the states in EasternEurope refused, or were prevented by Moscow from accept-ing, Marshall Aid.

THE DEEPENING OF THE WARFollowing the announcement of the Truman Doctrine, theCold War deepened (map 1) with the Berlin Blockade of1948-49, a communist uprising in Malaya in 1948, and theformation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, whenthe Chinese communists, led by Mao Zedong and supportedby the USSR, finally defeated the US-backed forces ofChiang Kai-shek (pages 254-55). All these crises encour-aged the creation of a string of Western military alliances todeter any further expansion of communist territory, begin-ning with the formation of the North Atlantic TreatyOrganization (NATO) in 1949.

In the same year the USSR produced its first atomicbomb, and the Cold War took on a new character. Fromthe point of view of the NATO countries the tension wasincreased, while the USSR, knowing that it could matchNATO in nuclear capacity, gained in confidence. In 1955 itestablished with other Eastern European countries a mili-tary alliance known as the Warsaw Pact. Despite, or becauseof, the huge arsenal of nuclear weapons stockpiled by bothsides, none was ever used in warfare. Indeed, the Cold Warnever resulted in actual combat between US and Soviettroops, the risk of nuclear weapons becoming involved beingfar too high. Instead, it took on the form of an arms race -and later a space race - and the provision of economic aidand military equipment to other countries in order to gainpolitical influence and thus strategic advantage. In somecases both sides intervened to defend their own ideology,and in a few cases one of them sent in troops.

The Korean War of 1950-53, when communist NorthKorea invaded South Korea, was one of the largest andbloodiest confrontations of the Cold War (map 2). It markedthe beginning of over 12 years of intense global tension andrivalry between the superpowers, which culminated in theCuban Missile Crisis of 1962 (map 3). The discovery by theUSA of Soviet missiles being assembled on communist-ledCuba, within easy range of the US mainland, led to thegravest crisis of the Cold War. It almost resulted in a thirdworld war, the tension easing only when the Soviet leader,Nikita Khrushchev, agreed to withdraw the missiles.

THE THAWING OF THE WAROver the next 20 years both superpowers attempted to easetensions and "thaw" the Cold War. The resulting "detente"produced superpower summit meetings and agreements toreduce nuclear arsenals. Meanwhile, competition betweenthe superpowers continued in Vietnam where, between1964 and 1973, the US deployed hundreds of thousands oftroops to fight communist North Vietnamese forces whowere attempting to unify their country (pages 250-51).

In 1979 detente was abruptly ended when the USSRinvaded Afghanistan, producing a new period of tension andhostility between the superpowers, and a fresh arms race.This lasted until 1985 when the new Soviet leader, MikhailGorbachev, began to de-escalate the Cold War by revivingsummit meetings and arms negotiations with the USA. Healso began a process of internal reform in the USSR itselfand gradually relaxed the Soviet grip on Eastern Europe.This resulted in the collapse of communism throughout theEastern European bloc following the "People's Revolutions"of 1989 and 1990 (pages 264-65), and the dissolution of theSoviet Union (pages 262-63). With the demise of the USSRand the formal dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1991, theCold War came to an end.

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A In 1962 US reconnaissance flights blockade, and a tense period during whichdetected evidence that the Soviet Union was nuclear war appeared likely, eventuallybuilding nuclear missile bases on Cuba, resulted in the USSR, under Khrushchev,within range of the US mainland. A US naval agreeing to dismantle the nuclear bases.

A The Cold War was a period of politicaland economic confrontation between thetwo superpowers and their allies. The areaof highest tension was along the "Iron

Curtain" that divided Western from EasternEurope, but the two sides' opposition to eachother was played out in conflicts - some ofa military nature - all over the world.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR IN EUROPE 1939-45 pages 232-33 2 4 5

THE BREAKDOWN OF EMPIRESSINCE 1945

^ In 1939 large areas of the world werestill under colonial rule, although in Indiaand Africa, in particular, the colonial powersdepended on indigenous political rulers toadminister at the local level. Immediatelyafter the conclusion of the First World Warthe League of Nations established mandatesaccording to which countries victorious in thewar, such as Britain and France, undertookto administer regions that had previouslybeen colonies of Germany or the OttomanEmpire, with eventual independence as theultimate goal. Japan was the only countryto expand its empire during the inter-warperiod, moving into Manchuria in 1931as a prelude to its full-scale assault onChina in 1937.

efore the Second World War the European colonialempires seemed largely secure (map 1). Despite inde-pendence movements in India (pages 248-49} and

French Indochina (pages 250-51), and the growth of tradeunions and early political movements in Africa and theCaribbean, colonial rule was widely expected to continuewell into the 21st century. Yet within 20 years of the war'send most colonies had become independent, leaving only afew outposts whose future had still to be resolved (map 2).

The war's corrosive effects on colonialism were initiallyseen most clearly in Asia. Some colonies, such as Malaya andFrench Indochina, experienced invasion and occupation byJapanese forces, unleashing anti-colonial nationalism whichcould not be reversed after the war. The African colonies,meanwhile, became vital sources of military manpower andraw materials for the Allied war effort, the mobilization ofwhich involved economic and social change. Colonial gov-ernments were forced to depart from their traditionalapproach of working through local political rulers and toadopt a more interventionist approach. This laid them open

to local criticism of wartime restrictions, food shortages andmany other hardships - grievances that often escalated intoearly forms of political protest.

Paradoxically, although the war weakened most of thecolonial powers, it also increased their desire to utilize col-onial resources to assist their own economic recovery afterthe war. The colonial powers sometimes used force in theface of growing local resistance to their rule, as seen in theunsuccessful attempts by the French and Dutch to re-estab-lish control of Indochina and Indonesia respectively, and inBritain's ultimately successful campaign to defeat a commu-nist insurrection in Malaya.

THE INEVITABILITY OF INDEPENDENCEMuch of sub-Saharan Africa became independent between1956 and 1962. Partly responding to the "winds of change"of African nationalism, Britain accelerated its plans for decol-onization, and most of its African colonies becameindependent in the early 1960s (map 2). The major obsta-cle proved to be the resistance of white settlers to African

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majority rule in East and Central Africa, and Zimbabwe'slegal independence was delayed until 1980. By the 1970sonly the Portuguese dictatorship seemed determined toretain its African colonies, fighting a series of protracted warsagainst guerrilla movements. The financial and human costto Portugal was enormous, provoking a military coup andrevolution in 1974, with the new government committed torapid decolonization.

After 1945 colonialism increasingly became an inter-national issue. Both the United States and the Soviet Unionhad traditionally been hostile to European colonial rule andhad put pressure on their wartime allies, Britain and France,to make a commitment to reform. In the immediate post-warperiod the colonial powers attempted to raise the living stan-dards of the indigenous peoples in their colonies, hopingthus to appease both local feeling within the colonies and theinternational community. As the Gold War intensified (pages244-45), the superpowers competed for influence in thedeveloping world, both in ex-colonies and in colonies soonto become independent. Moreover, the United Nations, nowresponsible for the territories mandated by the League ofNations, became an important forum for criticism of colo-nialism. Arguments for faster decolonization intensified asformer colonies themselves became members of the UN.

An important factor by the early 1960s was the desire toavoid costly, and probably unwinnable, wars against colonialnationalist movements. The long and bloody Algerian War(1954-62), as a result of which France lost control of Algeria,had demonstrated the perils of opposing demands for inde-pendence. Furthermore, such conflicts risked escalating theGold War if the communist bloc offered support to the forcesfighting for independence.

Another consideration was the shifting pattern of inter-national trade. By the late 1950s economic integration inWestern Europe (pages 238-39) was giving rise to seriousdoubts about the likely returns from large-scale colonialinvestment. Moreover, as the French demonstrated, it waspossible to decolonize while preserving many of the advan-tages, commercial and otherwise, of formal colonial rule. Amajor consideration influencing British and French policy-makers, therefore, was the hope that their respectivecolonies would opt after independence to join the Common-wealth of Nations (map 3) or the French Community. The

great majority of former British colonies did choose this formof continuing association, so that decolonization seldom rep-resented an abrupt change in relationships. Despite theeffective collapse of the French Community in 1960, Francehas maintained close economic, diplomatic and militarylinks with many of its former possessions.

SMALL ISLAND STATESDecolonization posed the question of whether small islandstates, particularly those in the Caribbean (map 4) and thePacific, could achieve viable independent nationhood. Onesolution was to group small territories together into largerpolitical units. The Federation of the West Indies was formedin 1958 after many years of negotiation, although BritishGuiana and British Honduras opted not to join. However,when its larger, more prosperous members, Jamaica andTrinidad and Tobago, gained separate independence in 1962the Federation was dissolved. Other island territories, suchas Gibraltar, had originally been acquired for their strategicvalue, but this declined as Britain wound down its overseasdefence commitments in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

The remaining European dependencies (map 2) aremostly small territories, often islands. In some cases, notablythe Falkland Islands/Malvinas (claimed by Argentina) andGibraltar (claimed by Spain), the issue of sovereigntyremains unresolved. In the case of Hong Kong and Macau,the return of sovereignty to China was agreed through nego-tiated settlements. Some small islands, especially in theCaribbean and Pacific, have opted for a limited form of inde-pendence, retaining association with their former colonialpower in matters such as defence and diplomacy, whileothers, including many islands in French Polynesia, haverejected offers of independence.

A Because of their small size, many of theCaribbean islands are not economicallyviable as independent states. Attempts toform an economic and political union,known as the Federation of the West Indies,failed when the larger ex-colonies optedout, leaving islands such as Montserrat to beadministered as British dependencies. All theex-British colonies in the Caribbean opted tojoin the Commonwealth of Nations onachieving their indi

T The expansion of the BritishCommonwealth (the Commonwealth ofNations) in 1947 to include India andPakistan enabled the organization to evolveinto a multi-ethnic grouping, which nearlyall Britain's former colonies decided to join.South Africa left the Commonwealth in theface of condemnation of its policy ofapartheid, but rejoined in 1994. Pakistanleft in 1972 in protest at the admission ofBangladesh to the Commonwealth, butrejoined in 1989. In 1997 the first countriesnot previously British colonies - Cameroonand Mozambique - were admitted.

WORLD TRADE AND EMPIRES 1870-1914 pages 208-9 2 4 7

SOUTH ASIASINCE 1920

Iuring the 1920s and 1930s a struggle developedbetween Britain, determined to maintain control overits empire in India, and the growing force of Indian

nationalism. Political reforms in 1919, which were ostens-ibly a step towards eventual self-government, gave electedIndians limited responsibility in provincial government, butfailed to satisfy nationalists. Indian protests centred on thecampaigns of non-violent civil disobedience organized by thenationalist leader, Mohandas Gandhi, seeking Indian self-rule.Gandhi, and the largely Hindu Indian National CongressParty, mobilized nationwide mass support, underminingBritish authority and causing alarm among India's largeMuslim minority. By the late 1920s Congress was demand-ing complete independence. Britain's response was tocombine repression (involving the detention of nationalistleaders - among them Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru) withconstitutional reforms in 1935. These gave substantial powerto autonomous provincial governments, while keeping overallcontrol in British hands. In the 1937 provincial elections,Congress won power in a number of provinces (including thelargely Muslim North West Frontier Province) (map 1).

The Second World War transformed the situation. InIndia Britain suspended talk of constitutional change untilafter the war and Congress ministers resigned in protest atIndia's involvement in the war without prior consultation.The cost of mobilizing India's economy to support the wareffort was high, and was paid for by the victims of the Bengalfamine of 1943 in which over one million people died. In1942, faced by a possible Japanese invasion, Britain offeredIndia independence after the war, in return for its wartimesupport. Congress replied with the massive "Quit India"protest campaign, which resulted in its leaders being impris-oned until 1945. Meanwhile, the Muslim League committeditself to forming a separate Muslim state (Pakistan).

By 1945 Britain, lacking the will or the resources to ruleby force, sought to accelerate India's independence. Britainhoped to maintain Indian unity through a federal structure,but Congress insisted on a strong, centralized government,while the Muslim League demanded greater provincialautonomy. In the face of violence between the Hindu andMuslim communities, Congress agreed to the partition ofIndia, with the creation of a separate Pakistan from themainly Muslim western provinces and Bengal. In August1947 India and Pakistan became independent (map 2), andmillions of Hindu and Muslim refugees subsequently soughtsafety in the two new states. At least one million people diedin attacks and reprisal killings carried out by one or other ofthe opposing religious groups. Despite the mass migration,India's population still includes a substantial proportion ofMuslims (pie chart).

INDIA SINCE INDEPENDENCESince independence India has remained the world's largestdemocracy. During the premiership of Nehru (1947-64), hisgovernment introduced five-year plans, and controlledforeign and private enterprise, in an effort to increase agri-cultural and industrial production. Given India's rapidlygrowing population (bar chart 1) it was imperative to boostfood production and the late 1960s saw the beginnings of a"green revolution", in which modern farming techniqueswere employed with some success (bar chart 2). Attemptswere made to attack poverty and social underprivilege,although measures to emancipate women and the lowercastes were seen as challenging traditional Hindu values.

In 1966 Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, became primeminister. Her attempts to tackle mass poverty and encour-age birth control alienated conservative opinion. She wasfound guilty of electoral corruption in 1975 and declared astate of emergency. Briefly imprisoned in 1978, Mrs Gandhiregained power in 1980. During the 1980s communal ten-sions re-emerged, with minority groups demanding greaterrecognition (map 3). Growing Sikh separatism led to MrsGandhi's assassination by Sikh extremists in 1984. Tensionsalso emerged between the central government and India'sNaga, Tamil and Muslim communities.

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A The administration of India in the 1930swas undertaken in some areas by theBritish, but in others by local Indian rulersand agencies. In the 1937 elections theCongress Party won political control inprovinces across the country.

> India's population increased significantlyin the second half of the 20th century,trebling in under 55 years. Its growth ratealso accelerated, so that by the end of thecentury the population was increasing by 25per cent every ten years.

A When the Indian subcontinent gainedindependence in 1947 its sizeable Muslimminority population was given the state ofPakistan (split into two parts: West andEast). Seeking safety from religiouspersecution, millions fled: Hindus into Indiaand Muslims into Pakistan.

D


PAKISTAN AND BANGLADESHPakistan began life as two ethnically distinct territories phys-ically separated by India (map 2). The country faced povertyand political division, aggravated by West Pakistan's attemptsto assert its dominance over East Pakistan. Whereas Indiawas a leading force in the non-aligned movement, Pakistanaligned itself with the Western nations. While the Indianarmy remained non-political, Pakistan's army, which firstseized power in 1958, often intervened in politics. During the1960s the economic gap between West and East Pakistanwidened. In East Pakistan separatism developed underSheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman, whose Awami League triumphedin the 1970 elections. When West Pakistan sent troops torestore order in 1971, civil war broke out and India inter-vened on Mujib's behalf. Pakistan was defeated and anindependent Bangladesh was created in January 1972.Continuing political instability and military interventionshave since added to Bangladesh's problems of mass poverty.

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's modernization programme in theearly 1970s alienated many in Pakistan, and in 1977 he wasousted in a military coup led by General Zia-ul-Haq, whosought to create a more Islamic state. Through subsequentperiods of military rule and democracy, the country facedthe problems of Islamic fundamentalism and separatism.

SRI LANKAThe British colony of Ceylon contained, in addition to itsmajority Buddhist Sinhalese population, a large Hindu Tamilminority. When it became independent in 1948 governmentattempts to make Sinhalese the official language alienatedthe Tamil minority, who campaigned for autonomy. In 1960Mrs Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the world's first woman

prime minister. She changed the country's name to SriLanka in 1972 and pursued radical socialist policies. Hersuccessor, Junius Jayawardene, reversed this trend and triedto appease the Tamil community. However, in 1983 long-standing ethnic tensions erupted into a prolonged civil warwhich Indian military intervention in 1987 failed to end.

TERRITORIAL DISPUTESSince independence, South Asia has witnessed several majorterritorial disputes (map 3). Relations between India andPakistan were soured by their rival claims to Jammu andKashmir. Immediately after the formation of India andPakistan, from which Kashmir initially remained indepen-dent, the new Pakistan government sent troops to lay claimto the predominantly Muslim state. The Hindu maharaja, SirHari Singh, immediately acceded the state to India, who senttroops in his support, forcing the Pakistanis into a partialwithdrawal. The United Nations intervened and ruled in1949 that a plebiscite should take place, but the two sidesfailed to reach agreement on how this should be adminis-tered. In 1965 serious fighting between India and Pakistanculminated in a Soviet-arranged truce, and in 1972 eachcountry accepted that the dispute should be solved bilater-ally. Violent protests in Kashmir for greater autonomy have,however, persisted since the 1980s.

Territorial disputes between India and China escalatedafter China absorbed Tibet in 1959. In October 1962 Chinainvaded India in Arunachal Pradesh, forcing Indian troops toretreat before a ceasefire was arranged. These regional ten-sions have led both India and Pakistan to maintain largearmies and to develop nuclear weapons. In 2002 there was athreat of war between the two countries over Kashmir.

A The dynastic tradition in South Asianpolitics has led to several women holdingpositions of power. Sirimavo Bandaranaiketook control of the Sri Lankan FreedomParty following her husband's assassinationand became the world's first woman primeminister in 1960. She served a further termduring the 1970s and in 1994 wasappointed for a third by her daughterChandrika Kumaratunga, who was thenserving as president.

^ Since independence in 1947 India andPakistan have continued to dispute controlof Jammu and Kashmir. China also claims asmall area of this mountainous region.Elsewhere, border disputes have occurredbetween India and China, and betweenBhutan and China. In 1971 East Pakistanbroke away from West Pakistan to form theindependent state of Bangladesh, and bothPakistan and India have experienced claimsfor autonomy from people within theirborders, among them the Baluchis inPakistan and the Nagas in Assam.

The subcontinent's most serious separatistactivity has been that of the Tamils in SriLanka, where an estimated 65,000 peoplewere killed in a 20-year civil war before thedeclaration of a ceasefire in 2002.

T Improvements in agricultural practices inIndia, known as the "green revolution", ledto marked increases in productivity from the1960s to the 1980s, with the amount ofwheat harvested more than trebling.

2 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONIN INDIA 1961-84(in millions of tonnes)

THE BRITISH IN INDIA 1608-1920 pages 194-95 2 4 9

SOUTHEAST ASIASINCE 1920

A As elsewhere in the world, SoutheastAsia has seen a substantial increase in thenumber of people employed in services andindustry in recent decades, at the expenseof agriculture.

T The Federation of Malaysia was formedin 1963 but Singapore, an original member,left in 1965. Brunei remains self-governing.The Republic of Indonesia, formed in 1949,has occupied East Timor since 1975.

n 1920 Thailand was the only country in Southeast Asiathat was not under Western colonial administration,although indigenous anti-colonial movements had been

established in most parts of the region, even if in rudimen-tary form. The next 55 years were to be dominated by thestruggle for self-determination - a process which differedmarkedly from country to country (map 1).

At one extreme was the peaceful transfer of power in thePhilippines, which had become a colony of the United Statesat the conclusion of the Spanish-American War in 1898. TheUnited States, with its strong anti-colonial tradition, wasuncomfortable with its new responsibilities and movedrapidly to transfer political and administrative powers toFilipinos. In 1935 it established the Philippine Common-wealth, granting the Filipino government control of internalaffairs, and promising full independence on 4 July 1946. Toa large degree, the process of decolonization was driven bythe colonial power itself.

At the other extreme was the turbulent situation inFrench Indochina and the Dutch East Indies, where anti-colonial agitation was, for much of the 1920s and 1930s,vigorously suppressed by colonial administrations. Betweenthe two extremes was Burma, where, under pressure fromthe constitutional advances being made in India (pages248-49), the British transferred some administrativeresponsibilities to the Burmese in the early 1920s.

The Western colonial presence in Southeast Asia wasshattered by the Japanese military advance into the regionbetween December 1941 and April 1942 (pages 234-35).The fiercely anti-Western sentiments expressed by theJapanese, and their effective destruction of the myth ofwhite supremacy, influenced the political aspirations of theindigenous populations of the region. Following theJapanese surrender in August 1945, the Dutch and Frenchfaced severe opposition to their attempts to re-establishcontrol over their former colonies. In the Dutch East Indiesa fierce military and political battle was waged between theDutch and the forces of the newly declared Republic ofIndonesia until, towards the end of 1949, the United States- acting through the United Nations - put pressure on theDutch to withdraw.

Burma achieved independence early in 1948, but wasalmost immediately riven by ethnic and political splits. In1962 it became a military-led state in which all dissent wasruthlessly crushed. British rule in Malaya came to an end bypeaceful negotiation in 1957, although from 1948 to 1960British and Commonwealth troops were involved in the sup-pression of a major communist rebellion in the country.

A Vietnam's struggle for independencefrom the French resulted, in 1954, in thedivision of the country into communist NorthVietnam and US-backed South Vietnam.North Vietnam attempted to overthrow the

southern regime and reunify the country.The United States, anxious to prevent thespread of communism, became militarilyinvolved in the 1960s but was eventuallydefeated by the Vietcong's guerrilla tactics.

THE VIETNAM WARIn French Indochina the anti-colonial struggle was to lastmuch longer. Open conflict between the French and theVietminh, in effect the Indochinese Communist Party, brokeout in December 1946, after negotiations to reconcile theambitions of French colonialists and Vietnamese national-ists had failed. After a long, draining guerrilla war, the Frenchforces were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. (TheVietnamese were the only people in Southeast Asia toachieve the withdrawal of a colonial power by militaryvictory.) However, at the Geneva Conference which openedin May 1954, the Communists failed to secure a unitedVietnam under their control. Instead, they were forced -partly by pressures imposed by China, the Soviet Union, andthe United States - to accept a temporary division along the17th parallel pending elections in 1956 (map 2). From 1955a strongly anti-communist government was established in

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the South, under the leadership of Ngo Dinh Diem, and wassoon receiving massive US economic and military support.In the late 1950s communist North Vietnam began thearmed struggle to overthrow the southern regime, funnellingsupplies of men and arms down the Ho Chi Minh Trail - inreality a shifting complex of jungle routes - into the South.

The United States first committed ground troops toVietnam in 1965, although much of its military might tookthe form of mass bomber raids from bases in Thailand andaircraft-carriers in the South China Sea against the Ho ChiMinh Trail and urban centres in North Vietnam. In early1968, while celebrations were underway for the lunar NewYear (Tet], the communist Vietcong launched fierce attacksagainst urban centres across South Vietnam - the "TetOffensive". However, despite some striking successes -including Vietcong fighting their way into the compound ofthe US Embassy in Saigon - the offensive failed to dislodgethe southern regime and its ally. In 1970, in an attempt toprotect its forces in the south, the United States launched aninvasion into eastern Cambodia with the aim of destroyingthe communist sanctuaries there. It was now clear, however,that the United States could not defeat the Vietcong and, fol-lowing strong domestic pressure, US forces were withdrawnfrom Vietnam by the end of March 1973. In April 1975communist troops entered Saigon, the southern regime col-lapsed, and Vietnam was united under communist rule.

THE POST-COLONIAL ERAThe period since the mid-1960s has seen an extraordinaryeconomic transformation in large parts of Southeast Asia.From being principally exporters of agricultural products andminerals, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and, tosome degree, the Philippines, have developed a substantial

industrial base, exporting finished manufactured goods -including electrical and electronic goods, clothing andfootwear - to markets across the world (map 3). This waslargely achieved through heavy investment by East Asian,European and American multinational companies, whichtook advantage of Southeast Asia's low wage costs. High eco-nomic growth rates were sustained over a number ofdecades, with a particularly rapid spurt in the late 1980s.

The industrialization of Southeast Asia was mirrored bythe rapid pace of urbanization. Cities expanded rapidly (barchart), with the result that a high proportion of the popula-tion now live in shanty towns surrounding the prosperouscommercial centres. Rapid economic growth created for-tunes for Southeast Asia's tycoons, with the large urbanmiddle class and those living in rural areas also benefiting.

Southeast Asia's long boom was brought to a sudden haltin the middle of 1997. Beginning with the Thai baht, many ofthe region's major currencies came under intense specula-tive pressure and were forced to devalue. Stock marketsplunged and banks crashed. In the wake of the financialmeltdown unemployment soared and large sections of thepopulation faced severe economic hardship. The causes ofthe crisis differed from economy to economy, but the over-commitment of largely unregulated banks, widespreadcorruption and unsustainable budget deficits by govern-ments with over-ambitious spending plans were clearlyimportant factors.

The economic crisis had serious political consequencesin 1998. Riots in Indonesia in May led to the end of PresidentSuharto's 30-year period in power, and in Malaysia a split inthe dominant political party, coupled with popular protestagainst corruption, provoked a serious challenge to theprime minister, Mahathir bin Muhammad.

A Southeast Asia has for centuries been aprovider of raw materials to Western andJapanese manufacturers. While exports ofagricultural products (including hardwoodsfrom its rapidly diminishing rainforests)continue, Malaysia, Indonesia, thePhilippines and Thailand have alsodeveloped into producers of manufacturedgoods, in particular electrical and electronicproducts. As their industrial sector hasexpanded so have their cities, with peopleflooding in from agricultural regions in thehope of finding relatively well-paidemployment in manufacturing andexpanding service industries.

SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM 1790-1914 pages 196-97 251

JAPANSINCE 1945

A During the 1960s Japan benefited froma youthful and rapidly growing workingpopulation, but the children of the post-war"baby boom" will eventually reachretirement age. Social and financialadjustments will be required in order toprovide a decent standard of living for alarge population of pensioners.

efeat in the Pacific War (1941-45) left Japan withoutan empire and with an industrial economy in ruins.The Allied (predominantly American) occupiers

moved swiftly to incorporate democratic reforms into arevised constitution. The emperor was retained as a cere-monial figure, but power was exercised by a legislatureelected by universal suffrage. The great industrial combines(zaibatsu) that had dominated the pre-war economy (pages200-1) were broken up, labour unions were legalized, andthe power of rural landlords was destroyed by wholesaleland reforms that favoured small family farms.

The reforming zeal of the occupying authorities was,however, of little immediate significance to most ordinaryJapanese, for whom the economic hardships of war and itsaftermath were compounded by the repatriation of millionsof former soldiers and colonists, and the post-war "babyboom". The failure of the economy to recover sufficientlyto meet the day-to-day needs of the population soon led torevisions in economic policy, and these changes were rein-forced by the political fallout from the victory of theCommunists in China and the outbreak of war on theKorean Peninsula in 1950 (pages 244-45). By the time theUnited States administration ended in 1952, Japan had beenredefined as a bastion of anti-communism in East Asia, andexpenditure of around $3.5 billion by the United States mil-itary during the Korean War had stimulated the economyinto growth.

ECONOMIC EXPANSIONOver the next two decades Japan enjoyed an extraordinaryperiod of economic expansion. Industrial production hadrecovered to pre-war levels by 1955, and during the 1960saverage annual growth rates exceeded 10 per cent. Thissuccess, which became a model for other Asian economies,rested on a fortuitous combination of external and internalcircumstances. Japan's deficiencies in mineral resourceswere of little importance in an era when cheap raw materi-als could be acquired easily from overseas. The UnitedStates offered a ready market for manufactured exports,made more competitive by an increasingly undervalued cur-rency. It also provided access to industrial expertise forJapanese technologists. Foreign policy focused overwhelm-ingly on trade promotion, although one important territorialissue was resolved with the return of Okinawa to Japanesesovereignty by the United States in 1972.

The "family state" of pre-war times was replaced by a"developmental state", in which a stable political regimeunder the conservative Liberal Democrats allowed majorindustrial groupings to re-emerge under the guiding handof an elite bureaucracy. Large-scale movements of pop-ulation from the countryside to the cities (map 1)guaranteed a supply of youthful and well-educatedworkers for Japan's factories; labour rela-tions based on companyunions and employmentfor life helped to

secure support for economic growth as the primary goal ofthe nation. A high rate of savings ensured adequate suppliesof capital. As wealth accumulated, domestic demandbecame an increasingly important source of growth.

By the late 1960s it was apparent that such unrestrainedeconomic expansion had environmental costs, with out-breaks of illnesses caused by industrial pollution - such as"Minamata Disease" and "Yokkaichi Asthma" - seriousenough to attract international attention. Labour shortagesin Japan's cities reinforced pressure for industry to relocateor raise productivity (map 2). Trade friction with the UnitedStates and a sharp revaluation of the yen preceded the oilcrisis of 1973-74 (pages 272-73). Japan's vulnerability todisruption in the supply of an energy source on which it hadbecome almost wholly dependent was exposed amid panicbuying of daily essentials by the public, rapid inflation andthe temporary cessation of growth.

Japan responded quickly and effectively to these chal-lenges. Energy-intensive heavy industries were obliged toraise their efficiency and clean up their effluents or moveoverseas, as Japan felt the effect of competition from Koreaand the other emerging industrial economies in East Asia.Small, fuel-efficient cars were suddenly in demand, and

A Rapid population increases inprefectures within the Pacific coast beltbetween Tokyo and Osaka, and absolutelosses in remote rural areas, reflect amassive redistribution of populationthrough internal migration, whichpeaked in the late 1960s and again inthe 1980s. With the highest employmentgrowth in the service sector, large citieshave been popular destinations foreconomic migrants.

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-4 The major industrial regions in Japanwere established before the Second WorldWar. Investment was concentrated there inthe 1960s to take advantage of the existinginfrastructure. However, labour shortages,high land prices and pollution controls inlarge cities, plus competition from overseas,fuelled a relocation of industry within Japanto areas that had not previously provedattractive to investors.

T In the 1960s Japanese manufacturingwas largely dominated by heavy industriessuch as steel production and shipbuilding.By the 1970s, however, more profitableindustries, in particular vehiclemanufacturing, were increasingly important.In the 1980s new industries, such as thoseproducing semiconductors and otherelectronic equipment, experienced a boomand continued to expand in the 1990s.

THE CHANGING BALANCE OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION

exports responded quickly, until the threat of protectivetariffs from countries in North America and Europe on carsexported from Japan forced Japanese car manufacturers toincrease their production in these regions. Industry shiftedtowards "knowledge-intensive" sectors such as electronics(graph), in which Japan established international standardsand dominated world markets. Growth did slow from theheady rates of the 1960s, but still averaged over 4 per centper annum in 1974 to 1985, and Japan was able to weatherthe second oil crisis of 1978.

FOREIGN RELATIONS AND TRADEAs the 1980s progressed, relations with the United Statesbecame more problematic. The cost to the United States ofprotecting Japan during the Gold War was high, while Japangrew ever richer on burgeoning trade surpluses. The UnitedStates became sensitive to the effect of imports from Japanon job prospects at home. It put restraints on trade in man-ufactured goods between the two countries, and pressure onJapan to open up its markets to US farm produce, such asrice. Japanese agriculture itself was by now heavily subsi-dized and plagued by inefficiencies linked to the small farmsinherited from the land reforms of the 1940s. It attempted,unsuccessfully, to adapt to competition from imports bychanging the crops that it produced.

The Plaza Agreement of 1985, between the UnitedStates, Japan, France, Germany and the United Kingdom,sought to resolve global trade imbalances by expandingJapan's domestic demand. The rapid appreciation of the yenwas also expected to make Japanese products less compet-itive in international markets and to boost imports to Japan.Yet again, however, Japanese industry responded by shift-ing up a gear: in a flurry of direct investment in East andSoutheast Asia, manufacturers sought to avoid highJapanese wages by moving production overseas (map 3).

This process was known as "hollowing out". It wasmatched by a rapid expansion in Japan's foreign aid, the aimof which was to support infrastructural improvements inneighbouring countries. This facilitated production of, andcreated additional demand for, Japanese products in thesecountries. Japan became the centre of a regional manufac-turing system tied together by trade flows of raw materials,components and manufactured goods. Tokyo was trans-formed into one of the world's three great financial centres.Investments at home and overseas were buoyed up by lowinterest rates and the willingness of banks to lend againstproperty assets, which soared in value. This speculative"bubble economy" finally burst in the early 1990s as landprices collapsed, obliging the government to shore up theailing banking sector. The banks' problems were com-pounded by the subsequent economic crisis in SoutheastAsia (pages 250-51) as loans to finance new factories inThailand, Indonesia and elsewhere turned sour.

In the latter half of the 1990s Japan, with the world'shighest life expectancy, was beginning to adjust to socialchanges brought about by a population in which the pro-portion of older people was growing (bar charts). Itspoliticians were attempting to relax bureaucratic control ofdomestic markets and to continue the reform of its finan-cial systems. Such changes were a necessary counterpart tothe growing climate of openness in Japan's trade and finan-cial relations with the outside world.

The popular opposition to military participation in theGulf War of 1991, and Japan's inability to counter the threatposed by North Korean missiles, indicated the mismatchbetween Japan's status as a pre-eminent global economicpower and its low political and military profile. The occu-pation by Russia of the islands to the northeast of Japan alsoremained a sensitive issue at the end of the century.

T The "hollowing out" of the Japaneseeconomy, which saw Japanese directinvestment in Asia increase tenfold between1985 and 1990, added a new dimension toJapan's economic ties to other countries inthe region, which had previously beendominated by imports of raw materials, andexports of products manufactured in Japan.

THE WAR IN ASIA 1931-45 pages 234-35 2 5 3

THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINASINCE 1949

A China's population almost doubledduring the period of Mao's leadership(1949-76), although the period of theGreat Leap Forward (1958-62), whichcaused severe famine in some areas, showsup as a slight slowing of the growth rate.Attempts were made during the 1970s torestrict the size of families, culminating in alaw passed in 1979 (generally considered tohave failed) limiting married couples to onechild. As in many other developingcountries, a falling death rate has ensuredthat, despite a reduced birth rate, thepopulation continues to grow - officially ataround 1 per cent per year, although thistakes no account of a large, mobile,unregistered population, mainly to be foundin rural China. The country's urbanpopulation has grown steadily as aproportion of the total, except for the periodof the Cultural Revolution (1966-72), whenit declined.

^ China has the largest population of anycountry in the world. At the time of Mao'sdeath in 1976 the majority were clustered,as they had been for centuries, in the richagricultural regions, with around 20 percent of the population in cities.

A In the mid-1960s Mao Zedongsuccessfully reasserted control over theCommunist Party by empowering Chineseyouth in his Cultural Revolution. The LittleRed Book, containing Mao's political axioms,became a symbol of revolutionary zeal, notonly in China but also around the world.

he People's Republic of China was founded on 1October 1949, following the defeat of the Japaneseinvaders and the unification of the country under a

single government. The immediate priorities were to estab-lish law and order, implement land reforms, balance thestate budget, stabilize prices and nationalize industry.Having gained public support for these essentially national-istic policies, from the mid-1950s onwards Chairman MaoZedong began to introduce communist reforms. Initially,the communist programme was heavily influenced by theSoviet Union, with whom China had signed a pact in 1950.It involved wholesale rural and urban collectivization, withthe assets of large property owners being taken over by thestate. Those of smaller property owners were given to com-munes, supervised by the Communist Party. Other radicalsocial measures were passed, including giving women equallegal status with men in terms of marriage and employment.

THE FIVE-YEAR PLANSThe main thrust of the programme was industrialization,formalized into a series of five-year plans. During the first ofthese (1953-58), over 100 industrial projects were set upwith the help of machinery and expertise from the SovietUnion. The aim was to create an economy that did notdepend on imports from capitalist countries, and the policywas initially effective in changing China's economy fromone based on agriculture to one based on heavy industry.

In his second five-year plan, known as the "Great LeapForward", Mao rejected the Soviet model and developed aspecifically Chinese communism based on peasant labour.He instructed collectives to build and run small-scale ironand steel foundries. However, not only did it prove impossi-ble to produce metal of an acceptable standard, but thescheme also took labour away from the agricultural sector.Production of food dropped as a consequence, leading to anationwide famine that claimed tens of millions of lives(bar chart 1). The plan also seriously backfired in the indus-trial sector, with production dropping by up to 50 per cent,forcing the government to de-industrialize the economy.China's economic growth was temporarily halted.

THE CULTURAL REVOLUTIONChairman Mao's main concern was to promote his ideologyand increase his power, leading him into conflict with other,more pragmatic, members of his government, in particularPresident Liu Shaoqi. Mao launched his Cultural Revolutionin 1966 in an attempt to revive his control over the partyand society. Party officials, teachers and factory managerswere among those in authority who were verbally and phys-ically attacked, imprisoned or sent to work in labour camps.There they were joined by millions of young people, whoseschools and universities had been closed. Industrial pro-duction was severely disrupted, and the economy broughtnear to bankruptcy during the ten-year process.

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FOREIGN POLICY UNDER MAOImmediately after the revolution of 1949, China allied itselfwith the Soviet Union and gave assistance to independencemovements in Southeast Asia. It also provided troops toassist the North Koreans in their efforts to unify theircountry in 1950, and aided the Vietnamese in their battleto expel the French from Indochina in the early 1950s.From the early 1960s, however, China's relations with theSoviet Union soured, mainly due to Khrushchev's repudia-tion of Stalin's policies. At the same time, China also lostsupport among the neutral, newly independent countries ofthe developing world when it crushed anti-Chinese opposi-tion in Tibet, and entered into a border dispute with India.The Cultural Revolution was a period of intense xenopho-bia, but in 1971 Mao, in an apparent reversal of policy,welcomed President Nixon's initiative to normalize relationswith the United States. In October of that year the People'sRepublic of China replaced Taiwan in the United Nationsand re-entered the world stage.

CHINA AFTER MAOMao's death in 1976 initiated a power struggle between the"Gang of Four" (which included Mao's widow) and DengXiaoping. Deng emerged the victor, and during his era(1978-97) pragmatism prevailed. Faced with a rapidlyexpanding population (map 1 and bar chart), economicgrowth became the stated priority, to be brought about by apolicy of "four modernizations" (in industry, agriculture,science and technology, and the army). China's industrialoutput rose steadily during the 1980s, and increased dra-matically during the 1990s by over 20 per cent each year. Inthe agricultural sector China made important gains throughthe reform of farming practices. Although the total land areacommitted to agriculture remained much the same, yieldsimproved enormously (map 2).

From 1978 onwards state ownership and planning werereduced, "the market" was respected and nurtured, andproperty rights were gradually defined. Communes wereabolished and citizens permitted to run private businessesand engage in market activities. Instead of attempting tomake China self-sufficient, the new regime adopted anexport-led growth strategy, copied from other newly indus-trialized countries.

DEMANDS FOR DEMOCRACYAs China became more open to Western economic princi-ples and ideology during the 1980s, many people, inparticular students, began also to demand modernization ofthe political system. Although the paramount leader Dengresisted these demands, Communist Party GeneralSecretary Hu Yaobang was more open to change. Hu's demo-tion and subsequent death triggered pro-democracydemonstrations in many major cities during April 1989.Throughout May demonstrators occupied the vast Tian-anmen Square in Beijing, demanding Deng's dismissal andpolitical reform. With the world's press watching, theChinese government held back for several weeks. However,overnight on 3-4 June the army moved in to disperse thedemonstrators. Hundreds were killed and thousands wereinjured; arrests, imprisonments and executions followed.The international outrage that resulted soured China's rela-tions with the outside world and briefly affected foreigninvestment , which had, since the 1980s, been channelledthrough China's "Special Economic Zones" and "opencities" (map 3 and bar chart).

In July 1997, shortly after Deng's death, Hong Kong wasreturned to Chinese rule (and designated a "SpecialAdministrative Region"). Later that year the Chinese gov-ernment decided to privatize state-owned enterprisesoperating at a loss - roughly 30 per cent of the state sector.With mounting unemployment from the collapse of thepublic sector, the trend towards a semi-capitalist societycontinues in uneasy contrast to the strict party control,creating a great deal of uncertainty about the political andeconomic future of the world's most populous nation.

A The majority of industrial production inthe 1980s was to be found along theYangtze River, which was used to transportraw materials and finished goods to internaland foreign markets.

T Communist China represents a vastpotential market to the capitalist economies.Special Economic Zones, in which a freemarket economy (including foreign goodsand capital) could function, were established

by the Chinese government in the 1980s asan experiment. They were followed by"open cities", initially along the coast butlater inland, where foreign businesses havespecial access to the vast Chinese market.

THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA 1911-49 pages 224-25 2 5 5

AFRICASINCE 1939

uring the heyday of colonial power in Africa in the1920s and 1930s, it looked as though Europeancontrol would survive into the far distant future

(pages 206-7). The ease with which African countries weredrawn into the Second World War highlighted their statusas European possessions. North Africa became a majortheatre of conflict, and many African soldiers served withthe Allied armies. African colonies were also used as majorsources of vital raw materials and foodstuffs.

The war stimulated economic development in Africa.Industrialization and urbanization increased markedly, asdid the production of foodstuffs and cash crops by Africancultivators. In political terms, the refusal of the colonialpowers to extend to Africa the democratic ideals for whichthey had fought in Europe sharpened Africans' sense of theinjustice of colonialism. The independence granted to Indiain 1947 and other countries in Asia around this timeencouraged African nationalists to press for similar politicalfreedoms in their own continent. The rise of an educatedAfrican elite, which took advantage of new economic oppor-tunities and skill shortages in the colonial bureaucracy,

provided a social base for the developing anti-colonial con-sciousness. A growing desire for independence was alsofuelled by the fact that in the years immediately after thewar, Britain and France relied on African raw materials,purchased at artificially depressed prices, to rebuild theirshattered economies. Between 1945 and 1951 Britain madea profit of £140 million on commodity transactions with itsAfrican colonies, while injecting only £40 million in returnvia the Colonial Development and Welfare Acts.

THE GAINING OF INDEPENDENCEThe speed with which the process of gaining independenceswept through Africa was in many ways a mirror image ofthe hasty 19th-century partition of Africa among the colo-nial powers. Libya gained independence in 1951 largelybecause the United Nations could not agree who shouldcontrol the former Italian colony. The vast British-con-trolled Sudan gained independence in 1956, as did theFrench colony of Tunisia. It was, however, the achievementof independence by the Gold Coast as Ghana in 1957,spearheaded by the charismatic pan-Africanist leader

^ With a few exceptions the boundaries ofcolonial Africa, hastily drawn in the "scramblefor Africa", continued into modern times asthe boundaries of the new independentstates. Wars in southern Sudan, Zaire and theBiafran region of Nigeria all failed toestablish new states. Eritrea (granted toEthiopia by the British in 1962) finally brokeaway from Ethiopia after a protractedstruggle. The self-proclaimed SomalilandRepublic was less successful at establishingindependence. Western Sahara was occupiedby Morocco after being grantedindependence by Spain in 1976.

T For most states theestablishment of a democraticsystem with multi-party elections hastaken several decades, and a few haveyet to achieveit. In the late 1980s and 1990s,however, the increasingly strong grassrootssupport for democracy was reinforced by thecollapse of communism in the Soviet Union (towhich many autocratic African leaders hadlooked for ideological inspiration) and bypressures from the International MonetaryFund and the World Bank to democratize as acondition of loan extensions.

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* Under the "apartheid" system in SouthAfrica (1948-91) many black Africans wereforced to live in "homelands" often far fromthe main labour markets. Violent protests,coupled with international economicpressure, eventually led to President deKlerk's announcement of the abolition ofapartheid and the release from prison of theANC leader, Nelson Mandela, in 1990.

Kwame Nkrumah, that sparked off a wave of decolonizationin sub-Saharan Africa. Ghana provided a model of relativelypeaceful transition to independence, while in French-con-trolled Algeria and British-occupied Kenya protracted andbitter insurrection was waged by the National LiberationFront (FLN) and the Mau Mau movement respectively.

Most African colonies gained their independence in theyears between 1956 and 1962 (map 1). In some instancesthe process was hurried and unplanned. The hastily grantedindependence of the Belgian Congo (Zaire, now DemocraticRepublic of Congo) in 1960 resulted in the attemptedseces-sion of the copper-rich southern region, giving rise topolitical instability and foreign interference that character-ized the post-independence history of many African states.

Not all African countries gained independence duringthe first wave of national liberation. The Portuguese coloniesof Angola and Mozambique finally won independence onlyafter a coup d'etat in Lisbon in April 1974, led by GeneralSpinola. The struggle in Guinea-Bissau (which had claimedits independence a year earlier) persuaded Spinola that thePortuguese African empire could no longer be sustained. Abitter guerrilla war was also fought in Southern Rhodesia(Zimbabwe), against a white colonial regime that had pro-claimed its own independence from Britain in 1965. AfterZimbabwe, where black African rule was finally achieved in1980, the only African states still to achieve freedom forblacks were South Africa and its illegally occupied satellite,Namibia (map 3). Although Namibia won its independencein 1990, black South Africans did not vote in a national elec-tion until 1994, when Nelson Mandela (who had spent 27years as a political prisoner) became president (map 4).

AFTER INDEPENDENCEThe upsurge of African nationalism, which brought so manycountries to independence, also engendered huge optimismand unrealistic expectations of rapid economic development.All too often, however, the new governing elites were ill-prepared for office, ambitious development plans went awry,expectations of rapid industrialization were misplaced, andpolitical instability became endemic. During the Cold War(pages 244-45) competition for influence in Africa becamean important proxy for global conflict, and former colonialpowers could exert great economic power. Foreign aid wasoften provided in the form of military training and weaponry,rather than as a stimulus to economic development.

When the Ghanaian president Nkrumah was deposed ina coup in 1966, much of the early optimism for independentAfrica began to wane. The civil war that broke out whenBiafra sought to secede from Nigeria in 1967 highlighted theproblems of military involvement in civil affairs, and of thefailure of nationalism to supersede ethnic divisions.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTSMany African countries have made solid economic andsocial progress since independence, with massive provisionof primary and secondary schooling, and the extension ofbasic health facilities. Growing networks of rural clinics andthe availability of cheap drugs have done much to enhancelife expectancy and improve infant mortality figures,although the rapid spread of AIDS in some regions is effec-tively undoing many of these advances (pages 274-79).

Following independence, countries such as Ghana andMozambique adopted the rhetoric of socialist transforma-tion; others, such as Kenya and the Ivory Coast, proclaimedthe benefits of capitalism, while Tanzania sought to disen-gage itself from the world economy and concentrate onautonomous development. Although none of theseapproaches proved particularly successful in the long run,many African countries made considerable economicprogress in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of relatively highcommodity prices. In Nigeria the exploitation of oil reservesprovided spectacular wealth for its political elite.

Africa suffered a major economic crisis in the 1970s asa result of massive increases in oil prices (pages 272-73).Falling commodity prices and increased interest ratesseverely affected those economies that had been encouragedto borrow on international markets. By the mid-1980ssome, such as Zambia, were so stricken by debt that theyhad no option but to accept "structural adjustment pro-grammes" proposed by the International Monetary Fund,remodelling their economies on free-market principles andenforcing cuts in social provision. As a result, large parts ofAfrica experienced economic stagnation during the 1980s.

In the early 1990s optimism replaced the euphoria ofthe independence era and the gloom of the 1980s, as severalcivil wars ended and democratic elections were held acrossthe continent. As the decade wore on, however, such opti-mism appeared ill-founded as bitter ethnic and religiousdisputes and civil wars broke out and the prospect ofdemocracy and development receded in several key states.

A The first national elections in whichblack South Africans could vote were held inApril 1994. Protests in Bophuthatswana(map 3) and KwaZulu Natal had threatenedto disrupt them, but they passed offrelatively peacefully. The African NationalCongress was victorious, taking 63 per centof the vote, and Nelson Mandela was swornin as President of South Africa in May 1994.

A A wave of popular support broughtNelson Mandela to power in the 1994elections. Many material and socialadvances have been made, althoughexpectations of rapid improvements in livingconditions for the black majority populationhave proved somewhat over-optimistic.

THE PARTITION OF AFRICA 1880-1939 pages 206-7 2 5 7

LATIN AMERICASINCE 1945

A The main Latin American economieshave met with mixed success in theirattempts to industrialize. While Brazil andColombia managed to improve theirmanufacturing output in the 1950s (andMexico produced a spurt between 1960and 1980), output for Argentina and Chileremained static as a percentage of GrossDomestic Product.

^ The main exports of many countrieschanged during the second half of the 20thcentury. Oil products, already by 1955 themain source of revenue for Venezuela, alsorepresented over 40 per cent of totalexports from Ecuador and Mexico by 1990.In most countries, however, with the notableexception of Brazil, raw materials continueto be the main exports, pointing to LatinAmerica's consistent failure to increase itsmanufacturing output.

:

ince 1945 the countries of LatinAmerica have adopted two quite distinctstrategies of economic development, the

first embracing the idea that the state is the mosteffective engine of growth, and the second reject-ing this idea. Until the mid-1960s, most countrieswere committed to state-led industrialization, withthe aim of achieving virtual self-sufficiency inboth manufacturing and heavy industry. Economicnationalism was a dominant ideology, with govern-ments seeking to maximize their control over theproduction of raw materials. During the 1980s, largely asa consequence of the debt crises that had by then hit allthe Latin American economies, neo-liberal orthodoxy sweptthe region, with most governments implementing policiesof deregulation, privatization, encouragement of foreigninvestment and fiscal reform.

FAILURE OF INDUSTRIALIZATIONThe industrialization strategy, known as import-substitutionindustrialization (ISI), which had been officially endorsed bythe United Nations Economic Commission for Latin Americain 1949, was deemed a failure within 15 years (pages272-73). By the mid-1960s government-led industrializationhad not only failed to generate the anticipated number ofjobs, but had also not progressed much beyond light industryand proved unable to compete effectively in local or inter-national markets. This was partly the result of weaknesseswithin the strategy itself, which required Latin Americancountries to import more in the short term in order to estab-lish their industries, leading to balance of paymentsdifficulties. Another problem was Latin America's enduringtechnology and communications gaps: the more developedeconomies produced goods that were not only of higherquality, but were also marketed with far greater sophistica-tion. The politicization of economic decision-making byLatin American states also had a detrimental effect on indus-trialization policies. Some Latin American countries didbecome more industrialized during the 1950s and 1960s(bar charts), but were still far more dependent on theproduction of raw materials (map 1) than had been antici-pated when the policy of ISI was launched.

INTERNATIONAL DEBT CRISISThe failure of the industrialization model was one factorcontributing to the debt crises that hit Latin America in theearly 1980s. The major cause, however, was the disintegra-tion, during the 1960s, of the system of internationalfinancial regulation that had been in place since 1944.When oil price rises in 1973 led to a surplus of "petro-dollars" on the international lending markets, LatinAmerican countries, which had never succeeded in gener-ating internally the levels of capital needed for development,appeared to be ideal targets for loans. With economicdepression and inflation in the developed economies, theseloans were effectively set at very low, or even negative,interest rates. When US interest rates rose dramatically inthe early 1980s, Latin American countries found themselves

unable to service their debts. As bankers hastened to callon the services of the International Monetary Fund (IMF),most debtor countries were obliged to sign stabilizationagreements with the IMF as a prerequisite to the resched-uling of their debts. The aim of these agreements was to cutspending and increase exports, thereby maximizing revenueto make interest payments.

The 1980s are referred to as "the lost decade" of LatinAmerican development; economies contracted and therewas a huge net transfer of capital out of the region. In the1990s capital investment returned to Latin America, and itis now accepted that much of the original debt will probablynot be repaid. However, Latin America could continue to beburdened by interest payments well into the 21st century.

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POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTSPolitically, this period saw the introduction of full suffragethroughout the region, with women granted the vote by themid-1950s in all Latin American countries, and literacy qual-ifications gradually dropped, although not until as late as1989 in the case of Brazil. However, for much of the periodthe democratic process was compromised at best, and com-pletely suspended at worst. Most countries were governed bypopulist regimes in the 1940s and 1950s which, althoughelected, tended to use dictatorial methods once in power.Argentina's Juan Domingo Peron (1946-55) was the classicexample. Nevertheless, populism generated a level of politi-cal activity among the masses which alarmed those in theproperty-owning classes to such an extent that most wereprepared to support military coups in the 1960s and 1970s.

Such fears were shared by US governments, whose long-standing concerns about political stability in Latin Americahad acquired particular urgency because of the Gold War(pages 244-45). During the late 1940s and 1950s, theUnited States had taken care to consolidate not only itspolitical alliances with Latin American nations (in theOrganization of American States) but also its military links,with the USA supplying most of Latin America's weaponsand military training (map 2). In these circumstances, themilitary coups of the 1960s and 1970s ushered in regimesinfluenced partly by the management techniques and

A In the second half of the 20th centurythe United States extended its sphere ofinfluence beyond its immediate neighboursin Central America and the Caribbean intoSouth America. It used not only covert but

also occasionally direct methods in itsattempts to quash what it perceived asattempts by the Soviet Union to gaina foothold in the USA's "backyard" throughcommunist-inspired political movements.

The variety in ethnic composition in thecountries of Latin America is striking. Evenadjacent countries such as Argentina, Boliviaand Paraguay have markedly differentethnic proportions. In many parts of theregion the broad term "Latin" appearssingularly inappropriate.

development economics learned either in the USA itself orat national military training schools based on the US model.The military leaders argued that only they were capable ofbringing about national development and that the demo-cratic process would have to be suspended until the countrywas "ready" for electoral politics. The repression for whichthese regimes became internationally condemned wasdirected initially at the Left, but gradually acquired arandom nature designed to inhibit all political activity, evenamong moderates.

Although the military stayed in power for lengthyperiods of time (Brazil 1964-85, Argentina 1976-83 andChile 1973-89), they proved no more able than civilianpoliticians to achieve economic development; indeed, theypresided over the debt crises (and, in many cases, theirpurchases of weapons contributed substantially to thedebt). A process of redemocratization began in LatinAmerica in 1980, and by 1990 there were elected govern-ments in every country of the region apart from Cuba.

Most Latin American countries are still some distanceaway from being fully consolidated liberal democracies,with civilian control over the military, respect for civilrights, freedom of the press and broadly representative polit-ical parties. The process of resisting authoritarianismstimulated a wide range of grassroots organizations con-cerned with, for example, human rights, women's issues andneighbourhood self-help, many of which are reluctant to berecruited by formal political parties. The question of ethnicidentities (map 3) also assumed an increasing significance,particularly in 1992, the quincentennial of the European"conquest", "discovery" or "encounter" with the Americas.(The very term used to describe Golumbus's landing in 1492is highly disputed, reflecting the intractability of the ethnicand cultural issues at stake.) There is still a potentially dan-gerous gap between the concerns of the people and of thegovernment in many Latin American countries.

A Between 1956 and 1958 Fidel Castro leda revolutionary movement in Cuba thatresulted in the overthrow of the dictatorFulgendo Batista on 1 January 1959 andthe installation of Castro as president.

LATIN AMERICA 1914-45 pages 226-27 2 5 9

THE MIDDLE EASTSINCE 1945

An estimated 70 per cent of the world'sknown oil reserves are located in the MiddleEast and North Africa, mainly on theArabian Peninsula and in the Gulf. Theresultant oil boom facilitated the rapidmodernization of the producer states. It alsocontributed to the economies of thesurrounding countries, partly through thewages paid to immigrant workers in SaudiArabia and the Gulf states, and partlythrough the provision by the oil-richcountries of politically motivateddevelopment aid. The Organization ofPetroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC),whose most powerful members are in theMiddle East, attempts to ensure a minimumprice for crude oil by controlling supplies.

uring the Second World War calls for independenceintensified from the territories in the Middle East heldas mandates by the French and British. Lebanon and

Syria, both promised independence by the Free French gov-ernment during the war, achieved this status by 1946 (map 1\In the same year Britain relinquished its mandate of Jordan, butwas left with the growing problem of its mandate in Palestine.

THE NEW STATE OF ISRAELThe issue of whether a Jewish State should be established inPalestine became a focal point of international politics. Themass influx of refugees from Nazi-occupied territories and thesuggestion by the United Nations that Palestine be divided intoArab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem as an internationalzone (map 2), exacerbated tensions (already high in the inter-war period) between the growing Jewish immigrantcommunity and the Arab inhabitants of the region. A civil warbetween Arabs and Jews from November 1947 escalated intoan international war between Israel (proclaimed a state on 14May 1948 after the British withdrawal) and the Arab countriesof Egypt, Syria and Iraq, which ended in an Arab defeat andarmistice agreements by July 1949.

More than 700,000 Palestinians fled to refugee camps in theWest Bank and East Jerusalem (the remaining Arab parts of

Palestine, annexed by Jordan in 1950), Gaza (ocupied byEgypt), and other Arab countries. Further wars between Israeland its neighbours, in 1956, 1967 and 1973, resulted in theIsraeli occupation of the West Bank, East Jerusalem, Gaza Stripand the Golan Heights (map 3). Sinai, captured by Israel in1967, returned to Egypt under a peace treaty in March 1979. In1964 the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) began aguerrilla war against Israel, and in 1987 a Palestinian Intifada(uprising) increased pressure on Israel to negotiate. The OsloAgreement (1993) led to limited self-rule for the Palestiniansin parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip vacated by Israeliforces. Peace talks stalled over the status of the city ofJerusalem, terrorist attacks on Israel, and the continued build-ing of Jewish settlements in the occupied territories. In 2000,after the breakdown of peace negotiations, a second Intifadabroke out and the cycle of violence continued. However, inJanuary 2005 a new president of the Palestinian Authority waselected on a platform of renewing the peace process.

EVENTS IN LEBANONThe Arab-Israeli conflict spilled into neighbouring Lebanon,where a delicate balance of power existed between MaroniteChristians, and Shi'ite and Sunni Muslims. After 1970,Lebanon became a major base for Palestinian guerrilla warfare

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against Israel. In 1975 civil war erupted between the ChristianPhalangists, backed by the Israelis, and Lebanese Muslims,backed by the Syrians and the PLO. Although the Agreementof Ta'if (1989) prepared the ground for peace, fighting onlyended in 1991, with victory for the Muslims. In 2000, Israelitroops withdrew from southern Lebanon, and Syria-backedHizbollah forces moved in.

SOCIALISM, NATIONALISM AND FUNDAMENTALISMDefeat by Israel in 1949 served as a catalyst for the emergencein Egypt, Syria and Iraq of army-led, nationalist, secular regimesthat advocated socialist reforms to improve living conditions forthe countries' rapidly growing populations. Gamal Abdel Nasserof Egypt became the champion of Arab nationalism, advocatingnon-alignment, with some co-operation with the Soviet Union,as a way of curtailing the influence of Western powers in theMiddle East. In 1956 Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canalled to a failed attempt by Israeli, British and French troops togain control of this vital sea-route. Egypt's anti-Westernapproach was opposed by Saudi Arabia, Israel and Iran, whosaw Egypt's growing power as a threat. The conflict was playedout in a proxy war, when Egypt and Saudi Arabia supportedopposing sides in the civil war in Yemen in 1962-69 (map 1).

By the 1970s, most of the major industrialized countriesrelied on oil from the Middle East - a situation that the Arabmembers of the Organization of Petroleum ExportingCountries (map 1) used to their advantage when theyplaced an oil embargo on countries who supported Israel inits 1973 war with Egypt and Syria (pages 272-73).

The tensions arising from the widening social rifts in manyoil-rich states resulted in the emergence of "political Islam",which combined radical religious teaching of Islam with thedesire for social and political change. The Iranian revolution of1979 under Ayatollah Khomeini, with its specifically Shi'itecharacter, encouraged other Islamic opposition movements.These erupted across the Middle East, from Egypt toAfghanistan. In Afghanistan, Islamic groups fought the Sovietintervention of 1979 before engaging in a civil war whichresulted in the Taliban establishing a fundamentalist govern-ment in 1997. In October 2001, the United States launchedair strikes against Afghanistan after the Taliban refused tohand over Osama bin Laden, based in Afghanistan and leaderof the al-Qaeda terrorist network which was held responsiblefor the attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001(pages 242-43). In December 2001, opposition forces, backedby US and British special forces overthrew the Taliban, andformed an interim government.

WARS IN THE GULF REGIONThe Iranian revolution caused particular concern in neigh-bouring Iraq, which feared a similar rebellion from its own largepopulation of Shi'ite Muslims. Both countries also includedlarge Kurdish populations, and Iraq accused Iran of supportingan uprising of the Iraqi Kurds in 1979. The main motive for anIraqi attack on Iran in 1980, however, was to expand into theoil-rich region on their joint border (map 4). At the end of aneight-year war in which an estimated one million people died,neither side had made significant gains. During the war, Iraqreceived aid from most of the Arab states and, shortly beforethe end of the fighting, used chemical weapons against its ownKurdish population, some of whom had supported Iran.

Debts incurred by Iraq in its war against Iran, territorialclaims, disputes over the price to charge for oil, and loss ofprestige were all factors that contributed to Iraq's invasion ofKuwait on 2 August 1990. Ignoring international condemna-tion, Iraq annexed Kuwait and could not be persuaded byUnited Nations sanctions to withdraw. In January 1991 aninternational alliance led by the United States declared war onIraq, initially concentrating on an aerial bombardment of Iraqimilitary installations. On 24 February, ground forces moved in,and by the end of February Iraqi troops retreated from Kuwait.Iraq's subsequent suppression of revolts by Shi'ite Muslims inthe south and Kurds in the north led to UN-backed "no-flyzones" for Iraqi aircraft north of the 36th and south of the 32ndparallels. Rivalries among Kurdish groups, Iraqi intervention,

and repeated invasion by Turkish troops seeking to suppressthe revolt in Turkish Kurdistan by eliminating camps in Iraq,reduced the Kurds to abject poverty. The whole Iraqi popula-tion suffered from punitive economic sanctions, imposed in anattempt to force the Iraqi government to comply with UNrequirements to eradicate its weapons of mass destruction. In2003, US-led forces invaded Iraq over its alleged possession ofsuch weapons and overthrew the regime of Saddam Hussein.A democratically elected government was established in 2005but civil order was still a long way from being restored.

A The UN's proposed division of Israel wasabandoned after Israeli independence inMay 1948 (map2\. Israel also expanded itsterritory in 1967 and 1973, although theSinai region was returned to Egypt in 1979.

T Iraq's desire for further oil-rich territoryprompted its attacks on Iran in 1980 and onKuwait in 1990. Despite heavy casualties,Iraq failed to make territorial gains.

OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1918-29 pages 220-21 2 6 1

THE FORMER REPUBLICS OF THESOVIET UNION SINCE 1989

The Soviet Union was formally abolishedin December 1991 and the Soviet SocialistRepublics became independent states. Mostfelt the need for some degree of continuityin defence, international relations andcurrency, and they eventually formed theCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS).This has, however, enjoyed limited success,with the parliaments of many of the statesanxious to assert their autonomy. TheRussian Federation is divided intoadministrative regions that are directlycontrolled from Moscow and constituentrepublics which, since 1993, have beenentitled to their own constitutions.

Following the passing of discriminatoryethnic laws in many of the new states,around three million Russians returned totheir native country during the 1990s. Therewas also movement between the new statesover the same period. The descendants ofGermans encouraged to settle along theVolga by Catherine the Great in the 18thcentury, but moved to Central Asia by Stalinin the 1940s, migrated back to Germany.Many Asians migrated to Belarus andUkraine in the hope of finding an easy routeinto western Europe.

Mikhail Gorbachev became the General Secretary ofthe Communist Party - and as such supreme ruler ofthe Soviet Union - in March 1985. He appointed

reformers such as Yakovlev, Rykov and Shevardnadze topositions of power, and introduced a policy of perestroika(economic restructuring), which attempted to introducecompetition and market forces into the planned economy.Although heavy industry and collective farms remainedunder state control, private individuals could form co-oper-atives. Non-profitable firms were no longer propped up bythe state, but allowed to go bankrupt. Nevertheless, eco-nomic growth continued to fall, while crime, inflation andunemployment rose. Strikes among miners in 1989 werethe first sign of popular discontent at the Soviet Union's eco-nomic problems, exacerbated by the devastation caused bythe explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in 1986 andthe Armenian earthquake of 1988.

DEMOCRATIZATIONGorbachev also introduced a policy oiglasnost (openness),leading to an almost free press which, ironically, under-mined his hopes of reviving support for a reformedLeninism. Democratization of the Communist Party appa-ratus allowed a choice of candidates in elections, followedby the participation of other parties in the Congress ofPeople's Deputies in the summer of 1989. Finally, Article 6of the Soviet constitution, which guaranteed the CommunistParty a monopoly of power, was abolished in February 1990,and Gorbachev was appointed President of the SovietUnion. His radical approach to internal affairs was matchedby his foreign policy. The withdrawal of Soviet troops fromAfghanistan in 1988-89, negotiations with the United States

to end the arms race, and encouragement of, or tacitsupport for, the countries of Eastern Europe in

their bid to free themselves from Soviet dom-ination in 1989-90 all had a tremendous

effect on world politics. However, while Gorbachev waspraised abroad for his bold foreign-policy decisions, hispopular support at home was waning. The economic crisiswithin Russia in the autumn of 1990 proved a turning point.A "500-day plan" for rapid market reform was rejected byGorbachev, as a consequence of which reformers left thegovernment, and under pressure from political hard-linersand military and industrial leaders, Gorbachev appointedmore reactionary communists to power.

Meanwhile, Popular Fronts to support perestroika wereformed in the republics, enabling dissidents to stand in elec-tions in the Socialist Republics in March 1990, and leadingto non-communist gains in areas such as the Ukraine andLithuania (map 1). By 1989 there were conflicts betweenMoscow and the republics over religion, language andcontrol of the economy, between republics and their ownminorities, such as that between Georgia and South Ossetia,and between the republics of Azerbaijan and Armenia overthe region of Nagorno-Karabakh (map 2). The Baltic Statesdemanded outright independence but Gorbachev was des-perate to keep the Soviet Union together, and force was usedin Vilnius (Lithuania), as well as in Tbilisi (Georgia) andBaku (Azerbaijan). The rise of Russian nationalism allowedBoris Yeltsin, sacked by Gorbachev from the position ofMayor of Moscow in 1987, to return to politics, first as headof the Russian Supreme Soviet and then as democraticallyelected, anti-communist President of Russia, in June 1991.

THE BREAK-UP OF THE SOVIET UNIONGorbachev's plan for a new Union Treaty, which recognizedthe independence of the Baltic States and decentralizedpower to the republics, sparked off a hard-line communist coup against him inAugust 1991 (map 3). Yeltsinmanaged to gain the supportof the Russian parliament

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Ethnic tensions and rivalries in theCaucasus region, held in check by thecentralized control of the Soviet Union,broke out into armed conflicts after thecollapse of the Soviet Union in late 1991.Many smaller regions within the largerrepublics battled to achieve autonomy.Chechenia declared independence fromRussia in 1991, but although Grozny andthe surrounding region was extensively

bombed, the Russian army failed to defeatthe guerrillas and the republic achieved defacto independence in 1997. Georgia wasalso the scene of armed conflict, both forcontrol of the republic (1991-93) and as aresult of successful attempts by the regionsof Ossetia and Abkhazia to assert theirindependence. The republics of Armenia andAzerbaijan waged a bloody war over controlof Nagorno-Karabakh, which Armenia won.

against the rebels, and his defiance was largely responsiblefor the failure of the coup. Thus Yeltsin's position wasstrengthened, and although Gorbachev was reinstated hispower was diminished. The Ukrainian independence refer-endum in December 1991 made the continuation of theSoviet Union untenable, and when Yeltsin and the presi-dents of Ukraine and Belarus met in Minsk to create theCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the SovietUnion collapsed into 15 independent republics (map 1).Gorbachev resigned on 25 December 1991.

YELTSIN'S PRESIDENCYYeltsin, as President of the Russian Federation, inherited theunresolved problems of his predecessor. Although he intro-duced rapid market reform, including privatization, theeconomic decline continued. Inflation reached 245 per centin January 1992, while industrial output slumped. Somepeople made huge profits but savings were wiped out,leading to real hardship among the population. TheOrthodox Church gained support, as did nationalist, right-wing parties such as Zhirinovsky's Liberal Democrats.Yeltsin did not call new elections for the communist-ledSupreme Soviet, now called the duma (parliament), butruled by decree instead. Furthermore, he did not form hisown political party, and neither did the democrats, therebyweakening the democratic system. Yeltsin's banning of theCommunist Party in 1991 was declared unconstitutional,and led to its rebirth under Zyuganov. From December 1992there was open conflict between Yeltsin and the duma, andYeltsin replaced his reformist prime minister with the moreconservative Viktor Chernomyrdin.

Yeltsin won public support in a referendum in April1993, but conflict with the duma continued and inSeptember it was dissolved. The political leaders within theduma retaliated by proclaiming Yeltsin's removal from thepresidency, with the result that in October they werebesieged in the parliament building. Their response was toorder an attack on the Kremlin and other key buildings,leading to a three-hour battle. The army rescued Yeltsin andshelled parliament, leaving 145 dead and over 700 injured.New elections resulted once again in a majority for theNationalists-Communists, but Yeltsin, although in ill-health,won the presidential elections of June 1996. His reformistpolicies failed once again to improve the economy.

A financial collapse in the summer of 1998 discreditedthe market reformers and brought a new conflict betweenYeltsin and the duma, with the latter rejecting Yeltsin'sattempt to restore Chernomyrdin as prime minister. Thefollowing year Yeltsin resigned in favour of Vladimir Putin.

NATIONALIST DEMANDSNationalism, responsible for the break-up of the SovietUnion, also threatened the Russian Federation. Autonomousrepublics, such as Tatarstan and Yakutia (now Sakha),demanded "sovereignty", in which their own laws wouldtake precedence over those of Moscow. Yeltsin's UnionTreaty of March 1992 compromised by granting them con-siderable autonomy, and finally even Tatarstan signed inFebruary 1994. Chechenia split from Ingushetia anddeclared independence after the August 1991 coup. At theend of 1994, Yeltsin sent in Russian troops, which wereforced to withdraw in 1997 (map 2). In 1999 a fresh Russianoffensive was launched against the separatists, but it failedto end their military and terrorist campaign.

Conflict continued on the peripheries of the old SovietUnion. The so-called Dnestr Republic (map 1) rejectedMoldovan rule with Russian military support, and there wasconflict between Russia and Ukraine over the Crimea andover which country should control the ships of the formerSoviet navy, based in the Black Sea. Newly independentrepublics brought in citizenship laws that discriminatedagainst Russian residents, causing a migration of ethnicRussians into Russia (map 1). In Georgia, PresidentGamsakhurdia's extreme nationalism led to his overthrowin 1992. The new president, Shevardnadze, clamped downon civil war and joined the CIS, but lost Abkhazia when theprovince rebelled with Russian support (map 2). Azerbaijanand other oil-rich states in Central Asia attracted Westerninvestment, but a revival of Islamic fundamentalism led tocivil war in Tajikistan. At the beginning of the 21st centurythe future of the region remained uncertain, both ineconomic terms and in relation to democratic reform.

Mikhail Gorbachev, who led the SovietUnion through a period of rapid reform inthe late 1980s, was forced to resign inDecember 1991 when the Soviet Unionbroke up into its constituent republics.

In August 1991 Moscow experiencedstreet fighting unprecedented since the"October Revolution" of 1917. Hard-linecommunists tried to reassert the CommunistParty's monopoly of power and preventPresident Gorbachev's proposed UnionTreaty from being signed, but the people ofMoscow took to the streets in support of thegovernment and barricaded the streetsaround the Russian parliament (the WhiteHouse). Three of them were killed by thearmy, which was divided in its support. WithGorbachev a prisoner in his summer retreatin the Crimea, Boris Yeltsin, then Presidentof Russia, eventually persuaded the armyto stand firm behind Gorbachev, and thusdefeated the communist rebels.

THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPE 1945-89 pages 236-37 2 6 3

EASTERN EUROPESINCE 1989

A Boundary changes, war losses,extermination, migration, expulsions andpopulation exchanges between 1938 and1948 significantly reduced the ethnic mix inall Eastern European countries so that therewas a higher degree of ethnic homogeneityin 1991 than had been the case in 1930.

T The collapse of the communist regimes ofEastern Europe occurred between 1989 and1990. In general, the "peoples' revolutions"were carried off relatively peaceably. Onlyin Romania, where the communist regimeput up a fight, and in the former Yugoslaviadid fighting break out.

hroughout the 1980s the communist regimes ofEastern European underwent a profound crisis. Theyexperienced increasing economic difficulties as a

result of inefficiency, low productivity and declining growth,compounded by the growing environmental crisis affecting,in particular, parts of East Germany, Czechoslovakia andPoland (pages 236-37). The unelected communist govern-ments had always had trouble maintaining their legitimacyin the eyes of their electorates, but since the radical reformsintroduced in the Soviet Union under Mikhail Gorbachevthey could no longer threaten critics with the ultimate sanc-tion of Soviet military intervention.

In the second half of 1989 all the communist regimescollapsed, although they did so in various ways (map 1). Inthe most reformist of the communist regimes - Hungary -the demise was gradual and was managed by the commu-nist government itself. Some of its increasingly radicalmeasures had a profound effect on other communist gov-ernments. The decision, for example, to open the borderswith Austria and let thousands of East German "tourists"depart for the West forced the East German governmentinto belated attempts to save itself by offering concessions ofits own. In Poland, where the Solidarity movement chal-lenged the hegemony of the state as early as 1979, the endof communism was negotiated and brought about by partialelections held as a result of negotiations between govern-ment and opposition. The East German and Czechoslovakregimes both collapsed as a result of public demonstrations.In Bulgaria the government fell following a coup, whichoverthrew Todor Zhivkov, and in Romania the end of theCeausescu regime was brought about by a violent uprising.

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC TRANSITIONAll the post-communist countries embarked on the con-struction of a democratic system of government and theconversion of a centrally planned economy into one thatwas market-led. One of the major problems was their lack ofexperience of democratic government. Although some insti-tutional and legal changes, such as a multiparty system andfree elections, were introduced quite rapidly, the develop-ment of a democratic political culture proved more difficult.The bulk of the electorate still expected the state to guar-antee not just security but also their well-being. Increasinginflation and declining Gross Domestic Product (map 2)caused most people's living standards to decline. In this eco-nomic climate former communists gained significantpopular support with promises to minimize the negativeconsequences of economic change.

The problem was how to liberalize and privatize aneconomy under conditions of relative instability. Major dis-agreements existed between the proponents of thegradualist approach and those who advocated the "short,sharp shock treatment" involving simultaneous radical lib-eralization of prices and large-scale privatization. Somecountries - particularly those in which former communistsstill held power, such as Romania and Bulgaria - adopted aslow and often inconsistent approach; others, such asPoland, adopted a radical path. Although the West providedsome financial and technical help, this was not on a scaleto make a significant difference, except in East Germanywhere, after the reunification of Germany in 1990, the tran-sition process was financed by a massive influx of WestGerman capital.

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A further aim of the post-communist countries was a"return to Europe". In this respect Poland, Hungary and theCzech Republic proved more successful than countries suchas Bulgaria and Romania. Not only were they in the firstwave of new entrants to NATO in 1999, but were among thefirst group of applicants from Eastern Europe to be acceptedinto the European Union in 2004 (map 2).

THE EFFECTS OF NATIONALISMDevelopments since 1989 have largely completed theprocess - started in the late 19th and early 20th centuriesand accelerated by the Second World War - of the creationof ethnically homogeneous states in the region (bar chart).In post-communist Czechoslovakia the national grievancesfelt by many Slovaks resurfaced and were compounded bythe fact that the process of industrialization undergone bythe region of Slovakia since 1948 had left it largely depen-dent on markets in the Soviet Union and other EasternEuropean countries. This placed it at a disadvantage in acountry that was increasingly seeking Western Europeantrading partners. Furthermore, while the Czechs preferred acentralized state, the Slovaks sought a loose confederation.These differences proved intractable and the Czechoslovakstate broke up on 1 January 1993 into two national states:the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

In Yugoslavia the federal system developed by PresidentTito in the 1950s and 1970s gave some credence to nationalautonomy while controlling nationalist self-assertion in theconstituent republics. With the decline of communist power,the economic disparities between the constituent republicsand the pressure for democratization gave rise to national-ist resentments. Demands were made by Slovenia, Croatiaand Macedonia for a large measure of sovereignty, and bySerb nationalists for a larger Serb state (to include parts ofSlovenia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina).

The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, with a Serbpopulation of 2 per cent of the total, achieved independencepeaceably in 1991. The process of independence inSlovenia, which also included a Serb population of around2 per cent, was accomplished in 1991 with only a briefintervention by the Yugoslav (Serbian) army. In Croatia,however, the conflict that broke out in 1991, following theCroatian declaration of independence, was more violent,with the Yugoslav army fighting on behalf of a Serbianminority of around 12 per cent of the total.

The bloodiest conflict occurred in ethnically and reli-giously mixed Bosnia-Herzegovina, where the 1991 censusshowed that 31 per cent of the population were Serb, 17 percent Croat, and 44 per cent were classified as "BosnianMuslim" (although some of these were of no religious per-suasion). An organized campaign of "ethnic cleansing" wasundertaken, principally by the Serbs, with the aim of creat-ing ethnically homogeneous regions in Bosnia as a preludeto its dismemberment and incorporation into Serbia andCroatia. The war, and the terrorist methods used against thecivilian population, resulted in large-scale movements ofpopulations (map 3).

In Kosovo, a region in southern Serbia where the largeethnic Albanian population sought independence, violenceerupted in 1998 between the Kosovo Liberation Army andthe Yugoslav army. Attempts to bring about a negotiated set-tlement failed and ethnic Albanians in Kosovo became thetarget of a Serbian campaign of ethnic cleansing. In June1999, following a NATO campaign of air strikes, Serbianforces withdrew as NATO troops entered Kosovo. The UNthen took over the administration of the province.

Significant Hungarian minorities remain in Romania andSlovakia, and the Bulgarian population is around 10 percent Turk. There is also still a sizeable Roma population inRomania, Hungary, Slovakia and the Czech Republic,although accurate figures are difficult to come by. The Romapeople are subjected to a variety of forms of discrimination,and a significant increase in violent incidents arising fromanti-Roma feelings since 1989 has encouraged many toattempt to emigrate to Western Europe.

*4 The varied approaches taken by theelected governments over the conversion toa free-market economy yielded varyingdegrees of short-term success. In the mid-1990s Poland's more radical approachappeared to have paid off, although at theend of the 20th century it was still unclearas to which country would be the mostsuccessful in the long term. All the EasternEuropean countries were keen to join theEuropean Union, but not all passed the EU'svarious entry criteria, which relate to theeffectiveness of both their market economyand their democratic system.

T In the constituent republics of the formerYugoslavia, democratically electedgovernments sought independence from theSerb-dominated Yugoslav Federation. Thegovernment of Serbia, however, wasanxious to defend the rights of Serbsthroughout the region, and bloody conflictsensued. Despite the Dayton PeaceAgreement of 1995, which divided Bosnia-Herzegovina into a Serb Republic and aMuslim/Croat Federation, in 1998 therewere still around 1.5 million refugees and

(and a further quarter of a millionelsewhere in Europe). In 1999 the crisis inKosovo led to another massive movement ofpeople as over 850,000 ethnic AlbanianKosovans fled from Yugoslavia.

THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPE 1945-89 pages 236-37 2 6 5

UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPINGSINCE 1945

he first purpose of the United Nations, enunciated inthe UN Charter, is to maintain international peaceand security, and its founders originally envisaged the

creation of a UN security force dedicated to doing this.When negotiations between the superpowers - the UnitedStates and Soviet Union - over the creation of such a forcefailed, various alternatives were suggested. "Peacekeeping"emerged as an improvised response to this failure and todeveloping international crises, in particular the 1948 crisisin Palestine. The term is used to describe efforts made bythe United Nations to diffuse civil and regional conflicts.

In 1948 the United Nations Secretary-General, TrygveLie, requested that the Security Council authorize thecreation of the first UN ground force to police the truce in

the Middle East: the United Nations Truce SupervisionOrganization (map 1). In the period 1948-56 other UNtruce supervision forces were established in areas of dispute,although it was not until 1956 that a fully fledged peace-keeping force, the United Nations Emergency Force, wasestablished by the General Assembly to police and monitorthe ceasefire between Egypt and Israel. This provided themodel for future operations: the creation of an impartial UNforce composed of troops contributed by member countries,serving under the UN flag, interposed with the consent ofthe protagonists, and resorting to arms only in self-defence.In such operations, members of the peacekeeping forcehave acted as intermediaries, with responsibility for helpingthe belligerents negotiate a settlement.

UN peacekeeping operations around theworld have included those attempting torestore or maintain peace between warringnations, such as the Iran-Iraq MilitaryObserver Group of 1988-91, and thoseintervening to protect and bring aid to thecivilian population in a state affected by civilwar, such as the Operation in Mozambiquein 1992-95. The UN budget forpeacekeeping increased dramatically in thelast decade of the 20th century, with morethan half its peacekeeping missions beinginitiated during that time while other, morelong-term, operations continued.

1 UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) (June 1948- )2 UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) (Jan 1949- )3 First UN Emergency Force (UNEF I) (Nov 1956-June 1957)4 UN Operation in the Congo (ONUC) (July 1960-June 1964)5 UN Security Force in West New Guinea (West Irian) (UNSF) (Oct 1962-Apr 1963)6 UN Yemen Observation Mission (UNYOM) (July 1963-Sept 1964)7 UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) (Mar 1964- )8 Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic

(DOMREP) (May 1965-Oct 1966)9 UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission (UNIPOM) (Sept 1965-Mar 1966)10 Second UN Emergency Force (UNEF II) (Oct 1973-July 1979)11 UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) (June 1974- )12 UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) (Mar 1978- )13 UN Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan & Pakistan (UNGOMAP) (Apr 1988-Mar 1990)14 UN Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group (UNIIMOG) (Aug 1988-Feb 1991)15 UN Angola Verification Missions (UNAVEM I, Jan 1989-June 1991),

(II, June 1991-Feb 1995), (III, Feb 1995-June 1997), (MONUA) (July 1997-1999)16 UN Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) (Apr 1989-Mar 1990)17 UN Observer Group in Central America (ONUCA) (Nov 1989-Jan 1992)18 UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) (Sept 1991- )19 UN Advance Mission in Cambodia (UNAMIC) (Oct 1991-Mar 1992)20 UN Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL) (July 1991-Apr 1995)

21 UN Iraq-Kuwait Observation Missions (UNIKOM) (Apr 1991- )22 UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) (Mar 1992-Sept 1993)23 UN Operations in Somalia (UNOSOM I, Apr 1992-Apr 1993),

(UNOSOMII,Mayl993-Marl995)24 UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) (Mar 1992- Dec 1995)25 UN Operation in Mozambique (UNUMOZ) (Dec 1992-Jan 1995)26 UN Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) (Aug 1993- )27 UN Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL) (Sept 1993-Sept 1997)28 UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) (Sept 1993-June 1996), (MIPONUH) (Dec 1997- )29 UN Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda (UNOMUR) (Oct 1993-Sept 1994)30 UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) (Oct 1993-Mar 1996)31 UN Aouzou Strip Observer Group (UNASOG) (May 1994-Mar 1996)32 UN Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UNMOT) (Dec 1994- )33 UN Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia (UNCRO) (Mar 1995-Jan 1996)34 UN Preventive Deployment Force (UNPREDEP) (Mar 1995-1999)35 UN Mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina (UNMIBH) (Dec 1995- )36 Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja, and Western Sirmium

(UNTAES) (Jan 1996-Jan 1998)37 UN Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP) (Jan 1996- )38 UN Human Rights Verification Mission in Guatemala (MINGUA) (Jan-May 1997)39 UN Mission in the Central African Republic (MINURCA) (April 1998- )40 UN Mission of Observers in Sierra Leone (UNOMSIL) (July 1998- )

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The island of Cyprus, only 100kilometres (55 miles) south of Turkey butwith 80 per cent of its population Greek-speaking, has been divided in two since theinvasion of Turkish forces in July 1974. TheUN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus, whicharrived on the island in 1964 to avert civilwar, polices the "green line" betweenopposing Turkish and Greek Cypriot forces.

This buffer zone is 180 kilometres (112miles) long and includes part of the northernsuburbs of Nicosia. In 2004 the GreekCypriots rejected a UN plan to reunify theisland because they felt it gave too manyconcessions to the Turks.

There are also two British military baseson the island, under an agreement madewhen Cyprus became independent in 1960.

"CLASSICAL" PEACEKEEPINGFollowing the success of UNEF I, this type of peacekeepingbecame a popular UN policy option. Used in cases ofinter-state conflict, it is known as "first" or "classical" peace-keeping. It attempts to bring about an end to the fighting,separate the opposing forces and encourage the creation of alasting peace. Such operations have usually included thesupply of UN humanitarian assistance to the affected civil-ian population. From the 1960s to the late 1980s classicalpeacekeeping was used in the majority of peacekeeping oper-ations, including that of the United Nations Force in Cyprus(map 2}, deployed on the island in 1964 in order to separatewarring Turkish and Greek Gypriot communities, and theUnited Nations Disengagement Observer Force, sent tosupervise the Syrian Golan Heights in 1974, following theArab-Israeli War.

All of the UN's peacekeeping efforts between 1948 and1990 were, however, constrained by the existence of theGold War (pages 244-45), during which the majority of con-flicts were affected to some degree by rivalry between theUnited States and the Soviet Union, neither of whomwanted UN involvement if this compromised its ownnational interests.

"SECOND GENERATION" PEACEKEEPINGSince the end of the Gold War new opportunities havearisen for UN action in dealing with threats to peace, andthis has stimulated an increase in the form of operationknown as "second generation" peacekeeping. This occurswhen the UN becomes involved in intra-state conflicts in"failed states", where governmental functions are sus-pended, the infrastructure is destroyed, populations aredisplaced and armed conflict rages. In these circumstancesthe UN has performed three different peacekeeping roles.

First, it has acted as a neutral force and honest brokerbetween the warring factions, seeking to encourage thenegotiation and implementation of a peace agreement andto prepare and conduct national elections as a means of fur-thering reconciliation and stability. This was the case withthe United Nations Angola Verification Missions from 1989onwards and the UN mission to Cambodia in 1991-95.

Second, it has interposed itself between warring partiesto ensure the delivery of humanitarian aid to the war-tornpopulation, as in the case of the United Nations Operationsin Somalia in 1992-95.

Finally, "second generation" peacekeeping has beenused to create a stable environment for the re-establishmentof democracy, as was the purpose of the United NationsTransition Assistance Group in Namibia in 1989-90 and theUnited Nations Mission in Haiti in September 1993.

These "second generation" peacekeeping missions havebecome more common since the end of the Gold War, andhave led to an increase both in the number of forcesdeployed and in the total expenditure on peacekeeping(table). In the case of the UN operations in Bosnia (map 3),Somalia and Rwanda, however, the UN did not have theconsent of the various warring factions. Rather, the UN wasforced by the international community to act in the inter-ests of the civilian populations. The UN's hasty reaction tosuch demands resulted in clouded mandates, which madethe implementation of peacekeeping problematic.

Peacekeeping is inherently risky, and almost 2,000peacekeepers have lost their lives since 1948. The UN's rolehas also at times been compromised by a failure to remainneutral, as when a large force, sent to the Congo in 1960 bythe Security Council, lost its impartiality, and becameinvolved in fighting against the Soviet-orientated, democra-tically elected prime minister, Patrice Lumumba. At othertimes failure has resulted from lack of military strength andrestrictions on its freedom of action, such as when theUnited Nations Protection Force was unable to enforce the"Safe Areas" it had created in Bosnia in 1993 (map 3).

UN peacekeeping operations have generally worked wellwhere the task is fairly limited and clear cut - such as thepatrolling of ceasefire lines in Cyprus - but when the situa-tion is more complex, as in Rwanda or Bosnia, the UNpeacekeepers have often found themselves out of theirdepth. Nevertheless, peacekeeping has, in many cases,assisted in ending war and in creating the conditions inwhich the causes of the war can be addressed through diplo-macy, and the economic and social reconstruction of awar-torn country can commence.

Kofi Annan, a Ghanaian diplomat, waselected Secretary-General of the UnitedNations in 1996 - the first black African tohold the position. Among the internationalcrises in which he became involved aspeace-maker in the late 1990s were thosearising from events in Bosnia and Iraq.

The UN became involved in Bosnia, amulti-ethnic constituent republic ofYugoslavia, in 1992, after the Yugoslav(predominantly Serbian) army invaded toprevent the formation of an independentstate. Sarajevo was besieged and the UNattempted to keep the airport open to allowsupplies to be flown in. In an attempt toprotect the Bosnian Muslim population fromattack by Bosnian Serb forces, six townswere nominated by the UN as "Safe Areas".The UN force lacked sufficient militarystrength, however, to implement theirpolicy; with only limited freedom of action itwas forced to withdraw from two of theareas (Zepa and Srebrnica) in the summerof 1995, leaving them to be overrun byBosnian Serbs.

THE GOLD WAR 1947-91 pages 244-45 2 6 7

HUMAN RIGHTSSINCE 1914

During the second half of the 20thcentury democracy was introduced to mostof the countries of Africa, Central Americaand, following the collapse of theircommunist regimes in 1989-90, to thecountries of Eastern Europe and CentralAsia. In addition, democratic processes werereinstated in many South Americancountries, which experienced periods ofright-wing dictatorship during the 1970sand early 1980s. However, in manycountries democracy is only tenuouslyestablished, and human rights abusescontinue; in Africa some of the newlydemocratic countries have slipped back tobeing one-party states, and in others therehas been clear evidence of rigged elections.

The majority of the world's countries nowsupport the International Covenant on Civiland Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by theUN in 1966, which sets out a range ofrights, including freedom of conscience,freedom from torture and slavery, and the

n 1998 the United Nations celebrated the 50th anniver-sary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, thepreamble of which asserts that the "recognition of the

inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights ofall members of the human family is the foundation offreedom, justice and peace in the world." The Declaration,according to the General Assembly of the United Nations,was to be a "common standard of achievement for allpeoples and all nations", and during the second half of the20th century efforts were made to define, articulate andenforce the fundamental rights of all peoples of all nations.

DEFINITION OF HUMAN RIGHTSThe United Nations, chartered in 1945, was not the firstbody to recognize and assert basic human rights. The firstten amendments to the US Constitution, the Bill of Rights(ratified in 1791), outline what early Americans believed tobe their inalienable rights. The League of Nations, the inter-national organization established as a result of the Treaty ofVersailles (1919), drew up conventions on slavery andforced labour. Yet the United Nations was the most powerfulforce within the field of human rights in the 20th century,and the breadth of conventions created in the first 50 yearsof its existence surpassed those of any prior body. Theycover areas such as employment, the rights of children,refugees, development, war crimes and the eradication ofhunger and malnutrition. The earliest conventions weregenerally concerned with civil and political rights, whilemore recently the UN has turned its attention to the rightsof people to economic and social development and to peaceand security.

ELECTIVE DEMOCRACYIn the first half of the 20th century most democratic gov-ernments (those resulting from multiparty elections) wereto be found in countries in Europe and in North and SouthAmerica (map I), although in some of these countries sec-tions of society were still barred from voting for reasons ofethnic origin, gender or income. After the Second WorldWar, and in particular in the last two decades of the 20thcentury, elective democracy spread to the great majority ofcountries in the world, although the fifth of the world's pop-ulation who live in the People's Republic of China were stillnot able to exercise full democratic rights.

It remains to be seen how the spread of democracy willaffect human rights. Governments that can be voted out bytheir electorate are less likely to abuse their citizens (asdemonstrated by the contrast between the democraticsociety of Chile in the 1990s, and the society under the mil-itary dictatorship of Pinochet in the preceding two decades).In countries where political opposition is not tolerated,however, governments often go to great lengths to ensurethat political rivals are silenced, and human rights abuses,including a ban on the freedom of speech, imprisonmentwithout a fair trial, torture and execution, are common.

RELIGIOUS CONFLICTThe right to practise the religion of one's choice is enshrinedin a UN Declaration of 1981, yet persecution on religiousgrounds is still prevalent throughout the world (map 2).Discrimination on the basis of religion often occurs when areligious group is seen as a threat to the status quo becauseof demands for autonomy, although it is difficult to distin-guish it from discrimination on ethnic or political grounds.

An example of an area riven by sectarian conflict isIreland (map 3), where British rule and domination byProtestants was resisted by Catholic Nationalists for cen-turies. A guerrilla war, fought by the Irish Republican Army(IRA) against British forces from 1918, came to a temporaryend in 1921 with the Anglo-Irish Treaty, under which theBritish agreed to a large area of Ireland (in which Catholicspredominated) becoming an independent state (initiallywithin the Commonwealth). Six of the nine northern coun-ties of Ulster remained part of the United Kingdom, albeitwith their own parliament. Although Protestants predomi-nated in much of the north, there was still a sizeableCatholic minority, which found itself under-represented inthe political system, and in the allocation of public housingand of public investment.

These factors led to the development of a Catholic civilrights movement in Northern Ireland in the late 1960s andto clashes between Protestant and Catholic paramilitarygroups and civilians, as a result of which the British armywas deployed in the province. The introduction of intern-ment (imprisonment without trial) in 1971 was seen bymany Catholics as a transgression of their civil and politi-cal rights and an escalation of political violence ensued. On30 January 1972 the British army killed 13 Catholics in

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r i g h t t o d e m o n s t r a t e p e a c e a b l y .


1 Turks v Armenians 1916

2 Kurds v Christians 1933

3 Muslims v Hindus 1947-49, 1992

4 Jews v Muslims 1948

5 Muslims v Shah of Iran 1978-89

6 Shiite Muslims v Sunni Muslims

v Maronites 1982-90

7 Turkish govt v Kurds 1984-

8 Iraqi govt v Kurds 1988, 1991-92

9 Syrian govt v Muslims 1982

10 Sikhs v Indian govt 1982

11 Muslims v Indian govt 1990

12 Christian Armenians v Muslim

Azerbaijanisl990-95

13 Shiite Muslims v Iraqi govt 1992

14 Communists v Muslims 1992-95

15 Muslim factional fighting 1994-

16 Hindus v Christians 1998

what became known as "Bloody Sunday". In March 1972the Northern Ireland parliament was dissolved and directrule imposed from London. The subsequent 25 years,during which over 2,750 civilians, soldiers and RUG officerslost their lives, saw several peace proposals and peace move-ments gain support and then founder. On Good Friday 1998an agreement was brokered between political representa-tives of the two sides, which established a Northern IrelandAssembly with both Catholic and Protestant representation.However, the new assembly and accompanying executivewere subsequently suspended amid further disagreementbetween Protestant and Catholic leaders.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND REFUGEESBetween 1970 and 1995 the world's refugee populationincreased by over 900 per cent to 27 million people. Thiswas partly due to wars (map 2), but also due to peopleseeking refuge from poverty, persecution and economic andenvironmental disasters. Refugees often end up in thepoorest countries, which lack money to support their owncitizens, let alone refugees. These displaced populations area growing concern to the international community.

With so many nations still struggling to develop eco-nomically and politically, the provision of basic humanrights on a world scale seems an immense task. A stronginternational legal foundation has been laid for the respectof human rights. However, the reluctance of the interna-tional community to use economic and military sanctionsagainst governments that abuse human rights - and theineffectual nature of these sanctions - means that world-wide transgressions of human rights are likely to continue.

Religious and ethnic differences haveled to intense conflict in many regions ofthe world, although issues such asinequality of social status, income and land

distribution are frequently strongcontributing factors. Demands forautonomy by minority groups, including theBosnian Muslims and Kosovan Albanians in

former Yugoslavia, and the Kurds in Iraqand Turkey, have resulted in attempts bythe governments concerned to suppressentire peoples and eradicate their cultures.

In 1922, following centuries of religiousconflict, Ireland was divided in two. Catholicspredominated in the Irish Free State, andalso formed the majority in large ruralareas of Protestant-controlled NorthernIreland, which were included in the provincein order to provide it with sufficientagricultural land.

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THE POSITION OF WOMENSINCE 1914

While women in New Zealand werefully enfranchised as early as 1893,elsewhere in the world, with the exceptionof a few US states (map 4), women had towait until well into the 20th century beforethey could vote. In several Europeancountries, including France and Switzerland,women were not given the right to vote untilafter the Second World War.

n 1893 New Zealand became the first country to grantuniversal suffrage to women. Today few women any-where in the world are excluded from political

participation, and most women are able not only to vote innational and local elections, but to run for office as well(map l).ln some countries, such as the United States andmost Western European nations, the female franchise waspreceded by long fights for political equality; in other coun-tries women were granted the right to vote partly inrecognition of the contribution they made towards thestruggle for independence from colonial rule.

Improving women's lives has become an internationalconcern in the 20th century. Women's lives differ from men'sin every area, including education, health and employment,in ways that have not always been readily apparent. Genderinequality means different things in different cultures, butthe use of gender as a category of analysis in measuring thequality of people's lives has greatly changed perceptions ofthe social interactions of women and men.

THE UNITED NATIONS DECADE FOR WOMENThe first United Nations Decade for Women took placebetween 1976 and 1986. During this period the UN beganto compile statistics on women for regional and interna-tional comparison, in relation to such areas as maternity

and reproduction, leadership and decision making, familylife, economics, education and health. These statistics haveserved as a focus for discussions, and have helped to identifyareas needing attention and improvement.

The increased desire in the 20th century to recognizethe importance of women's daily lives has also led to greaterscrutiny of the employment of women and the ways inwhich work is measured. International statistics on employ-ment, for example, indicate the extent to which women areparticipating in paid employment (map 2), and the type ofjob in which they are employed. However, the 1995 UnitedNations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijingstressed the importance of valuing unpaid labour. In theindustrialized world work is often valued by the remunera-tion attached to it. Volunteer, domestic and childrearingwork (unpaid labour that is most often performed bywomen) has been devalued and, in terms of statistics, goneunreported. Activities such as subsistence production andhousework, in which a large proportion of women in devel-oping countries are involved, are now being measured moreeffectively, although progress remains to be made.

Statistical information on women's lives has revealednot only that governments have invested less in femalesthan in males, but that women provide more care to chil-dren and older people, have different access to educationand employment from that of men, and usually work longerhours in and out of their homes throughout their lifetimethan men. In short, women often experience a poorerquality of life than their male counterparts.

Although overall there has been a global trend towardsimprovement in the provision of secondary education forgirls (map 3\ this disguises the fact that within individualcountries attendance at school may be affected by war orby economic difficulties. Furthermore, when assessingimprovements in women's lives it is necessary to look atmore than one variable. Even in countries that awardedwomen the vote relatively early (such as Turkey and Japan),women may still be represented in fewer than 10 per cent ofadministrative and managerial jobs, whereas in countriesthat granted women the vote relatively late (such asSwitzerland, Honduras and Botswana) more than 30 percent of women are in such employment.

One indication of women's status in society is thenumber who are political representatives, specifically thoseholding ministerial-level appointments. There have oftenbeen long periods between a country's enfranchisement ofwomen and the election of the first woman to the nationalparliament. At the end of the 20th century there was stilllittle female representation worldwide. Even in a countrysuch as the United States, where over 50 per cent of women

In Africa, parts of Asia and SouthAmerica women are largely responsible forthe agricultural work done in theircommunity. They not only provide theirfamilies with food, but frequently producecash crops for sale in local markets.

Women make up a very smallpercentage of the workforce in someMuslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia.However, in several countries of Asia andsouthern Africa more women than men arein paid employment.

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were employed in administrative and managerial posts, rel-atively few women had been elected to Congress (map 4).

In order to understand change in women's lives it is nec-essary to appreciate how different aspects of women's livesare interwoven: how a girl's physical and mental develop-ment will affect the woman she will become; how a woman'sstatus in relation to that of a man changes throughout thedifferent phases of her life; and the difficulty in disentanglingthe inter-relationship between education, employment, fer-tility and contraception. For example, in many instancesthere is a clear correlation between a high female literacyrate and low birth rate (bar chart). There seems to be a two-way effect whereby education gives women the informationand confidence to make family-planning decisions, andaccess to contraception gives young women the opportunityto fulfil their educational potential before starting a family.

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONSMany of the changes brought about in women's lives havecome not from governments but from grassroots activists.Although women may be poorly represented worldwide inthe traditional spheres of national politics, women havefound that they can bring about change through participa-tion in professional groups, trade unions, locally electedbodies and a growing number of non-governmental organi-zations (NGOs), of which there are estimated to be 30,000worldwide. Such groups have allowed women's concerns tobe voiced and supported on local, national and internationallevels, enabling them to build the skills necessary to exertpolitical pressure and to collect the statistical informationrequired to persuade governments to act.

Although disparities between the lives of men andwomen still exist, and progress remains to be made in theway in which men and women live and work together, thepast century has witnessed vast changes in the way somemen and women perceive women's roles. Women's rightshave become human rights and the work of women hasbegun to be recognized as having no less an impact onsociety and the economy than that of men.

The first women in the world to be giventhe vote were those in Wyoming in 1869,but female enfranchisement was onlygranted in all US states in 1920, after thepassing of the 19th Amendment. Althoughthe US Constitution did not actually prohibitwomen from standing for office, the firstfemale Representative was not elected until1917. The majority of Congresswomen havecome from the eastern states and the westcoast, although in 1998 Vermont, NewHampshire and Delaware were among thosewhich had still never elected a woman.

There is a strong correlation between thepercentage of a country's women who areliterate and its fertility rate. Women inindustrialized nations, where literacy ratesare much higher, have smaller families thanthose in non-industrialized nations, whereeducational provision is often fairly limitedand that for girls is particularly poor.

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The percentage of girls receiving might receive a primary education, they aresecondary education is a useful measure of then expected to leave school and work ina country's attitude to its female citizens, the home or the fields. Some cultures stilland the role they are expected to play in consider secondary education for girls asociety. In many countries, although girls largely wasted investment.

THE WORLD ECONOMYSINCE 1945

The comparative wealth of the majoreconomies of the world changed during thesecond half of the 20th century. Althoughthe United States maintained its position asthe world's wealthiest nation, countries suchas Argentina, Uruguay and Mauritius, whosewealth was largely based on the export ofraw materials, had slipped out of the "top20" by 1970. The oil-producing countries ofSaudi Arabia and Venezuela both featuredin 1970, but were overtaken in 1990 by thenewly industrialized countries of WesternEurope and East Asia.

The oil crisis of 1973-74 arose largelyas a result of the Arab-Israeli War. TheOrganization of Petroleum ExportingCountries (OPEC) controls the majority ofthe world's oil exports and in 1973 its Arabmembers persuaded the organization toplace an embargo on the supply of oil tothose nations that supported Israel. Thesubsequent shortage of oil to theindustrialized world severely disruptedproduction and oil prices soared.

^he Second World War left the economies of continen-tal Europe, the Soviet Union and Japan ravaged, withmanufacturing and agricultural output severely dis-

rupted. The US economy remained strong, however, and itsstrength became a mainspring of recovery in Europe. TheEuropean Recovery Programme (or "Marshall Plan") pro-vided US investment for Western European economies from1948 to 1951 - effectively speeding up the process of eco-nomic recovery. In giving aid to Germany and Austria, aswell as to the victorious Allied nations, it also engendered amore positive spirit than the one which emerged from thepunitive Versailles agreement of 1919 (pages 220-21).

Go-operation between Europe and the United Statesaided recovery to the extent that by 1951 all WesternEuropean economies had at least recovered to their highestpre-war level of output (pages 238-39) and were entering a"golden age" of growth that was to last until the first oilcrisis in 1973. Japan also received US financial support, andfound its economy boosted by demand for supplies to

support the UN troops in the Korean War (1950-53) (pages252-53). New institutions, such as the InternationalMonetary Fund (for the financial system), the World Bank(for developing countries) and the General Agreement onTariffs and Trade (for the trading system), were designed bythe United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference atBretton Woods in 1944 in order to support the recovery.

In the decades following the Second World War theworld economic situation changed markedly, with countriesthat were wealthy in pre-war times being overtaken bynewly enriched nations (map 1). The United States was,and has remained, the wealthiest economy in the world, andfor the early part of the post-war period it was also the majorsource of technological change; large US companies tooktheir innovations abroad and invested in new plants in lessadvanced economies. In 1975 the total value of such multi-nationals' overseas stock was 4.5 per cent of world output,rising to 9.5 per cent by 1994. About a quarter of the stockis located outside the major industrialized nations, spread-ing new technologies to newly industrializing countries.

THE GOLDEN AGE OF GROWTH 1950-73Between 1950 and 1973 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) percapita grew on average by 4 per cent a year in WesternEurope as a whole. This growth was based on high levels of

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During the 1970s OPEC engineered two again from the mid-1980s onwards assubstantial increases in the price of oil, member nations ignored OPEC's limitationslargely through the tactic of restricting on exports. Fears are growing of a world-supply. The price of oil subsequently dropped wide shortage of oil in the 21 st century.


productive investment, the import of US technologies, andimprovements in the quality of the workforce through edu-cation and training. In France, for example, there was atwo-year rise in the average length of time spent in primaryand secondary education (to 11.7 years), while in WestGermany there was a rise of more than one year (to 11.6years). The increasing integration of the Europeaneconomies through the "Common Market" (EEC) also stim-ulated growth (pages 238-39). By 1970 the 20 countrieswith the highest GDP per capita were mainly to be found inEurope, and the world's wealth was concentrated largely inthe North Atlantic.

Developments in East Asia, however, were just asremarkable, with Japan entering the "top 20" economies forthe first time in 1970. Japan's output had grown by morethan 9 per cent a year since 1950, driven by high invest-ment and the rapid adoption and adaptation of UStechnology. The skills of the workforce had also improvedrapidly, with the average length of time spent in primaryand secondary education rising from 9 to 12 years.

THE SLOWING OF GROWTH RATES SINCE 1973The golden age had been supported by low oil prices andcheap commodities, with the advanced economies becom-ing increasingly dependent on imported fuels as theirincomes rose (map 2). The extent to which this made themvulnerable became all too apparent in 1973 when theOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) - acartel whose Arab members were the most powerful -placed an embargo on oil exports to the nations that sup-ported Israel in the Arab-Israeli War. Oil suddenly becamescarce and prices rose sharply (graph), causing major dis-ruption in the United States and Europe.

A major slowdown in activity followed, and it took theadvanced economies time to recover. They were just doingso when oil prices rose again in 1979. The richer Europeancountries had largely caught up with the United States bythis time, with the result that their growth was beginning toslow from 4 per cent per annum to a figure closer to the USlevel, which had dropped from 2.4 to 1.7 per cent followingthe 1973 oil crisis. With a post-1979 growth rate of only 1.7per cent in Western Europe, unemployment rose sharply. InJapan growth remained high at 3 per cent, although this waswell below the level of 8 per cent during the golden age.

OPENNESS AND GROWTH IN THE MODERN WORLDCountries adopted different growth strategies after 1950.Those in Latin America, many in Africa and some in Asia- such as India - opted for a more self-sufficient approach,substituting home-produced goods for imports. TheEuropeans and many countries in Southeast and East Asia,on the other hand, opted for a strategy centred on opennessto trade - importing and exporting a large share of theirGDP (map 3). The open strategy made it necessary forthese countries to react to external demands, and to adjusttheir methods of production accordingly. As the worldmoved, especially after 1970, beyond simple mass produc-tion towards the specialized production of high-technologyproducts, the countries that had adopted the strategy ofopenness became increasingly successful.

Lessons have been learnt, and trading arrangements thatremove barriers between member nations are becomingmore common. The European Union, one of the oldesttrading blocs (pages 238-39), expanded in 2004 to includeten eastern European states. Its barriers to external tradestimulate inward investment by countries such as Japan.More recently formed regional trading blocs include theNorth American Free Trade Area (pages 242-43) andMercosur (comprising Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay andUruguay). The East Asians have set up an outward-lookingbloc in APEC (pages 242-43), in an attempt to stimulatetrade. However, as they learnt in the economic crisis of1997-98, openness may aid growth, but it can leave theireconomies vulnerable to the vagaries of the world market.

India is one of many Asian countries thathave made huge economic and technologicaladvances since 1945. However, a largeproportion of its population continues tolive without what are regarded as basicamenities - such as running water - in theindustrialized world.

A country's openness to trade iscalculated by adding together the value ofexports and imports (trade), and dividingthe total by its Gross Domestic Product. Incountries such as Argentina (with the lowest"openness" score) trade represents less than12 per cent of its GDP, while others, of whichSingapore is the prime example, importmanufactured parts, assemble them intoproducts, and export the finished goods. Thishas the effect of producing a ratio of tradeto GDP of over 100 per cent.

In general the economies of thosecountries that have been open to trade(especially the smaller nations) haveexpanded most rapidly, as seen in thecontrast between the low growth rates insome countries of South America and Africa,and the high growth rates in Southeast Asia.The western European economies have alsogrown rapidly because trade barriers havefallen within the region, with much ofEurope becoming one large market.

THE GREAT DEPRESSION 1929-33 pages 228-29 273

CHANGES IN POPULATIONSINCE 1945

Population growth is unevenly spreadaround the globe, with many of the moreestablished industrial nations experiencingincreases below 50 per cent since 1950.The populations of many of the newlyindustrialized nations, on the other hand,have increased by over 250 per cent inthe same period. The Gulf states in theMiddle East have seen the largestincreases, mainly because of the economicexpansion arising from their oil revenues.

The increase in global population hasaccelerated rapidly since 1950, although itis projected to slow down somewhat in thesecond decade of the 21st century. Over halfof the world's population now lives in South,East and Southeast Asia.

Dacca, the capital of Bangladesh,increased in size from 1.7 million people inthe early 1980s to over six million by theend of the 1990s.

In the 1950s there were fewer than tencities with five million or more inhabitants,but by the mid-1990s there were over 30cities of this size. The ten largest cities in the1990s all had over ten million inhabitants,and the majority were to be found in thenewly industrializing world.

he human population has more than doubled since1940, with the total at the end of the 20th centurystanding at around six billion (graph). Despite indica-

tions that the rate of growth is slowing slightly, projectionsput the total population for the year 2025 as high as 8 billion.The majority of the growth since the mid-20th century hasbeen in developing countries (map J), with the increase inthese regions contributing over 75 per cent of the world totalgrowth in the 1950s, and over 90 per cent in the 1990s.

2 URBANIZATION OF THE WORLD• City with at least 1 million inhabitants

POPULATION GROWTHThe population explosion of the 20th century is not only theresult of more babies being born, but also of better healthcare, nutrition, education and sanitary conditions, all ofwhich have led to increased life expectancy. These condi-tions have aided population growth even in the face ofdisasters such as famines and epidemics. However, highpopulation growth rates can also put greater pressure onpublic services and lead to a fall in living standards, poornutrition, inadequate education and high unemployment.

The negative aspects of high population growth are com-pounded in developing regions (where over 75 per cent ofthe world's population lives) because of the greater inci-dence of poverty and economic instability. Most countriesdo not have the resources to support such large populationsand the number of people without access to food, sanitation,

Urbanization is one of the mostextreme changes to have affected the worldin the 20th century. In 1900 there were

only a handful of cities with populations ofover a million. By 2000 such settlementswere scattered liberally around the globe.

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safe water and health services increases as the populationgrows. Furthermore, the inability of a country to provide forits citizens' basic needs affects its chances of maintainingor achieving economic and social growth. Balancing thegrowth of the population with the Earth's resources andsociety's ability to provide these basic necessities is crucialfor a healthy population and continued development.

With a growth rate of 0.5 per cent per annum, thehuman population is set to double in 139 years; a growthrate of 1 per cent reduces that time to 69 years, 2 per centto 35 years and 3 per cent to 23 years. Thus, what mayappear as low rates of growth per annum can actually resultin significant increases in population over a few generations.

Recognition of the adverse effects of our burgeoningpopulation assisted in reducing growth rates in the 1980sand 1990s. This was achieved through a combination ofimproved education and the wider availability of contra-ceptives. However, while growth rates in developing regionshave decreased, many will remain as high as 3 per cent ormore in the 21st century. European countries currentlyreflect the lowest rates of growth (mostly below 1 per cent),with some countries - such as Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania,Latvia and Estonia - actually experiencing negative growthrates, leading to population decline. When coupled with themigration of people into cities, population decreases affectrural communities most severely.

URBANIZATION AND MIGRATIONPopulation growth in the developing world has been accom-panied by an increasing number of people living in the citiesof these regions, making urbanization a global phenomenon(map 2). Before the 20th century comparatively few peoplelived in cities, and the urbanization that occurred waslargely the result of industrialization. Urbanization is nowalso a result of migration into the cities of people from agri-cultural areas unable to support them financially.

In the 1960s most of the world's largest cities were inindustrialized countries, whereas now the majority are to

be found in Central and South America, Asia and SoutheastAsia (bar chart). This rapid urbanization of the world hasresulted, among other things, in increasing levels of urbanair pollution and waste, rapid growth in slum settlements,homelessness, insanitary water supplies and vast changesin the landscape (pages 280-81).

Populations have not only moved from rural environ-ments to cities within their own country. During the 20thcentury substantial migrations took place (for economic andpolitical reasons) across national boundaries (map 3). Inmany cases these migrations have resulted in significantminority cultures developing in the host nation. Many coun-tries in the developed world now have multiculturalpopulations, and people with racially mixed backgroundsare becoming more common.

DEMOGRAPHIC AGEINGThe populations of many developed countries are gettingolder as a result of falling birth rates accompanied byimproved health and healthcare, and the same process ispredicted to occur in developing countries, assumingcurrent improvements in life expectancy. At the beginningof the 21st century the number of people aged over 65stands at around 390 million, but is projected to rise to 800million by 2025, representing 10 per cent of the predictedpopulation. Latin American and Asian countries are likely toexperience increases of 300 per cent by 2025 in the numberof people over 65 years old.

This demographic shift towards societies in which olderpeople predominate can be a positive reflection of acountry's health and prosperity, but it also signals the needfor changes in the structure of the labour force, and for ashift away from a youth-centered culture towards one inwhich better health and social services are a priority.Growing and demographically changing populations havemany implications for societies around the world in terms ofstandards of living, trends in health and ill-health, and thequality of the environment.

The world's population has always beenmigratory to a certain extent, but the 20thcentury saw increased movement. This waspartly as a result of economic factors butalso as a result of political pressure andwar. European Jews, an increasing numberof whom migrated to Israel after the FirstWorld War, were forced by German Nazismto seek asylum elsewhere in Europe and inthe United States in the 1930s. Most ofthose who did not escape were transportedto death camps in eastern Europe. Stalinistpolicies in the Soviet Union also resulted inmillions of people being forced into Siberianlabour camps. Since the Second World War,major migrations have taken place in Asiaand Africa as a result of war, and economicmigrants from developing countries havesought work in the economies of NorthAmerica, Europe and the Gulf states.

WORLD POPULATION GROWTH AND URBANIZATION 1800-1914 pages 210-11 2 7 5

PATTERNS OF HEALTH AND ILL-HEALTHSINCE 1945

Child immunization programmes havebeen a major contributing factor in theworldwide increase in life expectancy.

Spending on health care as a proportionof a country's Gross National Productlargely increased during the second half ofthe 20th century. However, in somecountries - among them the United States- this was largely due to private healthschemes rather than government spending.

worldwide increase in life expectancy during the 20thcentury suggested that the human population was the

Jiealthiest it had ever been, and increased healthspending also gave cause for optimism (maps 1 and 2).However, at the end of the 20th century millions of peoplecontinued to live in poverty and had no access to adequatefood, safe water or health services. New infectious diseases,such as AIDS and Hepatitis G, had spread across the world,while epidemics of older infections, such as cholera andyellow fever, had also broken out. Treatment of bacterialinfections - after making huge advances with the introduc-tion of penicillin in the 1940s - had been complicated bythe evolution of drug-resistant bacteria. Health services arenow widely recognized as crucial to economic development,but they are often the first to be axed by governments in theface of economic instability.

IMPROVEMENTS IN HEALTHBetter nutrition, improved access to health care and greaterunderstanding of disease control have allowed people to livelonger, healthier lives. Since the 1950s life expectancy hasincreased by over 50 per cent in developing regions and by12 per cent and higher in industrial countries, to approxi-mately 63 and 74 years respectively. Global immunizationprogrammes have reduced the occurrence of diseases suchas tuberculosis (TB) and measles, and have helped tocontain the spread of many controllable diseases. Althoughthe percentage of infants immunized against TB andmeasles in 1994 was as low as 20 per cent in some Africancountries, estimates for developing regions as a wholeinclude rates of 70-90 per cent. These health measures havecontributed substantially to a fall in infant and child mor-tality rates (map 3), and new and better vaccines arecontinually being developed.

2 NUMBER OF PEOPLE INFECTED WITHHIVI996 (per 100,000)

While the indications are that in theindustrialized world the HIV infection rate isbeginning to stabilize or decline, HIV/AIDSis taking an increasing hold in manycountries of Southeast Asia and in Africasouth of the Sahara. Attempts to curb thespread of the disease are often hampered byinsufficient medical facilities, although adegree of success has been achieved byhealth education projects that put across thesafe-sex message.

The marked differences in lifestyle anddiet between the developed and developingworld are reflected in the major causes ofdeath. Diseases of the circulatory system

and cancers, caused partly by high-fatdiets, account for nearly 70 per cent of alldeaths in the developed world, as against20 per cent in the developing world.

CAUSES OF ILL-HEALTHImproved health for some has been accompanied by greaterill-health for others, and a major cause of this has beenpoverty, which at the end of the 20th century affected overone billion children and adults throughout the world. Lackof funds for basic needs naturally leads to undernourish-ment and higher susceptibility to disease. Some of the mostextreme poverty is to be found in the growing number ofurban centres (pages 274—75), where public health systemscannot keep up with the demands placed on them bygrowing populations.

Both poverty and wealth can lead to ill-health. The highdeath rates from cancers, and heart and circulatory diseasesin developed countries (bar chart 1) are partly due togreater life expectancy, but they are also undoubtedlyrelated to unhealthy lifestyles. While wealthier, industrial-ized countries often have better education, more advancedmedical technology, access to better health care and thehigher incomes to pay for it, their populations as a wholealso tend to have unhealthy diets, indulge in excessivedrinking and smoking, and suffer from lack of exercise. Thepopulations of industrial countries, and of large citiesthroughout the world, are also plagued by pollution, in par-ticular air pollution, which is thought to be causing analarming rise in respiratory problems such as asthma.

In developing countries, by contrast, infectious andparasitic diseases account for the majority of deaths. AIDSis one example of a modern plague. Since the 1980s healthprofessionals have watched the disease spread worldwide,into all sectors of society, but in particular to the poorest,and estimates suggest that in the late 1990s over 33 millionpeople were infected with the HIV virus that is believed tolead to AIDS, of whom 95 per cent lived in the developingworld (bar chart 2). Water-borne diseases (such as cholera,typhoid, diarrhoea and guinea worm disease) are alsocommon. In the 1990s the World Health Organization(WHO) estimated that 78 per cent of people living in devel-oping countries still had no access to safe water. Despiteworld food surpluses, death from malnutrition, often causedby drought, remains a problem in many regions (map 4).

Shortage of water is projected to become an increasingproblem in the 21st century, with populations growing inareas where there is little available. Advances in agriculturalscience and practice are being made in order to make thebest use of limited resources, but international conflictsthreaten to break out over use of river water.

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PREVENTIVE MEDICINEThe promotion of preventive health care was one of thegreatest achievements of the last two decades of the 20thcentury. Instead of just treating illness, health promotionprogrammes help people take steps to improve their overallhealth. Widespread immunization programmes, better edu-cation and nutrition, and increased access to familyplanning services all contributed to reductions in the infantmortality rate during the latter part of the 20th century(map 3), particularly in parts of Africa and Asia.

One area where preventive health practices are fightingfor a stronger foothold is in the use of addictive substances.Nicotine is one of the most widely used drugs; WHO statis-tics indicate that nearly one third of all adults smoke (and

nearly half of all men), with most people starting before theyreach the age of 20. Many developed countries have seen asignificant decline in consumption since the 1970s(although the popularity of smoking among young people,in particular young women, gives cause for concern), butthe tobacco industry continues to seek an expansion of itsmarket. As a consequence, cigarette smoking in industrial-ized countries is on the increase (bar chart 3), and healthdepartments and practitioners expect to see an upsurge insmoking-related heart disease and cancers.

Human health is possibly the most important issuefacing the world in the 21st century in that it is bothaffected by and has an impact on environmental and demo-graphic changes, and on social and cultural developments.

In the period between 1955 and 1995the number of deaths per live births orchildren aged under one year decreased by60 per cent worldwide, from an average of148 deaths per thousand live births to 59.Most of the developed countries managedto reduce their rates by over 60 per centbetween the 1960s and the late 1990s.While the developing world has, on thewhole, not managed such large percentagedrops, in many countries the infant deathrate has been cut substantially in real terms.

^ The average daily consumption ofcalories in the industrialized nations isnearly twice as much as in the non-industrialized nations. The five countriesconsuming least per head of population areMozambique, Liberia, Ethiopia, Afghanistanand Somalia. Periods of drought in sub-Saharan Africa have severely affectedagricultural production, and in many areasthis has been exacerbated by war. In otherparts of the world, such as China, Cambodiaand North Korea, the policies of politicalleaders have been responsible for millionsof deaths from starvation.

T It is estimated that around a third of theglobal adult population smokes. Althoughsmoking is declining in parts of theindustrialized world, in other areas, notablyChina (included in the figures for WesternPacific), smoking is becoming increasinglypopular. The World Health Organizationestimated that in the mid-1990s over 60per cent of Chinese men smoked.

3 CONSUMPTION OF CIGARETTES

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STANDARDS OF LIVINGSINCE 1945

The world's wealth is very unevenlydistributed. The richest countries generateamounts of money that, when divided bythe total population, produce (theoretical)per capita incomes over four times the worldaverage; the equivalent figure for thepoorest nations is one tenth of the average(map /). Within most countries there is alsoa huge differential between the averageincomes of the population as a whole andthat of the poorest 20 per cent (bar chart).

he Gross World Output (the total amount of moneygenerated worldwide) in 1950 was $3.8 trillion. In themid-1990s it was estimated to be $30.7 trillion. This

near-tenfold increase was not, however, distributed evenlyaround the world. At least half of the extra wealth wascreated by the United States, Japan and the countries ofWestern Europe, where per capita incomes (the amount ofmoney generated by a country divided by its population)grew markedly. By contrast, elsewhere in the world eco-nomic underdevelopment and high population growth ratesresulted in per capita incomes actually decreasing.

WEALTH AND POVERTYThe result of this unequal growth is an increasing disparitybetween the national wealth of the richest and the poorestcountries (map 1). Equally noticeable, however, is the dis-parity within a country between those with an incomesufficient to provide a decent standard of living and thepoorest members of society. The gap between rich and pooris most pronounced in the developed countries, where theaverage income of the poorest 20 per cent of the populationmay be as little as a quarter of the average per capitaincome (bar chart).

Poverty can be defined in different ways. In the UnitedStates the "poverty line" is calculated in relation to the costof providing a nourishing diet for one person for one year. In1996, 15 per cent of the US population was considered tobe living below the poverty line, with a disproportionatenumber from the minority ethnic groups. In some EuropeanUnion countries poverty is defined in relative terms, givinga typical figure of between 2 and 6 per cent.

THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEXDespite the wide disparity of incomes within the industrial-ized countries, the majority of their populations have theirmost basic health and educational needs met. In many non-industrialized countries, on the other hand, free (and easy)access to doctors and schools is by no means universal. Thedisparity between the conditions experienced by the popu-lations of the richest and the poorest nations of the worldprompted the United Nations in 1990 to develop an indexthat defined and measured human development. Theincome of a country is one factor included, but figures forlife expectancy and for literacy are also taken into account,

producing an overall score for each country. The HumanDevelopment Report 1997, based on figures for 1994,showed Canada at the top of the scale, scoring 0.96 out ofthe maximum possible score of 1, with Sierra Leone at thebottom, scoring 0.176 (map 2).

LIFE EXPECTANCYThe Human Development Index scores a country on thebasis of the age to which a baby born in that country mightbe expected to live. In so doing it takes into account notonly the general health of the population, but also the infantmortality rate. While the latter has improved dramaticallysince 1960 (pages 276-77), at the end of the 20th centuryit was still over 10 per cent in many non-industrializedcountries, resulting in an average life expectancy at birth ofbetween 40 and 50 years of age. However, those who survivethe early years of life can expect to live well beyond theirforties. For example, in Malawi, where the infant mortalityrate is around 14 per cent, a girl who has survived until 15years of age can expect to live, on average, until she is 62years of age. In many countries improved health care,including vaccination, has resulted in substantial increasesin life expectancy for both children and adults. Programmesto provide access to fresh water are also helping to improvethe health of young and old people alike, and thus not onlyto improve life expectancy but also to raise the quality ofpeople's lives.

EDUCATION AND LITERACYIn 1959 the United Nations General Assembly proclaimedthat "The child is entitled to receive education, which shallbe free and compulsory, at least in the elementary stages."Education became, for the first time in history, the right ofyoung people worldwide. In 1962 the UN went further andattempted to remove barriers to education for such reasonsas sex, religion, ethnic group and economic conditions.Education thus became the right of all people, but theextent to which they are given the opportunity to exercisethat right remains highly variable, depending on where aperson lives and whether they are male or female.

It is difficult to compare the amount of money spent oneducation by the different nations of the world. Expenditureon education as a percentage of Gross National Product(GNP) gives an idea of the importance a country attaches

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to education; it indicates, for example, that some of thepoorest nations of the world recognize how vital literacy isto their economic development and so invest a compara-tively high proportion of their GNP in education (map 3).Their resources are meagre, however, in comparison withthose available to the countries of the industrialized world.

RISING ENROLMENT IN EDUCATIONThe United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO) has estimated that during thesecond half of the 20th century student enrolment rosefrom 300 million to more than 1 billion. Enrolment inprimary education, which begins at any time between theages of 5 and 7 and provides the basic elements of educa-tion, increased markedly, with the result that the majorityof children now receive some form of schooling.

Secondary education (enrolment at ages 10-12 years)and tertiary education (enrolment at ages 17-19 years), ininstitutions such as middle and high schools, vocationalschools, colleges and universities, experienced an evenmore startling increase during the second half of the 20thcentury, with enrolments more than doubling. The take-upof higher education was highest in North American coun-tries, and at its lowest in such areas as sub-Saharan Africaand China. High primary education enrolment levels did notnecessarily mean high levels of post-primary education.

Many countries experienced setbacks in educationalprogress in the 1980s as war and decreased aid and tradeled to cutbacks in government provision of free education.Enrolment in school often drops if parents have to shoulderthe burden of paying for their children's education, and evenwhere education is free, parents may keep their children athome to provide vital agricultural labour, or because theycannot afford to clothe them properly.

At the end of the 20th century education was just oneof the necessities denied to many of the world's population- pointing to the need for a redistribution of monetarywealth and natural resources on a worldwide basis.However, the focus of each country continues to be on howit can best provide for its own citizens and operate in agrowing global economy.

, In many countries half the populationhave not achieved basic standards ofliteracy. Some of the poorest nations spend

over 6 per cent of their GNP on education,but this is still not enough to guaranteefree access to a decent education for all.

The Human Development Index scoreseach country according to how close it is to atarget standard: an average lifespan of 85years, universal access to education and areasonable income for all. It also ranks thecountries of the world according to boththeir development score and their GNP percapita. Some countries (particularly those ineastern Europe and the former SovietUnion) achieve a much higher developmentranking than would be expected from theirGNP per capita, while the developmentrankings of other, comparatively wealthy,countries (in particular many of the Arab oilstates) are lower than expected.

For many of the world's children anoutdoor classroom is the best they can hopefor at school. Many do not even have desks,while books, paper and writing equipmentare all in short supply.

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THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENTSINCE 1945

The emission of carbon dioxide into theatmosphere from the burning of fossil fuelsis believed to increase the naturallyoccurring "greenhouse effect", causing a risein the Earth's air and sea temperatures. Thisis likely to have far-reaching effects on theclimate and possibly lead to an increase insea level of around 50-100 centimetres(19-39 inches) in the 21st century.

The world's tropical rainforests are beingcut down at an ever-increasing rate. Thetimber trade makes an importantcontribution to the economies of manytropical regions, and population growth hasalso created demand for more farmland.Once the trees have been removed,however, the land can only be used for ashort while for agricultural and grazingpurposes before the topsoil becomesnutritionally depleted or eroded.

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uman activity has always had an impact on thenatural environment, but the industrialization,urbanization and a rapidly increasing population of

the last two centuries have had far-reaching adverse effectsnever before experienced. Changes in the environmentrange from those readily visible - such as deforestation,desertification and air pollution or smog - to less visiblephenomena, such as climate change, damage to the upperozone layer, mineral depletion, water pollution, and theextinction of plants and insects. Although these changesbegan to occur before the 20th century, it is only since the1960s that they have been brought to public attention.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTGovernment policies regarding the environment, andvarious environmental conferences since the 1970s, includ-ing the UN Conference on Environment and Developmentin Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (the "Earth Summit"), have

^ Annual average global temperaturesshowed a marked increase during thesecond half of the 20th century, with thethree hottest years of the century occurringin the 1990s.

A The low-lying region of the Ganges deltawould be severely affected by a one-metre(three-foot) rise in sea level. One of themost densely populated regions of the worldcan ill afford to lose fertile land in this way.

brought world leaders together to discuss the state of theenvironment and draw up plans of action. For cultural, eco-nomic and geographic reasons, numerous divergent viewsare held on the state of the environment, but it is generallyagreed that some environmental monitoring and action isnecessary. One of the most important concepts in environ-mental theory at the beginning of the 21st century is thatof "sustainable development" - an approach to the use ofthe Earth's natural resources that does not jeopardize thewell-being of future generations.

GLOBAL WARMINGAmong the most widely publicized environmental problemsin the 1990s was that of global warming (graph). A layer ofcarbon dioxide (CO2) in the Earth's atmosphere traps heatfrom the sun's rays in a naturally occurring process knownas the "greenhouse effect". Although the Earth's averagetemperature has always fluctuated naturally, many believethat emission of CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels such ascoal and oil are increasing the greenhouse effect and havebeen responsible for a rise of around 0.5° Celsius (1°Fahrenheit) during the 20th century.

Emissions of CO2 have risen steadily since the 1950s.The larger industrial countries emit most (map 1), althoughmany are now working towards curtailing, or at least stabi-lizing, their emissions. However, countries that haveindustrialized only recently are reluctant to restrict theirindustrial development or invest in new technology neces-sary to bring about a reduction. Predictions vary as to theamount by which temperatures are set to rise over the nextcentury, and the possible effects of further global warming.It is likely, however, that global warming will cause the tem-perature of the world's oceans to increase and thus expand,causing flooding in low-lying areas (map 2).

Forests naturally absorb harmful CO2, and deforestationalso contributes to rising CO2 levels. Rainforests have beendestroyed at an increasing rate since the 1960s, with those inSouth America and Asia the most heavily affected (map 3).

The nuclear power industry has provided an alternativeto the use of fossil fuels, generating 350 per cent morepower worldwide in 1990 than in its early days in the 1960s.Nuclear power is not without its risks, however. The acci-dents at Three Mile Island in the United States in 1979 andat Chernobyl in the Ukraine in 1986, coupled with the prob-lems associated with the disposal of nuclear waste, have ledmany to see the nuclear industry as one of the major threatsto humans and to the environment.

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INDUSTRIALIZATION AND GLOBALIZATIONAn increasing demand for electricity is made by the world'sindustries. While providing many benefits, such asincreased wealth, employment and self-sufficiency, indus-trialization can also lead to an increase in air and waterpollution, to changes in land use and to rapidly growingurban environments. One of the effects of industrializationhas been increased emission into the atmosphere of sulphurand nitrogen. This falls back to Earth, either as dry deposits,or, combined with natural moisture, as "acid rain" (map 4\not only damaging trees and natural vegetation but alsoaffecting crops and fish stocks in freshwater lakes.

Technological developments, particularly in areas suchas transport and electronic communication, have helped tocreate a global economy in which people, products andinformation can move easily around the world. However,aircraft, ships, trains, passenger and heavy goods vehiclesall pollute the environment, and require large-scale changes

to the landscape. They can also lead to environmental dis-asters, such as oil and chemical spills (map 5).

Oceans are particularly susceptible to environmentaldamage. Since the 1960s regulations have been establishedregarding such activities as offshore oil drilling, navigationand fisheries. The United Nations Convention on the Lawof the Sea, which came into force in 1994, not only givescountries economic control over their coastal regions, butalso the obligation to monitor and regulate marine pollution.

Global efforts are being made to conserve land andprotect ecosystems, but preservation or protection is costlyand may be hard to achieve in countries whose resourcesare already insufficient to meet population needs and whoseeconomies are racing to catch up with those of the richernations. The notion of sustainable development requireschanges in the way people live their lives, and in the relativeimportance they assign to consumption over protection ofthe Earth's resources - changes that are difficult to achieve.

Acid deposition is caused by high levelsof sulphur and nitrogen being dischargedinto the atmosphere by industrial processesand combining with water vapour andoxygen to form acids. The acidic particlescan fall close to the site of their source,causing pollution and erosion of citybuildings, or be carried hundreds ofkilometres away by prevailing winds, toaffect vegetation in rural areas. Despiteattempts by many governments to clean upthe air in their cities, the increasing use ofmotorized transport has contributed tounacceptable levels of pollution in many ofthe world's cities.

<4 Among the many causes of waterpollution are the dumping of industrialwaste and sewage in rivers and seas, and oilspillages from tankers - although thenumber of major oil spillages reducedmarkedly during the 1980s from a high of750,000 tonnes in 1979 to under 50,000tonnes in 1990. Coral reefs (which coverless than 1 per cent of the ocean floor, butprovide habitats for about 25 per cent of

caused by destructive fishing techniques,recreational use, changing sea levels andchemical pollution.

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marine life) are suscepible to damage

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONSINCE 1945

Car ownership is unevenly distributedaround the world, with many families in theindustrialized world owning two or morecars, and millions of people in the non-industrialized world never having theopportunity of travelling in one. In the1960s the United States was still the largestcar producer in the world, but it experiencedno significant increase in output from the1960s onwards and by the end of the 20thcentury had been overtaken by Japan. Ofthe European countries, Germany andFrance are in the same league as the UnitedStates, although the biggest increase inproduction was seen in Spain. The mostremarkable development in car productionwas in Japan, China and Korea, withincreases of over 5,000 per cent betweenthe 1960s and the end of the 20th century.

hen the American Wright brothers made the firstflight in a motorized aircraft at Kitty Hawk, NorthCarolina in 1903 their invention was recognized as

a milestone in transportation history. At the beginning ofthe century steamboats and trains were well-establishedmethods of transport worldwide, and use of the recentlyinvented telephone and car was spreading through theindustrialized nations. However, the manner in whichpeople travel and the methods by which they communicatehave changed dramatically since then, and in particularsince the 1980s.

High-speed trains, planes and cars, mobile phones, per-sonal pagers, computers, electronic mail and the Internethave all contributed to an ease of travel and immediacy ofcommunication that has created what has been termed a"global village". At the same time, in vast areas of the non-industrialized world, millions of people continue to live inreal villages, excluded from, or touched only lightly by, thetechnological wonders of the late 20th century.

THE TRANSPORT REVOLUTIONGar ownership and production in the industrialized nationsgrew at an enormous rate during the 20th century. Garswere initially owned only by the well-off, but the innovationof mass-produced, and therefore relatively inexpensive, carsgreatly expanded their ownership in North America andEurope during the 1920s and 1930s. Even so, in 1950 thenumber owned worldwide was still below 100 million,whereas 40 years later it was approaching 600 million.

Japan, in particular, saw a boom in car production andownership from 1965 onwards, and by the end of the 20thcentury China had also increased its car production, from80,000 cars a year in 1970 to around 1.5 million. Never-theless, at the end of the 20th century the main mode oftransport for millions of people, in China and elsewhere, wasstill a bicycle or other non-motorized vehicle. While carownership has almost reached saturation point in manyindustrialized nations, with one car for fewer than fivepeople and some cities forced to place restrictions on caruse, in large areas of the world there is only one car per1,000 people (map 1).

Alongside the marked increase in car ownership, airtravel has also become the norm for those in the industrial-ized world. The total number of kilometres flown each yearcontinues to grow (graph), as people venture further andfurther afield for reasons of business and pleasure (map 2).

and to more frequent traffic jamsthroughout the industrialized world atthe end of the 20th century.

Both the number of flights takeneach year and the distances flown haveincreased as people have becomeaccustomed to travelling further forrecreation and business. It is now the normfor many Europeans, North Americans andAustralians to fly to foreign destinations fortheir holidays, with the more "exotic"locations in relatively inaccessible areasbecoming more and more popular. In largecountries, such as the United States, Canadaand Russia, people travelling to destinationswithin their country have increasinglyturned from rail to air travel.

NUMBER OF PASSENGER KILOMETRESFLOWN 1970-95 (in millions)

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Increased vehicle ownership and ageneral decline in the availability of publictransport led to over-stretched road systems


The manner in which we travel has an impact on theenvironment. The construction of roads, railways, water-ways and airports often requires extensive changes to thelandscape, and cars and trucks, aircraft, ships and trains allproduce pollutants that are released into the atmosphere(pages 280-81). In order to reduce environmental pollution,governments, town planners and vehicle manufacturers arebeing urged to consider these issues when designing newtransport networks and developing new models.

COMMUNICATIONAt the beginning of the 20th century the quickest way tosend a message across the world was by telegraph, via anetwork of overland and undersea cables (pages 208-9).The invention of the radio-telephone in 1902 and subse-quent improvements in the quality of transcontinentaltelephone signals enabled the human voice to travel hugedistances. However, the most significant advance in thissphere was the development, during the 1960s, of a networkof communications satellites that allowed not only aural, butalso visual, signals to be sent up into space and bouncedback, greatly enhancing telephone links and enabling livetelevision broadcasts to be made from one side of the worldto the other. Several hundred active communications satel-lites now orbit the globe, and without these none of themajor developments in communications of the late 20thcentury would have been possible.

Mass television ownership enables people worldwide toshare programmes. American and British soap operas areshown, for example, dubbed, on Russian television. Majorevents, such as the football World Gup Finals, are watchedsimultaneously by hundreds of millions of people. For thosewithout access to a television set, the radio often provides alink with the outside world. The BBC World Service alonehad an estimated 140 million regular listeners worldwide inthe late 1990s, enabling people to obtain news they mightotherwise be prevented from hearing.

The most spectacular development in internationalcommunication since the 1980s has been the Internet,giving millions of people in the industrialized world almostinstant access to a vast network of information, and themeans to communicate with each other speedily andcheaply. It has been made possible largely through the

development of the microprocessor, which enabled smallpersonal computers to be manufactured from the mid-1970sonwards. By the mid-1980s these machines had becomepowerful enough for their users to be able to access theInternet, a worldwide computer networking system. Firstdeveloped in the 1970s for the United States Department ofDefense, it was subsequently extended to the academiccommunity, commercial organizations and the generalpublic. By the end of the 20th century there were more than130 million users of the "worldwide web", created in 1994,with millions more using electronic mail (e-mail).

Technological advancement is the province of the richnations, with, for example, almost 50 per cent of the world'spersonal computers to be found in the United States(map 3). The technological gap between rich and poornations is an enormous challenge for those in the processof industrializing, although it may also be to their advantageif there is sufficient money to buy the latest technology. InChina, for example, where until recently few householdshad a telephone, the old telecommunications technology,involving the laying of cables, is being bypassed in favour ofthe installation of radio masts for mobile telephones.

CULTURAL INTEGRITYAll forms of communication require language and there areestimated to be over 5,000 languages in use. Of these,English, Mandarin Chinese, Hindi, Spanish and French arethe most widely spoken, but far more people use them astheir official language than as their mother tongue (barchart). Although there are, of course, benefits to a countryhaving a common language, there are also disadvantages.There has been a sharp decline in the number of differentAfrican languages spoken, leading to a disintegration of thecultural values and traditions attached to those languages.

Cultural integrity is also challenged by developments inglobal communications, which have provided the most tech-nologically advanced countries with a powerful means ofspreading their ideologies and culture.

The extent to which countries can participate in the"global village" will affect their future prosperity. There isno question that modes of transportation and communica-tion will continue to evolve at great speeds, but whetherthey will become universally available remains uncertain.

Computer technology represents hugeprofits for the countries involved inproducing it, and has provided businessesand individuals worldwide with enormousbenefits. It has also created a wideningsocial and economic gap between those whohave access to it and those who do not.

The most widely used official language inthe world is English, partly as a result ofBritish influence in the 19th century butmore recently because of the domination ofUS culture. In countries such as China andIndia, where many languages are spoken, itis essential to have a single language inwhich official communications can be made.

283

INDEX

THE SPELLING OF PLACE NAMESWhile every effort has been made to standardize the place names inthis atlas, the fact that they can differ so much over time - as well aswith language - means that variations inevitably exist. (These variationsare given in the index.) In applying the basic guidelines outlined below,a commonsense approach has been adopted that allows for deviationswhere they serve a purpose.

The conventional Anglicized spelling, without accents, is used forlarge and familiar places (e.g. Munich rather that Miinchen, Meccarather than Makkah). For smaller places in countries that use theRoman alphabet, the local form is given (e.g. Krakow). However, inkeeping with current academic practice in the United States, accentsare omitted from the Spanish forms of American-Indian place namesdating from before the 16th-century conquest.

Where a name has changed due to political creed or ownership,this is often reflected in the maps. Thus St Petersburg is sometimesshown as Petrograd or Leningrad in maps of 20th-century Russia, andStrasbourg is spelt Strassburg when it was under German rather thanFrench control.

If a country was once known by a name that differs from the one itholds at present, this is used where appropriate. Thus Thailand appearsas Siam on many of the maps dating from before 1938 when it adoptedits present name.

For Chinese names the increasingly familiar Pinyin form is usedthroughout (e.g. Beijing rather than Peking). However, whereappropriate, the former spelling adopted under the Wade-Giles systemalso appears (e.g. Guangzhou is also labelled Canton on maps relatingto European colonial activity in China). For the sake of clarity, diacriticsare generally omitted from names derived from other non-Roman scriptsby transliteration - notably Arabic and Japanese.

THE INDEXThe index includes the names of people and events as well as placenames. To avoid unhelpful references to maps, place names are indexedonly when the place is associated with a particular event or is markedby a symbol included in the key.

Alternative place names are given wherever appropriate, either inbrackets or after the words "see also". References to maps are indicatedby italics (e.g. 119/3 refers to map 3 on page 119), as are referencesto pictures.

Achaea Phthiotis 41/3Achaemenid Empire 40-41, 41/3, 42-43, 45, 51Achaia 96, 96/2, 97/3

see also AchaeaAchin 119/3Achinsk 223/3Acigol 18/2Acoma Pueblo 108/1Acre, Holy Land 94/2, 95, 95/4, 95/5, 98/1Ada, Gold Coast 137/2Adad-nirari I, King of Assyria 37Adams-Onis Treaty (1819) 182Adelaide 202/1Aden

500-1500 83/21400-1790 117/1,118/1,139/21880-1914 208/1

Adena 25, 25/2Admiralty Islands 26/1, 235/3Adobe Walls, Battle of (1874) 183/4Adrar Bous 22/2Adrar Tioueiine 22/2Adrianople 67/1, 67/3, 97

see also EdirneAdrianople, Treaty of 178-79/1Adulis, Red Sea 52/1Adwuku 22/1Adygea 263/2Aegidius and Syagrius 74, 74/1Aegyptus

see also Egypt500 BG-AD 400 55/1, 55/3

Aetolia 41/4Afghan Civil War 237Afghanistan

to AD 500 431500-1765 142/2, 1441795-1914 180,180/1migration 1979 275/3post-1945 243, 260/1, 261Soviet intervention 1979-89 236, 236/2,

242/1, 244, 245/1, 262Taliban 243, 261United Nations' operation 1988-90 266/1women in employment 1990s 270/2

Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) 74/2Aalst 103/3Aargau 155/2Abaj Takalik 32/1, 32/2Abakan 223/3Abaoji 87Abaskun 78/2Abbas I, Shah of Persia 143Abbasid Empire

c.850 69/21000-1258 88, 88/3, 89, 98/1, 99Baghdad 68/4Islam 750-1258 62/1, 69Slavic trade c.800 71/3and Tang China c.750 72/1, 73Viking traders c.800 78/2

Abdalis 142/2Abdera 40/2, 41/3, 41/4Abdul Hamid II, Ottoman sultan 179Aberdeen, Scotland 93/4,134/1Aberystwyth 93/4Abidjan 281/4Abilene 183/3Abkhazia 263, 263/2Abodrites 70/2, 71Aborigines 26, 202, 203, 203Abreu, Antonio d' 117/1Abu Salabikh 29/3Abu Simbel 37/2Abydos, Egypt 30/1, 37/2Abydus, Anatolia 40/2, 41/3, 67/1Abyssinia see EthiopiaAcadia see Nova ScotiaAcanceh 84/2Acapulco 130/1,131/2Acco 37/3Accra, Gold Coast 130/1,137/2, 208/1Aceh, Sultanate of 196/1, 197Aceh War (1873-1903) 197/2Achaea 41/3, 41/4, 54/1

see also Achaia

Africato 10,000 BG 16, 17,17/210,000 BG-AD500 22-23, 23/3500-1500 80-81, 82-831500-1800 136-37,139/21800-80 204-5, 205/2, 205/31880-1939 206-7, 207/3, 209, 209/2since 1939 246-47, 246/1, 256-57,

256/2, 273European exploration 1485-1600 116,

116-17/1First World War 219Great Depression 1929-33 229/3Islam 630-1000 68, 69migration 1500-1914 211/2Roman Empire 500 BG-AD 400 54, 54/1,

55/3slave trade 1500-1800 126trade 150 BG-AD 500 52/1, 53

African National Congress (ANC) 269/2Afrikaners 206, 206/2, 207Agadez 23/3, «Sl/3Agartala 280/2Agatha 40/2Agenais 93/5Aggersborg 79/5Agincourt, Battle of (1415) 106/2Agra 144/1,144/2,145/3Agram (Zagreb) 173/3,175/4Agri Decumates 54/1, 55Agricultural Revolution 210Aguada, Peru 35/3Aguateca 84/2Ahhiyawa 36/1Ahicchatra 47/3Ahmadabad 119/2,144/1,144/2,145/3Ahmadnagar 144/1Ahmose 37Ahom 65/3Ahualulco 85/4Ahuitzotl, Aztec emperor 110-11Ai Bunar 20/1Aidhab 81/3, 83/2AIDS/HIV virus 257, 276, 276Aigospotami, Battle of (405 BG) 41/4Ain Gev 18/1Ain Ghazal 18/2Ain Mahalla 18/2Ain Mallaha 18/1Ainu people 19Air, Africa 23/3, 62/1, 80/1Airlangga 64/2Aix, southern France 134/1Aizuwakamatsu 141/2,141/3Ajanta 44/2, 47/4Ajaria 179/3, 263/2Ajigasawa 141/2Ajmer 144/1,144/2,145/3Ajmer Merwara 248/1Ajnadyn, Battle of (634) 68/1Ajodhya 145/3Akan80/l, 81Akbar I, Mughal emperor 144Akershus, Sweden 158/1Akita 141/3Akjoujt, West Africa 23, 23/3Akkad 28, 28/1Aksai Chin 249/3Aksum see AxumAkyab 197/2Al Aqabah, Battle of (1917) 219/1Al Fustat

see also Cairo1095-1291 94/2, 95/3

Al Khanum 51/4Al Kut, Battles of (1915, 1916, 1917) 219,

219/1Al Mina 40, 40/2Alabama 182/1, 184,184/1,184/2,185/3Alalakh 36/1, 37/3Alamgirpur 29/4Alamut 98/1Alania67/l,67/3Alans 51/4, 53/1, 56-57, 56/2, 57/3, 57/4Alaric, Visigoth king 57Alarodia 42-43/1Alashiya 36/1Alaska 130/1,180/1, 182, 210/1Albania

500-1500 97/4,106/11500-1683 142/1,146/11683-1913178/11914-18 217, 217/3, 218/1, 220/1, 220/21918-45 221/4, 230/1, 231/3, 233/2since 1945 236/1, 237, 238/2, 264/1,

265/2, 265/3, 277/3Albanians

since 1989 265, 265/3Albany, Australia 202/1Alberta, Canada 189,189/3Albigensian Crusade 95

Alborg 79/5, 91/3Alcala, central Spain 134/1Alcantara, Battle of (1706) 174/1Aldabra Islands 206/1Alemanni 56, 56/2, 57/4, 74/1Alemannia 74, 74/2, 75Alen9on 232/1Aleppo

500-1500 68/1, 94, 94/1, 94/2, 98/11650-1750 131/22000-1000 BG 36/1

Aleria 40/2, 54/1Aleutian Islands 131/1, 234/2Alexander I, Tsar of Russia 173Alexander III (the Great) of Macedon 42/3,

43, 46, 46/2, 51Alexander, King of Yugoslavia 231/4Alexandria, Egypt

to AD 500 42/3, 45/4, 52/1, 53, 55/1, 55/2500-1500 67/3, 68/1, 95/3,104/11650-1750 131/2

Alexandria 42/3, 47/4see also Kandahar

Alexandria Areia 42/3, 53/1see also Herat

Alexandria Eskhata 42/3see also Kokand

Alexandria Margiana 51/4Alexandria Oxiane (Ai Khanum) 42/3Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor 96Alfonso V, King of Aragon 106Alfred the Great, King of Wessex 79, 79/4,

97/3Algeria

1700-1939 204, 206/1, 210/1, 218/1infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3migration 1946-98 275/3oil crisis 1973-74 272/2Second World War 232/1, 233, 233/2since 1939 246/2, 247, 256/1, 256/2, 257women in employment 1990s 270/2

Algerian Civil War (1954-62) 247Alghero, Sardinia 158/1Algiers

1490-1800 142/1,146/1,152/1, 153,178/1

c. 1840 204/1Algiers, Siege of (1541) 158/1Algonkin 124/1AliKosh 18/2,19/3Alice Boer, South America 24/1Alice Springs 27/2Alishar Hiiyiik 37/3Alkmaar 103/3Allahabad 144/1,145/3Allahdino 29/4Alma Ata 223/3Almansa, Battle of (1707) 158/1Almansa, Battle of (1710) 174/1Almeria 102/1Almohads 88/3, 92/2, 93Almoravids 88, 92/2, 93, 94/1Alor Islands 197/2Alpes Cottiae 54/1Alpes Maritimae 54/1Alpes Poeninae 54/1Alphonse of Poitiers 93/5al-Qaeda 243, 261Alsace 166/1, 177,177/4, 216, 220Altamira 16/3Altar de Sacrificios, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Alte Veste, Siege of 151/2Altmark, Truce of (1629) 150Alto Ramirez, Peru 35/3Altun Ha, Mesoamerica 84/2Altyn Depe 50, 50/1Alvarado 121Alwah 62/1Amalfi 102/1Amalgro, Diego de 121,121/4Amalric, King of Jerusalem 94, 95/3Amarapura 196/1Amaravah 47/4Amaravati 44/2, 47/3, 64/1Amarna 37/2Amaru, Tupac 190Amastris 55/1Amatsukominato 141/2Amboina 118,118/1,119/2,119/3, 234/2Ambon 131/1,196/1,197/2Ameca, Mexico 85/4Amekni 22/2Amenhotep, Egyptian pharaoh 36American Civil War (1861-65) 127, 182-83,

184-85,185/3, 189American Revolution (War of Independence

1775-83) 164-65,165/3, 188American Samoa 246/2Americas

see also Latin America; North Americato 10,000 BC 17, 24-25, 24/1

284

0

A T L A S O F W O R L D H I S T O R Y : I N D E X

European discovery of 1450-1600 117population 1630-1770 124slavery 1500-1880 126-27Spanish colonization 1492-1550 120-21

Amersfoort 103/3Amhara, East Africa 136/1Amid 68/1Amiens

500-1500 75/4, 79/3, 92/1,103/3,105/21618-80 156/11789-94 166/1

Amiens, Treaty of (1801) 167Amisea 67/1Amisus 40/2Amitsea 67/1Amorbach 75/3Amoy

see also Xiamen1368-1644 138/11800-1911199/21941-45 234/1

Amphipolis, Battle of (422 BG) 41/4Amri 19/3, 29/4Amsterdam

c.1470 103/31600-1800 128/1,129/2,132/2,132/3,

133/4,134/1,156/11800-1900 210/1

An Lushan 73Anabaptists 154/1, 155Anangula 25/2Anasazi people 108,108/1, 109Anatolia

2000-1000 BG 36AD 500-1500 97/4, 99,101/41500-1683 142/1, 143,146/11683-1923 178-79/1,179/4

Ancon, South America 25/4Ancona 101/4,158/1Ancona, Battle of (1797) 167/2Ancona, March of 90/1Ancyra 55/1, 55/2Andaman Islands 196/1,197/2Andorra 152/1, 233/2Andronovo 50/2Andronovo culture 50/2, 51Andros Islands 193/3Anecho 137/2Angers 102/1,134/1,166/1, 232/1Angevin dynasty 101/4Angkor 64, 64/2Angkor Borei 53/1Angles 56/2Anglicanism 154/1Anglo-Burmese wars (1824-26, 1852) 196Anglo-Dutch wars (1652, 1665-67, 1672-74)

128Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 206/1, 210/1Anglo-German Naval Pact (1935) 231Anglo-Saxons 57/3, 57/4Angola

1570-1800 1371800-1939 204, 204/1, 206/1, 207, 208/1Civil War 1974-90 245/1democracy since 1939 256/2famine 1994 277/4Human Development Index 1994 279/2independence 1975 246/2, 256/1, 257infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3United Nations operation 1989-99 266/1,

267Angostura 190/2Angouleme 74/2Angouleme, County of 92/1Anguilla 193/3, 247/3Anhalt 152/1,177/4Anjediva 118/1Anjou, County of 92/1, 93/5Anjou, House of 92/3Ankara 6 7/1, 6 7/3Ankobar 204/1Ankole 136/1Annaba 45/4Annam

see also Vietnam1368-1800 63/3,131/1,139/31800-1914 197/2,198/1, 199

Annan, Kofi 267Annobon, Africa 204/1, 206/1Anqing 138/1,199/4Ansbach 154/1Anshan 29/3, 254/1, 255/2Antietam, Battle of (1862) 184,185/3Antigonus 43, 43/4Antigua 125/2,193/3Antigua and Barbuda 247/3Antioch

to AD 500 45/4, 52/1527-102567/1,67/3,68/11095-1400 94, 94/1, 94/2, 95, 95/3,

104/1

Antioch, Principality of 94/2, 95/5Antiochia (Antioch)

AD 100-300 55/1, 55/2Antipatros 43Antonine Wall 55/2Antwerp

1350-1500 91/3,103/3,107/41500-1800 128/1,129/2,132/1,133/4,

152/11800-1900 210/1

Anuradhapura 44/2, 47/3, 47/4, 53/1Anvers 75/4Anyang 31/3ANZUS Pact (1951) 202Ao 31/3Aomen 198/1

see also MacauAouzou Strip 266/1Apache 108,108/1, 109,109/4,183/4Apartheid 257Apatzingan, Mexico 85/4APEC 273Apollo 11 Cave 16/3Apollonia, West Africa 137/2Appenzell 90/2,155/2Appledore 79/4Appomattox, Battle of (1865) 185,185/3Apulia, Duchy of 94/1Aquila 102/1Aquileia 76/1Aquincum 54/1Aquitaine 74, 74/1, 74/2, 92/1, 93/5Arab-Israeli Wars (1948, 1956, 1967, 1973)

260, 261/3, 273Arabia

500 BC-AD 400 52-53/1, 55, 55/1, 55/3500-1500 66, 66-67/1, 68, 83, 83/2,

104/11500-1760 139/21880-1914 208/1

Aragon500-1500 62/1, 92/2, 92/3, 93, 93/5,

102/1,107/31500-1600 146,146/1,152/1

Aragon, Crown of900-1300 92/2, 92/3, 93, 101,101/4c. 1400 106/1

Arahama 141/2Arakan 65/3,194/2, 196,196/1Aralsk 223/3Aratta 29/3Arawaks 122/1Arawan 81/3Arbela 42/3Arcadia 41/3Arcadiopolis 67/1Arcot, southeast India 144/4,145/3Arcy-sur-Cure 16/3Ardabil 69/1Arequipa, Peru 35/3,190/2Arezzo, northern Italy 134/1Argaru, southeast India 53/1Argentina

1830-1914 191/3,192/1,193, 208/1, 209economy since 1945 272/1ethnic composition since 1945 259/3First World War 226/3Great Depression 1929-33 229/3manufacturing since 1945 258migration 1918-98 275/3population 1800-1914210/1population 1920-50 227/1Second World War 226/4slavery 1500-1880 127/2trade 1980 273/3trade 1990s 258/1United States intervention since 1945

242/1,259/2Argonne, Battle of (1918) 219/2Arguin 81/3Arhus 79/5Arianism 45/4Aristophanes 40Aristotle 134Arizona 182/1Arkansas 182/1, 184,184/1,184/2,185/3Arkhangelsk 181/3, 223/3Aries 75/4Aries, Kingdom of 93/5Arlit 22/2Armenia

to AD 500 42/1, 551970s 236/21988-98 262, 262/1, 263/2, 279/2Abbasid dynasty 800-900 68/1, 69/2crusades 1095-1291 95/5First World War 221, 221/3Great Seljuk Empire c.1092 88/2Ottoman Empire 1307-1923 97/4,143/1,

179,179/1,179/4religion 750-1450 62/1

Armenia, Cilician Kingdom of see CilicianKingdom of Armenia

Arminius 56Armorium 67/1Arnhem 103/3Arran, Middle East 69/2, 88/2Arras 103/3Arras, Battles of (1914, 1918) 219/2Arroyo Pesquero, Mesoamerica 32/1Artemisium, Battle of (480 BC) 41, 41/3Artois 93/5,103/3,153/2Artukids 88/3Aru Islands 119/2,196/1,197/2Aruba 193/3, 247/3Arunachal Pradesh 249, 249/3Arzawa 36, 36/1Asante (Ashanti) 204/1, 206/1Asante Empire 136/1, 137,137/2Ascalon 94/2Ascension 246/2, 247/4Ashdod37/3,45/3Ashikaga 87Ashkhabad 223/3Ashoka, Indian emperor 45, 46, 46/1, 47Ashur 36/1Asia

see also Central Asia; East Asia; SouthAsia; Southeast Asia

to 10,000 BG 17,17/2500 BG-AD 400 52-53, 55/1agriculture 12,000 BG-AD 500 18-19,

18/2,19/3Black Death 1347-52 104-5colonies 1939 246/1deforestation since 1945 280economy since 1945 273empires c.l700 112/1European activity 1500-1790 118-19European exploration 1450-1600 117/1foreign investment in 1914 209/2Great Depression 1929-33 229/3independence movements since 1945

246religions c. 1500 63/3Russian expansion 1462-1914 148Russian expansion 1795-1914 180Second World War 234-35Tang dynasty 618-907 72/1

Asia Minor (see Anatolia)Asia, Peru 25/4, 34/1Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation

Organization 243, 243/2, 273Askalon37/3Aspern and Essling, Battle of (1805) 167/2Aspero, Peru 25/4, 34/1Assam 194/2,199/2, 248/1Assinie 137/2Assuwa 36, 36/1Assyria 55Assyria-Babylonia 42-43/1Assyrian Empire

2000-1000 BG 36, 37c.900-612 BG 38, 38/1, 39, 39/4, 42

Astarabad 142/2Asti 103/2,147/3Astoria, northwest United States 183/3Astrakhan

1462-1795 148,148/1,148/220th century 181/3, 222/1, 223/3

Asuncion, Paraguay 122/2, 227/1Aswan 30/1, 81/3Aswan Dam 260/1Asyut 81/3, 83/2, 204/1Atahualpa, Inca king 121,121Atalla, Peru 34/1Atapuerca 17/2Atarco, Peru 35/3Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal) 179,179, 221Ath 103/3Athanaric 56Athens

to AD 500 40-41, 41/3, 41/4, 43527-130067/1,102/11990s 281/4

Athens, Duchy of 96, 96/2, 97/3Atjeh 118/1,119/2Atlanlll/3Atlanta, Battle of (1864) 185/3Attalia 67/1Attica 41, 41/3, 41/4Attigny 74/2, 92/1Attila, Hun king 57, 57/3, 76, 77Atwetwebooso 23/3Auckland 202/1Augsburg

500-1500 75/3,102/1,107/41500-1800 132/2,133/4

Augsburg, Peace/Treaty of (1555) 147, 155August Rebellion 1991 263/3Augusta Vindelicum 54/1Augustus (Octavian) 54, 54

Aulnay-aux-Planches 21/3Aurangabad 145/3Aurangzeb, Mughal emperor 145,145/3Austerlitz, Battle of (1805) 167,167/2Austhorpe 135/2Australia

to AD 1000 17, 26-27, 26/1, 27/2colonies 1920-98 246-47/2, 246/1, 250/1since 1790 202-3, 208/1Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4computer ownership 1990s 283/3economy since 1790 203/2economy since 1945 272/1exploration 1606-1874 202/1female suffrage 270/1First World War 219foreign investment in 1914 209/2Great Depression 1929-33 228, 229/3immigration 1790-1914 211/2migration 1918-98 275/3oil crisis 1973-74 272/2population 1800-1900 211/1trade 1913 209

Australopithecines 16,16/1Austrasia 74-75, 74/2Austria

see also Austria-Hungarydictatorship 1934-39 231/4First World War 220/2, 221and France 1793-1815 166,166/1, 167,

167/2,167/3German annexation 1938 230/2, 231German Confederation 1815-66 177Great Depression 1929-33 228/2Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152,152/1,

153,153/3Habsburg Empire 1700-1918 172,174/1,

175/2,175/3Holy Roman Empire c.950-1360 90/1,

91/3Ottoman Empire 1699-1739 178/2Polish partition 1772-1795 151,151/5revolts 1618-80 156/1Second World War 233/2since 1945 233/3, 238/1, 238/2, 272/1Thirty Years War 1618-48 159/2urbanization 1500-1800 132/1,132/2,

132/3,133/4War of the Spanish Succession 1701-14

174/1Austria-Hungary

1867177/4creation 1867 175First World War 216-217, 216/1, 216/2,

217, 217/3, 218-19, 218/1, 220-21,220/1

industrialization 1867-1914 170/1,171/3trade 1913 209

Austrian Empire1815177/3civil unrest 1820-49 172/2, 173,173/3,

174-75,175/4Italian territories 1815-71 176,176/1,

176/2treaty settlements 1814-15 172/1

Austrian Netherlandssee also Belgium1700-1814166/1,174/1

Austrian Succession, War of the (1740-48)174

automobiles (see cars)Autun 45/4, 75/3, 75/4Auvergne 93/5Auvergne, County of 92/1Auxerre 74/2Ava 65, 65/3,196/1Avars 67/1, 70, 74/2, 75, 76, 76/2, 77Avellaneda, Argentina 227/1Aversa 102/1Avignon

1350-1500 105/2, 106,107/41500-1770 134/1,154/11789-94 166/1

Avignon Popes 106,107/3Aviz dynasty 106Awadh, northeast India 144/1,144/4,145/3Awami League 249Awjilah 81/3, 83/2Axbridge 79/4Axim, West Africa 137/2Axima, Alpes Peoninae 54/1Axis Powers 226, 232-33Axum (Aksum) 23/3, 52/1Axumite Kingdom 52/1, 82Ayacucho 25/4Ayacucho, Battle of (1824) 190/2Ayn Jalut, Battle of 88-89, 98-99Ayodhya 47/3Ayuthia 64, 65/3Ayyubid Sultanate 88/3, 89, 95, 95/5, 98/1

285


Azana y Diaz, Manuel 231Azangaro, Peru 35/3Azarbayjan (Iran)

800-1092 69/2, 88/2Azerbaijan

1500-1730 143/1,179/11970s 236/21988-98 262, 262/2, 263, 263/2Human Development Index 1994 279/2religious conflict 1990-95 269/2since 1945 260/1

Azeris 142/2, 143Azores 130/1, 246/2Azov. Sea of 149,149/3,158/1Aztecs, North America 108/1,108/2Aztec Empire

1400-1500 110-11,111/3,111/41500-50 117, 120,120/2,120/3, 122,

122/1

Baalbek 94/2Babar 196/1Babur, Mughal emperor 144,144/1Babuyan Islands 196/1,197/2Babylon 37/1, 42, 42/1, 42/3Babylonia 36, 37, 37/1, 38/1, 39, 39/4Bacan Islands 196/1, 197/2Bactra 42/3, 47/4, 53/1,104/1

see also BalkhBactria 43/1, 53/1Bada 52/2Badakshan 29/3Baden 173/3,177/4Badr, Battle of (624) 68/1Baetica 54/1Baeza 102/1Bagamoyo 204/1Baghdad

630-1000 68/4, 69, 71/3, 78/21000-1400 88, 89, 98/1, 99,101/4,104/11990s 281/4

Bagherhat 280/2Bahama Islands 130/1,193/3, 247/3, 247/4Bahawaipur 194/2Bahia 122/2,130/1Bahmani Sultanate 89/4Bahrain

see also Dilmun150 BG-AD 500 53500-150069/1,69/21880-1914 208/1since 1945 246/2, 260/1, 277/3

Bahrain Island 119/2Baiyu 224/1Bakongo 206/1Baku 181/3, 222/1, 223/3, 263/2Balakof29/4Balancan, Mesoamerica 84/2Balasghun 98/1Balboa 120,120/1Balearic Islands

500-1500 66/1, 92/2,101/41500-1800 132/1,132/2,132/3,133/4,

146/1Bali

750-150062/1,63/31792-1914196/1,197/2Second World War 234/2

Balkan Wars (1912-13) 217/3Balkh 69/1, 98/1

see also BactraBallynagilly, Ireland 20/1Baltimore 185/3,187/3, 208/1, 210/1Baluchis 249/3Baluchistan 195/3, 248/1Bamako 204/1Bambata 206/1Bambata Gave 23/4Bamberg 107/4,134/1Bambuk 81/3Bamburg 154/1Bampur 29/3Ban Na Di 52/2Banat 174/1,175/2,178/1,178/2Banawali 29/4Bandar Abbas 118/1Bandaranaike, Sirimavo 249, 249Bandiagara 204/1Bandung 234/2, 251/3Bangka 119/2,197/2Bangkok 139/2, 211/1, 251/3, 281/4Bangladesh

see also East PakistanCommonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4creation 1972 249democracy since 1972 268/1

flood danger 280/2independence 1947247/2migration 1972 275/3territorial disputes since 1947 249/3

Banjarmasin 65/3,131/1,196/1Bannockburn, Battle of (1314) 93, 93/4Banpo 18-19,19/4Bantam 118/1Bantu 23/4Baode 31/3Baoding 31/3Baotou 254/1Bar, Holy Roman Empire 153/2Bar-sur-Aube 92/1,100/1, 101Barawa 118/1Barbados 125/2,127/2,193/3, 247/3Barbar 29/3Barbaricum 47/3, 47/4Barbarikon 53/1Barca 21/3Barcelona

500-1500 101/4,102/1,105/2,107/41500-1800 129/2,132/3,133/4,134/1,

152/1,156/11800-1900172/2,210/1

Barcelona, County of 92/1Bardowick 74/2Barents, William 116-17/1Bargeroosterveld 21/3Bari 67/1, 67/3,101/4,172/2Barisal 280/2Barletta 102/1,103/2Barnoul 223/3Baroda 248/1Barosll8/l,119/2Barranquilla, Colombia 227/1Earth, Heinrich 204, 205/3Barus 65/3,196/1Barygaza, northwest India 53/1Basel 90/2,107/4,134/1,155/2Bashadar 51/4Bashkirs 148/2Basil I, Byzantine emperor 66, 67/1Basil II, Byzantine emperor 66, 96Basotho 204/1Basques 74/1Basra 69/1,131/2Basse-Yutz 21/4Bassein 65/3Bastar 195/3Bastidas 120/1Basutoland 206/1, 206/2

see also LesothoBat Cave, North America 25/2Bataan Death March 234/2Batan Grande, Peru 34/2, 35/3, 84/1Batavia

see also Jakarta1500-1800 119/2,131/1,131/21880-1914 208/1Second World War 234/2

Bath 79/4Bathurst 208/1Batjan Islands 118/1,119/2Baton Rouge 185/3Batticaloa 118/1Batu Elaya 52/2Batu Islands 197/2Batumi 223/3Baudin, Nicholas 202/1Bauske 158/1Bavaria

500-1500 70/2, 71/4, 74/2, 75, 90/1, 91/31500-1800 146/1,152/1,154/1,156/11918-19 223/2

Bay ana 144/2Bayonne 102/1Beakers 21/2Bear Paw Mountain, Battle of (1877) 183/4Beam 155/3Beam, County of 92/2, 93/5Beaumaris 93/4Beauvais 92/1Beccan, Mesoamerica 84/2Bechuanaland 206/1, 210/1

see also BotswanaBedouin 206/1Begho 81, 81/3Behy Glenulra 21/3Beidha 18/2Beijing (Peking)

to AD 600 44/214th century 104/11644-1800 1391800-1900198/1,211/120th century 225, 254/1, 255/2, 274,

281/4Beijing, Battle of (1949) 225/2Beikthano 52/2, 53/1Beira 130/1,208/1Beirut 94/2

Beitang 198/1Belarus 236/2, 238/2, 262/1, 263

see also ByelorussiaBelem 208/1Belfast, Northern Ireland 210/1, 232/1Belfast, South Africa, Battle of (1900) 206/2Belfort, Holy Land 94/2Belgian Congo

see also Congo, Democratic Republic of;Zaire

1700-1914 206/1, 208/1, 210/1since 1945 257, 277/4

Belgica500 BG-AD 400 54/1

Belgica IIAD 200-900 74, 74/1

Belgiumsee also Austrian Netherlandscolonies 1880-1939 206/1, 208/1, 246/1First World War 217, 218, 218/1, 219/2,

220/1, 220/2, 221/4France 1789-1815 166,167/2Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2industrialization 1830-1914 170/1,

171/2,171/3insurrection 1830s 173Second World War 232, 232/1, 233/2,

238/1since 1945 233/3, 238/1, 238/2, 272/1,

278/1Belgorod 158/1Belgrade

see also Singidunumto AD 600 45/41000-1500 102/11500-1750158/120th century 232/1

Belgrade, Treaty of (1739) 178/2Belisarius 66Belize

1770-1800 130/1,190/120th century 226/1, 246/2, 247/4, 275/3

Belkatchi 50/2Bellinzonal47/3Belo Horizonte, Brazil 227/1Belonia 280/2Belt Cave 18/1Bemba 204/1Benalcazar, Sebastian de 121, 121/4Benares, northeast India

see also Varanasi144/1,144/2

Benediktbeuren 75/3Benevento, Battle of (1266) 90/1Benevento, Duchy of 74/2Benfleet 79/4Bengal

1211-139889/41500-1770 119/3,131/1,144/4,145/31750-1914 194,194/1,194/2,195/3, 196since 1914248/1,277/4

Benghazi 204/1Benguela 204/1, 208/1Benin

20th century 246/2, 247/4, 256/1, 256/2,277/3

500-150080/1, 81,81/31500-1800 130/1, 137,137/2

Berar 194/1,194/2, 248/1Berber dynasties 88Berbera 204/1Berenice, Red Sea coast 52/1, 53Berenike 30/1Berezniki 223/3Berg 154/1Bergen 129/2Bering Strait (Beringia) 24, 24/1Berkyaruk 94Berlin

c.1360 91/31500-1800133/4,134/11800-1900173/3,210/120th century 223/2, 232/1, 242/1, 245/1,

264/1Berlin, Battle of (1806) 167/2Berlin Blockade (Airlift) 244, 245/1Berlin, Conference (1884-85) 206, 209Berlin, Congress of (1878) 175, 178Berlin, Treaty of (1878)178-79/1Berlin, Treaty of (1921) 220/2Berlin Wall 236, 245/1Bermuda 130/1, 208/1, 246/2, 247/4Bern 90/2,155/2Berry 92/1, 93/5Berwick 93/4,158/1Besan?on 75/4,134/1,166/1Bessarabia

20th century 221, 222/1, 233/21683-1812 178/1, 180,180/1

Betatakin 108/1Bethlehem 44/1

Beziers 102/1Beziers, County of 92/2Beziers, Viscounty of 92/1Bharhut47/4Bharukaccha 47/3Bhatkal 118/1,119/2,130/1,145/3Bhimbetka 16/3,18/1Bhonsia's Lands 194/2Bhutan 249/3, 268/1Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali 249Biafra 256/1, 257,277/4Bibracte 21/4Bicocca, Battle of (1522) 158/1, 159Bidar 145/3Bien Hoa 250/2Bigo 82, 83/2Bigorre, County of 92/2Bihac 267/3Bihar

1526-1765 144/1,144/4,145/31756-1914194/1,195/31930s 248/1

Bijapur 145/3Billiton 119/2, 196/1,197/2Bill of Rights (US) 268Bilma 81/3, 204/1Bintan Islands 118/1,119/2Bira 94/2Birka 71/3, 78/2Birmingham, England 210/1, 232/1Birni 81/3Bisa 204/1Biserta 146/1Bisho 257/3Biskupin 21/3Bismarck, Count Otto von 177, 217Bismarck Archipelago 197/2Bithynia 54, 55/1Bitorri Cave 22/2Black Death 104-5, 106, 107,107/4Black Hole of Calcutta 194Black Russia 151/5Black Sea crisis (1853-54) 178Blackfoot people 183/4Blackwater Draw, North America 24/1, 25/2Blaj 173/3,175/4Blanzee 74/2Blenheim, Battle of (1704) 158/1,174/1Blitz (1940-41) 232Bloemfontein 257/3Bloemfontein, Battle of (1900) 206/2Blois 75/4, 92/1, 93/5,155/3Bluefish Caves 24/1Bluff 203/3Bo 31/3Bobangi 204/1Bobbio 75/3Bobo-Dioulasso 81/3Bodh Gaya 44/2Boeotia 41/3, 41/4Boer Voortrekkers 204/1, 205Boer War

see South African (Boer) WarBogota 122/2,190/2, 227/1Bohai 72/1, 73, 73/4Bohemia

400-1000 70, 70, 70/2, 71, 71/41000-1500 90/1, 91/3, 106, 1071500-1700 146/1, 147,152/1, 153,153/3,

154/1, 155,156/11700-1919 174/1,175/2,175/3

Bohemia-Moravia, Protectorate of 230/2Bohemian War (1618-20, 1621-23) 159/2Bohemond 94/1Bohol, Philippine Islands 197/2Bolama 204/1Bolivar, Simon 190/2, 191,191Bolivia

1700-1914 190/2,191/3,192/1,193,210/1

1914-45 226/4, 227/1, 229/3since 1945 258/1, 259/2, 259/3, 270/1

Bologna500-900 74/21500-1800 128/1,132/1,132/2,133/4,

134/11831-49172/2,173/3

Bolsheviks 222, 222/1, 223/2Bombay

20th century 274, 281/41500-1770 118/1,119/2,119/3,130/1,

145/31800-1914 208/1, 210/11930s 248/1

Bombona, Battle of (1822) 190/2Bonaire 193/3, 247/3Bonampak, Mesoamerica 84/2Bonaparte, Joseph 167, 190-91Bonaparte, Napoleon see NapoleonBoomplaas 23/4Bophuthatswana 257/3

286

B


Bordeauxto AD 600 45/4500-1500 74/2,102/1centre of learning c.1770 134/1French Revolution 1789-1793 166/1industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2population 1600-1914 132/2,132/3,

133/4Reformation 1526-1765 155/3revolts 1618-80 156/1trade c.1770 130/1

Borgholm, southern Sweden 158/1Borgu 737/2Borisov, Battle of (1812) 167/2Bormio 147/3Borneo

10,000 BG-AD 1000 26/1to AD 500 19/4, 52/2500-1500 63/3, 64/2, 65/31450-1800 116/2,117/1,119/2,119/3,

131/11792-1914 196/1,197/2, 208/1Second World War 234/2, 235/3

Borno 136/1, 204/1, 205Borobudur 62, 65Borodino, Battle of (1812) 167/2Borum Eshoj 21/3Bosnia

1463-81 97/41500-1683 142/1,146/1, 1471683-1914 175,175/2,175/3,178/1since 1992 266/1, 267, 267/3

Bosnia-Herzegovina20th century 217, 217/3, 264/1, 265,

267/3Bosnia-Herzegovina, Federation of 265/3Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serb Republic of 265/3Bosnian Civil War 264/1, 265, 265/3, 266/1,

267, 267/3, 269/2Bosnian Muslims 265, 265/3Bosporos 67/3Boston, USA 130/1,187/3, 210/1Boston, USA, Battle of (1776) 165/3Boston Tea Party 164Bostra 55/1, 94/2Botshabelo 257/3Botswana

see also BechuanalandCommonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4democracy since 1966 256/2, 268/1education 1995 279/3Human Development Index 1994 279/2independence 1966 246/2, 256/1migration 1960 275/3

Bouar 22/2Bougainville 235/3Boulogne 74/2Bourbon, County of 92/1Bourbon dynasty 123, 157, 190-91Bourges

500-1500 75/3, 75/4,102/11770-94134/1,166/1

Bourges, Viscounty of 92/1Bouvine, Battle of (1214) 90/1Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900) 199Boxgrove, England 17/2Boyaca, Battle of (1819) 190/2Boyle, Robert 135Brabant 103/3Bradford, England 210/1Brahminical sites 52/2Braila, Black Sea 158/1Brandenburg

c.950-1360 90/11500-1785 146/1,152/1,153/3,154/1,

157,157/31815-71177/4

Brandenburg-Prussia 157/3Brandywine Creek, Battle of (1777) 165/3Brasov see KronstadtBratislava 264/1

see also PressburgBraunsberg 91/3Brazil

1830-1914 192-93,192/1,1931914_45 226/3, 226/4, 227, 227/1, 229/3car ownership and production 1990s

282/1computer ownership 283/3ethnic composition 1990s 259/3European colonialism 1500-1780 121/4,

122-23,122/2,123/3,130/1independence 1770-1830 190/1, 191,

191/3manufacturing 258migration 1918-98 275/3population 1870-1914 210/1slavery 1500-1880 126-27,126/1,127/2trade 1870-1914 208/1trade since 1914 258/1, 273/3

Breda, Siege of (1625) 158/1Breiddin 21/4Breisach 159/2Breisgau 153/2, 174/1Breitenfeld, Battles of (1631, 1642) 151/2,

153/3,158/1,159/2Bremen

500-1500 102/1,105/2,107/41500-1750 129/2,154/11815-71177/420th century 223/2, 232/1

Brescia 103/2,154/1,172/2Breslau

see also Vratislavia; Wroclawc. 1360 91/3c.1770 134/11800-1900 210/1

Brest 166/1, 208/1, 232/1Brest-Litovsk 181/3Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918) 219,

222Bretons

200-90057/4, 74/1Bretton Woods Conference (see United

Nations Monetary and FinancialConference)

Brezhnev, Leonid 236Bridgnorth 79/4Brihuega, Battle of (1710) 174/1Brindisi 67/3Brisbane 202/1Bristol

c.1300 93/4,102/11650-1800 129/2,130/1,133/41800-1900 210/1

Britain see Great BritainBritish Columbia 189,189/3British East Africa 206/1, 208/1, 210/1British Guiana

see also Guyana1500-1780 127/21700-1914 192,192/1, 208/1, 210/1

British Honduras 192,193/3, 208/1British New Guinea 197/2British North America Act (1867) 189British North Borneo 197/2British Somaliland 206/1, 208/1, 210/1British Virgin Islands 247/3Brittany 74/2, 92/1, 93/5, 166/1Brno see BriinnBroederstroom 23/4Broken Mammoth 24/1Bromsebro, Treaty of (1645) 150-51Bronze Age 20-21, 21/3, 36, 50/1Bruges 75/4, 102,106/1,107/4Brumath 74/2Brunei

1200-1450 65/3c.1770 131/11792-1914 196/1,197/2, 208/1, 211/1Second World War 1939-45 235/3since 1945 247/4, 250/1, 251/3, 272/2,

279/2Briinn 173/3

see also Brno1450-1750 159/21848-49 175/4

Brunner, Thomas 202/1Brunswick 91/3, 102/1, 106/1, 177/4Brussels

1470-1800 103/3,128/1,132/3,133/41800-1900 172/2, 210/1

Bryansk 158/1Brzesc Kujawski 20/1Bucharest

20th century 232/1, 264/11800-1900 173/3,175/4, 210/1

Bucharest, Treaty of (1812) 178-79/1Bucharest, Treaty of (1915) 178-79/1Buckingham 79/4Buda

see also Budapest1200-1500 98/1, 98/2,107/4c.1770 134/11848-49 173/3,175/4, 210/1

Budapestsee also Buda; Pestsince 1914 223/2, 232/1, 264/1

Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) 44Buddhism

to AD 600 44-45, 44/1, 44/2, 47, 47/4,52/2, 53

500-1500 62-63, 62/1, 63/3, 73, 73/4, 86,86

1917-98 269/220th century 248, 249

Buenos Aires1500-1780 122/2,130/11800-1914 208/1, 210/1since 1914 227/1, 274

Buffalo, USA 187/3

Buganda 136/1, 204/1, 205, 206/1Bugey 152/1,153/2Bugia 146/1Buhen 30, 30/1,37/2Bukhara

600 BG-AD 500 47/4, 53/1500-1500 69/1, 98/1, 99,104/11514-1639 142/2

Bukharin, Nikolai 223Bukovina 174/1,175/2Bulgaria

500-1500 97/3, 97/4,102/11500-1683 142/1,146/11683-1914171/3,178/11945_89 236/1, 238/2, 244First World War 216/2, 217, 217/3, 218,

218/1,220/1,220/2Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3revolutionary activity 1923 223/2Second World War 232/1, 233/2since 1989 264, 264/1, 265, 265/2

Bulgarian Empire893-1016 66/2

Bulgars500-1500 62/1, 66, 76-77, 77/3,

78/2Bull Run, Battles of (1861, 1862) 184,185/3Buna 234/2, 235/3Bundelkhand 194/1,194/2,195/3Bundu 204/1Bunker Hill, Battle of (1775) 165/3Bunyoro

500-1500 82, 82/11840-98204/1,205,206/1

Burdigala 54/1, 55/2Bure 81/3Burgos 102/1, 231/3Burgundians 56, 56/1, 56/2, 57, 57/3, 74,

74/1Burgundy 74, 74/2,106/1Burgundy, County of 90/1, 92/1Burgundy, Duchy of 92/1, 93/5Burgundy, Kingdom of 90/1, 92/1Burhanpur 144/1,144/2,145/3Burke, Robert O'Hara 202/1Burkina Faso 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 278/1Burma (Myanmar)

750-150062/1,63/31500-1790 118/1China 1800-1911199/2democracy since 1914 268/1European colonialism 1600-1920 194,

195/3, 196, 197,197/2independence 1948 247/2, 250/1infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3Second World War 234/1, 234/2, 235,

235/3trade 1870-1914 208/1trade since 1920s 251/3

Burma Railway 234/2Burmese kingdoms

500-1500 64-65Burton, Sir Richard Francis 205/3Buru 119/2,196/1,197/2Burundi

1500-1800 136/1c. 1840 204/120th century 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 270/2,

278/1Buryats 148/2Burzahom 19/3Bush Barrow 21/3Bush, George W. 243Buton Islands 119/2Biitow 157/3Butri 137/2Buttington 79/4Butua 130/1Butung Islands 196/1,197/2Biitzow 134/1Buxar, Battle of (1764) 194/1Buyids 69/3, 88, 88/1Byblos 30, 30/1, 37/2, 37/3, 38, 38/3Byelorussia 71/4

see also BelarusBylany 20/1Byzantine Empire

527-1025 66-671025-1453 96-97, 96/1, 97/3Asian nomads 400-600 76, 76/1, 76/2crusades 1095-1291 94/1, 94/2, 95, 95/3and Islamic world 630-1400 68, 68/1,

69/3,88,88/1,88/3,89/5religion 750-1450 62/1Slavic states 700-1000 70, 71/3, 71/4

Byzantiumsee also Constantinople527-1025 67/4750-550 BG 40/2c.1400 106/1

Caballo Muerto 34/1Cabinda 208/1, 210/1, 256/1Cabot, John 116/1, 117Cabot, Sebastian 116/1, 117, 121,121/4Cabral, Pedro Alvarez 116-17/1Cacaxtla 85/3Cadiz

500-1500 105/2,107/41500-1800 129/2,130/1,131/2,133/41800-1914 172/2, 208/1

Caen 156/1,166/1, 232/1Caesar, Julius, Roman emperor 54Caesarea, Anatolia 55/1, 67/3Caesarea, Holy Land 45/4, 55/1, 67/1, 94/2Caesarea, North Africa 54/1, 55/2Cagliari, Sardinia 38/3,134/1,158/1Cahokia 108,109/3Cahors 75/4, 134/1Cahuachi, Peru 34, 34/2Cai Ngai 250/2Caicos Islands 193/3Caille, Rene 205/3Cairo

see also Al Fustat500-1500 81/3, 83/2,104/11500-1800 1371990s 281/4

Cairo Geniza 100Cajamarca, Peru 34/1, 35/3,110/1, 121,

121/4Cajamarquilla, Peru 35/3Calabozo, Battle of (1818) 190/2Calais 147/2,155/3, 232/1Calais, Siege of (1558) 158/1Calakmul, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Calatafimi, Battle of (1860) 176/2Calcutta

1500-1770 131/1,131/2,145/31800-1900194,211/120th century 274, 280/2, 281/4

Cali, Colombia 227/1Calicut

500-1500 83/2,104/11500-1790 117/1, 118,118/1, 139,139/2,

145/3California 182,182/1, 184,184/2,193/2Californian Trail 183/3Calixtlahuaca 85/3Callao 190/2Callipolis 76/1Caloocan 251/3Calvin, John 155Calvinism 154/1, 155Camacha 67/3Cambay, India 83/2,104/1,118/1Cambodia

see also Khmer Empire; Khmers1200-1500 63/3, 65/31790-1914196/1,197/2famine 1975-79 277/4independence 1954 247/2, 250/1trade since 1920s 251/3United Nations operation 1991-93 266/1,

267urban population 1990s 251/3US intervention 1970-73 242/1Vietnam War 250/2, 251women in employment 1990s 270/2

Cambrai 103/3Cambridge, England 79/3,134/1,135/2Cambyses, King of Persia 42Camden, Battle of (1780) 165/3Camerino 134/1,154/1Cameron, Verney Lovett 205/3Cameroon

see also Kamerun246/2, 247/4, 256/1, 256/2, 277/3

Campa 47/3Camulodunum 21/4Can Hasan 19/3Canada

800-1100 78/11763-1914 188-89American War of Independence 1776-83

165car ownership and production 1990s

282/1Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4computer ownership 283/3economy since 1945 272/1European colonization 1600-1800

124-25,125/3,130/1European colonization 1870-1914 208/1,

209female suffrage 270/1

287

ffl


Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/1,229/3

migration 1918-98 275/3population 1800-1914 210/1, 211standard of living since 1945 278

Canary Islands 130/1, 204/1, 206/1, 246/2Cancha Rayada, Battle of (1818) 190/2Gandia, Crete 67/2, 67/3, 95/4,158/1Cannae, Battle of (216 BG) 54Cannanore 118/1Cano, Juan Sebastian del 116-17/1,116/2Canterbury 91/3Canton

see also Guangzhou1762-1911131/1, 196, 198

Canute see CnutCanyon de Chelly 108/1Canyon de Chelly, Battle of (1864) 183/4Cao Rong people 31/3Cape Breton Island 188/1Cape Coast Castle 137,137/2Cape Colony 204, 204/1, 206, 206/2, 210/1Cape Dorset, North America 25/2Cape of Good Hope 116, 118,131/2Cape Town 130/1, 137, 208/1, 257/3Cape Verde Islands 130/1Capeletti 22/2Capet, Hugh 92Capetian kings 92, 92/1, 93Caporetto, Battle of (1917) 218/1, 219Cappadocia 55/1Capua 74/2Carabobo, Battle of (1821) 190/2Caracas 122/1,122/2,190/2, 227/1Caracol, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Carales 54/1Carcassonne 92/1, 92/2,102/1Carchemish 37/2Cardal, Andes 34/1Cardiff 93/4Carelia 149,150/1Caribbean

see also individual islandsEuropean colonization 1450-1780 116/1,

117, 120,120/1,122/1European colonization 1600-1800

124-25,125/2, 130-31independence 1700-1830 190-91post-independence 1830-1914 192-93,

193/3since 1914 227/2, 247, 247/3slavery 1500-1880 126,126/1

Carinthia 70/2, 71/4, 74/2, 90/1Carlat, Viscounty of 92/2, 92/3Carlisle 93/4Carlowitz, Treaty of (1699) 178,178-79/1,

178/2Carmarthen 93/4Carmona, Antonio de Fragoso 231/4Carnatic 194/1,194/2Carniola 90/1Carnuntum 45/4, 54/1Carol II, King of Romania 231/4Caroline Islands

c.1770 131/11870-1914 197/220th century 201, 234/2, 235/3, 246/2

Carolingian Empire 71/3, 74-75, 78/2,92

Carolingian Renaissance 75, 75/3Carpi, Battle of (1701) 174/1Carranza, Venustiano 226Carrickfergus 93/4Cars since 1945 282, 282/1Cartagena, Colombia 122/1,122/2Cartagena, Spain 158/1Carter, Jimmy 242Carthage

1st millennium BG 23, 23/3barbarian invasions AD 100-500 57/3Islamic conquest 630-1000 68/1Phoenicians 800-550 BC 38-39, 38/3,

40/2religion to AD 600 45/4Roman Empire 500 BG-AD 400 54, 54/1,

55/2Cartier, Jacques 116/1, 117Casa Grande, North America 108/1Casas Grandes, North America 108,108/1Casper, North America 25/2Caspia 42/1Cassander 43Cassel 75/4,135/2Castel del Monte 90/1Castelfidardo, Battle of (1860) 176/2Castile

1100-1500 92/2,101/4, 106,106/1,107/31500-1600 146,146/1crusades 1095-99 94/1Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152/1religion 750-1450 62/1

urbanization c.1300 102/1Castillon, Battle of (1453) 106/2Castro, Fidel 259Cat Island 193/3gatalH6yukl9/3Catalonia

900-1300 92/1, 92/2, 92/3, 931500-1653 152/1, 153, 156,156/1

Catania, Sicily 102/1,133/4,134/1,158/1Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of (1559) 147Catherine de Medici 155Catherine II (the Great), Empress of Russia

149Catholic Church 62, 63/2, 106-7, 154-55,

269, 269/2, 269/3Cavour, Camillo Benso, Conte di 176Cawnpore 194/2Cayenne 122/2,130/1Cayman Islands 247/3gayonii 18/2,19/3Ceausescu, Nicolae 264, 264/1Cebu 251/3Celebes

c.3000 BG 19/41500-1790 118/1,119/2,119/31792-1914196/1,197/2Second World War 234/2

Celts 21,21/4Cemenelum 54/1Cempoala, New Spain 120/3Central African Republic 246/2, 256/1,

256/2, 266/1,277/3Central America see Latin AmericaCentral Asia

6000 BG-AD 500 50-51, 52, 52-53/1break-up of the Soviet Union since 1989

263Russia 1795-1914 180,180/1Tang China 618-907 72/1

Central Indian Agency 248/1Central Powers 218-19Central Provinces, India 195/3, 248/1Central Soviet Area 224/1Cephalonia 67/1Ceram 119/2,196/1,197/2Cerignola, Battle of (1503) 158/1Cerne 23/3Cernjachov Culture 56, 56/2Cerro Baul, Peru 35/3Cerro Blanco, Peru 34/1, 34/2Cerro de las Mesas, Mesoamerica 32/2Cerro El Plomo 110/1Cerro Mejia, Peru 35/3Cerro Sechin, Peru 34, 34/1Cerro Vicus, Peru 34/2Cerros, Mesoamerica 84/2Cervera, northeast Spain 134/1Cesena 103/2Ceuta 158/1, 204,204/1Ceylon

see also Sri Lanka500-150062/1,83/2European colonization 1500-1800 118,

118/1,119/2,131/1,145/3European colonization 1798-1914 194/1,

194/2, 208/1since 1914 229/3, 249Zheng He voyages 1405-33 139/2

Chablais 147/3,155/2Chacabuco, Battle of (1817) 190/2Chaco Canyon 108/1,108/2Chad

1880-39 206/1since 1939 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 270/2

Chaeronea, Battle of (338 BG) 43Chagatai Horde 62/1Chaghatai Khanate 89, 89/5, 99, 99/3Chagos Islands 247/2Chakri monarchy 196,196/1, 197Chalcatzingo, Mesoamerica 32/1Chalcedon 45/4Chalchuapa, Mesoamerica 32/1Chalcidice 41/4Chalcis 40, 40/2Chaldean (Neo-Babylonian) Empire 39Chaldiran, Battle of (1514) 142/2, 143,143/1Chalon-sur-Saone 75/4Chalons 92/1Cham 64/2Champa 63/3, 64, 64/1, 64/2, 65, 65/3Champagne 93/5,100/1, 101Chan Chan, Peru 84, 84/1Chancay, Peru 84/1Chancellor, Richard 116-17/1Chancellorsville, Battle of (1863) 185/3Chandernagore 145/3Chandragupta Maurya, Indian emperor 43,

46Chang'an, northern China

to AD 600 44/2, 49/3, 53/1618-90772/1,72/2,73

Changchun 254/1, 255/2, 255/3Changchun, Battle of (1948) 225/2Changning 31/3Changsha

1368-1644 138/11800-1911199/2,199/4since 1914 254/1, 255/3

Changshu 139/2Channel Islands 93/5Chanquillo, Peru 34/1, 34/2Chansen 53/1Chaoge 31/3Chaoge, Battle of (c.1050 BC) 31Chapultepec 85/3Cha lemagne 74/2, 75Cha les, Archduke of Austria 174Cha les I, King of England, Scotland and

Ir land 156,156Cha les II (the Bald) 74/2, 75Cha les IV, King of Luxembourg 90Cha les IV, King of Spain 167Cha les V, Holy Roman Emperor 147,

152-53,153/2, 155Cha les VI of Austria 174Cha les VIII, King of France 158Cha les X, King of France 173Cha les X, King of Sweden 151Cha les XII, King of Sweden 149, 151Cha les of Anjou 93/5Cha les Albert, King of Piedmont-Sardinia

176Charles Martel 75Charleston 185/3Charolais 152/1,153/2Charsada 53/1Chartists 173Chartres 100/2Chartres, County of 93/5Chassey 20/1Chateau Thierry, Battle of (1918) 219/2Chatham Islands 26/1, 21Chattanooga, Battle of (1863) 185/3Chaul 118/1Chavin culture 25, 25/4, 34/1, 35Chavin de Huantar 25, 25/4, 34, 34/1Chechenia 180,180/1, 263, 263/2Chelles 75/3Chelyabinsk, central Soviet Union 223/3,

237, 237/3Chen-La 64, 64/1, 64/2, 65Chengdu

to AD 600 44/21800-1911199/4since 1945 254/1, 255/2, 255/3

Chenziyai 19/4Cheras 46/1, 46/2, 53/1Cherkessia 180,180/1Chernigov 71/4, 149,181/3, 222/1Chernobyl disaster 237, 237/3, 280Chernomyrdin, Viktor 263Cherokee 124/1, 164Cherso 230/1Cherson

see also Kherson500-1100 67/1, 67/3, 71/3, 78/21928-39 223/3

Chertomlyk 51/4Ches-tyi-yag 50/2Chesowanja 16/1Chester 79/4, 93/4Chevdar, southeast Europe 20/1Cheyenne 783/4Chezy 79/3Chiang Kai-shek 224-25, 234, 235Chiao-Chih 64, 64/1,65Chiapa de Corzo, Mesoamerica 32/1Chiavenna 155/2Chiba 252/1Chibcha culture 122/2Chicago 187/3, 210/1, 281/4Chicama 34/1Chichen Itza 84, 84/2, 85, 85/3,111/3Chichester 79/4Chichimecs 111, 111/3,122/1Chickamauga, Battle of (1863) 185/3Chiclayo 34/1Chiengmai 64, 65/3Chihuahua 122/1,183/3Chilca, South America 25/4Childeric 74, 74/1Chile

1914_45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1, 229/3democracy since 1914 268distribution of wealth since 1945 278ethnic composition 1990s 259/3exports 1990s 258/1female suffrage 270/1independence struggles 1770-1830

190/1,190/2,191/3infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3manufacturing 1945-80 258

military government 1973-89 259population 1800-1914 210/1post independence 1830-1914 192/1,

193slavery 1500-1880 127/2Spanish colonization 1492-1550 121,

121/4trade 1870-1914 208/1US intervention since 1945 242/1, 245/1,

259/2Chilecito, South America 110/1Chilembwe 1915 206/1Chimu culture 84, 84, 84/1China

to 10,000 BC 17/23000 BG-AD 220 30-31, 48-49907-1600 86-871911-49224-25,224/1since 1949 254-55agriculture 12,000 BC-AD 500 18-19Black Death 1347-52 104/1, 105car ownership and production 1990s

282, 282/1civil war 1945-49 225/2Cold War 1947-91 244, 244/2European colonialism 1500-1790 118,

118/1, 119,119/2,119/3,131/1European colonialism 1790-1914 196,

209European exploration 1450-1600 116,

117/1famine 1959-61 277/4Great Depression 1929-33 229/3and India since 1947 249, 249/3infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3Japan 1867-1922 200/3, 201Japan 1931-45 234, 234/1, 234/2, 235,

235/3Japan 1995 253/3Manchu Ojng dynasty 1644-1911 139,

198-99migration 1500-1914 211/2migration 1918-98 275/3Ming period 1368-1644 138-39Mongol Empire 1207-1370 98, 98/1, 99nomad invasions 800 BG-AD 100 51, 51/4population 1800-1900211/1religion to AD 600 44/1, 44/2, 45religion 600-1500 62, 62/1, 63/3Russia 1795-1914 180/1Soviet Union 1970s 236/2Tang period 618-907 72-73Tibet since 1950 269/2trade 150 BG-AD 500 52, 53/1trade 1980 273/3

Chinggis (Genghis) Khan 98-99, 98/1Chinju-mok 87/3Chinon 75/4Chios 67/1, 97/3,142/1Chippenham 79/3Chiquihuitillo 85/4Chiquitoy 35/3Chiquitoy Viejo 110/1Chisbury 79/4Chisholm Trail 183/3Chita 223/3Chitor, Battle of (1568) 144/1Chittagong 139/2Choga Mami 19/3Chola 64/2, 65Cholas 46/1, 46/2, 53/1Cholula 85/4,120/3Ch'ongju-mok 87/3Chongoyape 34/1Chongqing

1800-1911199/2,199/4, 211/1since 1945 254/1, 255/2, 255/3

Chongyang 31/3Chonju-mok 87/3Choshi 141/2Chotanagpur 194/1,194/2,195/3Chotuna, Peru 84/1Christ see Jesus ChristChristchurch, New Zealand 202/1Christianity

see also individual denominationsto AD 600 44/1, 45, 45/4, 54, 55600-1500 62, 62/1, 63, 63/2Africa 1800-80 137, 205, 205/2Africa 1880-1939 207Black Death 1347-52 105Byzantine Empire 527-1025 66-67Carolingian dynasty 700-900 75, 75/3crusades 1095-1291 94-95Ethiopia 500-1880 82, 205Holy Roman Empire 962-1356 91India since 1920 248Japan 1500-1790 118Middle East since 1945 260/1Muslim lands 13th century 89religious conflict since 1917 269/2

288


Slavic states 700-1000 71Christiansand, Norway 158/1Christiansborg, Gold Coast 137/2Christmas Island 247/2Chu state 48/1Chucuito 110/1Chukchi 180/1Chunar 144/1Ch'ungju-mok 87/3Chuquibamba, Peru 35/3Chur 75/3Churchill, Winston S 243Chuzhou 199/4giftlik 18/2Cilicia42/l, 54,55/1Cilician Armenia 94/2, 95/3, 96/1, 96/2Cilvituk 85/3Cimmerians 51, 51/4, 53/1Cincinnati 187/3, 210/1CIS see Commonwealth of Independent

StatesCishan 18-19, 19/4Ciskei 257/3Ciudad Rodrigo, Battle of (1706) 174/1Cividale 74/2, 75/3Civil Rights movement 240, 241/3Cixian 31/3Clapperton, Hugh 205/3Clark, William 182,183/3Claudiopolis 67/3Claudius I 55Clemenceau, Georges 220Clement V, Pope 106Cleveland 187/3, 210/1Cleves 152/1,154/1Clive, Robert 194Clovis I, King of Franks 74, 74/1Clovis, North America 24/1Cluj see KolozsvarCnut II 79Co Loa, southern China 53/1Coapexco, Mesoamerica 32/1Coatlicamac 111/3Coba 33/4, 84/2Coblenz 76/1Cochabamba, Peru 35/3Cochin China

1790-1914 197/2Cochin, southwest India 117/1, 118,118/1,

119/2,145/3Cocos Islands 247/2Coimbra, Portugal 134/1Cojumatlan, Mexico 85/4Cold Harbour, Battle of (1864) 185/3Cold War 242-43, 244-45, 245/1, 247, 257,

267Colenso, Battle of (1899) 206/2Cologne

to AD 600 45/4500-1500 74/2, 75/3, 90/1, 91/3,102/1,

107/41770-1800 133/4,134/11800-1900 210/1

Colombia1492-1780 121,122/2, 123,127/21700-1914 190/2,192/1, 193,193/3,

210/11914_45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1, 229/3since 1945 258, 258/1, 259/3, 275/3

Colombo, Ceylon 118/1,119/2,145/3, 208/1Colon 208/1 "Colonea 67/1, 67/3Colonia Agrippina 54/1, 55/2Colorado 182,182/1,184/2Columbia, South Carolina 185/3Columbus, Christopher 116/1, 117, 120,

120/1Columbus, Ohio 187/3Comalcalco, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2COMECON see Council for Mutual Economic

AssistanceCOMINTERN see Communist InternationalCommendah 137/2Comminges, County of 92/2Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 179Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)

262/1,263Commonwealth of Nations 247, 247/3,

247/4Communist International (COMINTERN)

224Como 103/2Comoros (Comoro Islands) 83/2, 206/1,

246/2, 256/1Compiegne 74/2Compromise of 1850 184Computers 283, 283/3Concepcion, Chile, Battle of (1817) 190/2Conchopatra, Peru 35/3Conde 79/3

Confederate States of America 184-85,184/2, 185/3

Confederation of the Rhine 177Confucianism

to AD 600 44/1, 45600-1644 62, 62/1, 63/3, 86, 1381790-1914 1971917-98269/2

Confucius (Rung Fu Tzu) 45, 49Congo

democracy since 1960 256/2education 1995 279/3independence 1960 246/2, 256/1infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3United Nations operation 1960-64 266/1,

267Congo, Democratic Republic of

see also Belgian Congo; Zairedemocracy since 1960 256/2Gross National Product 1995 278/1Human Development Index 1994 279/2independence 1960 256/1, 257infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3migration 1918-98 275/3

Connecticut 182/1Constance 75/3Constance, Council of (1414-18) 106Constantia 67/3Constantine, Roman emperor 45/4, 55,

66Constantinople

see also Byzantiumto AD 600 45/4, 52/11800-1900210/1Asian nomads 400-955 76/1, 76/2, 77,

77/4Black Death 1347-52 105, 105/2Byzantine Empire 527-1025 66, 67, 67/1,

67/3, 67/4crusades 1095-1291 94/1, 95, 96, 96/2Genoese colony 1100-1300 101/4Islamic conquests 630-1451 68, 68/1, 97,

97population 1000-1500 102,102/1revolts 1618-80 156/1Slavic trade 700-1000 71/3trade routes 14th century 104/1Viking traders 800-1100 78/2

Constantinople, Latin Empire of 95, 95/5,96, 96/2

Constantinople, Treaty of (1739) 178/2Constitutional Act (1791) 188Conwy 93/4Cook Islands 246/2, 247/4Cook, James 202, 202/1Coorg 194/1, 194/2Copan, Mesoamerica 32/1, 33/4, 84/2Copenhagen

1650-1800 129/2, 132/3, 133/4,134/11800-1900210/11990s 281/4

Copernicus, Nicolaus 134Coral Sea, Battle of the (1942) 234/2Corbeny 74/2Corbie 75/3Corcyra 40/2Corded Ware 21/2Cordilleran ice sheet 24/1Cordoba, Argentina 227/1Cordoba (Corduba), Spain

45/4, 54/1, 55/2, 102,102/1, 107/4,133/4Corinth

see also Korinthos40, 40/2, 45/4, 67/1

Corinthus 54/1, 55/2Cork 133/4Coro, South America 121/4Coromandel Coast 118/1Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de 120/2, 121Corregidor 234/2Corsica

to AD 500 38/3, 54, 54/1, 55/2, 55/3500-1500 101,101/4,105/21500-1800 133/4,146/1,147/3,152/1,

154/11815176/1since 1914 220/1, 232/1, 233/2

Cortaillod, western Europe 20/1Cortenuova, Battle of (1237) 90/1Cortes, Hernan 116/1, 117, 120,120/2,

120/3, 121Cortona 103/2Corvey 74/2, 75/3Cossacks

20th century 222/11462-1795 148,148/1,149/3, 156,156/1,

159/2Costa Rica

1830-1910 193/31914-45 226/4, 227/1, 227/2, 229/31990s 258/1, 259/3, 274/1, 279/2

Cotyaeum 67/3Coucy, County of 92/1Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

(COMECON) 236, 236/1, 238/2Counter-Reformation 154-55Courland 146/1, 150,150/1,151/4,151/5,

154/1Courtrai 79/3Coventry 102/1, 232/1Covilhao, Pero de 116-17/1Cowpens, Battle of (1781) 165/3Coxcatlan Cave, Mesoamerica 24/3Cozumel Island 85/3Cravant, Battle of (1423) 106/2Crecy, Battle of (1346) 106/2Crema 103/2Cremona 103/2Creole 190Crete

2000-800 BC 36, 36/1, 37/3, 38/31350-1500 106/11500-1600 146/1Black Death 1347-52 105/2Byzantine Empire 527-1360 67/1, 67/3,

97/3crusades 1095-1291 95/4, 95/5First World War 216/2, 217/3Ottoman Empire 1500-1923 142/1,178/1Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54-55/1,

55/2, 55/3Second World War 232/1, 233/2trade 950-1300 101/4

Criccieth 93/4Cricklade 79/4Crimea

1347-52 104/11462-1795 149/3since 1991262/1, 263

Crimea, Khanate of1307-1683 97/4,143/1, 146/11683-1783179/1

Crimean War (1853-56) 178Croatia

1000-1500 71/4, 96/11500-1700 142/1,146/1, 147,153/31683-1914 175/2, 178/1Second World War 233/2since 1989 264/1, 265, 265/3, 266/1,

267/3Croats 175/3, 265/3, 267/3Croesus, King of Lydia 42Cromwell, Oliver 156, 156Croquants 156,156/1Crow 183/4Crusader States 88/3, 89/5, 94-95, 101,

101/4Crusades 62, 94-95, 96Ctesiphon 52/1, 69/1Cuba

1830-1914 192,193,193/31914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/2, 229/3Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 244, 245/1,

245/3democracy since 1914 268/1education 1995 279/3exports 1990s 258/1migration 1918-98 275/3slavery 1500-1880 127,127/2Spanish colonization 1492-1780 120,

120/1,120/2,122/1, 123,125/2,130/1Spanish colonization 1770-1830 190/1,

191/3urban population 1920-50 227/1US intervention since 1945 242/1, 243,

259/2Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) 236, 244, 245/1,

245/3Cucuta 190/2Culhuacan 85/3Culiacan 122/1Culpeper, USA 185/3Cultural Revolution (1966-72) 254Cumae 40/2Cumans 88/1, 88/3Cupisnique 25/4, 34/1Curasao

1492-1770 120/1, 125,125/2,130/11830-1910 193/31945_98 247/3

Cuttack 139/2,144/1,144/2,145/3Cuzco, Peru

1400-1540 110,110/1,110/21492-1780 121,121/4,122/2

Cyme 42/1Cypriot Civil War (1964- ) 266, 267,

267/2Cyprus

2686-600 BG 30/1, 36/1, 37/3, 38/31500-1600 146/11914-1945 219/1, 221/3, 232/1, 233/2

Achaemenid Empire 600-400 BG 42-43,42/1,42/3

Black Death 1347-52 105/2Byzantine Empire 527-1025 67/1, 67/3Crusader States 1100-1350 89/5, 101,

101/4crusades 1095-1291 94/2, 95/4, 95/5Holy Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 55/1,

55/2, 55/3Ottoman Empire 1500-1683 142/1since 1945 246/2, 247/4, 260/1, 266/1,

267, 267/2, 273/3Cyrenaica

500 BG-AD 400 54-55/1, 55/31500-1683 142/11683-1912178/1Second World War 232/1

Gyrene 23/3, 40/2, 45/4, 54/1Cyril 71Cyrus the Great, King of Persia 42Czech Republic 264/1, 265, 265/2Czechoslovakia

see also Czech Republic; Slovakia1914_39 220/2, 221, 221/4, 223/2, 228/21939-45 230/2, 232/1, 233/31945_89 236, 238/2, 244, 245/1, 264since 1989 264, 264/1, 265

Czechs800-1000 70/21900175/3

Da Nang 131/1,197/2, 250/2Dabarkot 29/4Dabhol 83/2Dacca 144/1,144/2,145/3, 211/1Dacia 54-55/1, 55Dacians 21/4Dadu 98/1Dagestan 143/1,179/1,179/3, 263/2Dagu 138/1,198/1Dahae 51/4, 53/1Dahomey 136/1, 137,137/2, 204/1, 206/1Dahshur 3 7/2Dahushan 225/2Dai Viet 64, 64/2, 65/3Dailam 88/2Daima 22/2, 23/3Dainzu, Mesoamerica 32/2Daiyuan 31/3Dakhla Oasis 81/3, 83/2Dakota 184/2Dali 224/1Dali, Battle of (751) 72/1, 73Dali state 87/2Dalian 199/2, 254/1, 255/2, 255/3Dalmatia 54/1, 142/1,174/1Daman 118/1,119/2,145/3, 249/3Damar 196/1Damascus

to AD 600 37/2, 42/3, 45/41095-1500 94, 94/2, 95/3, 98/1,101/4,

104/1Damietta 94/2, 95/3, 95/5Dampier, William 202/1Dandankan, Battle of (1040) 88, 88/1Dandong 199/2Danebury 21/4Danelaw 79Dang people 31/3Danger Cave, North America 25/2Danish Antilles 127/2Danishmendids 94/1Danzig

see also Gdansk1350-1500 91/3,107/41450-1750 128/1,129/2,132/2,132/3,

133/4,158/1since 1914 220, 220/2

Daoism 44/1, 45, 62-63, 62/1, 63/3Darabakh 179/3Darband 78/2Dardanelles, Battle of (1915) 218/1Darfur 136/1, 204/1Darien, Colombia 120Darion, northwest Europe 20/1Darius I, King of Persia 40-41, 42-43,

42-43/1Darius III, King of Persia 43Dartmoor Reaves 21/3Darwin, Australia 208/1Dasapura 47/3Dashly 50/1Datong 199/4Dauphine 90/1, 93/5Davao 234/2, 251/3David, King of Israel 45 45/3Davis, John 116/1, 117

2 8 9

fnro«B&gB

i]


Dawenkou 19/4Daxi 19/4Daybul 83/2,104/1Dayton Peace Accord see Bosnian Civil WarDayue 86/1Dazu 44/2De Gaulle, Charles 239De Haugen, southern Africa 22/1Debrecen 173/3,175/4Decembrist Revolution 1825 172/2Declaration of Independence (US) 164,

165Delagoa Bay 204/1Delaware 182/1,185/3Delaware Native Americans 183/4Delft 103/3Delhi

14th century 104/11526-1765 144,144/1,144/2,145/31800-1900 194/2, 210/11990s 281/4

Delhi (region)1526-1765 144/4,145/3

Delhi, Battle of (1398) 89/4Delhi, Sultanate of 62/1,89/4, 89/5Delian League 41, 41/4Delos 41/3Democracy

Africa since 1939 256/2Eastern Europe since 1989 264-65,

264/1since 1914 268, 268/1women 270-71, 270/1world 1914 160/1

Democratic Party (USA) 240, 241Denain, Battle of (1712) 174/1Deng Xiaoping 255Denham, Dixon 205/3Denikin, Anton Ivanovich 222/1Denmark

800-1100 62/1, 78/2, 79, 79/51350-1500 106,106/1,107/31800-1914 171/3,172/1,177/31914 220/1colonies 1500-1800 119/2,125/2,130/1,

137/2, 145,145/3colonies 1830-1945 191/3,193/3, 208/1,

227/2First World War 218/1, 220/2Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2industrialization 1830-1914 171/3Reformation 1526-1765 154/1Second World War 232, 232/1, 233/2,

233/3since 1945 238/1, 238/2, 246/1, 272/1,

278/1Sweden 1500-1600 150-51,150/1Thirty Years War 1618-48 159/2urbanization 1800 133/4

Denver 187/3Denyen 37/3Derbent 69/1Derejvka 50/2Dessau, Battle of (1628) 159/2Detroit 187/3, 210/1,281/4Deventer 75/4Dezhou 138/1Dhanakataka 47/3Di (Gui) people 31/3Dia 81/3Dias, Bartholomew 116,116-17/1Die, France 755/3Dieffenbach, Ernst 202/1Diem, Ngo Dinh 251Dien Bien Phu, Battle of (1954) 250Diest 103/3Diet of Worms 152Dijon 102/1,107/4,134/1,158/1,166/1Dili 119/2Dilligen 134/1Dilmun 28, 29/3

see also BahreinDimini, southeast Europe 20/1Dinghai 198/1Diocletian 55, 55/2Dipanagara, Prince 197Directory (French Republic) 166Diu

1500-1770 118/1,119/2,119/3,130/1,145/3

since 1945 249/3Dixcove 137/2Djailololl9/2Djambi 119/2,196/1Djazira 69/2Djeitun 19/3, 50, 50/1Djibouti 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 268/1Djoser, Pharoah 30Dmanisi 17/2Dnepropetrovsk 222/1,223/3

Dnestr Republic 262/1, 263Dobruja 97/4,178/1Dodecanese 178/1, 230/1Dodge City 183/3Dogger Bank, Battle of (1915) 218/1Dole 134/1Dolgans 180/1Doliche 67/1Dollfuss, Engelbert 231/4Dolni Vestonice 16/3Domburg 75/4Dominica 125/2,193/3, 247/3Dominican Republic

see also Santo Domingo1830-1910193/31914_45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1, 227/2,

229/3, 269/2since 1945 242/1, 245/1, 258/1, 259/2,

266/1Domitz, Battle of (1645) 159/2Donatism 45/4Donauworth, Battle of (1632) 159/2Dong Son 52/2Dongyi people 31/3Dor 37/3Dordrecht 91/3,103/3Dorestad 75/4, 78, 78/2Doris 41/3Dorpat 91/3,107/4,150/1Dortmund 91/3Dos Palmos 34/2Dos Pilas, Mesoamerica 84/2Douai 103/3Double Entente (1894) 217Douzy 74/2Dover 93/4Drahem 157/3Drake, Francis 116-17/1,116/2, 117Drangiana 43/1Dred Scott Decision (1857) 184,184/2Drenthe 153/2Drepane 38/3Dresden 170,173/3, 210/1, 232/1Dresden, Battle of (1813) 167/2Dreux 92/1Dry Creek 24/1Dubcek, Alexander 236Dublin

500-1500 78, 78/2, 93/4,102/11700-1800 132/3,133/4,134/11800-1900 210/1

Duchang 31/3Dudley Castle 135/2Dull Knife, Battle of (1876) 183/4Dunedin, New Zealand 202/1Dunhuang 44/2, 53/1,104/1Dura Europos 45/4, 52/1Durban 257/3Duren 74/2Durham Station, Battle of (1865) 185/3Durocortorum 54/1Durres 102/1Dutch Brazil 130/1Dutch East India Company 118, 130,

196Dutch East Indies

see also Indonesia1800-1914208/1,211/1since 1920 229/3, 250

Dutch Guianasee also Surinam1500-1880 122/2, 125,127/21700-1914 192/1, 208/1, 210/1

Dutch New Guinea 197/2Dutch Republic see NetherlandsDutch West India Company 130Dvaravati 52/2, 64, 64/1Dyrrachion (Dyrrachium) 94/1Dyrrachium (Dyrrachion) 67/1, 67/3Dzerzhinsk 223/3Dzibilchaltun, Mesoamerica 33/4,111/3Dzungaria 72/1

Early Khartoum 22/1Earth Summit 280East Anglia 79, 79/3East Asia

907-1600 86-87Japan 1995 253/3Tang period 618-907 72-73, 72/1

East Florida 182/1East Francia 90, 90/1East Frisia 157/3East Germany 236/1, 238/2, 244, 264, 264/1East India Company see English East India

Company; Dutch East India Company

East Indies 116/2,117/1see also Dutch East Indies

East London 257/3East Pakistan 248/2, 249

see also BangladeshEast Pomerania 157/3East Prussia 157/3,177/4, 220/2, 230/2East Rand 257/3East Timor 211/1East Turkestan 139/3Easter Island 26/1, 26/3, 27Eastern Europe

1945-89 236-37economic development 1990-97 265/2since 1989 264-65

Eastern Orthodox Church see OrthodoxChristianity

Eastern Scyths 51/4, 53/1EC see European CommunityEcbatana 42/3Echternach 75/3Ecija 102/1Economic Recovery Plan (ERP) 239ECSC see European Coal and Steel

CommunityEcuador

1492-1780 121,122/2, 123,127/21820-1914 191/3,192/1,193, 210/11914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1, 229/3since 1945 258/1, 259/3, 272/2

Edessa 45/4, 68/1, 94, 94/1, 94/2, 95Edinburgh

c. 1300 93/41618-1800 132/3,133/4,134/1,156/1

Edington 79, 79/3Edirne 97, 97/4

see also AdrianopleEdmonton 188/2,189/3Edo

see also Tokyo1600-1867 141/2,141/3

Edzna, Mesoamerica 84/2EEC see European Economic CommunityEFTA see European Free Trade AreaEgtved 21/3Egypt

see also Aegyptus2686-2181 BG 30, 30/12000-1000 BG 36, 36/1, 37, 37/2, 37/3600-30 BG 23, 42, 42/1, 43, 43/41500-1800 136/1,146/1Assyrian Empire 750-550 BG 39, 39/4British Empire 1800-80 205, 206/1,

208/1crusades 1095-1291 94, 95/5democracy since 1939 256/2European trade 1100-1300 101/4First World War 218-19/1, 221, 221/3Great Depression 1929-33 229/3independence 1922 256/1Islamic conquests 634-644 68, 68/1Islamic conquests 1000-1400 88, 88/1,

89Judaism 1500 BC-AD 600 45Napoleon Bonaparte 166, 178Ottoman Empire 1500-1882 142/1,

178/1,204/1population 1700-1900210/1religions 750-1450 62/1Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54, 55/1Second World War 232, 232/1, 233since 1945 260-61, 260/1, 261/3, 266/1,

275/3, 277/3, 279/2trade 150 BC-AD 500 52/1, 53trade 500-1500 83/2

Eichstadt 75/3Eire (Republic of Ireland)

see also Ireland; Irish Free StateSecond World War 232/1, 233/2

Eirik the Red 78Eiriksson, Leif 78, 78/1Eiriksson, Thorvald 78, 78/1Ekaterinoslav 181/3Ekehu 202/1Ekron 45/3El Alamein 232/1El Argar 21/3El Fasher 204/1El Hamel 22/1El Hasa 179/1El Kril 22/2El Peru, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2El Purgatorio, Peru 35/3, 84/1El Salvador

1914-45 226/1, 226/3, 226/4, 229/3since 1945 242/1, 243, 258/1, 259/2,

259/3, 266/1El Tajin, Mesoamerica 32/2Elam

4000-1000 BC 28, 28/1, 29/3, 36, 36/1,37

900-30 BC 38/1, 39/4, 42-43/1Eland's Bay 23/4Elba 14 7/3Elbe Slavs 71, 71/4Elbing

700-1500 70, 71/3, 78/2, 91/3,107/41500-1700 150/1

Eleanor of Aquitaine 93Ele Bor 22/2Elephantine 30/1Eleuthera Island 193/3Eleven Years' Truce (1609-21) 128Elichpur 145/3Elis 41/3Elizabeth, New Jersey 187/3Elizavetovskaya 51/4Elmina 81, 81/3, 137,137/2Elsinore, Denmark

see also Helingor158/1

Elsloo20/l, 79/3Emancipation Proclamation (1863) 184Emden 154/1Emei Shan 44/2Emerita Augusta 54/1Emilal47/3Emishi and Ezo 72/1Emporiae 40/2Enghien 103/3England

900-1300 93, 93/41350-1500 106,106/2, 107,107/31500-1600 146,146/1civil war 1642-48 156/1colonial empire 1600-1800 118-19,

119/2, 130,130-31/1, 131, 137economy 1620-1790 128-29,128, 128/1,

129,129/2exploration 1450-1600 116-17/1,116/2,

117Habsburg Empire 1556-1618 152/1Industrial Revolution 1750-1850 168,

168/1,169Reformation 1526-1765 154/1religion 750-1450 62/1Thirty Years War 1618-48 159/2trade'950-1300 100urbanization 1300-1800102/1, 132,

132/1,132/2, 132/3, 133/4Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/2, 79, 79/3,

79/4, 93English Civil War 156, 158English East India Company 130, 194, 196,

198-99English Navigation Acts 131Eniwetok 235/3Enver Pasha 179Enserune 21/4Entremont 21/4Ephesus 42/1, 45/4, 55/1, 67/1, 67/3Epidamnus 40/2Epirus 41/4Epirus, Despotate of 96, 96/2EPU see European Payments UnionEquatorial Guinea 246/2, 256/1Erasmus 103Erblande 153/3Erdine 102/1Eretria 40-41, 40/2, 41/3Erfurt 102/1,107/4, 134/1Erie Canal 187Eritrea

1700-1914 206/1, 208/1, 210/1since 1914 230/1, 246/2, 256/1, 256/2,

260/1Erlangen 134/1Ertena 97/4,143/1Erythrae 42/1Esfahan 143Esh Shaheinab 22/2Eshnunna 29/3Essen 232/1Este lands 147/3Estonia

1462-1795 146/1, 148, 149, 150,150/1,151

1914_45 220/2, 221, 222/1, 228/2, 229/3,231/4, 232/1

since 1945 233/3, 236/1, 236/2, 238/2,262/1,270/2

Ethiopiato AD 600 16/1, 23,44/1750-150062/1,82,82/11500-1880136/1, 205democracy since 1939 256/2drought 1984-85 277/4education 1995 279/3Gross National Product 1995 278/1Italian acquisition 1936 230/1, 231migration 1918-98 275/3since 1945 260/1

290

m


Etowah 109/3Etruria 37/3Etruscans 21/4, 54Etzatlan, Mexico 85/4EU see European UnionEudaemon Arabia 52/1Europe

to 10,000 BG 17,17/28000-200 BC 20-21, 20/1,21/3, 21/41350-1500 106-71500-1600 146-471815-71176/11870-1914 216-171918-1939 220-21, 230-31since 1945 238-39Black Death 1347-52 104-5Christianity 600-1500 62/1, 63/2colonial empires 1600-1800 112/1,

118-19, 130-31, 145,145/3colonial empires 1800-1939 204, 206-7,

208colonial empires since 1945 246-47computer ownership 283/3conflicts 1770-1913 162/2economy 950-1500 100-1, 100/1,101/4,

107/4economy since 1945 272-73employment 1950-91 239/3facism 230-31First World War 218-19foreign investment in 1914 209/2French Revolution 1789-94 166,166/1GDP 1830-1910171Great Depression 1929-33 228/2industrialization 1830-1914 170-71migration 1500-1914 187,187, 189,

211/2Napoleon Bonaparte 1796-1815 166-67,

166-67/2population 1620-1790 128population 1700-1900 210/1rebellions 1600-1785 156-57Reformation 1526-1765 154-55Russian expansion 1462-1795 148science and technology 1500-1700

134-35unrest 1815-49 172-73urbanization 1000-1500 102-3urbanization 1500-1800 132-33warfare 1450-1750 158-59world exploration 1450-1600 116-17

European Goal and Steel Community(ECSC) 238/2, 239,

European Community (EC) 238/2, 239European Economic Community (EEC)

238/2, 239, 273European Free Trade Area (EFTA) 238/2,

239European Payments Union (EPU) 239European Recovery Programme (ERP) 272European Union (EU) 238/2, 239, 265,

265/2, 273Eusperides 40/2Evenks 180/1Everlasting League (1353) 90/2Evolution

human 16-17,16Evora 102/1,134/1Exeter 79/4Eyre, Edward John 202/1

Failaka 29/3Falkland Islands 130/1,192/1, 246/2, 247,

247/2, 247/4Fang people 31/3Farfa 74/2, 75/3Farfan, Peru 84/1Faroe Islands 78, 78/1Pars

500-1500 69/2, 88/21500-1683 142/2

Fascism 230-31Fatimids 69/3, 88, 88/1, 89, 94, 94/1,94/2Federmann, Nikolaus 121/4Feixi 31/3Fell's Cave, South America 16/3, 24/1Fengbitou 19/4Ferdinand, King of Aragon 146Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor 147, 152,

153Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor 153Ferdinand V (Castile/Leon) 146Ferdinand VII, King of Spain 172Ferghana 53/1, 72, 72/1Fernando Poo, West Africa 130/1, 204/1,

206/1Ferrara 102,103/2,134/1,147/3

Ferrieres 75/3Fez 81/3Fez, Kingdom of 88/1Fiji 26/1, 247/2, 247/4Filitosa 21/3Finland

1500-1795 146/1, 147, 150,150/11795-1914 180,180/1First World War 216/2, 220/1, 220/2, 221,

222/1Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3Second World War 232/1, 233/2since 1945 272/1, 273/3

Finns 62/1First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26) 196First Indochinese War 245/1First World War 218-19

build up to 216-17Canada 189Latin America 226, 226/3, 227Ottoman Empire 179outcomes 220-21Russia 222, 222/1Serb nationalism 175

Fiume (Rijeka) 230/1, 231Five Forks, Battle of (1865) 185/3Fladstrand, Denmark 158/1Flag Fen 21/3Flanders

500-1500 92/1, 93/5, 100,100/1, 102-3,103/3

1490-1700 153/2,159Flavigny 75/3Flensburg 91/3Fleurus, Battle of (1794) 166/1Fleury 75/3Flinders, Matthew 202/1Flint 93/4Florence

500-900 74/21300-1500 102/1, 103,103/2,105/2,

106/1,107/41500-1800 128/1,132/1,132/3,133/4,

134/1,146/1,147/3, 152/11815-71 172/2,173/3, 176, 176/2

Floresll8/l,196/l,197/2Florida

1600-1770 125/3,130/11783-1910 182,182/1, 184,184/1,184/2,

185/3Foix, County of 92/2, 93/5Foligno 107/4Folsom 24/1Fontbregoua 20/1Ford, Gerald 242Forez, County of 92/1Formigny, Battle of (1450) 106/2Formosa

see also Taiwanc.1770 131/11880-1914 201, 208/1

Fornova, Battle of (1495) 158/1Forrest, J and A 202/1Fort Boise 183/3Fort Bridger 183/3Fort Dauphin, Madagascar 130/1Fort Donelson, Battle of (1862) 185/3Fort Fisher, North Carolina 185/3Fort Hall 183/3Fort Hatteras, North Carolina 185/3Fort Henry, Battle of (1862) 185/3Fort Jackson, Louisiana 185/3Fort James, West Africa 130/1Fort Larantuka 118/1, 119/2Fort Macon, North Carolina 185/3Fort Monroe, Virginia 185/3Fort Morgan, Alabama 185/3Fort Pickens, Florida 185/3Fort Pulaski, Georgia 185/3Fort Rock Cave 24/1Fort St Philip, Louisiana 185/3Fort San Salvador, Taiwan 119/2Fort Sumter, South Carolina 184, 185/3Fort Union 183/3Fort Vancouver, Oregon 183/3Fort William, Canada 188/2Fort Zeelandia, Taiwan 119/2Fossatum Africae 55/2Fourteen Point 220France

see also Gallia; Gaul900-1300 92, 92/1, 93, 93/51350-1500 106/1,106/2, 107,107/31500-1600 146,146/1, 147,147/21783-1914 190/1,191/3,192/1,193/31789-1815 166-67,166-67/2,166/1,

167/3since 1945 238/1, 238/2, 239Africa 1500-1880 137,137/2, 204, 204/1Africa 1880-1939 206/1Africa since 1939 256-57

Anatolia 1920-23 179/4car ownership and production 1990s

282/1Caribbean 1500-1780 124-25,125/2Caribbean 1783-1914 193/3China 1800-1911198/1, 199,199/2civil unrest 1830-49 172/2, 173,173/3colonial empire 1600-1800 130,

130-31/1, 131colonial empire 1870-1914 208/1, 209,

209, 209/2colonial empire 1945-98 246, 246-47/2,

246/1, 247,247/3crusades 1095-1295 94/1, 95economy 1620-1790 128-29,128,128/1,

129,129/2economy since 1945 272/1, 272/2, 273exploration 1450-1600 116-17/1, 117First World War 216/2, 217, 217, 218-19,

218/1, 219/2, 220, 220/1, 220/2, 221,221/3, 221/4

Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) 177Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2Gross National Product 1995 278/1Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152,152/1,

153India 1526-1765 145,145/3, 194industrialization 1830-1914170/1, 171,

171/2,171/3Latin America 1500-1780 122/2Latin America 1783-1914 190/1,191/3,

192/1Middle East since 1945 260, 261Napoleon Bonaparte 1793-1915 190-91North America 1500-1780 124-25,125/3North America 1775-1914 165, 182, 188,

188/1, 189Reformation 1526-1765 154/1, 155,

155/3religion 750-1450 62/1revolts 1618-80 156,156/1, 157Russian Revolution 222/1Second World War 231, 232, 232/1, 233,

233/2, 233/3slave trade 1500-1880 126-27,126/1Southeast Asia 1790-1914 197,197/2Southeast Asia since 1920 250-51, 250/1territorial acquisitions 1643-1715 157/2trade 1100-1300 101/4trade in Asia 1500-1790 119urban communities 1000-1500 102,

102/1urbanization 1800 132,133/4Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/2, 79, 79/3, 79/4War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14)

174,174/1warfare 1450-1750 158-59,158/1,159,

159/2Franche Comte 152/1,153/2,155/3Franchthi, southeast Europe 20/1Francia 75, 92Francis I, King of France 147Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria 174-75Franco, General Francisco 231, 231/4Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) 177, 216Franco-Russian alliance (1894) 217Franco-Swedish War (1635-48) 159/2Franconia 71/4, 90/1,153/3Franeker 134/1Frankfurt

500-1500 74/2, 91/3, 103,107/41618-1770 134/1,159/21800-1900 210/1, 232/1Second World War 232/1

Frankfurt-am-Main 102/1Frankfurt-an-der-Oder, Siege of 151/2Franklin, Tennessee 185/3Franks 56, 56/2, 57, 57/4, 74-75Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria 217Fraser, Simon 188Frederick I (Barbarossa), Holy Roman

Emperor 90, 95/4Frederick II (the Great), Emperor 95Frederick William IV, King of Prussia 177Frederick, Maryland 185/3Fredericksburg, Battle of (1862) 185/3Fredrik Hendrik Island 197/2Freetown, West Africa 204/1, 208/1Freiburg 134/1Freising 75/3Fremantle, Australia 202/1Fremont peoples 109French Congo 208/1, 210/1French Equatorial Africa 206/1French Guiana

1500-1880 127/21700-1914 192/1, 208/1, 210/1since 1914227/1,246/2

French Guinea 206/1French Indochina

1842-1914 197/2,199/2, 208/1

since 1920 234/1, 250-51French Somaliland 206/1, 208/1, 210/1French Sudan 206/1

see also MaliFrench Wars of Religion 146,155/3French West Africa 206/1, 208/1, 210/1Fresnes 135/2Fribourg 90/2,155/2Friedland, Battle of (1807) 167,167/2Friedrichshafen 232/1Friesland 153/2Frisia 74/2Frisians 56/1, 56/2, 57/4Frobisher, Sir Martin 116/1, 117Frondes 156,156/1Frontera, Battle of (711) 68/1Frunze 223/3Fu Hao 30, 31Fufeng31/3Fukui Cave 18/1Fukuoka 141/3, 200/1, 252/1Fulani 205Fulda 74/2, 75/3,134/1,154/1Funa River 23/3Funabashi 252/1Funan 31/3, 44/1, 52/2, 64, 64/1Funfkirchen 134/1Fushun 254/1, 255/2Futa 204/1Futuna Islands 246/2Fuzhou

1368-1800 118/1,138/1,139/21800-1914 198/1,199/2,199/4, 211/1since 1939 234/1, 254/1, 255/3

Fvrkat 79/5

Gabon1880-1939 206/1since 1939 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 277/3,

279/2Gades 38/3Gadsden Purchase 1850 182,182/1,193/2Galatia 54, 55/1Galicia, eastern Europe 71/4,146/1Galicia and Lodomeria, eastern Europe

151/5,174/1,175/2Galileo (Galileo Galilei) 134Galindo, Peru 34/2, 35/3Galla, East Africa 136/1Galle, Ceylon 118/1,119/2,145/3Gallia 55/3Gallia Aquitania 54/1Gallia Lugdunensis 54/1Gallia Narbonensis 54/1Gallipoli 97/4, 218/1, 219Gama, Vasco da 116,116-17/1, 118Gambia

1700-1900 206/1, 210/1since 1939 246/2, 247/4, 256/1, 256/2,

274/1Gandara 43/1, 44/2, 53/1Gandhi, Indira 248Gandhi, Mohandas ("Mahatma") 195, 248Gang of Four 255Ganges Delta 280/2Gangra 67/1Ganj Dareh 18/2,19/3Ganweriwala 29/4Gao, West Africa 80, 81, 81/3Gaocheng 31/3Gaotai 224/1Garagay, Peru 34/1Garibaldi, Giuseppe 176,176/2Gascony 92/1, 100,100/1Gastein 107/4Gath 45/3Gatinais, County of 92/1Gaugamela, Battle of (331 BG) 42/3Gaul

Franks 200-900 74/1Magyars 896-955 77/4Roman Empire 500 BG-AD 400 54, 54/1,

57Gaur-Tanda 144/1Gautama, Siddhartha (see Buddha) 44Gavrinis, western Europe 20/1Gaya47/3Gaza

to AD 500 37/2, 42/3, 45/3since 1945 260, 261/2, 261/3, 274/1

Gazankulu 257/3Gdansk

see also Danzigsince 1945 264/1

Geeraardsbergen 103/3Gela 40/2Gelderland 103/3, 153/2

2 9 1

a

G


Geldern 157/3General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

(GATT) 272Geneva 107/4,133/4,154/1,155/3,158/1Geng 31/3Genghis Khan see Ghinggis KhanGenoa

1500-1600146/2,147/31820172/2Black Death 1347-52 105/2Byzantine Empire 1340-60 97/3centre of learning 1770 134/1crusades 1095-1291 94/1, 95economy 950-1300 101,101/4economy 1620-1775 128/1,129/2Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152,152/1population 1500-1800 132/1,133/4since 1939 232/1urban communities 1000-1500 102/1,

103/2George, South Africa 257/3Georgia, eastern Europe

500-1500 67/1,88/3, 89/51500-1683 143/11683-1914179/1,179/31914-45 275/31970s 236/21988-98 262, 262/1, 263, 263/2, 266/1,

279/2Georgia, United States

admission to United States 182/1American Civil War 184, 185,185/3c.1770 126,130/1slavery 126, 184/1, 184/2

Georgians 142/2Gepids 56/2, 57, 57/4, 76/1, 76/2, 77German Confederation 172,172/1, 173,

173/3, 177,177/3German Customs Union (1842) 177,177/4German East Africa 206/1, 208/1,210/1, 219German South-West Africa 206/1, 208/1,

210/1see also Namibia

Germania 55/3Germania Inferior 54/1Germania Superior 54/1Germanic tribes 100-500 56-57, 56/1, 56/2Germantown, Battle of (1777) 165/3Germany

see also East Germany; West Germanyto AD 600 45500-1000 71/4, 77/41000-1500 90-91, 103, 106,107/3,107/4Africa 1880-1939 206, 206/1, 206/2Canada 1763-1825 188/1China 1800-1911 199/2coal production 1912-13 217colonial empire 1870-1914 208, 208/1,

209, 209, 209/2expansion 1935-39 230/2fascism 1921-39 231, 231/4First World War 216-17, 216/1, 216/2,

218-19, 218/1, 219/2First World War outcomes 220-21, 220/1,

220/2, 221/4Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228,

228/2, 229Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152/1,

152/3, 153Industrial Revolution 216-17industrialization 1830-1914 170-71,

170/1,171/3population 1620-1790 128, 125/1revolutionary activity 1918-23 223/2Second World War 232-33, 232/1, 233/2,

233/3, 235since 1990 264, 278/1,282/1Sweden 1600-1700 150, 151,151/2unification 1815-71 176-77urbanization 1500-1800 133/4US intervention since 1945 242/1

Gesoriacum 55/2Gettysburg, Battle of (1863) 184,185/3Gevaudan 92/1, 92/2Ghadames, North Africa 81/3, 204/1Ghana

see also Gold Coast500-1500 62/1, 80, SO/1, 81Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4democracy since 1957 256/2, 268/1independence 1957 246/2, 256-57, 256/1since 1920 257trade 1980 273/3women in employment 1990s 270/2

Ghat, North Africa 81/3, 204/1Ghaznavid Empire 88, 88/1, 89Ghent

500-1100 74/2, 79/31000-1500 91/3, 102,102/1,106/1

Ghilzais 142/2

Ghurids 88/3, 89Gibraltar

630-1000 68/11450-1750 158/11880-1914 208/1since 1945 246/2, 247, 247/4

Gilan 142/2Gilimanuk 52/2Gilolo 118/1Gironde 166/1Girsu 29/3Giza37/2Glarus, Switzerland 90/2, 155/2Glasgow 133/4,134/1, 208/1, 210/1, 232/1Glasnost 237, 262Glessen 134/1Gloucester 79/3Gnezdovo 78/2Gniezno 70/2, 71/4Gnosticism 45/4Goa

1880-1914 208/1European colonialism 1500-1790 117/1,

118,118/1,119/2,119/3,130/1India since 1945 249/3Mughal Empire 1526-1765 144/2, 145/3

Gobedra 22/2Godfrey of Bouillon 94/1Godin Tepe 29/3Godinne 74/2Gokomere 23/4Golan Heights 260, 261/3, 267Golconda 145/3Gold Coast

see also Ghana1500-1800 137,137/21700-1914 204/1, 206/1, 208/1, 210/1

Gold Standard 229, 229/4Golden Bull 90, 146Golden Horde 62/1, 89, 89/5, 91/3 99, 99/3Gombe Point 22/2, 23/3, 23/4Gomel 222/1Gommecourt 218, 218/3Gomulka, Wladysla 236Gonder 204/1Gondrevelle 74/2Gondwana 89/4,144/4, 145/3Good Friday Agreement (1998) 269Goplanians 70/2Gorazde 267/3Gorbachev, Mikhail 237, 242-43, 244,

262-63, 263, 264Gordion 42/3Gordonsville 185/3Gorgan53/l, 104/1Gorkiy see Nizhniy NovgorodGortyn 54/1Goslar 90/1, 91/3Gothic architecture 103Goths

see also Ostrogoths; Visigoths56-57, 56/1, 56/2, 57/3, 76/1, 77

Gottingen 134/1Gouda 103/3Gough Island 247/4Graaff-Reinet 257/3Gran Colombia 191/3Granada, Nicaragua 122/1Granada, Spain

750-1500 62/1, 89/5, 92/3,102/1, 106,106/1

1556-1618146/1,152/11600-1785 156/1Black Death 128/1centre of learning c.1770 134/1population 1500-1800 132/1,132/2,

133/4Grand Bahama Island 193/3Grand Canal, China 138/1Grand Canyon 120/2Grand Cayman 193/3Grand Pressigny, western Europe 20/1Grande Prairie, Canada 188/2Granicus, Battle of (334 BG) 42/3, 43Grant, Ulysses S (General) 185Grant, J A 205/3Grasshopper, North America 108/1Graubunden 154/1Grave Creek Mound, eastern North America

25/2Gravisca 40/2Graz 134/1,173/3Great Abaco Island 193/3Great Basin, North America 25/2, 108-9Great Britain

see also England, Northern Ireland,Scotland, Wales

1500-1600 147Africa 1500-1880 137/2, 204, 204/1Africa 1880-1939 206, 206/1, 206/2Africa since 1939 256-57

Anatolia 1920-23 179/4Anglo-Saxons AD 400-500 57, 57/3Australia 1790-1945 202Canada 1763-1914 188-89,188/1Caribbean 1625-1763 125/2Caribbean 1830-1910193/3China 1800-1911 198-99, 198/1,

199/2civil unrest 1819-31 172/2, 173civil war 1642-48 156colonial empire c.1770 130-31/1colonial empire 1880-1914 208/1,209,

209/2First World War 216/2, 217, 218-19,

218/1,220,221,221/3France 1793-1815 166/1, 167, 167/3India 1600-1920 145,145/3, 194-95India since 1920 248, 248/1industry 1750-1850 168-69,169/3Latin America 1800-1914 190/1,191/3,

192,192/1Middle East since 1945 260, 261New Zealand 1790-1945 202North America 1600-1763 124-25,

124/1,125/3North America 1775-83 164-65North America 1783-1910 182/1Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54/1, 55,

55/3Russian Revolution 222/1Second World War 232-33. 235, 235/3slave trade 1500-1880 126-27,126/1Southeast Asia 1790-1914 196,196/1,

197,197/2Southeast Asia since 1920 250, 250/1urbanization 1500-1800 132,132/1,

132/2,132/3,133/4Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/1. 78/2, 79,

79/3, 79/4Great Depression 221, 226, 228-29, 241Great Exuma Island 193/3Great Fire of London (1666) 132Great Hungarian Plain 76-77Great Inagua Island 193/3Great Khan, Khanate of the 89/5, 99/3Great Langdale, British Isles 20/1Great Leap Forward 277/4Great Moravia 70/2Great Northern War (1700-21) 149, 151Great Plains, North America 24, 25/2, 108,

109Great Salt Lake 183/3Great Schism (1054) 96Great Schism (1378-1417) 106,107/3Great Wall of China

800 BC-AD 500 48/1, 48/2, 49, 51/4, 51/5,53/1

1368-1644 139,139/3Great Zimbabwe 82, 82/1, 83, 83/2, 83/3Greater Antilles 280/3Greece

2000-500 BG 23, 23/3, 36, 36/1, 37/3750_400 BG 40-41, 40/1, 40/2, 41/3Alexander the Great 43Byzantine Empire 1025-1500 96, 96/2dictatorship 1936-39 231/4First World War 216/2, 218/1, 220/1,

220/2, 221, 221/3Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3industrialization 1830-1914 171/3nomad invasions 400 BC-AD 100 51/4Ottoman Empire 1683-1830 173, 178,

178/1,179/4,217/3Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54Russian Revolution 222/1Second World War 232, 232/1, 233/2since 1945 238/1, 238/2, 239, 242/1, 244,

245/1Greeks

to AD 500 38/3, 53Greek War of Independence (1821-29)

172/2, 173, 178Greenland

800-1500 78, 78/1, 1091450-1770 116/1,130/11880-1914 208/1

Gregory, A C 202/1Greifswald 91/3,134/1Grenada

1600-1763 125/21830-1914 193/3since 1945 242/1, 247/3, 259/2

Grenoble 134/1,155/3Grey Leagues 155/2Griff Colliery 135/2Grimes Graves, British Isles 20/1Grinagara50047/3Gripsholm, Sweden 158/1Grobin 70, 71/3, 78/2Grodno 158/1, 181/3Groningen 91/3, 134/1,153/2,158/1

Gross Domestic ProductEurope 1830-1910171since 1945 272-73, 272/1, 276/1,

276/2Gross National Product

1995 278/1Gross World Output 278Grosverde people 183/4Grozny 179/3, 181/3, 223/3, 237/4, 263/2Guadalajara, Mexico 227/1Guadalcanal 234/2, 235/3Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of (1848) 182,

193/2Guadeloupe

1625-1800 125/2,127/2,130/11830-1910 193/31945-98 247/3

Guam Island 234/2, 235/3, 242/1, 247/2Guanajuato, New Spain 122/1Guang state 31/3Guangling 49/4Guangzhou

see also Canton14th century 104/11368-1750 119/3,131/1, 131/2,138/11750-1914 198/1,199/2,199/4, 211/11914-45 224, 235/3since 1945 254/1, 255/2, 255/3, 281/4

Guantanamo 208/1Guantanamo Bay missile base 245/3Guatemala

1500-1914 122/1,123/3,190/1,193,193/3

1914-45 226/1, 226/3, 226/4, 229/3distribution of wealth 1995 278ethnic composition 1990s 259/3exports 1990s 258/1migration 1960 275/3United Nations operation from 1989

266/1US intervention 1954 242/1, 243, 245/1,

259/2Guatemala City 226/1Guayaquil, Ecuador 190/2, 227/1Guernica 231, 231/3Guiana

see also British Guiana; Dutch Guiana;French Guiana

1770-1830190/1,191/3Guila Naquitz, Mesoamerica 24/3Guilford Court House, Battle of (1781)

165/3Guilin 199/4Guinea

1500-1800 137since 1939 246/2, 256/1, 256/2

Guinea-Bissau 246/2, 256/1, 257, 268/1Guitarrero Cave 24/1, 25/4Guiyang 199/4, 254/1, 255/3Gujarat

1211-139889/41526-1765 119/3,144/4, 145/31805-1914194/2,195/3

Gulf War (1991) 261, 261/4Gupta Empire 46, 46/1, 47Gustav Adolf, King of Sweden 159,159/2Gustav I Vasa, King of Sweden 147, 150Gustav II Adolf, King of Sweden 150,150Guyana 227/1, 246/2, 247/4, 258/1

see also British GuianaGwalior 144/1,144/2, 248/1Gwisho 22, 22/1

Haarlem, Holland 103/3Haarlem, Siege of (1572), Holland 158/1Habsburg dynasty 90, 90/1,106/1Habsburg Empire

1490-1700146/1, 150, 152-53, 1561700-1918 173, 174-75,174/1,175/2,

175/4Hachinoe 141/2Hachioji 252/1Hacilarl9/3Hadarl6/lHadrian, Roman emperor 55, 55/2Hadrianople, Battle of (378) 56, 57/3Hadrian's Wall 55/2Hadrumetum 38/3Hafsids 89/5Hagenau, Germany 90/1Hagi 141/3Haicheng 198/1Haikou 199/2Hainan

see also Qionzhou1368-1800 138/1since 1914 234/1, 255/3

2 9 2

• »!Ill


Hainaut 103/3Haiphong 198/1, 251/3Haiti

see also St Domingue1804-1914 190,191/3,193,193/31914_45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1,227/2exports 1990s 258/1infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3migration 1918-98 275/3United Nations operation 1993-96 266/1,

267US intervention since 1945 242/1, 259/2

Hajar 69/1Hakodate 141/2, 200/1Halberstadt 157/3Halicarnassus 42/1, 42/3Halifax, Canada 189/3, 208/1Hall, Germany 107/4Halland, Southwest Sweden 150/1Halle 134/1,157/3Hallstatt 21/4Halmahera 119/2,196/1, 197/2Halwell 79/4Hamah 94/2Hamamatsu 200/1,252/1Hamath36/l,37/3Hambledon Hill, British Isles 20/1Hamburg

700-1500 71/3, 91/3,107/41500-1800 128/1,129/2,132/2,132/3,

133/4,150/11800-1900 177/4, 210/11914_45 223/2, 232/1

Hamdanids 69/3Hammadids 88/1Hammurabi, King of Babylonia 36Hamwich 75/4, 78, 78/2Han dynasty 48-49, 48/2, 51/4, 52, 53/1, 64Han state 48/1Handan 31/3Hangzhou

14th century 104/1907-1600 86, 86/11800-1900 199/2,199/3, 211/1since 1945 254/1, 255/2

Hankou 138/1, 199,199/2,199/4Hannibal, Gartheginian general 54Hanoi 197/2,198/1, 251/3Hanover 177/4Hanover-Oldenburg 172/1Hanseatic League 91, 91/3,107/4, 150,

150/1Hanson, North America 24/1Hansong211/lHanyang, central China 138/1Hanyong, Korea 87, 87/3

see also SeoulHaora 280/2Harappa 19/3, 29/3, 29/4Harbin 254/1, 255/2, 255/3Harderwijk 134/1Hariharalaya 64Harlech 93/4Harper, Leonard 202/1Harwan 44/2Hastinapura 47/3Hastings, Battle of (1066) 79/4Hatti 36, 36/1Hattin, Battle of (1187) 94, 95/3Hattusas36/l,37/3Haua Fteah 22/1, 22/2Hausa 80, 80/1,136/1Hausa Bakwai 81Havana 122/1, 22 7/1Havel, Vaclav 264/1Hawaii 27,116/2, 182Hawara37/2Hawarden 135/2Head-Smashed-In, North America 25/2Heard Island 24 7/2Hebrides 78, 78/1Hebuterne 218, 218/3Hecatompylos 42/3Hedeby 78/2, 79/5Hefei 254/1,255/3Heian 73, 73/4

see also KyotoHeidelberg 17/2, 90/1,134/1,159/2Heihe 255/3Heijo 73Hejaz 68-69/1, 69/2,143/1, 221/3Heligoland Bight, Battle of (1915) 218/1Heliopolis30/l,37/2Hellenistic civilisation 43, 43/4, 51/4Helmstedt 134/1Helsingor

see also Elsinore91/3

Helsinki 181/3, 281/4Hemeroscopium 40/2Hemudu 18-19,19/4

Henry II, King of England 92Henry II, King of France 147, 153Henry VIII, King of England 147Heraclaia 40/2Heracleopolis 37/2Herat 98/1, 104/1

see also Alexandria AreiaHereford 93/4Herero 206/1Heresburg 74/2Herjolfsson, Bjarni 78, 78/1Herodotus 51Hersfeld 74/2, 75/3Herstal 74/2Herules 56, 56/2, 76/1, 76/2, 77Hesse

1526-1765146/1, 155Hesse, Electorate of

1815-71177/4Hesse, Grand Duchy of

1815-71 177/4Hesse Kassel

1556-1765152/1,154/1Heuneburg 21/4Hevellians 70/2, 71Hideyoshi, Toyotomi 87, 87/4Higashiosaka 252/1Higgs, North America 25/2Hili 29/3Himeji 141/3Himera 40/2Hindu States 89/3, 89/4, 89/5Hinduism

1500 BG-AD 600 44-45, 44/1, 47600-1500 62, 62/1, 63, 63/3, 64since 1914 248, 248, 248/2, 249, 269/2

Hippo, North Africa 38/2Hirado 141/2Hirohito, Emperor of Japan 200Hirosaki 141/3Hiroshima

1600-1867 141/2,141/31930 200/1since 1939 235, 235/3, 252/1

HispaniaRoman Empire 500 BG-AD 400 55/3

Hispaniolasee also Haiti; St Domingue; Santo

DomingoFrench colonization 1600-1763 125slavery 1500-1880 127/2Spanish colonization 1492-1780 120,

120/1,122/1,125/2Hit 36/1Hitler, Adolf 229, 231, 231/4, 232, 233Hittite Empire 36, 37, 37/3, 39Ho Chi Minh City 251, 251/3

see also SaigonHo Chi Minh Trail 250/2, 251Hobart, Tasmania 202/1Hochdorf 21/4Hogokdongl9/4Hohenlinden, Battle of (1800) 167/2Hohenzollern 177/4Hohokam 108,108/1Hokkaido 19, 62/1Hoko River 25/2Holkar 194/1Hollabrun, Battle of (1805) 167/2Holland 103/3, 128Hollandia, New Guinea 234/2, 235/3Holocaust 233, 233/2Holstein 90/1, 91,154/1,177/4Holy Alliance (1815) 172Holy Land

see also Israel; Palestine1000-40 BC 45/31095-1291 94-95

Holy Roman Empire962-1356 90-911350-1500 106,106/1, 1071490-1700 146-47,146/1, 152-53,

152/1,153/2,153/31786 157/31815-49 172crusades 1095-1291 94/1fortifications 1450-1750 158/1German Confederation 1815 177industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2Italy 1500-59 147/3Reformation 1526-1765 146-47, 154-55Sweden 1620-1710 151/2Thirty Years War 1618-48 159/2urban communities c.1300 102/1

Homestead Act (1862) 183Hominids 16-17,16,16/1,17/2Homo erectus 16/1,16/3,17/2Homo habilis 16,16/1,17/2Homo neanderthalensis 16/3, 17Homo sapiens 17Horns 94/2, 98/1

Honduras1500-1780 122/11830-1910 193/31914_45 226/3, 226/4, 227/2, 229/3since 1945 242/1, 258/1, 259/3, 274/1,

277/3Honecker, Erich 264/1Hong Kong

1792-1914 196/1,197/2,198/1, 208/1air pollution 1990s 281/4Chinese possession from 1999 247,

247/2, 255computer ownership 283/3economy since 1945 272/1Japan 1995 253/3population 1976 254/1Second World War 234/2

Hooghly 118/1,119/2,119/3,144/2,145/3Hooke, Robert 135Hoorn 103/3Hope well, North America 25/2Hopewell culture 25, 25/2, 108Hopi Mesa 108/1Horthy, Miklos 231/4Hospitallers of St John 95, 95/3Hrazany 21/4Hsi-Hsia 98/1Hu Yaobang 255Hua Shan 44/2Huaca de los Chinos 34/1Huaca del Loro, Peru 34/2Huaca La Florida, Peru 34/1Huaca Prieta 25/4Huai-yi 31/3Huainan 254/1Hualfin, Peru 35/3Huancavelica, Peru 34/1Huangpi 31/3Huanuco Pampa 110,110/1Huanuco, Peru 34/1Huari, Peru 35, 35/3Huaricoto, Peru 34/1Huaxacac 111/3Hubei 104/1,Hudson's Bay Company 182, 188, 189Hue (Hue) 196/1,197/2, 208/1Huesca, northeast Spain 134/1Huet Vor 135/2Huguenots 155Huhhot 255/3Huichun 255/3Huixian 31/3Huizong, Emperor 86Hulegu 99Hull 232/1Humahuaca, Peru 35/3Human Development Index 278, 279/2Human rights

since 1914 268-69Humans

colonization of the world 12/1evolution 16-17,16

Humayan, Mughal Emperor 144Hunamni 19/4Hunas (White Huns) 46, 46/1, 46/2Hundred Years War (1337-1453) 106,

106/2Hungary

see also Austria-Hungary400-1000 71/41350-1500 106,106/1,107/31500-1600146/1, 1471945-89 236, 236/1, 238/2, 244, 245/1since 1989 264, 264/1, 265, 265/2, 278Counter-Reformation 1517-1648 155crusades 1095-1291 94/1dictatorship 1919-39 231/4ethnic minorities since 1900 175/3, 264First World War 220/2, 221fortifications 1450-1750 158/1Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152/1, 153,

153/3Habsburg Empire 1700-1867 173,

174-75,174/1,175/2Holy Roman Empire 962-1356 91/3Ottoman Empire 1490-1700 152, 153,

178/1,178/2religion 750-1450 62/1revolts 1618-80 156/1revolutionary activity 1919 223/2Second World War 232/1, 233/2, 233/3urban communities c.1300 102/1

Hunssee also Hunas51, 51/5, 56-57, 57/3, 76-77, 76/1

Huo state 31/3Huron 124/1Hurrian (Mitannian) Empire 36Hus, John 107Hussein, Saddam 243, 261

Hussites 95, 107,107/3Hutus 269/2Hiiyuk 37/3Hwangju-mok 87/3Hyderabad

1526-1765 144/2,144/4,145/31800-1914 194/1,194/2,195/3, 211/11930s 248/1

Hyksos 37Hyogo 141/2

Ibadhi Islam 260/1Ibn Jubayr 101,101/4Ibn Khaldun 105Icehouse Bottom 25/2Iceland

800-1100 78, 78/11450-1770 116/1, 117,130/11880-1914 208/1since 1945272/1,278/1

Ichabamba, Peru 35/3Iconium 67/3Iconium, Sultanate of 96, 96/1, 96/2Idjil 81/3Ife SO/1, 81, 137Ifriqiya 68/1Igarka 223/3Igbo 80/1,137/2Igbo-Ukwu 81, 81/3Ildegizids 88/3, 89Ileret 22/2Ilkhanate 89, 89/5, 99, 99/3Illinois 182,182/1,184/2,185/3Illyria 42/2, 43Illyricum 55/3Ilorin 204/1Imabari 141/2Imbagala 204/1Imola 103/2In Salah 81/3Inca Empire

1400-1450 110,110/1,110/21492-1780 120-21,121/4, 122,122/2

Incas500-1500 841780 190

Independence, Missouri 183/3India

to 10,000 BC 17/2600 BG-AD 500 47-48, 47/3, 47/4Achaemenid Empire 600-30 BC 43/1agriculture 1961-84 249British rule 1608-1920 194-95,195/4,

208/1British rule 1930s 248/1Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4distribution of wealth since 1945 278early agriculture 18economy since 1945 273European activity 1500-1790 116,117/1,

118-19,118/1, 119,119/2,119/3European colonial trade c.1770 130-31/1flood danger 280/2Great Depression 1929-33 229/3independence 1947 246, 247/2, 248,

248/2, 249infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3Kushan nomad confederacy 6,000 BG-AD

50051migration 1500-1914 211/2migration 1918-98 275/3Mughal Empire 1526-1765 144-45,

144/2,145/3, 194population 1700-1900 210-11/1population 1941-1997 248religion 1500 BC-AD 600 44, 44/1, 44/2,

45,47religion 600-1500 62-63, 62/1, 63/3religion since 1917 248, 269/2Sultanate of Delhi, 1211-1398 89, 89/4,

89/5territorial disputes since 1947 249,

249/3Timur-leng invasion, 1398-99 89/4trade 150 BG-AD 500 52, 52-53/1, 53trade 500-1500 83/2,104/1trade 1790-1914 196,198trade 1980 273/3United Nations operations from 1949

266/1Zheng He voyages 1405-33 139/2

Indian Knoll 25/2Indian Mutiny (1857-58) 194,194/2Indian National Congress Party 195, 248,

248/1Indian Territory 184/2

2 9 3

n


Indian Wars (1861-68, 1875-90) 183,183/4Indiana 182,184/2,185/3Indianapolis 187/3Indo-European languages 50/3, 51Indo-Greek kingdoms 46, 46/1, 46/2Indo-Parthians 46/1Indochina

see also French Indochina1790-1914 197since 1939 235, 246, 280/3

Indonesiasee also Dutch East Indies1790-1914 196, 197conflicts since 1953 269/2democracy since 1914 268/1distribution of wealth 278employment since 1965 250independence 1949 246, 247/2, 250Japan 1995 253/3migration 1918-98 275/3oil crisis 1973-74 272/2since 1920 250/1, 251, 251/3trade 1980 273/3urban population 1990s 251/3

Indragiri 196/1Indraprastha 47/3Indrapura 119/2Indus civilization 28-29, 29/3, 29/4, 44, 53Industrial Revolution 168-69, 216-17Infant mortality rate 277/3, 278Ingelheim 74/2Ingolstadt 134/1Ingombe Ilede 83/2Ingria 149, 150-51,150/1Ingushetia 263/2Inkatha Freedom Party 269/2Innsbruck 90/1,107/4,134/1International Covenant on Civil and Political

Rights (1966) 268/1International Monetary Fund (IMF) 257,

258, 272Internet 283, 283/3Inuit 109, 109/4,189/3Invercargill, New Zealand 202/1Inverness 93/4Ionia 42/1Iowa 182/1,184/2Ipiutak 25/2Ipswich 75/4Iraklion 102/1Iran

see also Persia600-30 BG 431000-1400 88, 891500-1683 142-43infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) 261, 261/4oil crisis 1973-74 272/2population since 1945 274/1Second World War 232/1since 1945 260/1, 261, 261/4trade routes 1880-1914 208/1United Nations operation 1988-91 266/1US intervention 1953 242/1women in employment 1990s 270/2

Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) 261, 261/4Iraq

630-1400 69/1, 69/2, 88, 88/2First World War 221/3infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3invasion of Kuwait 1990 261, 261/4Iran-Iraq War 1980-88 261, 261/4Kurds since 1918 269/2Palestine Conflict 1948-49 260population growth since 1945 274/1Second World War 232/1since 1945 243, 260/1, 261United Nations operation 1988-91 266/1United States intervention since 1945

242/1Ireland

see also Eire; Irish Free State; NorthernIreland

900-1300 93, 93/4division 1922 268, 269/3First World War 218/1Great Depression 1929-33 229/3Great Schism 1378-1417 107/3Henry 1500-1600 147industry 1650-1750 129/2industry 1830-1914 170/1population c.1650 128/1rebellions 1618-80 156,156/1Reformation 1526-1765 154/1religious conflict since 1914 268-69,

269/2since 1945 238/2trade 1980 273/3urbanization 1300-1800 102/1,132/1,

132/2,132/3,133/4Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/1, 78/2

Irian Jaya 250/1, 266/1Irish Free State (1922-37) 269/3Irish Republican Army (IRA) 268-69Irkutsk 148/2, 223/3Iron Age 21Iron Curtain 244Iroquois Confederacy 108Ischia 40, 40/2Ishango 22/1Ishinomaki 141/2Isla Cerritos 85/3Isla de Sacrificios 85/3Islam

600-1500 62-63, 62/1, 63/3, 68-69,88-89,88/1,88/3,89/5

Africa 500-1500 81, 82, 82/1Africa 1500-1880 136, 204, 205, 205/2Black Death 1347-52 105crusades 1095-1291 94-95India since 1920 248, 248, 248/2Mongol Empire 1207-79 99Ottoman Empire 1500-1683 96-97, 96/1,

178-79Safavid Empire 1500-1683 142-43since 1917 261, 265, 269/2Southeast Asia 1792-1860 196-97,196/1Spain 900-1300 92/2, 92/3, 93trade with Europe 950-1300 101,101/4

Ismail I, Shah of Iran (Persia) 142-43,142/2Isonzo, Battle of (1915-17) 218/1Israel

see also Arab-Israeli Wars1000-40 BG 38, 38/2, 39, 45/3computer ownership 283/3migration since 1945 275/3population growth since 1945 274/1since 1945 246/2, 260, 260/1, 261, 261/2,

261/3United Nations operation from 1948

266/1Israelites 38, 45Issus, Battle of (333 BG) 42/3, 43Istanbul see Byzantium; ConstantinopleIstria 40/2,174/1Istrus 55/2Italian Somaliland 206/1, 208/1, 210/1, 230/1Italy

see also individual city states1350-1500 1061500-1600 147,147/3since 1945 238/1, 238/2, 239, 272/1,

272/2, 275/3, 282/1Anatolia 1920-23 179/4Angevins 1154-1300 101,101/4barbarian invasions 100-500 56-57colonies 1870-1939 206/1, 208, 208/1,

209,230/1,246/1fascism 1921-39 230-31, 231/4First World War 216/1, 216/2, 217, 217,

218/1, 219, 220/1, 220/2, 221, 221/3,221/4

Great Depression 1929-33 228/2Greek colonies 750-400 BC 40, 40/2Holy Roman Empire 950-1360 90, 90/1industrialization 1830-1914 170/1, 171,

171/3Judaism to AD 600 45Magyar campaigns 896-955 77/4military development 1450-1750 158-59Napoleonic Europe 1796-1815 167/2Normans 950-1300 101population 1620-1790 128,128/1Roman Empire 500 BG-AD 400 54/1Second World War 232, 232/1, 233,

233/2, 233/3trade 950-1300 100-1unification 1815-71 176urban communities 1000-1500 102,

102/1, 103,103/2urbanization 1500-1800 132,132/1,

132/2,132/3,133/4Vikings 800-1100 78

Itazuke 19/4Itil 78/2Itzan, Mesoamerica 84/2Itztepetl 85/4Ivan III (the Great), Grand Duke 148Ivan IV (the Terrible), Grand Duke 146,

148-49Ivanova 222/1Ivanovo-Voznesensk 181/3Ivory Coast

1880-1939 206/1since 1939 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 257,

274/1,275/3Ivrea 74/2IwoEleru 22/1, 22/2Iwo Jima 235/3Iximche 85/3,111/3Ixtutz, Mesoamerica 84/2Izamal, Mesoamerica 84/2

Izapa, Mesoamerica 32/1Izborsk 70, 71/4, 78/2Izhevsk 223/3

Jackson, Mississippi 185/3Jacksonville, Florida 185/3, 208/1Jacmel 120/1Jacquerie Revolt (1358) 107Jade Gates Pass 53/1Jaen, southern Spain 102/1Jaffa 94/2Jaffna 118/1,119/2,145/3Jagiellon dynasty 106, 147Jahangir, Mughal Emperor 145,145Jaina, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Jainism 44, 47, 248Jaipur 194/1Jakarta

see also Batavia1500-1790 119/2since 1914 251, 251/3, 281/4

Jalalabad 29/3Jalon 204/1Jamaica

1492-1780 120/1,122/1,125/2,127/2,130/1

1830-1910 190/1,193/3since 1945 247, 247/3

James, I King of England, VI King ofScotland 147

Jamestown, Virginia 130/1Jamtland Harjedalen 150/1Jankau, Battle of (1646) 159/2Janissaries 142, 178,Japan

to AD 600 19,19/4,44/2618-907 72/1, 73, 73/4907-1600 87, 87/4since 1945 252-53, 253/3car ownership and production 1990s

282, 282/1China 1800-1911198,198/1, 199,

199/2China 1894-1944 225colonies 1880-1939 208/1, 209, 246/1computer ownership 283/3distribution of wealth 278economy since 1945 272, 272/1, 273European activity 1500-1790 117/1, 118,

118/1,119/2,119/3,131/1Great Depression 1929-33 229Gross National Product 1995 278/1manufacturing output since 1960 253,

253/2Meiji period 1867-1937 200-1migration 1500-1914 211, 211/2oil crisis 1973-74 272/2population 1800-1900211/1population since 1950 252, 252/1religion 600-1500 62, 62/1, 63, 63/3standard of living since 1945 278Taiwan 1792-1914 197/2Tokugawa period 1600-1867 140-41trade 1870-1914 209trade 1980 273/3trade with East Asia 1995 253/3trade with Ming China 1368-1644 138/1war in Asia 1931-45 232, 233, 234-35,

234/1,234/2Jargampata, Peru 35/3Jarmo 18/2,19/3Jarvis Island 246/2Jasalmer 144/2Jassy 158/1,173/3,175/4Jaunpur 89/4,144/1Java

to AD 600 19/4, 26/1, 44/2, 52/2500-1500 64/2, 651750-1914 196,196/1, 197,197/2since 1914 234/2, 251/3European activity 1500-1790 118/1,

119/2,119/3,131/1Ming China 1368-1800 139/2religion 600-1500 62/1, 63/3

Java Sea, Battle of the (1942) 234/2Java War (1825-30) 196,196/1Jayavarman II 64, 64/2Jayawardene, Junius 249Jazira 88/2Jebel el Tomat 22/2Jebel Uweinat 22/1Jedda/Jeddah see JiddahJedisan 142/1,178/1Jefferson, Thomas 165, 182Jelling 79, 79/5Jena 134/1Jena, Battle of (1806) 167/2

Jenne-jeno 23, 23/3, 80, 81/3Jericho 18/2,19/3Jerusalem

to AD 500 36/1, 38, 44/1, 45/3, 45/4527-1025 67/31095-1291 94-95, 94/1, 94/2, 95/3, 95/4,

98/1since 1914 219, 219/1, 260, 261/2,

261/3Jerusalem, Kingdom of 95/5Jessore 280/2Jesuits 155Jesus Christ 45Jews 44/1, 45, 45/3, 211/2, 231, 233, 233/2,

260, 261/2, 261/3Jiangmen 199/2Jiangxi province 224Jiangzhai 19/4Jianshui 199/4Jiashan 31/3Jibal 69/2Jiddah 68/1,104/1,139/2Jihua Shan 44/2Jilan, Middle East 69/2Jilin 254/1, 255/2Jilin, Battle of (1948) 225/2Jilong 198/1Jin dysnasty 86, 87, 87/2, 98/1, 99Jinan 31/3, 254/1, 255/2Jincamocco, Peru 35/3Jingdezhen 138/1Jinzhou 225/2, 255/2Jiujiang 138/1,199/2,199/4, 255/3Jochi 99Jodhpur 144/2Johannesburg 257/3Johannesburg, Battle of (1900) 206/2John, King of England 93John VI, King of Portugal , 191Johnston Island 246/2Johore 119/2Jolo, Philippines 196/1,197/2Jolof 204/1Jordan 246/2, 260, 260/1, 274/1, 277/3Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor/Emperor of

Austria 174Juan Carlos, King of Spain 239Jubaland 230/1Judah

see also Judea38, 38/2, 39, 45/3

Judaismto AD 600 44/1, 45600-1500 62, 62/1since 1914 231, 260/1, 269/2

Judeasee also Judah54, 55/1

Jiilich 154/1Julius Caesar see Caesar, JuliusJunin, Peru 25/4Junin, Battle of (1824) 190/2Jurchen 86, 87, 87/2Jurjan 69/2Justinian, Byzantine emperor 66, 66-67/1Jiiterbog, Battle of (1644) 159/2Jutes 56/2Jutland, Battle of (1916) 218/1, 219Juxtlahuaca, Mesoamerica 32/1

Kaarta 204/1Kabah, Mesoamerica 84/2Kabardino-Balkaria 263/2Kabul 104/1,144/1,144/2,145/3Kadero 22/2Kaegyong 87, 87/3Kaesong 44/2Kaffa 101/4,104/1,105/2Kagoshima 141/2,141/3, 200/1, 252/1Kai Islands 119/2,196/1,197/2Kaifeng 86, 86/1Kaifeng, Battle of (1948) 225/2Kairouan 68/1Kaiser Wilhelmsland 197/2, 208/1, 211/1Kalambo Falls 22/1, 23/4Kalanay 52/2Kalibangan 29, 29/3, 29/4Kalinga 46, 46/1, 46/2Kalinin 223/3Kaliningrad see KonigsbergKalmar (Calmar), southern Sweden 158/1Kalmar, Union of (1397) 106,106/1, 147,

150Kalsburg 158/1Kaluga 181/3Kalundu 23/4Kamakura 87

2 9 4

ra

n


Kamenets, Siege of (1672) 158/1Kamenskoye 51/4Kamerun

see also Cameroon206/1,210/1

Kaminaljuyu, Mesoamerica 32/2, 33/4Kamloops 188/2Kanara 194/1Kanauj 47/3Kanazawa 200/1Kanchipuram 44/2, 47/3, 47/4Kandahar 144/1,144/2

see also Alexandria (Kandahar)Kane 52/1Kanem 136/1Kanem-Borno 80-81, 80/1Kanesville 183/3Kanghwa Island 87, 87/3Kangzhu 51/4, 53/1Kaniskapura 47/3Kano 80, 81/3, 204/1Kansas 182/1, 184,184/2Kansas City 183/3,187/3Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) 184Kaohsiung, Taiwan 254/1Kapilavastu 44/2, 47/3Kapisha 53/1Kapisi47/3Kapwirimbwe 23/4Kara Kum culture 50/1, 50/2Karabakh

see also Nagorno-Karabakh143/1,179/1

Karachey-Cherkessia 263/2Karachi 208/1, 281/4Karafuto 208/1

see also SakhalinKaraganda 223/3Karagwe 204/1, 205Karako 19/4Karakorum 104/1Karaman 97/4Karanovo, Southeast Europe 20/1Karaoglan 37/3Karheri 47/4Karlovy Vary 90/1Kars 67/1Karwa, Peru 34/1Kasanje 136/1Kaschau 158/1Kashgar 44/2, 47/4, 53/1Kashmir

750-1450 62/11526-1765 144/4,145/31846-1914 194/2,195/3since 1947 249, 249/3

Kasimbazar 144/2Kasonga 204/1Kassite Empire 36Kasthanaea 41/3Katanga 257Kathiawar 194/1Katsina 81/3Katuruka 23/3, 23/4Kausambi 47/3Kaveripattinam, southeast India 47/3, 47/4,

53/1Kawasaki 200/1, 252/1Kaya 73/3Kaya-san 44/2Kazakhs 180/1Kazakhstan 236, 236/2, 237/3, 262/1, 268/1Kazan

1462-1795 148,148/1,148/21917-39222/1,223/3revolution 1905-7 181/3

Kebara 18,18/1Kedah 119/2, 119/3,196/1Kediri 64/2, 65Kemal, Mustafa see AtaturkKemerovo 223/3Kennedy, John F 243Kentucky 182/1,184/1,184/2,185/3Kenya

to 10,000 BG 16/1Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4democracy since 1939 256/2education 1995 279/3female suffrage 270/1independence 1963 246/2, 256/1, 257population growth since 1945 274/1since 1939 257trade 1980 273/3

Kepler, Johannes 134Keraits 62/1Kerch 158/1Kerguelen Island 247/2Kerksdorp 257/3Kermadec Islands 246/2Keta 137/2

Khabarovsk 223/3Khairpur 194/2Khandesh 145/3,194/1Khania37/3Khanty 180/1Kharbar 68/1Kharga 22/1, 22/2, 81/3, 83/2Kharkov 181/3, 222/1, 223/3Khatam 47/4Khayelitsha 257/3Khazar Empire 69/3Khazaria 62/1Khazars 71/3, 76-77, 77/3Kherson

see also Chersonl49/3Khirokitial9/3Khitan 72/1, 86, 86/1, 87Khiva, Khanate of 142/2Khlong Thorn 53/1Khmer Empire 62/1Khmers

500-1500 64, 64/21792-1860196/1

Khocho 44/2Khoi 136/1Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah 261Khotan 44/2," 53/1Khrushchev, Nikita 236, 236Khulna 280/2Khurasan 69/1, 69/2, 88/2Khuzistan 88/2Khwarazm 69/2Khwarazm-shahs 88/3, 98-99, 98/1Kiel 134/1, 232/1Kiet Siel 108/1Kiev

527-1100 67/3, 70, 71/3, 71/4, 78/21207-7998/1,98/2,991618-80 156/11905-7 181/31917-39 172/2, 222/1, 223/3

Kievan Empire 71/4Kikuyu 136/1, 204/1Kilkenny 156/1Kiltia, Black Sea 158/1Kilwa 82, 83, 83/2, 204/1Kilwa Kisiwani 118/1Kimberley 257/3Kinai, Japan 73/4Kinburn 158/1King, Martin Luther 241King William's Town, South Africa 257/3Kings Lynn 91/3Kingston, Jamaica 208/1Kinishba 108/1Kintampo 22/2Kipchaks 88/3Kiribati 246/2, 247/4Kirman 69/1, 69/2Kish 29/3Kishinev 181/3, 222/1Kitakyushu 252/1Kitanosho, Battle of (1583) 87/4Kitchener, Horatio 206, 207Kition 37/3Kitsungani 204/1Kizzuwatna 36/1Klasies River Mouth 16/3Knights Hospitallers 95Knights of St John 97/3Knights Templar 95, 95/3Knossos 36/1Knoxville 185/3Kobe 200/1, 211/1, 252/1Kochi 141/2, 141/3Koguryo 73, 73/3Kokala 42/3Kokand 104/1

see also Alexandria EskhataKolchak, Alexander Vasilyevich 222/1Kololo 204/1, 205Kolozsvar (Cluj) 173/3,175/4Komi 180/1, 262/1Komoro 141/2Komsomolsk 223/3Konbaung Burma 196/1, 197Kong, West Africa 81/3Kongo 136/1, 137Konigsberg (Kaliningrad)

1350-1500 91/3,107/41500-1770 129/2,133/4,134/1,135/2,

150/1,158/1Koobi Fora 16/1Koonalda 16/3Kootenay, Canada 188/2Koptos, Egypt 52/1, 53Korea

see also North Korea; South Koreato AD 600 19,44/1,44/2618-1400 62/1, 73, 73/3, 73/4, 98/11400-1600 87, 87/2, 87/3, 87/4

1800-1911 198/1, 199Japan 1880-1914 200/3, 201, 208/1,

224/1Japan 1931-45 234/1Manchu QJng vassal state 1644-1800

139/3population 1800-1900 211/1Second World War 234/2

Korea, Republic of see South KoreaKorean War (1950-53) 242/1, 244, 244/2,

245/1,252Korinthos

see also Corinth102/1

Kortrijk 103/3Koryaks 180/1Koryo 73Koryo dynasty 87, 87/2, 87/3Kosovo 105, 264/1, 265, 265/3Kosovo Polje, Battle of (1389) 97/4,142/1Kossuth, Louis 174Koster 25/2Kostroma 181/3, 222/1Kosygin, Alexei 236Kot Diji 29/4Kota Bharu 234/2Kotosh, Peru 25/4, 34/1Koumbi Saleh 80, 81, 81/3Kourounkorokale 22/1Kovno 91/3Kow Swamp 16/3Kowloon 199/2Kozelsk, Battle of (1237-38) 99Kraina 267/3Krak des Chevaliers 94/2Krak des Moabites 94/2Krakow

700-1500 71/3, 71/4, 91/3, 98/2,102/1,107/4

1450-1770134/1,158/1Habsburg Empire 1795-1809 173/3,

174/1,175/4industry 1830-1914 170Second World War 232/1

Krakow, Republic of 172/1Krasnodor 223/3Krasnoj, Battle of (1812) 167/2Krasnovodsk 223/3Krasnoyarsk 148/2, 223/3Krewo, Union of (1385/6) 106/1Kronstadt (Brasov) 222/1Krzemionki 20/1Kuala Lumpur 251/3Kuba 136/1, 204/1Kuban 149/3Kublai Khan see Qubilai KhanKubota 141/2Kucha 44/2, 53/1Kuching War 234/2Kuchuk-Kainarji, Treaty of 178-79/1Kufa, Mesopotamia 69/1Kufra, northeast Africa 81/3, 83/2, 204/1Kukawa 81/3Kul Oba 51, 51/4Kultepe 36/1Kumamoto 141/2, 200/1, 252/1Kumaon 194/2Kumsong 73, 73/4

see also KyongjuKung Fu Tzu see ConfuciusKunlun Shan 50/2Kunming 199/4, 224/1, 254/1, 255/3Kuntur Wasi, South America 25/4, 34/1Kuomintang 224-25, 225/2Kupangll9/2Kurdistan 143/1, 221/3Kurds

1500-1683 142/2, 1431920-22179/4since 1945 260/1, 261, 261/4, 269/2

Kure 200/1Kursk 181/3, 223/3Kursk, Battle of (1943) 233Kurukshetra 47/3Kush

see also Nubia30, 30/1

Kushan Empire 46, 46/1, 46/2, 51, 51/4, 53,53/1

Kusinagara 44/2, 47/3Kutei, Borneo 52/2, 53/1Kuwait

First World War 219/1, 221/3Human Development Index 1994 279/2infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3Iraqi invasion 1990 242/1, 261, 261/4,

266/1oil crisis 1973-74 272/2Ottoman Empire 1683-1899 179/1population growth since 1945 274/1since 1945 260/1

Kuybyshev 223/3Kuzbass 223/3Kuznetsk 148/2Kwajalein 235/3Kwale 23/3, 23/4KwaMashu 257/3Kwandebele 257/3Kwangju-mok 87/3Kwangtung 200/3Kwararafa80/l,137/2Kwazulu 257/3Kynossema, Battle of (411 BG) 41/4Kyoju-mok 87/3Kyongju 44/2Kyoto

see also Heian907-1600 871600-1867 141/2,141/31800-1930 200/1, 211/11995 252/1

Kyrgyzstan 236/2, 262/1Kythera 41/3Kyzyl Kum culture 50/1

L'Aquila 103/2La Chausee-Tirancourt 20/1La Coruna 152/1,172/2La Coruna, Battle of (1809) 166/2La Estanqueria, Peru 34/2La Ferrassie 17/2La Galgada, Peru 34/1La Marche, County of 92/1La Mina, Peru 34/2La Pampa 34/1LaPayallO/1La Paz, Bolivia 190/2, 227/1La Plata 123/3La Puerta, Battle of (1818) 190/2La Quemada 85/3La Rochelle 155/3La Spezia 232/1La Tene 21/4La Venta, Mesoamerica 32/1La Victoria, Mesoamerica 24/3Labna, Mesoamerica 84/2Labrador 78/1Labuan 196/1,19 7/2Labwe 19/3Lacanha, Mesoamerica 84/2Laconia 41/3Lade 42/1Ladysmith, Siege of (1899-1900) 206/2Laetoli 16,16/1Lagny 100/1, 101Lagos 130/1,208/1Lagosta 230/1Lahore 104/1,144/1,144/2,145/3Lahun 37/2Lajos II, King of Hungary 147Lake Besaka 22/2Lake Kerinci 52/2Lake Mungo 16/3Lake Superior 188/2Lake Titicaca 35,121/4Lake Trasimene, Battle of (217 BC) 54Lake Turkana 22, 22/1Lake Winnipeg 188/2Lakshmikantapur 280/2Lalibela 82Lama Negro, Peru 34/2Lamanai, Mesoamerica 84/2Lambayeque 34/1Lamoka 25/2Lan Chang 65/3Land of Punt 53Lander, J 205/3Lander, Richard 205/3Lands of the Generality 153/2Landsberg 159/2Langres 75/4, 92/1,158/1Languedoc 93/5, 100Langweiler, northwest Europe 20/1Langxi 225/2Lankasuka 64/1L'Anse aux Meadows 78, 78/1Lanzhou 104/1, 254/1, 255/2, 255/3Lao-tze 45Laodicea 67/3Laoguantai 19/4Laon, northern France 75/3, 92/1Laos

1800-1914 197/2,199/2since 1914 242/1, 247/2, 250/1, 251/3,

268/1,279/2Laotian Crisis (1960-62) 242/1, 245/1Lapland 150/1Laredo, northern Spain 152/1

2 9 5

n


Larissa 67/3Larsa 36, 37/1Las Bocas, Mesoamerica 32/1Las Haldas, Peru 34/1Las Limas, Mesoamerica 32/1Las Vegas 25/4Lascaux 16/3Latakia 94/2Latin America

1400 BC-AD 1000 25, 25/4, 34-35500-1500 84, 84/1, 110,110/11770-1830 190-911830-1914 192-93,193,193/31914-45 226-27, 227/2, 228, 229/3since 1945 258-59, 273, 280, 280/3colonies 1939 246/1democracy since 1914 268/1European exploration 1450-1600 116/1,

116/2, 117foreign investment in 1914 209/2immigration 1500-1914 211/2population 1700-1900 210/1Spanish colonization 1492-1780 120/2,

121/4, 122-23,122/1,122/2Spanish colonization 1500-1780 122/1,

122/2Latin Empire 96/2Latin War (498-493 BG) 54Latvia

1945-89 236/1, 236/2, 238/2fascism 1921-39 231/4First World War 220/2, 221, 222/1Great Depression 1929-33 226/2, 229/3Second World War 232/1, 233/3since 1989262/1,270/2

Lauenburg 157/3Laurentide ice sheet 24/1Lauricocha, South America 25/4Lausanne, Treaty of (1923) 178-79/1, 179,

220/2, 221/3Lava Beds, Battle of (1872-73) 183/4Le Havre 170Le Mans 232/1League of Nations 220, 221, 246/1, 268Leang Buidane 52/2Lebanese Civil War 260-61, 266/1Lebanon

1920 179/1, 221/3since 1945 246/2, 260-61, 260/1, 266/1

Lebowa 257/3Lechfeld, Battle of (955) 77, 77/4, 90/1Lee, Robert E 185Leeds 133/4, 210/1Leeward Islands 127/2,130/1Lefkandi 37/3Legnano, Battle of (1176) 90/1Leicester 93/4Leichhardt, Friedrich 202/1Leiden 103/3,126/1,134/1, 135,135/2Leipzig

1350-1500107/41500-1770 132/3,134/1, 135,135/21800-1914 170, 210/120th century 223/2, 264/1

Leipzig, Battle of (1813) 167/2, 177Leki Male 21/3Lemberg (Lvov) 173/3,175/4Lengyel, southeast Europe 20/1Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 222-223, 222Leningrad 223/3

see also Petrograd; St PetersburgLens, Battle of (1643) 153Leon 101/3Leon, Kingdom of 92/2, 94/1Leon-Castile, Kingdom of 92/3Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor 174Leopold VI, Duke of Austria 95/5Lepanto 97/4Lepanto, Battle of (1571) 142/1Lepcis Magna 38/3Leptis 23/3, 40/2Lerida, northeast Spain 134/1Lesbos 97/4,142/1Lesotho 246/2, 247/4, 256/1, 256/2

see also BasutolandLesser Antilles 130/1Lesser Armenia 88/3Lesser Wallachia 174/1Lethbridge, Canada 188/2Letts 62/1Leubingen 21/3Leucosia 67/1Leuke Kome, Red Sea 52/1Leuthau, Battle of (1758) 157/3Leuven 103/3Levant 18, 38Leventina 155/2Lewes, England 79/4Lewis, Meriwether 182,183/3Lexington, Battle of (1775) 164,165/3Leyden, Siege of (1574) 158/1

Leyte 196/1,197/2, 235/3Leyte Gulf, Battle of (1944) 235/3Liangzhu 19/4Lianyungang 255/3Liao state 86, 86/1, 87Liaoxi 49/4Liberia 210/1, 256/2, 266/1Libya

630-1000 68/11880-1914206/1,208/11914-45 218/1, 230/1, 232/1since 1945 260/1education 1995 279/3independence 1951 246/2, 256, 256/1infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3migration 1918-98 275/3oil crisis 1973-74 272/2political system since 1939 256/2population growth since 1945 274/1women in employment 1990s 270/2

Lichtenburg 177/4Lichtenstein 238/2Liege 74/2,103/3,105/2,135/2Liegnitz (Legnica) 98/1, 98/2, 99Liepaja 181/3Lier 103/3Liling 31/3Lille 103/3,133/4, 232/1Lima 122/2,190/2Lima-Callao 227/1Limburg 103/3Limerick 93/4Limoges 166/1Limousin, Viscounty of 92/1Linares 102/1Lincoln, Abraham 184Lindenmeier 24/1Lindisfarne 78/2Lindow Moss 21/4Linear A 36Linear B 36Lingen 157/3LinggaArchl97/2Lingshou 31/3Linqing 138/1Linyi 52/2Linz 134/1,173/3Linzi 49/4Lipovets 158/1Lippe 154/1Lippe-Detmold 177/4Lippeham 74/2Lisbon

1300-1500 102/1,105/2,107/41800-1900 172/2, 210/1centre of learning c.1770 134/1colonial trade c.1770 130/1industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2population 1600-1800 128/1,132/2,

132/3,133/4revolts 1618-80 156/1silver trade 1650-1750 131/2Spanish Road 152/1

Lisht 37/2Literacy

since 1945 271, 278-79, 279/3Lithuania

see also Poland-Lithuania750-1450 62/1, 91, 91/3, 1061500-1795 146,146/1,149/3,150/1,

151/2,151/51945_89 236/1, 236/2, 238/2fascism 1921-39 231/4First World War 220/2, 221Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3Russian Revolution 1917-39 222/1Second World War 232/1, 233/3since 1991 262, 262/1

Little Big Horn, Battle of (1876) 183/4Little Entente 221/4, 231Little Salt Spring 24/1Liu Bang 48-49Liu Shaoqi 254Liudolfing dynasty 90, 90/1, 91Liverpool 133/4,169/2, 210/1, 232/1Livingstone, David 205/3Livonia

c.1360 91/31500-1795 146/1, 150, 151,151/4Reformation 1526-1765 154/1Russia 1462-1795 148, 149Sweden 1500-1700 150/1,151/2

Livorno 133/4,173/3Lixus 38/3Lloyd George, David 220Llyn Cerrig Bach 21/4Loango 136/1Lobi 81/3Locri, southern Italy 40/2Locris, Greece 41/3Lodeve, Viscounty of 1050 92/1

Lodi, Battle of (1796)167/2Lodi, Ibrahim 144Lodomeria 151/5Lodz 210/1Lollards 106,107/3Lombard League 90Lombards 56/1, 57, 57/4, 76/1, 76/2, 77Lombardy

500-1360 74/2, 75, 90, 90/1,100/11500-1600 1471815-70 174, 175,175/2, 176,176/2

Lombardy and Venetia, Kingdom of 176/1Lombok 119/2,197/2Londinium 54/1, 55/2London

800-1100 78/2, 79/31000-1500 93/4, 102,102/1,105/2,

106/1,107/4centre of learning c.1770 134/1growth and development 1600-1700

132-33,133/5industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2population 1500-1800 128/1,132/1,

132/2,132/3,133/4, 168population 1800-1900210/1science and technology 1500-1700 134,

135,135/2silver trade 1650-1750 131/2since 1914 232/1, 274, 281/4

London, Treaty of (1915) 178-79/1Long Island, Bahamas 193/3Long Island, United States, Battle of (1776)

165/3Long March, China (1930-36) 224/1Long, Stephen Harriman 182,183/3Longlier 74/2Longzhou 199/2Lord Howe Island 247/2Lorraine

1490-1700 146/1, 147,153/2,157/21815-71 177,177/4,216since 1914 220

Lorsch 74/2, 75/3Los Angeles 187/3, 274, 281/4Los Millares, southern Spain 20/1Lothal 29, 29/4Lotharingia 90, 90/1Louis I (the Pious), Frankish emperor 75Louis II, King of Hungary 153Louis IX, King of France 95, 95/5Louis XIV, King of France 157,157/2,

174Louis XVI, King of France 166Louis XVIII, King of France 167Louis the Pious 75Louis Philippe, King of France 173Louisiana

1500-1800 124/1, 125,125/3, 126,127/2,130/1

1800-1900 182,182/1, 184,184/1,184/2,185/3

Louisiana Purchase 182Louisville 185/3,187/3Loulan 44/2, 53/1Louvain 79/3,107/4,134/1Lovelock Cave 25/2Lowasera 22/1Lowell, Francis 187Lower Burma 197,197/2Lower Canada 188,188/1, 189Lowry Ruin 108/1Loyalty Island 247/2Loyola, Ignatius 155Lozi 136/1Luanda 137, 204/1Luba 136/1Liibeck

1300-1500 91, 91/3,102/1,105/2,106/1,107/4

1650-1750 129/21815-71177/4

Lubusi 23/4Lucca 75/3,103/2,147/3,176/1,176/2Lucknow 194/2, 211/1Lugansk 223/3Lugdunum 54/1Luhun people 31/3Lukka36/l,37/3Lumbini 44/2Lund 79/5,134/1Lunda 136/1, 204/1Lundenwich 75/4Luoyang

1100 BC-AD 500 48, 53/1500-1500 72/2,104/11976 254/1

Luoyang, Battle of (1948) 225/2Luristan 143/1,179/1Lusatia 152/1,153/3Liishun 198/1Lusitania 54/1

Luther, Martin 154Lutheran Reformation 1526-1765

146-47Lutheranism 154-55,154/1Liitzen, Battle of (1632) 151/2,153/3,156/1,

159/2Luxembourg

950-150090/1,103/31490-1700 153/21700-1914 171/3,172/1,177/31914-45 218/1, 220/1, 220/2, 233/3since 1945 238/2, 272/1, 273/3, 278/1,

279/2Luxembourg dynasty 90/1, 106,106/1Luxemburg, Rosa 223/2Luxeuil 75/3Luxor see Thebes, EgyptLuzern 90/2,155/2Luzhou 199/4Luzon 19/4,119/2,196/1,197/2Lvov see LembergLyavlyakan 50/1Lycandus 67/1Lycia 55, 55/1Lydenburg 23/4Lydford 79/4Lydia 41/3, 42, 42/1Lyng 79/4Lyons

500-1500 75/3, 92/1,102/1,107/4to AD 600 45/41789-1900 166/1,173/3, 210/1industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2population 1500-1800 128/1,132/1,

132/2,132/3,133/4Reformation 1526-1765 155/3revolts 1618-80 156/1

Lysimachus 43/4

Maastricht 103/3Macassar (Ujung Padang) 65/3Macassar-Gowa, Sultanate of 65/3Macau (Macao)

see also Aomen1450-1790 117/1, 118,118/1,119/2,

131/1,138/11792-1914 196/1,199/2, 208/1since 1999247,247/2

Macdonald Island 247/2Macedonia

750-400 BC 41/3, 41/4c.1025 66/21683-1913178/1Hellenistic civilization 600-30 BC 42/2,

42/3, 43Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54,

54-55/1since 1913217/3

Macedonia, former Yugoslav Republic ofsince 1989 264/1, 265, 265/3

Macerata 103/2,172/2Machaquila, Mesoamerica 84/2Machu Picchu, Inca Empire 110/1Mackenzie, Alexander 188,188,188/2Macon 93/5Macon, County of 92, 92/1Macquarie Island 247/2Madagascar

500-1500 82, 82/1, 83/21450-1770117/1,130/11700-1914 206/1, 208/1, 210/1since 1939 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 277/3,

280/3Madain 69/1Madaripur 280/2Madeira 204/1, 246/2Madingo-Kayes 23/3Madras

1500-1790 119/2,119/3,131/1,131/2,144/2,145/3

1770-1914 194,195/3, 208/1, 211/11930s 248/1

Madrid1350-1500 107/41500-1800 128/1,132/2,132/3,134/1,

146/1,156/11800-1900 133/4, 210/11936-39 231, 231/3

Madurai 47/3Maes Howe, British Isles 20/1Mafeking, Siege of (1899-1900) 206/2Mafia Island 83/2Magadan 223/3Magadha 46, 46/1, 62/1Magan 28, 29/3Magdeburg

950-1500 90/1, 91/3,107/4

2 9 6

m


1500-1700 135/2,157/3,159/2Magdeburg, Siege of (1629/31) 158/1Magellan, Ferdinand 116-17/1,116/2Magenta, Battle of (1859) 176/2Maghreb 62/1, 68/1Magnitogorsk 223/3Magyars

500-1356 67/1, 67/3, 70, 76-77, 77/3,77/4, 91

1900 175/3Mahagama 44/2Mahathir bin Muhammad 251Mahay ana Buddhism 44/2, 63/3, 65Mahdists 206/1Mahismati 47/3Maijdi 280/2Mailhac 21/3Maine, United States 182/1Maine, County of, France 92/1Mainz

500-1500 75/3, 90/1,102/1,107/41526-1700134/1,154/1

Maipo, Battle of (1818) 190/2Majapahit Kingdom 65, 65/3Maji-Maji 206/1Majorca 38/3, 92/3,105/2, 152,152/1Makasar, Celebes 118/1,119/2,196/1,

234/2Makran 53, 53/1, 69/1, 69/2Makwe 22/1Malabar 194/1Malabar Coast

1500-1790118/1,119/3Malaca, southern Spain 38/3, 40/2

see also MalagaMalacca

750-1450 62/11500-1790 118,118/1,119/21792-1860 196/1

Malacca, Sultanate of1200-1450 65/3

Malaga 102/1,156/1see also Malaca

Malaga, Battle of (1704) 174/1Malagasy 206/1Malang 251/3Malao 52/1Malawi 246/2, 247/4, 256/1, 270/2, 278/1Malaya

1800-1914 197/2, 208/1, 211/1since 1914 229/3, 234, 235, 250

Malayan Emergency 244, 245/1Malaysia

Commonwealth of Nations since 1945247/4

democracy since 1914 268/1employment patterns since 1965 250independence 1957 247/2, 250/1Japan 1995 253/3migration 1918-98 275/3since 1920 251since 1920s 251/3trade 1980 273/3urban population 1990s 251/3

Malvinas see Falkland IslandsMale 139/2Mali

20th century 246/2, 256/1, 256/2500-150062/1,80/1,81

Malik Shah 88, 88/2, 94Malinalco 111, 111/3Malindi 118/1,130/1,139/2Malis 41/3Mallia 36/1Malmo, southern Sweden 158/1Maloyaroslavets, Battle of (1812) 167/2Malplaquet, Battle of (1709) 158/1, 159,

174/1Mal'ta 16/3Malta

1154-1300 101,101/41556-1618 152/1since 1914 232/1, 246/2, 247/4

Malwa 89/4,145/3Mambava 196/1Mamluk Empire 89, 89/5, 95, 98/1, 99,

99/3Managua 226/1Manchan, Peru 35/3, 84/1Manchester

1750-1900 169/2,172/2, 210/1Second World War 232/1

Manching 21/4Manchu Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) 131/1,

139,198-99Manchukuo (Manchuria) 200/3, 201, 224/1,

234/1,235/3Manchuria

1368-1800 138/1, 139,139/31800-1937 180,180/1,199/2, 200/3, 2011931-45 224/1, 225, 234, 235

Manco, Inca Emperor 121Mandalay 196/1, 251/3Mandan, northern USA 183/3Mandan people 183/4Mande 136/1Mandela, Nelson 257, 257Mangalore 118/1,130/1Manichaeism 62/1Manila

1650-1770131/1,131/21792-1914196/1,197/2since 1914 234/2, 251, 251/3, 281/4

Manipur 195/3Manis 24/1Manitoba 189,189/3Mannheim 159/2Mansfeld 157/3Mansfeld, Ernst von 159/2Mansi 180/1Mantinea, Battle of (418 BC) 41/4Mantua 74/2,103/2,147/3Mantua, Battle of (1796) 167/2Manzhouli 255/3Manzikert, Battle of (1071) 88, 88/1, 96,

96/1Mao, West Africa 81/3Mao Zedong 224, 224/1, 244, 254, 255, 256Maori Wars (1860-72) 202Maoris 27, 202, 203, 203Maracaibo 190/2Maranhao 122/2Maratha Confederacy 194,194/1Marathas 145,145/3Marathon, Battle of (490 BC) 41, 41/3Maravi 130/1Marburg 134/1Marchand, Jean-Baptiste 205/3Marchfeld, Battle of (1278) 90/1Marco Polo see Polo, MarcoMarcomannic War 56Marengo, Battle of (1800) 167/2Marhashi 29/3Mari 36/1Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria 174,174Marianas

10,000 BC-AD 1000 26c.1770 131/1since 1914 201, 234/2, 235/3, 242/1,

247/2Marie Galante 193/3Marienburg 91/3Marignano, Battle of (1515) 158/1, 159Marinids 89/5Mark, Germany 152/1Marksville 25/2Marmoutiers 154/1Marne, Battles of 218, 219/2Maronites 269/2Marqasi 36/1Marquesas 26/1, 27, 117, 246/2Marrakech 204/1Ma'rrat An-Nu'man 94/2Marseilles

to AD 600 45/41100-1300 101/4,102/11789-1900 166/1, 210/1fortifications 1450-1750 158/1industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2population 1600-1800 128/1,132/2,

132/3,133/4revolts 1618-80 156/1

Marshall Islands 201, 234/2, 235/3, 247/2Marshall Plan 239, 244, 272Martaban 65, 65/3,196/1Martinique 125/2,127/2,193/3, 247/3Marugame 141/2Maruyama 18/1Maryland

1500-1770 124, 125, 126, 1271861-65 184,184/2,185/3

Masada 45/3Masat36/l,37/3Mascarenhas, Pedro de 117/1Mascha 53/1Mashhad 104/1Mashona 206/1Massa 103/2,176/1,176/2Massachusetts 182/1Massagetae 51/4, 53/1Massawa 204/1Massilia 40/2Masulip, eastern India 53/1,118/1,119/2,

131/1,144/2,145/3Mataram 64/2Mathura 44/2, 47/3, 47/4, 53/1Matola 23/4Matsue 141/3Matsumae 141/2Mau Mau movement 257Mauretania 54/1, 55, 55/3Mauretania Caesariensis 54/1

Mauretania Tingitana 54/1Mauritania 206/1, 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 268/1Mauritius

c.1770 130/11880-1914 208/120th century 247/2, 247/4, 272/1, 273/3

Mauryan Empire 43, 46, 46/1,51/4Mawara Al-Nahr 69/2Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor 152Maximilian, Ferdinand Joseph, Emperor of

Mexico 193Maya

1200 BG-AD 700 33, 33/4550-1500 84, 84/2, 85, 85/31500-1780 111, 111/3,122/11980s 269/2

Mayapan 85/3,111/3Maykop 51/4Mazandaran 142/2Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal 156Mazghuna 37/2Mazzini, Guiseppe 176Meadowcroft, North America 16/3, 24/1Meaux 155/3Mecca (Makkah) 68,139/2Mechelen 103/3Mecklenburg 90/1, 91,153/3,154/1Mecklenburg-Schwerin 177/4Mecklenburg-Strelitz 177/4Medan 251/3Medellin, Colombia 227/1Medemblik 75/4Medes 39Media 38/1, 42, 43/1Median Empire 39/4Medicine Hat 188/2Medina 68, 68/1Medina del Campo 102/1Meerut 44/2Megaris 41/3Megiddo36/l,37/2Mehadia, Hungary 158/1Mehmet II, Ottoman Sultan 97Mehrgarh 19/3Meiji period 200-1Meissen 90/1Melanesia 26, 26/1,116/2Melbourne 202/1, 211/1Melchiorites 154/1Melilla 146/1,158/1, 204, 204/1Melitene67/l,67/3Melnik 70/2Melos 41/3Meluhha see Indus civilizationMelville Islands 197/2Memel 91/3Memel Territory 220/2, 230/2Memphis, Egypt 30, 30/1, 37/2, 37/3, 38/3,

42/3Memphis, Tennessee 185/3,187/3Menado 118/1,119/2,196/1Menat 75/3Mendana de Neira, Alvaro de 116—17/1,

116/2, 117Mendoza, Chile 190/2Menelaion37/3Menelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia 205Menes, King of Egypt 30Mengiicekids of Erzincan 88/3Mengzi 199/2Menier 22/2Mennonites 154/1Mentawai Islands 197/2Mercia 79/3Mercosur 273Merida 102/1,122/1Merimde 22/2Meroe 23/3, 30/1, 52/1Merovingian dynasty 74, 75Mersa Gawasis 30/1Merseburg 90/1Mersin 37/3Merta 144/2Merv 53/1, 69/1Mesa Grande, North America 108/1Mesa Verde, North America 108,108/1Mesembria 40/2Mesoamerica

500-1500 84-85, 110-117000 BG-AD 700 24/3, 25, 32-33

Mesopotamia4000-1800 BC 28-29, 28/1, 29/32000-600 BC 36, 38-39500 BC-AD 400 55Islam 630-1000 68-69/1, 69Ottoman Empire 1500-1683 142/2,143/1

Messembria 67/3Messenia 41/3Messina

1300-1500102/1,105/21500-1800 128/1,133/4,134/1,152/1,

156/1,158/11848-49173/3

Metaxas, loannes 231/4Methone 41/4Metternich, Prince von 174Metz

400-1500 74/2, 75/3, 76/1,102/1, 103,106/1

1490-1700 147,147/2,153/2,155/31789-94 166/1

Metz, Siege of (1552) 158/1Metztitlan, Mesoamerica 111/3Me war 194/2,195/3Mexican Revolution (1910-40) 226Mexican War (1846-48) 182Mexico

500-1500 85, 85/41780-1910 191/3, 192,193,193/3First World War 226/3Great Depression 1929-33 229/3migration 1918-98 275/3population 1700-1900 193, 210/1revolution 1910-20 226Second World War 226/4since 1945 258, 258/1, 259/2, 259/3,

269/2, 283/3slavery 1500-1880 126,127/2Spanish colonization 1492-1780 116/1,

117, 121, 122,122/1, 123,123/3trade routes 1880-1914 208/1United States expansion 1824-67 182,

183/3,193/2urban population 1920-50 226/1US influence 1914-45 227/2

Mexico City1500-1780 122/11800-1900 210/1since 1914 226/1, 274, 281/4

Mexico, Valley of1400-1540 110-11,111/47000-1200 BC 24/3

Mezhirich 16/3Michigan 182/1,184/2Micmac 124/1Micronesia 26/1, 27,116/2Micronesia, Federated States of 247/2Middelburg 103/3Middle Congo 206/1Midway, Battle of (1942) 234/2, 235Midway Islands 246/2Miesco I of Poland 70Mihintale 44/2, 47/4Milan

1350-1500 102,103/2, 106,106/11500-1600 146/1, 147,147/2,147/3air pollution 1990s 281/4banking and trade 1350-1500 107/4Black Death 1347-52 105/2Charlemagne 9th century 74/2Christianity to AD 600 45/4civil unrest 1820-49 172/2,173/3Habsburg Empire 1490-1797 152,152/1,

174/1Hunnic campaign 5th century 76/1population 1000-1500 102,102/1,103/2population 1500-1800 128/1,132/1,

132/2,132/3,133/4population 1800-1900210/1Reformation 1526-1765 154/1Second World War 232/1urban communities c.1500 103/2

Milazzo, Battle of (1860) 176/2Miletus 37/3, 40, 40/2, 42/1Milk Creek, Battle of (1879) 183/4Millau, Viscounty of 92/2Miller, southeast North America 25/2Milosevic, Slobodan 264/1Milton, England 79/4Milwaukee 187/3, 210/1Mimbres Valley 108/1Mina, South America 25/4Minamata 141/2Mindanao 119/2,196/1,197/2Minden 74/2,157/3Mindoro 119/2,196/1,197/2Ming dynasty (1368-1644) 99, 105,118/1,

138-39Minh-mang, Vietnamese Emperor 197Minneapolis 187/3Minnesota 182/1,184/2Minoan civilization 36, 36/1Minsk 181/3, 222/1, 223/3Mirabib 23/4Miran 44/2Miri 234/2Misenum 54, 55/2Miskolc see MohiMison 52/2, 53/1Mississippi

cultures 500-1500 109/3state 182/1, 184,184/1,184/2,185/3

297


Missouri state 182,182/1,184/2,185/3

Missouri Compromise (1820) 184Mistra 97Mitannian Empire 37Mitathal 29/4Mitau 158/1Mitla 85, 85/4Mito 141/2Mitterberg 21/3Mitylene 67/3Mixco Viejo 85/3Mixtecs 85, 85/4Miyako 141/2Moa 196/1Mobile, Alabama 185/3Mobile Bay, Battle of (1864) 185/3Moche culture 34/2, 35, 84Modena

1000-1500 102,103/21500-1618 147/3,152/11800-70 172/2,173/3,175/2,176/1,

176/2Modon 105/2Moesia 55/3Moesia Inferior 54-55/1Moesia Superior 54/1Mogadishu

500-1500 62/1, 82, 83/2,139/21500-1790 118/1,130/1

Mogador 23/3, 204/1Mogarten, Battle of (1315) 90/1Mogilev 181/3Mogollon people 108,108/1Moguntiacum 54/1Mohacs, Battle of (1526) 142/1, 147, 153,

158/1Mohenjo-daro 28/2, 29, 29/3, 29/4Mohi (Miskolc) 98/2Moji 200/1Mokha 131/2Moldavia

c.1400 106/11500-1683 142/1,146/1, 1471683-1923176/11945-89236/1,236/2

Moldova 262/1, 279/2Mollwitz, Battle of (1740) 157/3Molodova 16/3Moluccas (Maluku; Spice Islands)

1500-1790 117,118/1,119/2,119/3,131/1

1790-1914 196,196/1Mombasa 118/1,130/1,139/2, 204/1,208/1Monaco 147/3Mondovi, Battle of (1796) 167/2Mondsee 75/3Monemvasia 142/1Mongke, Great Khan 99Mongo 136/1Mongolia

1368-1800 138/1,139/31800-1914 180/1,199/2, 211/1Second World War 235/3

Mongols 87, 89, 89/5, 97, 98-99, 138Monmouth, Battle of (1778) 165/3Monophysite Christianity 63/2Monrovia 204/1Mons, Low Countries 103/3Mons, Southeast Asia 44/1Monserrat 193/3Mont Lassois 21/4Montana 182/1Montauban 155/3,166/1Monte Alban 32/2, 33, 85, 85/4Monte Alban Empire 32-33, 32/2Monte Bego 21/3Monte Cassino 74/2, 75/3Monte Verde, South America 24/1Montenegro

c. 1560 146/11900-18 216/2, 217, 217/3, 218/1, 220/1since 1989 264/1, 265/3

Monterrey, Mexico 122/1, 227/1Montevideo 122/2, 208/1, 210/1, 227/1Montezuma Castle, North America 106/1Montezuma I 110, 111, 120Montezuma II 111Montferrat 103/2,147/3Montmirail, Battle of (1814) 167/2Montpellier

1100-1300 92/2, 92/3,101/4,102/11500-1800 134/1,155/3,166/1

Montreal, Canada 189/3, 210/1Montreal, Canada, Battle of (1775) 165/3Montreal, Kingdom of Jerusalem 94/2Montreuil 92/1Montserrat 125/2, 247/3Monza 75/3Moravia

400-1360 70, 70/2, 71/4, 90/1

1490-1765 152/1,153/3,154/11700-1914 174/1,175/2

Morea, Thesee also Peloponnese1458-81 97/41500-1683 142/1,146/11683-1923172/2, 178

Morioka 141/3Mormons 182,183/3Morocco

1500-1800 136/1democracy since 1939 256/2First World War 218/1French control 1880-39 206/1Human Development Index 1994

279/2independence 1956 246/2, 256/1infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3migration 1950 275/3population 1700-1900 210/1Second World War 232/1, 233, 233/2women in employment 1990s 270/2

Morotai 119/2,196/1,197/2, 235/3Morro de Eten 34/1Morropon 34/1Mors 157/3Moscow

see also Muscovy1450-1770 134/1,156/1,156/11800-1914 181/3, 210/1since 1914 222/1, 223/3, 263/3, 274,

281/4Moscow, Battle of (1812) 167,167/2Mosquito Coast 125/2,130/1Mossi 80/1Mossi States 204/1Mostar 267/3Mosul 69/2Mosyllon 52/1Motecuhzoma see MontezumaMouila 23/3Moundville, Mississippi 109/3Mount Mycale, Battle of (479 BG) 41, 41/3Mount Sinai 67/3Moush 67/1Mouzon 75/4Mozambique

1500-1790118/1,130/11700-1914 204, 204/1, 206/1, 207, 208/1,

210/1democracy since 1939 256/2education 1995 279/3famines 1981-93 277/4Gross National Product 1995 276/1independence 1975 246/2, 256/1, 257United Nations operation 1992-95

266/1women in employment 1990s 270/2

Muciri47/4Mughal Empire 118/1, 119,119/2, 144-45,

194Muhammad, Prophet of Islam 68Muhammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt 173Muhlberg, Battle of (1547) 153,158/1Miihldorf, Battle of (1322) 90/1Muitan 145/3Mujib-ur-Rahman, Sheikh 249Mukden see ShenyangMulhouse 232/1Muitan 144/1,144/2Mundigak 19/3, 29/3, 50/1Munhattal9/3Munich

950-1360 90/11800-1900 134/1,173/3, 210/1since 1914 223/2

Munich Agreement (1938) 231Minister 154/1, 155,174/1Miintzer, Thomas 155Murbach 74/2, 75/3Murcia 102/1,133/4,152/1Muret, Battle of (1213) 92/3, 93Murfreesboro, Battle of (1862-63) 185/3Murmansk 223/3Murom 78/2Murshidabad 145/3Mursili, King of the Hittites 36Murzuk 204/1Muscat 118/1,130/1Muscovy, Grand Principality of 148,148/1Muslims see IslamMusovians 70/2Mussolini, Benito 230, 231/4, 232Muza, Red Sea 52/1Muziris 53/1Myanmar see BurmaMycenae 37/3, 41/4Mycenaean civilization 36, 36/1, 37, 37/3Myongju-mok 87/3Myos Hormos, Red Sea 52/1, 53Myra 67/3

Mysore1526-1765 144/41799-1914 194,194/1,194/2,195/31930s 248/1

Nabataean 52/1Nabta;Playa22/2Nachtigal, Gustav 205/3Naco,'North America 24/1, 85/3Nagajunakondra 47/4Nagaland 249/3Nagappattinam, southeast India 44/2, 47/3,

119/2,145/3Nagarjunakonda 44/2, 46/1, 47/3Nagas 249/3Nagasaki

1500-1867 118,119/2,119/3,138/1,141/2,141/3

since 1914 200/1, 235, 235/3Nagorno-Karabakh

see also Karabakh263/2

Nagoya 141/3, 211/1,252/1Nahal Hemar 18/2Nahal Oren 18/1Naimans 62/1Naju-mok 87/3Nalanda 44/2, 47/4Nam Viet 64, 64/1Nam-Tun 18/1Nama 206/1Namazga 50/1, 50/2Namforsen 21/3Namgyong 87/3Namibia

see also German South-West AfricaCommonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4education 1995 279/3Human Development Index 1994 279/2independence 1990 245/1, 246/2, 256/1,

256/2, 257South African control 1915-90 257/3United Nations operation 1989-90 266/1

Namu 25/2Namur 103/3Nan Yue 52/2, 53Nanchang 199/3,199/4, 254/1, 255/3Nancy 134/1,166/1Nandivardhana 47/3Nanhai 49/4Nanjing (Nanking)

1800-1911198/1, 199,199/2,199/3,199/4

since 1914 234/2, 254/1, 255/2Nanjing, Treaty of (1842) 199Nanning 199/2, 254/1, 255/3Nantes

800-900 75/41650-1800 129/2,132/3,133/4,134/1,

166/1Nantes, Edict of (1598) 155Nantong 255/3Nanzhao

see also Dili618-907 72, 72/1, 73907-1600 64, 65/3, 86/1

Naoetsu 141/2Napata 30/1Naples

Black Death 1347-52 105/2centre of learning c.1770 134/1civil unrest 1820-49 172/2, 173,173/3fortifications 1450-1750 158/1industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2population 1000-1500 102,102/1,103/2population 1500-1800 128/1,132/1,

132/2,132/3,133/4population 1800-1900 210/1revolt 1647-8 156,156/1Spanish Road 152/1trade 1100-1500 101/4,107/4

Naples, Kingdom of1350-1500 106,106/11500-1600 146/1, 147,147/3France 1793-1815 167/2,167/3Great Schism (1378-1417) 107/3Habsburg Empire 1556-1735 152/1,

174/1House of Anjou 1300 92/3Reformation 1526-1765 154/1urban communities c.1500 103/2

Napoleon I (Bonaparte) 137, 166-67,166-67/2, 172, 177, 178

Napoleon III 176Napoleonic Civil Code 167Naranjo, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2

Narbo 54/1, 55/2Narbonne 68/1, 75/4,102/1Narbonne, Viscounty of 92/1Narim 148/2Nariokotome 17/2Narva 129/2Narvaez, Panfilo de 120,120/2, 121Nashiro 141/2Nashville, Battle of (1864) 185/3Nasrids 92/3Nassau 154/1,177/4Nasser, Gamal Abdel 261Natal 204Natchitoches 183/3National Road, USA 186National Socialists (Nazis) 231Native American peoples

500-1500 108-9,108/1,109/3,109/4,109/5

American Revolution 164European colonies 1600-1763 124/1,

125, 126since 1900 240, 241/2US expansion 1793-1910 183,183/4

NATO see North Atlantic TreatyOrganization

Natuna Islands 197/2Naucratis, Egypt 23/3, 38/3, 40/2Nauru 247/2, 247/4Nauvoo 183/3Navajo 108,108/1, 109,109/4,183/4Navarre

500-1500 92/2, 92/3, 93/5,106/11500-1765 146,146/1,152/1,154/1,

155/3Nax9ivan 263/2Naxos 41/3,142/1Naxos, Duchy of 96, 96/2, 97/3Nazca culture 34, 34/2, 35Nazis see National SocialistsNazi-Soviet Pact 232Ndebele 204/1, 205, 206/1Ndongo 136/1Nea Nikomedeia 20/1Neanderthal, France 17/2Nebraska 182/1, 184,184/2Nebuchadnezzar 39Nefa 195/3Nefertiti 36Negapatam 119/3Negombo 119/2,145/3Negros, Philippines 119/2,196/1,197/2Nehru, Jawaharlal 248Nelson, Canada 188/2Nemrut Dog 18/2Nenets 180/1Neo-Babylonian Empire 39, 39/4Neocaesarea 67/3Neolithic era 50/1Nepal 62/1, 63/3, 278/1Nepena, Peru 34/1Nerac 155/3Nerchinsk 148/2Nero, Roman emperor 45Nestorianism 45/4, 63/2Netherlands

Africa 1500-1800 137,137/2American Revolution 165Asia 1500-1790 118-19,119/2Caribbean 1500-1780 124-25,125/2Caribbean 1830-1914 193/3colonial empire 1600-1800 130,

130-31/1colonial empire 1880-1914 208/1, 209colonial empire since 1939 246, 246/1,

247/3economy 1620-1790 128-29economy 1650-1750 129/2exploration 1450-1600116-17/1, 117First World War 218/1, 220/1, 220/2France 1789-1815 166,166/1,167/2,

167/3Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152,152/1,

153,153/2Holy Roman Empire 1500-1600 146,

146/1India 1605-1707 145,145/3industrialization 1830-1914 170,170/1,

171/3Latin America 1500-1780 122/2Latin America 1830-1914 191/3,192/1military development 1450-1750 158,

159North America 1500-1780 124-25,124/1population 1620-1790 128,128/1Reformation 1526-1765 154/1, 155Second World War 232, 232/1, 233/2,

233/3, 235since 1945 238/1, 238/2, 272/1, 278/1slave trade 1500-1880 126-27,126/1

2 9 8

El


Southeast Asia 1790-1914 196,196/1,197, 797/2

Southeast Asia from 1920 250, 250/1trade 1620-1790 129United Netherlands 1815-30 172/1,

172/2unrest 1600-1785 156urbanization 1470-1800 103/3, 132,

133/4War of the Spanish Succession 1701-14

174Neuchatel 155/2Neuhausel, Battle of (1626) 159/2Neuilly, Treaty of (1919) 220/2Neusahl 107/4Neustria 74, 74/2Nevada 182/1,184/2Nevers, County of 92/1Neville, North America 25/2Nevis 125/2,193/3

sec also St Kitts and NevisNew Bern 185/3New Brunswick 189/3New Caledonia 26/1, 247/2New Deal 229, 241New East Prussia 151/5New France 125,125/3New Georgia Island, Pacific 235/3New Granada (Viceroyalty of)

1500-1780 123/3/130/11800-1900 190/1,190/2,191/3

New Guineato AD 1000 26, 26/11450-1770117/1,131/1since 1914 234/2, 235/3, 280/3

New Hampshire 182/1New Haven, USA 187/3New Hebrides 26/1, 202/1New Holland 131/1New Jersey 182/1,185/3New Mexico 182,182/1,184/2,193/2New Model Army 156New Orleans 184,185/3,187/3, 208/1, 210/1New Sarai 98/1New Siberian Islands 180/1New South Wales 203/2New Spain (Viceroyalty of) 123/3,125/3,

130/1,190/1New Vizcaya 122/1New Westminster, Canada 188/2New York City

1600-1763 124, 124/11800-1900 187, 187/3, 210/1since 1945 274, 281/4, 243, 243

New York state 184/2New Zealand

10,000 BC-AD 1000 26/1, 27, 27/4British Empire 1880-1914 208/1colonies 1945-98 246-47/2Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4computer ownership 283/3economy since 1945 272/1female suffrage 270First World War 219Great Depression 1929-33 229/3immigration 1500-1914 211/2migration 1918-98 275/3oil crisis 1973-74 272/2population 1800-1900 211/1since 1790 202-3, 202/1, 203, 203/3

Newcastle, England 93/4, 129/2, 232/1Newcomen, Thomas 135,135,135/2Newfoundland 78, 78/1, 117,130/1, 189,

189/3Newgrange, Ireland 20/1Newton, Isaac 134Nganasans 180/1N'gazargamo 81/3, 204/1Ngo Dinh Diem 251Ngoni 136/1, 204/1, 205Nguyen Vietnam 196/1Nha Trang 250/2Niah 52/2Nias 197/2Nicaea 45/4Nicaea, Councils of 45Nicaea, Empire of 95/5, 96, 96/2Nicaragua

1492-1780 120-21,122/11830-1910 193/31914-45 226-27/1, 226/3, 226/4, 227/2,

229/3conflict 1980s 269/2ethnic composition 1990s 259/3exports 1990s 258/1infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3migration since 1960 275/3population growth since 1945 274/1US intervention since 1945 227/2, 242/1,

243,245/1,259/2

Nice 176/2Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia 222Nicobar Islands 196/1,197/2Nicomedia 55/1, 67/1Nicopolis 45/4, 67/1Niger 206/1, 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 274/1Nigeria

1880-1914 206/1, 208/1Biafran secession 1967 257Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4democracy since 1939 256/2distribution of wealth since 1945 278Great Depression 1929-33 229/3infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3migration 1918-98 275/3oil crisis 1973-74 272/2since 1939 246/2, 256/1, 257

Nihavand, Battle of (642) 69/1Niigata 141/2,141/3, 200/1Nijmegen 74/2,103/3Nikolayev 222/1Nimes, southeast France

896-1500 77/4, 92/1,102/11500-1794 155/3,166/11800 133/4

Nineveh 39, 42/3Ningbo

1500-1790 118/1,119/3, 138/11800-1911 199/21980s 255/2, 255/3

Ningxiang 31/3Nino Korin, Peru 35/3Ninxia 98/1Nippur 29/3Nishapur 69/1, 98/1Niuheliang 19/4Niuzhuang 138/1,199/2Nivelle North, Battle of (1917) 219/2Nivelle South, Battle of (1917) 219/2Nixon, Richard M 242, 255Niya 44/2, 53/1Nizhne-Kolymsk 148/2Nizhneudinsk 223/3Nizhniy Novgorod (Gorkiy) 181/3, 222/1,

223/3Nizhniy Tagil 223/3Njimi 81/3Nioro River Cave 22/2Nkope 23/4Nkrumah, Kwame 256-57Noemfoor 235/3Nogales, Mesoamerica 24/3Noin Ula 51, 51/4Nok culture 23, 23/3Non Nak Thai9/4Nonantola 75/3Nordgau 74/2Nordlingen, Battles of (1634, 1645) 151/2,

153/3,158/1, 159,159/2Norfolk, Virginia 185/3Norfolk Island 24 7/2Noricum 54/1, 55/3Norilsk 223/3Norman Conquest of Britain 93Normandy 79, 79/4, 92/1, 93/5,166/1Normans 79North America

see also Canada; United States ofAmerica

to 500 AD 24-25, 25/2500-1500 78, 78/1, 108-91600-1800 130-31European colonization 1600-1763

124-25,124/1,125/3European exploration 1450-1600 116/1,

116/2, 117foreign investment in 1914 209/2Great Depression 1929-33 228/1immigration 1500-1914 211/2Native American peoples 108-9,109/4,

109/5Seven Years War (1756-63) 188slavery 1500-1880 127/2

North American Free Trade Agreement(NAFTA) 243, 243/2, 273

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)242, 242/1, 244, 245/1, 265

North Carolina 182/1, 184, 184/1, 184/2,185/3

North Dakota 182/1North German Confederation (1867-71)

177,177/4North Korea 244, 244/2, 255, 275/3, 277/4North Ossetia 263/2North Vietnam 250-51, 250/1, 250/2North West Frontier Provinces, India 194/2,

195/3,248/1North Yemen 266/1Northern Borneo 211/1Northern Circars 131/1, 194/1,194/2

Northern Ireland 268-69, 269/3Northern Rhodesia 206/1Northern Territory, Australia 203/2Northumbria 79/3Northwest Territories, Canada 189/3Norton, eastern North America 25/2Norton, northwest North America 25/2Norway

1300-1500 93/4, 106,106/11500-1795 146/1, 147, 150,150/1female suffrage 270/1First World War 218/1, 220/1, 220/2fortifications 1450-1750 158/1Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2,

229/3industrialization 1830-1914 171/3Reformation 1526-1765 154/1religion 750-1450 62/1,107/3Second World War 232, 232/1, 233/2,

233/3since 1945 238/1, 238/2, 272/1, 278/1urbanization 1800 133/4Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/1, 78/2, 79

Norway and Sweden, Union of 172/1Norwich 91/3,102/1, 232/1Nottingham 79/3Noumea 208/1Nova Scotia 124/1, 125,130/1, 188/1,189/3Novgorod

700-1500 70, 71/3, 71/4, 78/2, 91/3,107/4

1500-1750 148/1,150/1,158/1since 1914 222/1

Novi, Battle of (1799) 167/2Novipazar, Sanjak of 175/2Novopetrovka 50/2Novorossiysk 181/3, 222/1, 223/3Novosibirsk 223/3Nowsharo 29/4Noyon 74/2, 79/3, 92/1Nu-pieds 156,156/1Nubia

see also Rush2686-2181 BG 30, 30/12000-1000 BC 36, 371200-600 BG 23, 39, 52/1, 53religion 750-1450 62/1

Numantia 21/4Nunavut Territory 189/3Nupe80/l,137/2Nur-al-Din 94Nuremberg

1000-1500 103,105/2,107/41600-1800 129/2,132/2,133/41800-1900210/1Second World War 232/1

Nuremberg, Siege of 151/2Nuzi 37/1Nyamwezi 204/1, 205Nyasaland 206/1, 208/1Nystadt, Treaty of (1721) 151

Oaxaca 122/1Oaxaca Valley 24/3, 32-33, 85/4Obi Islands 196/1Obobogo 23/3Oc Eo 52/2, 53/1Oceania 209/2Ochakov 158/1Oconto, eastern North America 25/2Octavian (Augustus) 54, 54Ocucaje, Peru 34/2Oda Nobunaga 87, 87/4Odawara, Battle of (1590) 87/4Odense 79/5Odessa 181/3, 210/1, 222/1, 223/3Oecussi-Ambeno 197/2Off-shore Island Crises (1954-55) 245/1Ogodei, Great Khan 99Ogooue 22/2Oguz Turks (Seljuks) 62/1, 71/3, 71/4, 76,

77, 77/3, 88, 88/1O'Higgins, Bernardo 190/2Ohio 182/1,184/2,185/3Oil crisis 1973-74 272/2, 273Ojeda 120/1Okase 141/2Okayama 141/3, 200/1, 252/1Okhotsk 148/2, 223/3Okinawa 200/3, 235, 235/3, 252, 252/1Oklahoma 182/1Olbia 40/2Old Crow Flats 16/3Old Oyo 81/3Old Phokaia 101/4Oldenburg 177/4Oldenburg dynasty 106

Olduvai Gorge 16,16/1,17/2Olmec culture 25, 32, 32/1Olmiitz 134/1Olomouc 102/1Oloron 155/3Olsen-Chubbock 25/2Olszanica 20/1Oma, Japan 141/2Omaha, United States 187/3Oman

150 BG-AD 500 53, 53/1630-100069/1,69/21800-80 204/1post-1945 260/1,270/2,274/1,277/3,279/2

Omol6/lOmo Complex, Peru 35/3Omsk 148/2, 223/3Onahama 141/2Onin Wars 87Onion Portage 25/2Onomichi 141/2Ontario 188, 189,189/3OPEC see Organization of Petroleum

Exporting Countries (OPEC)Opium Wars (1840-42, 1856-60) 198-99,

198/1, 209Opone 52/1Oporto 156/1,172/2Opplanians 70/2Oran 146/1,158/1Orange, southern France 134/1,155/3Orange Free State 206/20rb«k 79/5Orbe 155/2Oregon 182,182/1,184/2Oregon Trail 182,183/3Orel 158/1,181/3, 222/1Orenburg 181/3, 222/1Organization of American States (OAS) 243,

243/2Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC) 261, 272/2, 273Orhan Ghazi 96Orissa

1211-1398 89/41526-1765 144/4,145/31800-58 194/1,194/2,195/31930s 248/1

Orkneys 78, 78/1, 78/2Orleanais 147Orleans

500-1500 74/2, 75/3, 75/4, 76/1, 77/41526-1800 133/4,134/1,155/3

Ormuz 104/1, 118,118/1,139/2, 143Orrellana, Francisco de 121/4Orthez 134/1Orthodox Church

600-1500 62, 63/2, 96, 96/1, 96/21917-98 269/2

Orvieto 103/2Orville 74/2Osaka

1600-1867 140,141/2,141/31800-1930 200/1, 211/11995 252/1

Osama bin Laden 243, 261Osceola 25/2Oslo Agreement 260Osman I, Ottoman sultan 96Osnabriick 134/1Ostiaks 148/2Ostland, "Reichskommissariat" of 233/2Ostrogoths 57, 57/4Ostrogoths, Kingdom of the 67/1Otaru 200/1Otranto 77/4,142/1Otrar 98/1Otsu 141/3Otto I (the Great), Holy Roman Emperor 90,

90/1,91Ottoman Empire

1025-1500 96-97, 97/4,106/11500-1683 142-43,143/3,146/1, 1471880-1914 208/1Africa 1500-1880 137, 204/1, 205Balkan Wars 1912-13 217/3Black Death 1347-52 105Byzantine Empire 1340-60 97/3civil unrest 1821-30 172/2, 173decline 1683-1923 178-79First World War 218-19, 218-19/1, 220/1,

221, 221/3fortifications 1450-1750 158/1France 1793-1815 167/3Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152-53,

152/1,153/3industrialization 1830-1914 170/1Russian expansion 1795-1914 180/1Triple Alliance 216/2

Oudenaarde 103/3Oudenaarde, Battle of (1708) 158/1,174/1

2 9 9

m


Oudh 194/1,194/2,195/3Oudney, Walter 205/3Oudtshoorn 257/3Outeidat 22/1Oveng 23/3Overijssel 153/2Oviedo, northern Spain 134/1,172/2Ovimbundu 204/1, 206/1Oxford, England 79/4,105/2,134/1,135/2Oxley, John 202/1Oxtotitlan, Mesoamerica 32/1Oyo 80/1,130/1, 137,137/2Ozette 109,109/4Oztoman 111/3

Pabmavati 47/3Pacatnamu, Peru 34/2, 35/3Pachacamac 34/2, 35/3,110/1Pachacuti 110Pacheco, Peru 34/2, 35/3Pacific War (1941-45) 252Pacific, War of the (1879-83) 192/1Pacopampa 25/4, 34/1Pact of Steel (1939) 231Padah Lin 18/1Padangll9/2Paderborn 74/2,134/1Padri War 196Padua 103/2,134/1Paducah 185/3Paekche 73/3Pagan kingdom 64-65, 64/2Painanll9/2Pajajaran, Sundanese Kingdom of 65/3Pakhoi 199/2Pakistan

see also East Pakistan; West PakistanCommonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4democracy since 1947 268/1independence 1947 247/2, 248migration 1945-98 275/3territorial disputes since 1947 249, 249/3United Nations operation from 1949

266/1women in employment 1990s 270/2

Pakozd 175/4Palaiokastro 37/3Palatinate 146/1, 155Palau 197/2, 235/3, 247/2Palawan 119/2,196/1,197/2Palembang 52/2,119/2,196/1, 234/2, 251/3Palencia, northern Spain 134/1Palenque, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Palermo

1000-1500 102,102/1,105/2c.1560 146/11800-1900 172/2,173/3, 210/1centre of learning c.1770 134/1fortifications 1450-1750 158/1industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2population 1500-1800 128/1,132/1,

132/2,132/3,133/4revolts 1618-80 156/1

Palestine2000-46 BG 36, 37, 37/2, 381095-1291 94-95since 1914 221/3, 232/1, 260, 260/1,

261/2Palestine Conflict (1947-49) 260, 261/2, 266Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)

260, 261Pallavas 46/1, 46/2, 53/1Pallka, Peru 34/1Palma 134/1Palmyra 45/4, 52/1Pamirs 50/2Pampa de Nazca, Peru 34/2Pampa Grande, Peru 34/2, 35/3, 35/4Pampa Koani, Peru 35/4Pampa Rosario 34/1Pamphylia 55/1Pamplona 74/2,172/2Panama

1450-1780 117,122/1,122/21830-1914192/1,193/31914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1, 227/2,

229/3since 1945 242/1, 243, 258/1, 259/2,

259/3Panama Canal 193/3, 208, 208/1, 227/2Panama City 227/1Panamarca, Peru 34/2Panay 119/2,196/1Panduranga 65/3Pandyl97/2Pandyas 46/1, 46/2, 53/1

Panipat, Battle of (1526, 1556) 144,144/1Pannonia 54/1, 55/3, 74/2Panormus 38/3Panticapaeum 40/2Papal States

1350-1500 103/2, 106,106/11500-1750 129/2,146/1,147/31800-70 172/2,173/3, 176,176/1,176/2

Paphos 37/3, 55/1Papua 208/1, 211/1Papua New Guinea 247/2, 247/4, 250/1,

268/1,277/3,279/2Paracas, Peru 25/4, 34, 34/1Paraguay

1700-1914 191/3,192/1, 210/11914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1, 229/31990s 258/1, 259/3, 270/2

Paranagua 208/1Paria 110/1Parikania 43/1Paris

200-1000 74, 74/2, 79, 79/31000-1500 92, 102,102/1,105/2centre of learning c.1770 134/1civil unrest 1830-49 172/2, 173,173/3industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2population 1500-1800 128/1, 132,132/1,

132/2,132/3,133/4population 1800-1900210/1printing press 1450-70 107/4Reformation 1526-1765 155/3revolts 1618-80 156/1Revolution 1789-94 166/1science and technology 1500-1700 134,

135,135/2Second World War 232/1silver trade 1650-1750 131/2since 1945 274, 281/4uprisings 1350-1500106/1

Paris Peace Conference (1919) 220, 221Paris, Treaty of (1763) 188Paris, Treaty of (1783) 165Paris, Treaty of (1898) 197Paris, Treaty of (1950) 239Park, Mungo 205/3Parma

500-900 74/21500-1618 147/3,152/11737-1849 134/1,173/3,174/11815-70176/1,176/2population c.1500 103/2

Paros 41/3Parral, New Vizcaya 122/1Parrattarna, King of the Hurrians 36Parthia 43/1Parthian Empire 45, 52-3/1Parthians 46, 46/2, 51/4Pasargadae 42/3PaseillS/1,119/2Passarowitz, Treaty of (1718) 178-79/1,

178/2Passau 159/2Passchendaele, Battle of (1917) 219/2Passo di Corvo, Italy 20/1Passy 135/2Pasto 190/2Pastures of Heaven 51/4Patagonia 190/1,191/3,192/1Patala47/3Pataliputra 44/2, 47/3Patan 144/1,144/2Patani 196/1Paterson, United States 187/3Patharghata 280/2Patna 131/1,144/1,144/2,145/3Patras 67/3Pats, Konstantin 231/4Pattala 42/3Pattani 119/2,119/3Patuakhali 280/2Pau 134/1Pavia 74/2, 75/3, 77/4,103/2,134/1Pavia, Battle of (1525) 158/1, 159Pazyryk 51, 51/4Peace River, Canada 188/2Pearl Harbor 234/2, 235Peasants' Revolt (1381) 107Pechenegs 71/3, 71/4, 76, 77, 77/3, 77/4,

88/1Pecos, North America 108/1Pedro I, Brazilian emperor 191Peenemiinde 232/1Pegu

1200-1450 65, 65/3,104/11792-1914 194/2,195/3,196/1

Peiligangl9/4Peishwa's Lands 194/2Peking see BeijingPelagianism 45/4Pelang 196/1Peleset 37/3

Peloponnesesee also Morea, The41/4

Peloponnesian War 431-4 BC 41, 41/4Peltingen, Battle of (1743) 157/3Pemba 118/1, 204/1, 206/1Pembroke 93/4Peng people 31/3Peng Xian 31/3Peninsular War 166/1, 167Pennsylvania 124,182/1,184/2,185/3Penza 181/3Pentagon 243Perakll9/2Perestroika 237, 262Pergamum 45/4, 54, 55/1, 67/1Pericles 41Perigord, County of 92/1Perigueux 74/2Perinthus 55/1Perm

1462-1795 148,148/1,148/21905-7 181/3since 1914 222/1, 223/3

Pernau 91/3,158/1Peron, Juan Domingo 259Peronne 74/2"Perpetual Crusade" 91, 91/3Perpignan 102/1,134/1Perpignan, Siege of (1542) 158/1Perryville, Battle of (1862) 185/3Persepolis 42/3, 43, 53/1Persia

see also Iranc.6th century BG 511500-1790 118/11826-78 179/3Achaemenid Empire 750-30 BG 39/4,

40-41, 41/3, 42-43, 42-43/1, 42/3First World War 219/1, 221/3Great Depression 1929-33 229/3Islamic conquest 630-1000 68nomad invasions 800 BG-AD 100 51/4religion to AD 600 44/1Russian occupation 1907-21180/1Safavid Empire 1500-1683 142-43

Persian Wars 492-79 BC 40-41, 41/3, 43Perth, Australia 202/1, 208/1Perth, Scotland 93/4Peru

1780-1914 190,190/1,190/2, 191,191/3,192/1

1914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227, 227/1, 229/3ethnic composition 1990s 259/3exports 1990s 258/1liberation campaigns 1819-21190/2population 1700-1900 193, 210/1slavery 1500-1880 126,127/2Spanish colonization 1492-1780 117,

121,121/4, 122,122/2, 123,123/3trade c.1770 130/1

Perugia 103/2,134/1Pescadores Islands 119/2, 200/3Peshawar 47/4,104/1,144/1,144/2Pessedjik 50/1Pest 98/1, 98/2, 99

see also BudapestPetain, Henri Philippe 232Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia 149, 151Peterloo Massacre (1819) 173Petersburg, Battle of (1864) 185/3Petra 52/1Petrarch 103Petrograd 222/1

see also Leningrad; St PetersburgPetropavlovsk 148/2, 223/3Phaistos36/l,37/3Phaselis 40/2Phasis 40/2Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 187/3, 210/1Philadelphia, Turkey 97/3Philip, Duke of Anjou 174Philip II of Macedonia 43Philip II (Philip Augustus), King of France

93, 95/4Philip II, King of Spain 146, 147, 153Philip V, King of Spain 174Philippine Sea, Battle of the (1944) 235/3Philippines

10,000 BC-AD 1000 26, 26/11500-1790119/2European exploration 1450-1600 116/2,

117,117/1European imperialism 1790-1914 131/1,

196-97,197/2Great Depression 1929-33 229/3population 1800-1900211/1Second World War 234/2, 235since 1920 251since 1945 247/2, 250, 250/1, 251/3,

253/3, 280/3

trade since 1920s 251/3Philippopolis 67/3, 97/4Philips Spring, North America 25/2Philistine 38Philistia 38, 38/3, 45/3Phnom Penh 251/3Phocaea 40/2, 41/4Phocis 41/3Phoenicia 38-39, 38/2, 38/3, 39, 45/3Phoenicians 40/2Phoenix Island 246/2Phopo Hill 23/4Phrygia 39/4, 41/3, 42/1Phung Nguyen 52/2Piacenza 103/2,134/1Picardy 103/3Pichincha, Battle of (1822) 190/2Picts 57/4PidiellS/1,119/2Piedmont

16th century 147/21820-79 172/2, 173, 174, 176,176/1,

176/2Piedras Negras, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Pietermaritzburg 257/3Pietersburg 257/3Pike, Zebulon 182,183/3Pikillacta, Peru 35/3Pilsen 159/2, 232/1Pilsudski, General Joseph 231/4Pilton 79/4Pinang Islands 196/1,197/2Pincevent 16/3Pinggu 31/3Pinto, Fernao Mendes 117/1Pinzon 120/1Piombino 147/3, 152/1Pippin III (the Short) 75Piraeus 41/3Pisa

950-1500 94/1, 101,101/4,103/2,105/2,107/4

1500-1770 134/1,147/3Pistoia 103/2Pitcairn Island 246/2, 247/4Pittsburgh 187/3, 210/1Pius IX, Pope 176Pizarro, Francisco 117, 121,121/4Pizarro, Gonzalez 121/4Plantagenet dynasty 93/5, 106,106/2Plassey, Battle of (1757) 194,194/1Plataea 41/4Plataea, Battle of (479 BC) 41, 41/3Plato 40Platt Amendment 192Plaza Agreement (1985) 253Pliska 67/3Plovdiv 102/1Plymouth 133/4, 208/1, 232/1Plzen 102/1Podhorze 158/1Podlesia 151/5Podolia 142/1, 151/4,151/5,178/1,178/2Point of Pines, North America 108/1Poitiers

500-1500 74/2,102/11500-1800 134/1,155/3,156/1,166/1

Poitiers, Battle of (732) 68, 68/1Poitiers, Battle of (1356) 106/2Poitou, County of 92/1, 93/5Poland

1500-1795 146, 146/1, 150-51,151/51945-89 236, 236/1, 237, 242/1, 244barbarian invasions 100-500 56Christianity 400-1000 71, 71/4COMECON 238/2crusades 1095-1291 94/1dictatorship 1926-39 231/4division by treaty settlements 1814-15

172/1economy 950-1300 100,100/1ethnic homogeneity since 1930 264First World War 220, 220/1, 220/2, 221German settlement c.1360 91/3Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3Great Schism (1378-1417) 107/3industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2insurrection 1830s 173military development 1450-1750 158,

158/1Mongol Empire 1207-79 98/2Ottoman Empire 11683-1924 178/2post-First World War alliances 221/4Reformation 1526-1765 154/1, 155religion 750-1450 62/1revolts 1618-80 156,156/1Russian expansion 1462-1815 149,

149/3, 180,180/1Second World War 230/2, 231, 232,

232/1,233/2,233/3since 1989 264, 264/1, 265, 265/2

300

ra


Slavic states 800-1000 70, 70/2, 71/4Sweden 1620-1710 151/2Thirty Years War 1618-48 159/2urban communities c.1300 102/1urbanization 1500-1800 132/1,132/2,

132/3, 133/4war with Russia 1920 222, 222/7

Poland-Lithuania1350-1500 106,106/11462-1795 147, 150,151/4

Political systemsworld 1914 160/1

Pollution 280-81, 280/1,281/4, 281/5, 282,282

Pol Pot 213Polo, Marco 86Polotsk 158/1Poltava 181/3Poltava, Battle of (1709) 149, 151,158/1Polynesia 26/7, 27, 776/2Pomerania

950-136090/7, 911500-1795 750/7, 151, 754/7, 759/21815-71777/4

Pomona, Mesoamerica 84/2Pomongwe 22/7Pompey, Roman emperor 54Ponce de Leon, Juan 776/7, 720/7Pondicherry 144/2,145/3Pont-a-Mousson 134/1Ponthieu, County of 93/5Ponthion 74/2Pontus 54, 55/7Port Arthur, Canada 188/2Port Arthur, China 208/7Port au Choix, North America 25/2Port Elizabeth, South Africa 257/3Port Guinea 206/7, 208/7, 270/7Port Hudson, Battle of (1863) 785/3Port Jackson (Sydney) 202, 202/7Port Macquarie, Australia 202/7Port of Spain 208/7Port Zeelandia 737/7Port-au-Prince 227/7Porter, North America 25/2Portland, Oregon 783/3, 208/7Porto Alegre 227/7Porto Bello 730/7Portugal

900-1300 92/2, 92/3, 702/71350-1500 106, 706/7, 707/31500-1600 146, 746/71800-1911 799/2since 1945 238/2, 239, 273/3Africa 1500-1880 81, 87/2, 137, 737/2,

204/7Africa 1880-1939 206/7, 207Asia c.1580 778/7civil unrest 1820-26 772/2, 173colonial empire c.1770 130, 730-37/7colonial empire 1880-1914 208/7colonial empire since 1945 246-47/2,

246/7, 247dictatorship 1926-1939 237/4exploration 1450-1600 116-17, 776-77/7First World War 276/2, 278/7, 219France 1793-1815 767/2, 767/3Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3Habsburg Empire 1556-1640 752/7,

153industrial economy 1650-1750 729/2industrialization 1830-1914 770/7,

777/3Latin America 1500-1830 722/2, 123,

790/7, 191population 1620-1790 728, 728/7Reformation 1526-1765 754/7religion 750-1450 62/7revolts 1640-68 156, 756/7Second World War 232/7, 233/2slave trade 1500-1880 126-27, 726/7,

204Southeast Asia 1792-1914 796/7, 797/2Southeast Asia since 1920 250/7urbanization 1500-1800 732/7, 732/2,

732/3, 733/4Posen 7 73/3, 777/4Potosi 722/2, 790/2Poulo Condore 796/7, 797/2Poznan 70/2, 77/4Prague

800-1000 70, 70/2, 77/3, 77/4950-1500 90/7, 702/7, 706/71618-1800 733/4, 734/7, 756/7, 759/21848-49773/3, 1741989-96 264/7

Prambanan 65Pratigiyotisapura 47/3Pratisthana 47/3, 47/4Pravarapura 47/3Prayaga 47/3

Predmosti Qafzeh 76/3Premyslid dynasty 70, 70, 70/2Preslav702/7Pressburg 734/7, 7 73/3, 7 75/4

see also BratislavaPretoria 257/3Pretoria, Battle of (1900) 206/2Prevlaka 266/7Priaman779/2Primo de Rivera, Miguel 231, 237/4Prince Albert, Canada 788/2Prince Edward Island 788/7, 189, 789/3Prince George, Canada 788/2Prince Rupert, Canada 788/2Princeton, Battle of (1777) 765/3Principe, Africa 204/7Propkopyevsk 223/3Protestant Reformation 1526-1765 154-55Protestantism

see also individual denominations1490-1785 152, 755/2, 755/31917-98 269/2

Provence200-90074, 74/7,74/2950-1400 90/7, 97/3, 92/7, 92/2, 92/3,

93/5, 707/4Providence, USA 787/3Province Wellesley 796/7Provins700/7, 101Prussia

see also East Prussia; Teutonic Order ofPrussia

962-1336 91, 97/31462-1795 150, 151, 757/4, 157, 757/31915-71 172, 177, 777/3, 777/4, 216France 1789-1815 166, 766/7, 167,

767/2industrial economy 1650-1750 729/2partitions of Poland 1772-95 757/5Thirty Years War 1618-48 759/2

Pskov 97/3, 787/3, 222/7, 223/3Ptolemy I, King of Egypt 43, 43/4Ptuj 45/4Pucara de Andagala 770/7Puccaro, Peru 35/3Puebla, Mexico 722/7Pueblo Bonito 108, 708/2Pueblo Grande 708/7Pueblo peoples 85, 108, 708/7Puerto Hormiga 25/4Puerto Rico

1500-1880 117, 120, 720/7, 722/7, 725/2,727/2

1830-1914 797/3, 192, 793/3, 208/7since 1914 226, 247/3

Pulicat 779/2, 779/3, 744/2, 745/3Pundravardhana 4 7/3Punic Wars 54Punjab

1849-1914 194, 794/2, 795/3since 1914248/7,249/3

Punjab States Agency 248/7Pura 42/3Purusapura 47/3Puskalavati 47/3Putin, Vladimir 263Putivl 758/7Putun Maya 85/3Putuo Shan 44/2Pyangyang 44/2, 798/7Pylos 37/3Pyramids 30, 33Pyrenees, Peace of the (1659) 153Pyrzyczanians 70/2Pyu 44/7, 64, 64/7

Qadesh36/7,37/3Qadesh, Battle of (1275 BG) 37Qara Khitai 88/3, 89, 98/7Qarakhanids 69/3, 88, 88/7, 88/3Qaraqorum 98/7Qarmatians 69/3Qatar 260/7, 272/2, 277/3, 279/2QJ state 48/7Qiang people 37/3Qin Shi Huang Di 48, 49Qin State 48, 48/7Qjng dynasty see Manchu QingQingdao 799/2, 254/7, 255/2, 255/3Qingjiang 37/3Qjngliangang79/4Qiongzhou (Hainan) 739/3QJqihar 254/7Qjshan 37/3Qom 69/7Quadi 56, 56/7, 56/2Quadisiyya, Battle of (636) 68, 69/7

Quanrong (Kunyi) people 37/3Quanzhou 704/7, 738/7, 739/2Quarashahr704/7Quauhtochco 777/3Qubilai Khan 64, 99Quebec 164, 764/2, 165, 188, 189, 789/3Quebec Act (1774) 164, 188Quebec, Battle of (1775) 765/3Quedlinburg 90/7Quelimane 204/7Quentovic 75/4, 78, 78/2Quesada, Jimenez de 727/4Queseir 30/7Quesnel 788/2Quezon City 257/3Quiery 74/2Quilon 778/7, 779/2, 745/3Quionzhou see HainanQuirigua, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Quiros, Pedro Fernandez de 776-77/7,

776/2, 117Quispisisa, Peru 34/7Quito 770/7, 727/4, 722/2, 790/2Quizilbash 142-43Quyang 37/3Qwaqwa 257/3

Rabaul 234/2, 235, 235/3Rabih 206/7Radagaisus 56, 57Raetia 54/7, 55/3, 74/2Ragusa 67/3, 707/4, 742/7, 746/7Ragusa, Republic of 7 78/2Rain, Battle of (1632) 757/2Rajagriha47/3Rajmahal744/7,744/2Rajputana 744/4, 794/2, 795/3, 248/7Rajputs 745/3Rakonitz, Battle of (1620) 759/2Raleigh, North Carolina 785/3Ramillies, Battle of (1706) 758/7, 774/7Ramses III 37Ranchillos 770/7Rangoon

c.1770 737/71792-1914796/7,208/71930-90 234/2, 257, 257/3

Rangpur 29/4Rann of Kutch 249/3Ranthambor, Battle of (1569) 744/7Ras al-Junayz 29/3Rasulids 89/5Ravenna

500 BC-AD 400 54, 55/2400-1500 74/2, 75/3, 76/7, 703/21526-1765 754/7

Ravenna, Battle of (1512) 758/7, 159Ravensburg707/4Raychikhinsk 223/3Raymond of St Gilles 94/7Rayy 98/7Reading 79/3Reagan, Ronald 242Real Alto 25/4Red Deer, Canada 788/2Red Guards 254Red River Colony 188-89Red River Rebellion 189Red Russia 757/5Reform Acts (1832/1867) 173Reformation 154-55Regensburg 74/2, 702/7, 735/2, 759/2Regensburg, Battle of (1809) 767/2Reggio 734/7, 7 72/2, 7 73/3Regina, Canada 788/2, 789/3Rehe 224/7, 225,234/7Reichenau 75/3Reims

500-1500 74/2, 75/3, 77/4, 92/7, 707/41789-94 766/7

Remiremont 74/2Remojadas, Mesoamerica 32/2Ren people 37/3Renaissance 103Renner, North America 25/2Rennes 734/7, 766/7Repton 79/3Republican Party, USA 184, 240, 241Reunion 730/7, 247/2Reval (Tallinn)

1350-1500 97/3, 707/41500-1795 149, 150, 750/7since 1914 222/7

Rhagae 42/3Rhapta, eastern Africa 52/7, 53Rhenish Bavaria 7 77/4Rhenish Prussia 7 77/4

Rhine, Confederation of the 767/2, 177Rhine Palatinate 90/7, 752/7, 754/7Rhine-Ruhr 274Rhineland 100, 700/7, 220, 230/2, 231Rhode Island 724/7, 782/7Rhodes

600 BC-AD 500 42/7, 42/3, 43/4527-1360 67/7, 67/3, 97/31500-1770 742/7, 746/7, 152

Rhodesiasee also Zambia; Zimbabwe1700-1914 206/7, 208/7, 270/7since 1945 257

Rhuddlan 93/4Riau796/7Riau Arch 797/2Riazan 748/7Ribe 79/5Ricci, Matteo 138-39Richard I, King of England 95/4, 101Richelieu, Cardinal 156Richmond, England 93/4Richmond, Virginia 184, 785/3Kiel, Louis 189Rieti 703/2Riga

700-1500 77/3, 91, 97/3, 707/41462-1795 729/2, 149, 150, 750/7, 758/71800-1914 787/3, 270/7since 1914 222/7

Riga, Battle of (1917) 278/7Riga, Treaty of (1920) 222/7Rijeka see FiumeRim 22/7, 22/2, 23/3Rimini 703/2Ringsted 79/5Rio Azul, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Rio Bee, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Rio de Janeiro 722/2, 730/7, 270/7, 227/7,

287/4Rio de la Plata (Viceroyalty of) 730/7, 790/7Rio de Oro 206/7, 208/7, 270/7Rio Grande Pueblos 708/7Rio Treaty (1947) 242/7Ripuarians 74, 74/7Risorgimento 176Riverton, North America 25/2Rivoli, Battle of (1796) 767/2Robert of Flanders 94/7Robert of Normandy 94/7Robespierre, Maximilien 166Rocroi, Battle of (1643) 758/7, 159, 759/2Rocroi, Battle of (1648) 153Roermond703/3Rohil-Khand 794/7, 794/2Rojidi 29/4Rollo, King 79, 79/4Roma people 265Romagna90/7,747/3Roman Catholicism

1000-1500 96, 96/7, 106-7Latin America 1830-1914 193Reformation 1526-1765 154-55, 755/2religious conflict 1917-98 269/2

Roman Empire500 BG-AD 400 54-55, 55/3barbarian invasions 56-57Byzantine Empire 66early exploration by 116Franks 200-900 74Holy Land 45/3nomads 4th-5th century 57/5, 76/7, 77religion to AD 392 44/7, 45/4trade 150 BG-AD 500 52, 52/7, 53

Romania1830-1914 777/3, 778/7, 277/31914 220/71945-89 236/7, 237, 238/2, 244dictatorship 1938-39 237/4economic development 1990-97 265/2ethnic homogeneity since 1930 264First World War 278/7, 220/7, 220/2, 221,

227/4Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3Second World War 232/7, 233/2, 233/3since 1989 264, 264/7, 265Triple Entente 276/2

Romano-Britons 57/4Romanov dynasty 149Rome

c.l560 746/7banking and trade 1350-1500 707/4Black Death 1347-52 705/2centre of learning c.1770 734/7Christianity to AD 600 45/4civil unrest 1831-49 772/2, 773/3, 176crusades 1095-1291 94/7fortifications 1450-1750 758/7Franks 500-900 74/2, 75/3population c.1300-1500 702/7, 703/2population c. 1500-1800 728/7, 732/7,

301

M

R


132/2,132/3,133/4population 1800-1900 210/1printing press 1450-70 107/4Reformation 1526-1765 154/1Roman Empire 500 BG-AD 400 54, 54/1,

55/2trade routes 150 BG-AD 500 52/1unification of Italy 1815-71 176/2Visigoths 390-420 57/3

Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) 231Roncesvalles 74/2Rong people 31/3Roonka Flat 16/3Roosevelt, Franklin D. 229, 241Ropar 29/4Roquepertuse 21/4Rosario, Argentina 227/1Roskilde 79/5Rossbach 157/3Rostock 91/3,102/1,107/4,134/1Rostov-on-Don 148/1,158/1,181/3, 222/1,

223/3Rotterdam 103/3,129/2, 210/1, 232/1Rouen

800-1500 74/2, 75/4, 79/4,102/1,106/11500-1765 128/1,129/2,132/1,132/2,

155/3,156/11789-94 166/1Second World War 232/1

Rouergue, County of 92/1Roussillon 146/1,152/1Ruan-Ruan/Avars 51/5Ruandi-Urundi

see also Burundi; Rwanda206/1

Rudna Glava, southeast Europe 20/1Rugians 76/1, 77Rum 88/2Rumelia 142/1Rupert's Land 124/1,125/3, 189,189/3Rus 66, 67/1, 70, 71, 77, 77/3Russia

see also Commonwealth of IndependentStates; Russian Federation; SovietUnion

400-1000 70, 71, 71/41500-1795 146,146/1, 148-49,148/2,

149/3c.1770 130-31/11795-1914 180-81,180/1, 181,181/2,

181/3,208/1,209China 1800-1911 199,199/2civil unrest 1825-31172/2, 173civil unrest 1848-49 174-75Decembrist Revolution 1825 172/2European exploration 1450-1600 117/1First World War 216/1, 216/2, 217, 217,

218-19, 218-19/1, 220/1, 221, 222/1fortifications 1450-1750 158/1France 1789-1815 167,167/2,167/3Holy Alliance 1815 172industrialization 1830-1914 170/1,171/3Japanese War 1904-5 201, 201migration 1500-1914 211/2migration 1918-98 275/3Mongol Empire 1207-79 98/1, 99Ottoman Empire 1683-1923 178,179/3Poland 1772-95 151/5Poland-Lithuania 1462-1672 151/4population 1700-1900 210-11/1, 210/1religion 750-1450 62/1revolts 1618-80 156,156/1Revolution 1917-1939 219, 222-23since 1989 262, 263/3Sweden 1500-1795 150,150/1trade 950-1300 100treaty settlements 1814-15 172/1Vikings 800-1100 78, 79

Russian Federation1970s 236/2since 1991262/1, 263

Russian Principalities 102/1,106/1Russian Revolution

1905 1811917 222-23

Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) 180, 181Ruthenians 175/3Rwanda

1500-1800 136/1c. 1840 204/1since 1939 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 266/1,

275/3, 278/1Ryazan 222/1Ryukyu Islands 197/2, 200/3, 252/1

'S Hertogenbosch 103/3S-m-k-rts 78/2

Sa Huynh 52/2, 53/1Saar 220/2, 233/3Saarland 230/2Saavedra, Hernando Arias de 116-17/1,

116/2, 117Saba 193/3Sabah 250/1Sabotiers 156/1Sabratha 38/3Sacajawea 182Sacul, Mesoamerica 84/2Sado Island 141/2Safavid Empire 118/1, 142-43,143/3Saga 141/2Sagamihara 141/2, 252/1Saganoseki 141/2Sahara Desert 22/1Sahr-i Sohkta 50/1Saidor 235/3Saigo 141/2Saigon 196/1,19 7/2

see also Ho Chi Minh CitySailendras 64/2, 65St Acheul 17/2St-Amand 75/3St Andrews, Scotland 93/4,134/1St Augustine, Florida 185/3St Barthelemy, Lesser Antilles 193/3, 247/3St Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572) 155St Christopher, Lesser Antilles

see also St Kitts and Nevis193/3

St Croix 125/2,130/1,193/3St-Denis, France 74/2, 75/3St-Dizier, Siege of (1544) 158/1St Domingue 125/2, 127,127/2,130/1,190/1

see also HaitiSt Emmeram 75/3St Eustatius 193/3St Gall 75/3St Germain-des-Pres 75/3St Germain, Treaty of (1919) 175, 221St-Gilles 101/4St Helena 130/1, 246/2, 247/4St John, Canada 189/3, 208/1St John, Lesser Antilles 193/3St John Island, China 118/1St Kitts 125/2St Kitts and Nevis 247/3St-L6 79/3St Louis, United States 183/3,186/1,187/3,

210/1St Louis, West Africa 22/2,130/1, 204/1St Lucia 125/2,193/3, 247/3St-Malo 130/1St Martin, Lesser Antilles 193/3, 247/3St Maximin 75/3St-Medard 74/2, 75/3St Mihiel, Battle of (1918) 219/2St Moritz 21/3St-Omer 74/2,103/3St Paul, Minnesota 187/3St Peter, Lands of 74/2, 75/3St Peter, Patrimony of 90/1,147/3,176/2St Petersburg

see also Leningrad; Petrograd1450-1795 134/1, 149,158/11800-1914 172/2,181/3, 210/1

St Pierre and Miquelon 130/1,189/3, 246/2St-Quentin, Battle of (1557) 158/1, 159St Riquier 74/2, 75/3St Thomas, Lesser Antilles 130/1,193/3St Trond 107/4St Vincent, West Indies 125/2,193/3, 247/3Saint-Germain, Treaty of (1919) 175, 220/2,

221Saintonge, County of 92/1Saipan 235/3Saka 43/1Sakai 141/3, 200/1, 252/1Sakala 47/3Sakas 46, 46/1, 46/2, 51, 51/4, 53/1Sakata 141/2Sakatchi-Alyan 50/2Sakha 263

see also YakutiaSakhalin 180/1, 200/3

see also KarafutoSakuzi 23/3Saladin 89, 94, 95/3Salamanca 102/1,134/1, 231/3Salamanca, Battle of (1706) 174/1Salamanca, Battle of (1812) 166/2Salamis 37/3Salamis, Battle of (480 BG) 41, 41/3Salayarl97/2Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira 231/4Salerno 101/4,103/2,134/1,172/2Salghurids 88/3, 89Salians 74, 74/1, 90, 90/1Salinas la Blanca, Mesoamerica 24/3

Salmon, North America 108/1,108/2Salona 45/4Salonae 54/1Salonika see ThessalonicaSalt Lake City 183/3Salts Cave, North America 25/2Saltukids of Erzerum 88/3Saluzzo 147/3Salvador, Brazil 227/1Salzburg

500-1500 74/2, 75/3, 107/4c.1770 134/11803-1914174/1,175/2

Samanids 69, 69/3Samar 196/1,19 7/2Samara 148/2,181/3, 222/1Samaria 45/3Samarqand

150 BC-AD 500 53/1630-1500 69/1, 72, 72/1, 98/1, 99,104/11928-39 223/3

Sambas 119/2, 196/1Samnites 54Samoa 26, 26/1Samogitia 151/5Samori 206/1Samos 142/1Samosata 67/1Samoussy 74/2Samoyeds 148/2Samudra62/l,119/2Samun Dukiya 23/3Samurai 87, 140San Candida 45/4San Diego, Mexico 208/1San Diego, Peru 34/1San Francisco 187/3, 208/1, 210/1San Jacinto, Battle of (1836) 182San Jose, Costa Rica 227/1San Jose Mogote, Mesoamerica 24/3, 32/1,

32/2San Juan 208/1San Lorenzo, Mesoamerica 32/1San Luis Potosi, New Spain 122/1San Marino 147/3San Martin, Jose de 190/2, 191San Pedro de Atacama, Peru 35/3San Rafael, Central America 24/1San Salvador 226/1San Sebastian, Spain 152/1Sancerre 166/1Sanchi 44/2, 47/4Sand Creek, Battle of (1864) 183/4Sandakan Death March 234/2Sandwich 75/4Sang-I Chakmakh 50/1Sanga 82Sangihe Islands 196/1,197/2Sangiran 17/2Sangju-mok 87/3Sango 23/4Sannai 18/1Sanshui 199/2Santa Cruz, Battle of (1942) 235/3Santa Fe, USA 183/3Santa Fe Trail 182,183/3Santa Maria Bogata 121/4Santa Marta, Colombia 121/4Santa Marta, Mesoamerica 24/3Santa Rita, Mexico 85/3Santa Rosa, Peru 34/2Santiago, Chile

1400-1780 110/1,121/4,122/21800-1900 190/2, 210/1since 1914227/1,281/4

Santiago, Cuba 122/1,130/1Santiago, Guatemala 122/1Santiago de Compostela, Spain 134/1Santo Domingo

see also Dominican Republic1500-1800122/1,127/21800-1914190/1,191/31914-45 227/1

Sao Paulo, Brazil 227/1, 274, 281/4Sao Paulo de Loanda, Southwest Africa

130/1Sao Thome, southeast India 145/3Sao Tome & Principe, Africa 204/1, 206/1,

256/1Saone 94/2Sapporo 200/1, 252/1Saqqara 37/2Saragossa see ZaragozaSarai 104/1Sarai Nahar Rai 18/1Sarajevo 267/3Sarandip

see also Ceylon; Sri Lanka89/4

Saratoga, Battle of (1777) 165,165/3Saratov 181/3, 222/1, 223/3

Sarawak 196/1,197/2, 208/1, 211/1, 250/1Sardinia

2000-1000 BC 36/1, 37/3c. 800 BG 38/3c.l 560 146/11815-70 172/1, 176/1, 176/2Black Death 1347-52 105/2crown of Aragon 1300 92/3First World War 220/1France 1793-1815 166/1,167/3Genoese territory 1015-1300 101,101/4Habsburg Empire 1556-1720 152/1,

174/1Phoenician settlement c.800 BC 38/2Pisan territory 1015-1300 101,101/4Reformation 1526-1765 154/1Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54, 54/1,

55/2, 55/3Second World War 232/1, 233/2Triple Alliance 1882 216/2urbanization 1500-1800 132/1,132/2,

132/3,133/4Sardis 42/3Sargon I, King of Akkad 28Sargon II, King of Assyria 39Sarkel 78/2Sarmatians 51, 51/4, 53/1, 56/2, 57/3, 76/1Sarmiento, Pedro de 116-17/1,116/2, 117Sarmizegetusa 55/1Sarnath 44/2, 47/4Sarnowo, northern Europe 20/1Sarskii Fort 78/2Sasanian Empire 44/1, 45, 50, 51/5, 68,

69/1Sasebo 200/1Saskatchewan 189,189/3Saskatoon, Canada 188/2Satavahana kingdom 53/1Satavahanas 46, 46/1, 46/2Saudi Arabia

democracy since 1914 268/1economy since 1945 272/1Human Development Index 1994 279/2infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3migration 1918-98 275/3oil crisis 1973-74 272/2population since 1945 274/1since 1945260/1, 261women in employment 1990s 270/2

Saul, King of Israel 38Saumur 155/3Sauromates 51/4, 53/1Savannah, USA 185/3Savannah, Battle of (1779) 165/3Savery, Thomas 135Savona 101/4Savoy

950-1500 90/1,103/2,106/11500-1765 146/1,147/2, 147/3,152/1,

155/31789-94 166/1,174/1,176/2

Saxons 56, 56/2, 57/4, 74/1Saxony

500-900 74/2, 75c.l 560 146/1economy 950-1300 100,100/1German unification 1815-71 177/4Habsburg Empire 1618-1700 153/3Holy Roman Empire c.950-1360 90/1Reformation 1526-1765 154/1, 155religion 750-1450 62/1Slavic states 800-1000 70/2, 71

Sayil, Mesoamerica 84/2Scandinavia

8000-200 BG 21800-1300 78-79, 100

Scapa Flow 208/1Schaffhausen 90/2,155/2Schaum-Burguppe 177/4Schemnitz 135/2Schio 135/2Schleswig 154/1,177/4Schleswig-Holstein 177/3Schlieffen Plan 218, 219/2Schwaz 107/4Schweidnitz, Battle of (1642) 159/2Schweigen 74/2Schweinfurt 232/1Schweinfurth, Georg August 205/3Schwiebus 157/3Schwyz 90/2,155/2Scoggin, North America 25/2Scotland

900-1300 93, 93/4c.l 560 146/1colonies in Canada 188-89,188/1Great Schism (1378-1417) 107/3Hundred Years War (1337-1453) 106industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2Reformation 1526-1765 154/1revolts 1618-80 156,156/1

302

E


urbanization 1500-1800 132/1,132/2,132/3,133/4

Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/1, 78/2Scotti 57/4Scythians 51, 51/4, 53/1Sea Peoples 37, 37/3Seattle 208/1Sebastea 67/1, 67/3Sechin Alto, Peru 34/1Second World War

Africa 256Asia 1931-45 234-35effects 238-39, 238/1, 246, 272Europe 232-33India 248Latin America 226/4, 227Middle East 260United States 227Versailles Treaty 221

Sedalia Trail 183/3Sedan 755/3Segovia, Spain 156/1Segu 130/1,136/1, 204/1Segusio 54/1Seibal, Mesoamerica 32/1, 84/2Seilles 74/2Selestat 74/2Seleucia 67/1, 67/3Seleucids 43, 43/4Seleucus 43, 43/4Selim I (the Grim), Ottoman sultan 142/1,

143Selinus 40/2Seljuk Sultanate, Great 88-89, 88/2, 94,

94/1Seljuks 88/3, 94/1, 94/2, 95/3, 96, 98/1Selkirk, Lord 188-89Selwyn, G A 202/1Semarang 251/3Sembiran 53/1Semipalatinsk 223/3Sendai 141/2,141/3, 200/1,252/1Senegal

750-1450 62/11800-80204/1,206/11939 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 277/3, 279/2

Sennar 204/1Sens 79/3Sentis 74/2Senusret I 37/2Senusret III 37/2Seoul

see also Hanyongto AD 600 44/21800-1911198/11960-1990s 274, 281/4

Sephardim 142Septimania 74/1, 74/2Sequeira, Diogo Lopes de 117/1Serampore 119/2,145/3Serbia

c. 1400 106/1c.1560 146/1Byzantine Empire 1025-1360 96/1, 97/3First World War 216/2, 217, 218, 220/1Habsburg Empire 1718-39 174/1industrialization 1830-1914 171/3Ottoman Empire 1389-1878 97, 97/4,

142/1,178/1,178/2, 217/3Second World War 233/2since 1989 264/1, 265, 265/3urban communities c.1300 102/1

Serbs200-1500 74/2, 961900-1914 175,175/3since 1989 265, 265/3, 267/3, 269/2

Serpent Mound, North America 25/2Serres 67/1Serrey 157/3Sesklo, southeast Europe 20/1Sevastopol 181/3, 222/1Seven Day Battle (1862) 185/3Seven Weeks War (1866) 177Seven Years War (1756-63) 123, 125,125/3,

128, 164, 188Seville

1000-1500 102,102/1,107/4centre of learning c.1770 134/1colonial trade c.1770 130/1population 1600-1800 128/1,132/2,

132/3,133/4revolts 1618-80 156/1silver trade 1650-1750 131/2

Sevres, Treaty of (1920) 179,179/4, 220/2,221/3

Seychelles 208/1, 247/2, 247/4, 273/3Shaanxi province 224Shaftesbury 79/4Shah Jahan, Mughal Emperor 145Shah-Armanids 88/3Shahdad 29/3, 50/1

Shahr-i Sohta 29/3Shama 137/2Shandong 225Shang civilization 30-31, 31/2, 31/3Shanghai

1368-1644 138/11800-1911198/1,199/2,199/3,199/4,

208/1,211/1since 1960 254/1, 255/2, 255/3, 274

Shanghai, Battle of (1949) 225/2Shangqiu 31/3Shanidar 17/2,18/1Shantou 138/1,199/2, 255/3Shaoxing 138/1Shashi 199/2Sheffield, England 133/4, 210/1, 232/1Shekelesh 37/3Shenandoah Valley, Battle of (1864) 185/3Shenyang 254/1, 255/2, 281/4Shenyang, Battle of (1948) 225/2Sher Shah 144Sherden 37/3Sherihum 29/3Shetland Islands 78, 78/1, 78/2Shevardnadze, Edward 263Shi Huang Di 48, 49Shiite Islam

750-1450 63, 88/11500-1680 143since 1917 260-61, 260/1, 269/2

Shijiazhuang 254/1, 255/2, 255/3Shillacoto 34/1Shiloh, Battle of (1862) 185/3Shilou 31/3Shimoda 141/2Shimonoseki 141/2Shimosuwa 141/2Shintoism 63, 63/3, 73/4, 269/2Shirakawa 141/2Shiraz 69/1,104/1Shitomir 223/3Shizugadake, Battle of (1583) 87/4Shizuoka 141/3, 200/1Shoa 136/1Shoebury 79/4Shona 136/1Shongweni 23/4Shortugai 29/3ShouXian 199/4Shrewsbury 93/4Shu 53/1Shuangduiji 225/2Shum Laka 22/2Shuzhou 199/4Siak 196/1Siam

see also Thailandto 500 AD 19750-150062/1,63/31500-1790 118/1,119/2,119/31790-1914 196/1, 197,197/2since 1914 229/3

Siberiato AD 500 24/11500-1800 139, 1491800-1914 ISO, 181, 199since 1918 237, 275/3

Siberut 197/2Sibir, Khanate of 148Sican culture 84, 84/1Sicilia 54/1Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two

1130 96/11815-70 172/1,172/2,173/3, 176,176/1,

176/2Sicily

1200-400 BG 37/3, 38/3, 40, 40/2950-1300 100,100/1, 101,101/4,102/11350-1500 106,107/3c.1560 146/1Black Death 1347-52 105/2Byzantine Empire 527-1025 67/1civil unrest 1820-49 172/2,173/3Habsburg Empire 1490-1814 152,152/1,

174/1Holy Roman Empire 1194-1268 90industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2population c.1650 128/1Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 55/2, 55/3Second World War 233, 233/2Triple Alliance (1882) 216/2unification of Italy 1859-70 176/2urbanization 1500-1800 132/1,132/2,

132/3,133/4Sicuani, Peru 35/3Side 67/3Sidon 36/1, 38, 42/3Siena

1500-59 147/3Black Death 1347-52 104,105/2centre of learning c.1770 134/1

Habsburg Empire 1556-1618 152/1population c.1300-1500 102/1,103/2

Siena, Siege of (1556) 158/1Sierra Leone

1450-1600 1161700-1914 206/1, 208/1, 210/1Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4democracy since 1939 256/2Gross National Product 1995 278/1independence 1961 246/2, 256/1standard of living since 1945 278United Nations operation from 1998

266/1Sigeum 41/4Sigirya 44/2Siguenza 134/1Sijilmasa 81/3Sikhism 248, 248, 249/3, 269/2Sikkim 194/2,195/3, 248/1Silesia

950-1360 71/4, 90/1, 91/3, 98/21490-1700 146/1,152/1,153/3,154/1,

157/3,159/21700-1871174/1,177/4,196/1

Silistria, Black Sea 158/1Silk Road 47, 47/4, 52, 52-53/1, 72Silla kingdom 73, 73/3, 73/4Simao 199/2Simbirsk 181/3Sinai 260, 261/3Sind

630-1000 69/11526-1765 144/41843-1914 194/2,195/31930s 248/1

Singapore1500-1790 118/1,119/2,131/11792-1914 196,196/1,197/2, 208/1air pollution 1990s 281/4Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4computer ownership 283/3democracy since 1914 268/1economy since 1945 272/1independence 1963 247/2, 250/1Japan 1995 253/3population 1990s 251/3Second World War 234/2, 235since 1920 251trade 1980 273/3

Singhasari 65Singidunum 76/2

see also BelgradeSingkil 196/1Sinkiang 62/1Sino-French War (1883-85) 198/1, 199Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) 198,198/1,

199, 201Sinop 45/4Sinope 40/2Sioux 183/4Sipan, Peru 34/2, 35, 35/4Siraf 83/2Siraj-ud-Daula, Nawab of Bengal 194Sirba 81/3Sirmium67/l, 76/1Sironj 144/2Sistan 69/1, 69/2, 88/2Sitagroi, southeast Europe 20/1Sitka 208/1Siwa 42/3, 81/3Six Nations 164Skara Brae, British Isles 20/1Skipton 93/4Skopje 67/1Slave Coast 137/2Slavonia 174/1, 26 7/3Slavs

500-1356 66, 70-71, 76/2, 77/3, 91,96

Slezanians 70/2Slovakia

c.1000 71/41921-39 230/2since 1939 233/2, 264/1, 265, 265/2

Slovaks 175/3Slovenes 175/3Slovenia 264/1, 265, 265/2, 265/3Sluys, Battle of (1340) 106/2Smetona, Antanas 231/4Smith, Adam 128Smolensk

c.1000 70, 71/41450-1795 149,158/11905-7 181/3since 1914 222/1

Smyrna 67/3, 97/3,179/4, 210/1Snaketown, USA 108,108/1Society Islands 26/1, 246/2Socotra 118/1,130/1

Soest 91/3Sofala 83Sofia 97/4,102/1, 223/2, 264/1Sogdiana 53/1, 72/1Sogyong 87/3Sokhumi 263/2Sokoto 81/3, 204/1Solferino, Battle of (1859) 176/2Solidarity trade union 264Solis, Juan Diaz de 120/1Solomon, King of Israel 38Solomon Islands

10,000 BG-AD 1000 26/11450-1600 117since 1914 234/2, 247/2, 247/4

Solothurn 90/2,155/2Somali 82,136/1Somali Republic 256/1, 256/2Somalia

750-1450 62/1since 1945 242/1, 246/2, 266/1, 267,

274/1,277/4Somaliland see British Somaliland; French

Somaliland; Italian SomalilandSombrerete, New Vizcaya 122/1Somerset Levels, British Isles 20/1Somme, Battles of the (1916, 1918) 218,

218/3, 219/2Somme Bionne 21/4Somosierra Pass, Battle of (1808) 166/2Song dynasty 86, 86/1, 87, 87/2, 98/1, 99Songhay Empire 80/1, 81Songjiang 138/1Sophocles 40Sopron 21/4Sorbs 70/2, 71, 74/2Sosan 44/2Sotho 136/1Sotka-koh 29/4Soto, Hernando de 120/2, 121South Africa

British Empire 1880-1914 206/1, 208/1Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4computer ownership 283/3democracy since 1939 256/2education 1995 279/3female suffrage 270/1First World War 219mandates 1939 246/1migration 1918-98 275/3since 1939 257, 257/3, 257/4

South African (Boer) War (1899-1902) 189,206, 206/2, 207, 217

South America see Latin AmericaSouth Asia

since 1920 248-49South Australia 203/2South Carolina

admission to United States 182/1American Civil War 184, 185,185/3slavery 126,184/1,184/2

South Dakota 182/1South Georgia 246/2, 247/4South Korea

car ownership and production 1990s282/1

computer ownership 283/3distribution of wealth 278Japan 1995 253/3Korean War 242/1, 244, 244/2migration 1918-98 275/3trade 1980 273/3

South Ossetia 262, 263/2South Prussia 151/5South Sandwich Group 246/2, 247/4South Tyrol 230/1South Vietnam 250/2Southampton, England 79/4,101/3, 232/1Southeast Asia

10,000 BG-AD 1000 26150 BG-AD 500 52, 52/2, 53/1500-1500 64-651790-1914 196-97since 1920 250-51immigration 1500-1914 211/2population 1800-1900 211/1trade 1200-1450 65/3

Southern Netherlands1556-1618 152/1

Southern Rhodesia 206/1Southwark 79/4Soviet Union

see also Russia; Russian Federation1928-39 223/31945-89 236-37, 236/1, 236/2since 1989 262-63, 264China since 1949 254, 255Cold War 242-43, 244-45COMECON 238/2Cuban Missile Crisis 244, 245/3

303


economic development 1945-89 236-37,237/3

European colonialism since 1945 247female suffrage 270/1First World War 220/2, 221, 221/3, 221/4industrialization 1928-39 223, 223/3interventions overseas 245/1labour camps 223/3occupation of Poland 1939 230/2oil crisis 1973-74 272/2Russian Revolution 1917-39 222, 223/3Second World War 232-33, 232/1, 233/2,

233/3, 235/3Spanish Civil War 231

Soweto 257/3Spain

1500-1600 146,146/11600-1785 156,156/1, 157since 1945 238/2, 238/2, 239, 273/3,

275/3, 282/1Africa 1800-80 204, 204/1Africa 1880-1939 206/1American Revolution 165Asia 1500-1790 119/2barbarian invasions 100-500 56, 57Caribbean 1500-1780 120-21, 122-23,

122/1,123/3, 124-25,124/1,125/2civil unrest 1820 172,172/2colonial empire c.1770 130,130-31/1colonial empire 1880-1914 208/1colonial empire since 1945 246-47/2,

246/1Counter-Reformation 1526-1765 155economy 1620-1790 128, 729/2exploration 1450-1600 116-17/1,116/2,

111fascism 1923-39 231, 231/3, 231/4First World War 218/1France 1793-1815 166,166/1,166/2,

167, 767/3Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152/1,

153Habsburg Empire 1700-1919 174,174/1industrialization 1830-1914 170/1, 171,

171/3Islamic dynasties 630-1300 68/1, 88,

92/2, 93Italian lands 1500-59 747/3Judaism 1500 BG-AD 600 45Latin America 1500-1780 120-21,

122-23,122/1,122/2,123/3Latin America 1770-1914 190-91, 790/7,

797/3, 192North America 1500-1780 120-21,

124-25,724/7,725/3North America 1793-1910 782/7Phoenician settlement, c.800 BG 38/2population 1620-1790 728, 128/1Reformation 1526-1765 754/7religions 600-1500 63Roman Empire 500 BG-AD 400 54Second World War 232/7, 233/2slave trade 1500-1880 126-27, 726/7Southeast Asia 1792-1914 196-97,

796/7urbanization 1500-1800 732/7, 732/2,

732/3, 733/4Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/2warfare 1450-1750 158-59, 758/7,

759/2Spalato 67/3Spanish Civil War (1936-39) 231, 237/3Spanish Guinea 208/1,210/1Spanish March 74/2Spanish Morocco 206/7, 270/7, 232/7, 233/2Spanish Netherlands

1500-1765 754/7, 757/2, 759/2Spanish Road 752/7, 153Spanish Sahara 206/7Spanish-American War (1898) 192, 226Spanish Succession, War of the (1701-14)

174,774/7Sparta 40-41, 47/3, 47/4, 43/4Speke, John Manning 205/3Speyer 74/2Sphakteria, Battle of (425 BG) 47/4Spice Islands see MoluccasSpina 40/2Spirit Cave 78/7Spiro, Mississippi 709/3Split 705/2Spoleto 74/2, 703/2Spotsylvania, Battle of (1864) 785/3Sravana Belgola 47/3Sravasti 47/3Srebrenica 267/3Sri Lanka

see also Ceylon; Sarandip600 BC-AD 600 44/1,44/2, 46, 47since 1948 247/2, 247/4, 249, 249/3,

269/2Sriksetra 52/2Srinagar 744/7Srivijaya Empire 64/2, 65Srubnaya culture 50/2, 51Stalin, Joseph 222, 223, 233, 236, 242,

244Stalingrad 223/3

see also TsaritsynStalingrad, Battle of (1942-43) 233Stalino 223/3Stalinobad 223/3Stalinsk 223/3Standards of living

since 1945 278-79Stanley, Falklands 208/7Stanley, Henry Morton 205/3Stanwick 27/4Staraia Ladoga 70, 77/3, 77/4, 78/2Starbard 97/3Starcevo, southeast Europe 20/7Stare Hradisko 27/4Staufen dynasty 90, 90/7, 102Staveren 75/4, 97/3Stavropol 787/3Sterkfontein 76/7Stettin 97/3, 707/4, 750/7Sticna 27/4Stirling 93/4Stockholm

1350-1500 97/3, 707/41500-1800 729/2, 732/3, 733/4, 734/7,

756/71800-1900 270/71990s 287/4

Stolypin Reforms 181Stone Tower, Kushan Empire 53/7Stonehenge 27/3Stormberge, Battle of (1899) 206/2Straits Settlements , 196, 797/2Stralsund

1300-1500 97/3, 702/7, 707/41500-1700 750/7, 758/7, 759/2

Strasbourg (Strassburg)1697-1770 733/4, 734/7, 754/71789-94 766/7

Strassburg (Strasbourg)500-1500 75/3, 702/7, 707/4

Stroganovs 148Stuart, John McDouall 202/7Sturt, Charles 202/7Stuttgart 7 73/3Styria 90/7, 7 74/7Su Site, North America 708/7Subawa797/2Subiaco 707/4Suceava 702/7Sucre, Antonio Jose de 190Sudan

1800-1914 205, 206/7, 208/7droughts 1984-98 277/4independence 1956 246/2, 256, 256/7migration 1918-98 275/3political system 256/2since 1945 260/7US intervention 242/7

Sudetenland 230/2, 231Sueves 56-57, 57/3, 57/4, 76/7, 77Suez 737/2Suez Canal 208, 260/7, 261, 267/3Suhar 69/7Suharto, Raden, Indonesian president 251Suide 37/3Suifenhe 255/3Sukadana 65/3, 779/2, 796/7Sukas 37/3Sukhothai 65/3Sula Islands 779/2Sulawesi 52/2, 65/3Suleiman I (the Magnificent) 742/7Sultaniyya 98/7Sulu Arch 779/2, 796/7, 797/2Sulu Islands 65/3Sulu, Sultanate of 65/3Sumatra

150 BG-AD 500 52/2800-1500 62/7, 63/3, 64/21500-1790 778/7, 779/2, 779/3, 737/7,

139, 739/21792-1914796/7,797/21990s 257/3

Sumatrans 64/2Sumba797/2Sumbawa779/2Sumer 28, 28/7, 29/3Sumerians 53Sun Yat-sen 199, 224, 225Sundgau 753/2Sungir 76/3Sunni Islam 88/7, 260-61, 260/7, 269/2Sura 744/2

Surabaya 257/3Surakarta, Java 796/7, 257/3Surat 778/7, 779/2, 745/3, 194, 270/7Surinam 730/7

see also Dutch Guianasince 1914 227/7, 246/2

Surkotada 29/4Surparaka 47/3, 47/4Siirttemburg Baden 7 72/7Susa 42/3Sutkagen-dor 29/4Sutler's Fort 783/3Suvarnagiri47/3Suzhou 738/7, 799/2, 277/7, 254/7, 255/2Svein Forkbeard 79Svendborg 97/3Sverdlovsk

see also Yekaterinburg223/3

Svodin, eastern Europe 20/7Swabia90/7,753/3Swahili settlement 82, 82/7, 83Swartkrans 76/7Swazi 204/7, 205Swaziland

1880-1914 206/7since 1914 246/2, 247/4, 256/7, 268/7,

279/3Sweden

1350-1500 106, 706/7, 707/31500-1795 746/7, 147, 150-51, 750/3colonial trade c.1770 730/7First World War 278/7, 220/7, 220/2Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2industrial economy 1650-1750 729/2industrialization 1830-1914 770/7, 777/3military development 1450-1750 158Napoleonic Europe 1796-1815 167Reformation 1526-1765 754/7religion 750-1450 62/7revolts 1618-80 156,156/1Russia 1462-1795 149, 749/3Second World War 232/7, 233/2, 233/3since 1945 238/7, 238/2, 272/7, 278/7trade 950-1300 100urbanization 1500-1800 733/4Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/2, 79warfare 1450-1750 758/7, 759/2

Swedish War (1630-34) 759/2Swellendam 257/3Swiss Confederation

see also Switzerland1291-1529 90/2c. 1400 706/71500-1600 146, 746/7, 747/3industrial economy 1650-1750 729/2urbanization 1500-1800 732/7, 732/2,

732/3, 733/4Switzerland

see also Swiss Confederation1291-1529 90/21815772/7First World War 278/7, 220/7, 220/2industrialization 1830-1914 171, 777/2,

777/3Reformation 1526-1765 155, 755/2revolts 1618-80 756/7Second World War 232/7, 233/2, 233/3since 1945 238/7, 238/2, 272/7, 278/7

Syagrius 74, 74/7Sybaris 40/2Sydney 202, 277/7, 287/4Syracusae 54/7Syracuse 40/2, 787/3Syria

2000-30 BG 36, 37, 37/2, 42/7, 43, 43/4c.l560 746/7crusades 1095-1291 94European trade 1100-1300 707/4First World War 227/3Great Seljuk Empire 1092 88/2Greek colonies 750-400 BG 40, 40/2Islamic conquest 634-644 68, 68/7, 69Ottoman Empire 1500-1683 743/7Ottoman Empire 1683-1920 779/7Roman Empire 500 BG-AD 400 54, 55/7,

55/3Second World War 232/7, 233/2since 1945 246/2, 260, 260/7, 261, 267/3,

269/2, 277/3Syriam 778/7, 779/2Syrian Limes 55/2Syzrun 222/7

Tabaristan 69/7, 69/2Tabuk 68/7Tacna790/2

Tadmekka 87/3Tagara47/3Taggenburg 755/2Tagliacozzo, Battle of (1268) 90/7Tahert 68/7, 87/3Tahiti 26/7, 27, 246/2Tai Shan 44/2Taipei 254/7Taiping Rebellion (1851-64) 199, 799/3Taiwan

see also Formosato 1000 19,79/4,26,26/71500-1790 779/21792-1914 796/7, 797/2, 798/7, 799/21867-1937 200/3China 1911-49 225, 225/2, 234/7Ming period 1368-1644 738/7, 139, 739/3religion c. 1500 63/3since 1945 242/7, 245/7, 254/7, 273/3,

283/3Taiyuan 72/2, 799/4, 254/7, 255/2, 255/3Taizu, Emperor of Japan 86, 138Tajikistan 236/2, 262/7, 263, 266/7, 279/2Takada 747/3Takamatsu 747/3Takamatsu, Battle of (1582) 87/4Takedda 87/3Takht-i-Bahi 44/2Takrur 80, 80/7, 87/3Taksasila 47/3, 47/4Takua Pa 52/2Talas River, Battle of the (751) 69/7, 72/7, 73Talaud Islands 796/7, 797/2Talavera, Battle of (1809) 766/2Talca790/2Talcahuano, Battle of (1817) 790/2Taliban 243, 261Tall-i Qaleh 29/3Tambo Colorado 770/7Tambo Viejo, Peru 34/2Tambov 787/3, 222/7Tambralinga 64/7Tamerlane see Timur-lengTamil Nadu 249/3Tamils 46, 46/2, 249, 269/2Tamil Tigers 269Tampa 208/7Tamralipti

600 BC-AD 500 47/3, 47/4, 53/7500-150083/2,704/7

Tamraparni 53/7Tamtsag-Bulak 50/2Tamuin 85/3Tanais 40/2Tancah 85/3Tanega Shima 778/7, 779/2Tanfield Lea 735/2Tang dynasty 62, 72-73, 72/7, 86Tangier 68/7, 746/7, 758/7, 205/3Tangku Truce (1933) 200/3Tangshan 254/7Tangut people 86, 86/7, 87Tanimbar 779/2, 796/7, 797/2Tanjore 779/3, 744/2Tannenberg, Battle of (1914) 278/7, 219Tanshui 738/7, 798/7Tantra 63Tanum 27/3Tanzania

see also German East AfricaCommonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4democracy since 1939 256/2Gross National Product 1995 278/7independence 1961 246/2, 256/7, 257migration 1918-98 275/3

Taoism see DaoismTarascan Empire 85, 85/4, 111, 777/3Tarawa 235/3Tarraco 54/7Tarraconensis 54/7Tarsus 36/7,37/3, 42/3, 55/7, 67/7Tartaria, southeast Europe 20/7Tartessus 38/3Taruga 23/3Taruma 53/7Tarut 29/3Tashkent 223/3Tasman, Abel Janszoon 202, 202/7Tasmania

see also Van Dieman's Land27/2,202,202/7,203/2

Tatars 148, 748/7Tatarstan 263Tatta 744/2, 745/3Taung 76/7Taurida 749/3Tauroggen 757/3Taxila 42/3, 53/7Tayma 68/7Tbilisi 263/2

304

Q


see also TiflisTchissanga 23/3Tecklenburg 157/3Tegdaoust 81, 81/3Tegernsee 75/3Teghaza 81/3Tegucigalpa, Honduras 226/1Tehran 281/4Teke 204/1Telingana 89/4Tell 37/3Tell Abul Hureyra 18/2Tell Arpachiyeh 19/3Tell es-Sawwanl 9/3Tell es-Suleimen 29/3Tell Halaf 19/3Tellicherry 745/3Temujin see Ghinggis KhanTenasserim 194/2,196/1Tengchong 199/2,199/4Tennessee 182/1, 184,184/1,184/2,

185/3Tenochtitlan 110, 111, 111/4, 120, 120/2,

120/3Teopantecuanitlan, Mesoamerica 32/1Teotihuacan, Mesoamerica 32/2, 33, 33/3Teotihuacan Empire 32-33, 32/2Teotitlan 111/3Tepanecs 110Tepe Sialk 29/3Tepe Yahya 19/3, 29/3, 50/1Tequixquiac 24/1Teresh 37/3Ternate 65/3, 118,118/1,196/1Ternier 147/3Ternifine 17/2Terra Amata 17/2terrorism 243, 243Tet offensive (1968) 251Tete 205/3Teuchitlan 85, 85/4Teusino, Treaty of (1595) 150Teutonic Knights 91, 91/3,106/1, 150,

154/1Texas

1824-67 193/2American Civil War 184,185/3slavery 184/1,184/2United States acquisition of 182,182/1

Texcoco 110, 111, 111/4Thaba Nchu 257/3Thailand

see also SiamJapan 1995 253/3migration 1918-98 275/3Second World War 234/2, 235, 235/3since 1920 250, 250/1, 251trade 1980 273/3trade since 1920s 251/3urban population 1990s 251/3Vietnam War 250/2

Thapsacus 42/3Thapsus 38/3Thatta 144/1The Hague 103/3,135/2Thebes, Egypt 30/1,37/2, 39Thebes, Greece 37/3, 43, 67/1Themistocles 41Theoderic the Amal, King of the Ostrogoths

57Theodosiopolis 67/1Thera 40/2Theravada Buddhism 44/2, 63/3, 197Therma 41/3Thermopylae 76/1Thermopylae, Battle of (480 BC) 41, 41/3Thessalonica

to AD 500 45/4, 54/1500-1500 67/1, 67/3, 96, 96/2, 97/4,

102/1Thessaly 41/3, 41/4, 42/2, 43, 217/3Thetford 79/3Thionville 74/2Thionville, Battle of (1643) 159/2Thira 36Thirteen Colonies

c.1770 130/1,164/1American Revolution 164-65,164/2Canada 188

Thirty Years War (1618-48) 150, 153, 155,156,159/2

Thompson, David 188,188/2Thorn 91/3,107/4Thorney 79/4Thrace 41/3, 42, 42/2, 43, 55Thracia 54-55/1Three Emperors' Alliance (1881) 216/1, 217Three Mile Island 280Thurgau 90/2,155/2Thuringia 70/2, 74/2, 75, 90/1,177/4Thuringians 57/4, 74, 74/1

Thutmose I 37Thutmose III 37, 37/2Ti-n-Torha 22/1Tiananmen Square, Beijing 255Tiandai Shan 44/2Tianjin

1368-1644 138/11800-1911199/2,211/1since 1945 254/1, 255/2, 255/3

Tibarene 42/1Tiberias, Kingdom of Jerusalem 94/2Tiberius, Roman emperor 55Tibet (Xizang)

1000-1398 86/1, 87/2, 89/4, 98/1Manchu Qjng dynasty 1644-1840 139,

139/3religion 750-1500 62/1, 63/3since 1945 249, 255Tang period 618-907 72/1, 73trade with Ming period China 1368-1644

138/1Tichitt 22/2, 81/3Ticino 147/3,155/2Tidore 65/3,118/1, 196/1Tiel 75/4Tienen 103/3Tievebulliagh, Ireland 20/1Tiflis 69/1,181/3, 223/3

see also TbilisiTikal, Mesoamerica 33, 33/3, 33/4, 84/2Tikull9/2Tilantongo 85/4Tilcara 110/1Tillia-Tepe 51/4Timbuktu 81/3, 204, 204/1, 205/3Timerevo 71/3, 78/2Timisoara 264/1Timisoara, Battle of (1849) 175/4Timor

c.3,OOOBGl9/41500-1790 118/1,119/2,119/3,131/11792-1914196/1,197/2since 1914 234/2, 250/1

Timurid dynasty 99Timur-leng (Tamerlane) 89/4, 97, 99, 99/4,

105Tingis 38/3, 66/1Tipasa 45/4Tippu Tip 206/1Tiryns 37/3Tirzah 45/3Tito, Josip Broz 236, 265Tiumen 148/2Tiwanaku, Peru 35, 35/3Tjeker 37/3Tlacopan 110, 111, 111/4Tlatilco, Mesoamerica 32/1Tlaxcala 120,120/2,120/3Tlaxcallan 111/3Tlemcen 81/3Toba 141/2Tobago 247,125/2,193/3, 247/3Tobolsk 148/2, 223/3Tobruk 232/1Togo

1700-1914 206/1, 210/1since 1939 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 277/3

Tokugawa leyasu 87,140Tokugawa Shogunate 87, 87/4, 118, 140-41,

200-1Tokushima 141/2,141/3Tokyo

see also Edo1450-1600117/11800-1930 200/1, 211/1since 1939 235/3, 252/1, 274, 281/4

Toledo 68/1,102/1,152/1,156/1, 187/3Tollancingo 85/3Tollocanlll/3Tollund 21/4Toltecs 85, 85/3Tome Bamba 110/1Tomsk 148/2, 223/3Tonga 26, 26/1, 246/2, 247/4Tongeren 103/3Tonggyong 87/3Tongsamdong 18/1Tonina, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Tonkin 197/2Tonning 158/1Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494) 117Torfosa 94/2Torksey 79/3Toro 19/4, 204/1Toronto 189/3Torralba-Ambrona 17/2Torres, Luis Vaez 202/1Tortuguero, Mesoamerica 84/2Tosali 47/3Tototepec 111/3Tottori 141/2

Toul 147,147/2Toulon 158/1,166/1Toulouse 102/1,133/4,134/1,155/3Toulouse, Battle of (1814) 167/2Toulouse, County of 92/1, 93/5Touraine, County of 92/1Tournai 92/1,103/3Tours

500-1300 74/2, 75/3, 75/4,102/11526-1800 155/3,166/1

Trafalgar, Battle of (1805) 166/2, 167Trail of Tears 183/4Trajan 55Trajanopolis 67/3Tranquebar 119/2,145/3Trans-Jordan 179/1, 221/3, 232/1Trans-Siberian Railway 180Transkei 257/3Transnistria 233/2Transoxania 69/1, 88/2,142/2, 143Transvaal 206/2Transylvania

1207-79 98/21500-1700 142/1,146/1, 147,153/3,

159/21700-1914 174/1,175/2,178/1,178/2

Trapani 102/1Trapezus 40/2, 55/2Trastamara dynasty 106Travancore 194/1,194/2, 195/3, 248/1Travnik, southeast Europe 158/1Trebizond

500-1500 62/1, 67/1, 96, 97/4, 101/41500-1683 143/11683-1923179/1

Trelleborg 79/5Trempeauleau 25/2Treng-Ganu 62/1Trent, Council of 154/1, 155Trenton, Battle of (1776) 165/3Tres Zapotes, Mesoamerica 32/1Treviso 74/2,103/2,134/1Trianon, Treaty of (1920) 220/2Triebel, Battle of (1647) 159/2Trier 45/4, 90/1,102/1,134/1,154/1Trieste 230/1Trim 93/4Trincomali 119/2,145/3Trinidad 120/1,130/1,193/3Trinidad and Tobago

since 1945 247, 247/3Trinil 17/2Tripartite Pact (1941) 232, 235Triple Alliance (1882) 216/1, 216/2, 217Triple Entente 216/2, 217, 218, 218-19/1Tripoli, County of, Holy Land 94, 94/2, 95/3,

95/5Tripoli, North Africa

1100-1300 101/41500-1683142/1,146/11683-1912 178/1, 204/1, 205/3, 210/1

Tripolis 38/3Tripuri 47/3Tristan da Cunha 246/2, 247/4Trondheim 150/1Trotsky, Leon 222, 223Troy 37/3Troyes

400-1500 76/1,100/1, 101,102/1,107/41526-1765 155/31789-94 166/1

Troyes, County of 92/1Trujillo 190/2Truk Islands 235, 235/3Truman Doctrine 244Truman, Harry S 242, 244Trundholm 21/3Tsaritsyn

see also Stalingrad1462-1795 148/21905-7 181/3since 1914 222/1

Tskhinvali 263/2Tsushima Strait, Battle of (1905) 201Tswana 136/1Tu people 31/3Tuamotu 26/1Tuamotu Arch 246/2Tubingen 134/1Tubuai Islands 246/2Tula, Mexico 85, 85/3Tula, Russia 158/1,181/3, 222/1, 223/3Tularosa Cave 25/2Tulum 85/3Tumbes 110/1,121/4,122/2Tun-huang47/4Tungus 148/1,148/2Tunis

12th-13th century 101/41490-1700 142/1,146/1, 152,152/11683-1881178/1, 204/1, 210/1

Tunis, Siege of (1535) 158/1Tunisia

1880-1939 206/1First World War 218/1migration 1918-98 275/3Second World War 232/1, 233, 233/2since 1945 246/2, 256, 256/1, 256/2,

279/3Tupac Amaru 190Tupac Yupanqui 110Tupian 122/2TupizallO/1Tureng Tepe 50/1Turfan 44/2, 53/1,104/1Turin

1500-1770 103/2,133/4,134/11800-1900 172/2,176/2, 210/1Second World War 232/1

Turin, Battle of (1706) 174/1Turkestan 104/1, 139,139/3Turkey

see also Ottoman Empire1920-24 179,179/4since 1945 244, 260/1, 261, 261/4Cyprus since 1974 267/2democracy since 1914 268/1empire 1880-1914 208/1First World War 218, 218-19/1, 220/2,

221,221/3Great Depression 1929-33 229/3infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3Kurds 269/2migration 1918-98 275/3Second World War 232/1, 233/2trade 1980 273/3

Turkish Beyliks 89/5Turkmenia 50/1Turkmenistan 236/2, 237/3, 262/1, 270/2Turks and Caicos 247/3Turuchansk 148/2Tuscany

950-135090/1,100/11737-1870 167/2,174/1,176/1,176/2

Tusmore 104Tustrup, northern Europe 20/1Tutankhamun 37Tuticorin 144/2Tutishcainyo 25/4Tutsis 269/2Tuvalu 247/2, 247/4Tuzigoot 108/1Tuzla 267/3Tver 148/1,181/3, 222/1Tyana 67/1Tyras 40/2Tyre 36/1, 38, 42/3, 67/3, 94/2Tyrnau 134/1Tyrol

950-136090/1,91/31490-1765 152/1, 153,154/11700-1914174/1

Tzinacantlan 111/3Tzintzuntzan 85/4

U-Thong 52/2UaiBobo 18/1, 52/2Uan Muhuggiag 22/2Uaxactun 33, 33/4, 84/2Ubeidiyal7/2Udine 103/2Ufa 181/3, 222/1, 223/3Uganda

1700-1900 206/1, 208/1, 210/1since 1914 246/2, 247/4, 256/1, 274/1,

275/3Ugarit36/l,37/3Uighurs 62/1, 72/1, 98/1Uitenhage 257/3Ujjain 144/1, 210/1Ujjayini 47/3, 47/4Ujung Pandang 251/3Ujvidek 175/4Ukraine

300-1000 76-771500-1795 146/1,149/3,151/5,156/11948-89 236/2, 237/3, 238/2migration 1918-98 275/3Russian Revolution 222/1Second World War 232/1, 233/2, 233/3since 1991 262, 262/1, 263

Ulan-Ude 223/3Ulithi 235/3Ulm, Battle of (1805) 167,167/2Ulmanis, Karlis 231/4Ulundi 257/3Umayyad dynasty 69, 88, 88/1Umlazi 257/3

305

m


Umm Dabaghiyeh 19/3Umm-an Nar 29/3United Arab Emirates 260/1, 268/1, 274/1,

277/3United Kingdom

see also England; Great Britain; NorthernIreland; Scotland; Wales

colonial empire 1870-1914 208, 209,209

colonial empire since 1945 246-247,246-47/2, 246/1,247/3

Commonwealth of Nations since 1945247/4

Cyprus since 1960 267/2distribution of wealth 278economy since 1945 272/1,272/2,

273/3European Free Trade Area 238/2, 239European Union 238/2female suffrage 270/1First World War 217Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2,

229industrialization 1830-1914 170, 170/1,

171,171/2,171/3Ireland conflict since 1914 268-69, 269/2Japan since 1945 253migration 1918-98 275/3population 1700-1900 210/1Second World War 232/1, 233/2, 238/1urbanization 1800-1914 211War of the Spanish Succession 1701-14

174,174/1United Nations

colonialism since 1945 247Conference on Environment and

Development (1992) 280Decade for Women 270education since 1945 278-79Human Development Index 278Iraqi invasion of Kuwait 1991 261Kashmir 249Korean War 244/2Monetary and Financial Conference

(1944) 272Palestine Conflict (1947-49) 261/2peacekeeping since 1945 266-67Universal Declaration of Human Rights

(1948) 268United Provinces of Central America 127/2,

191/3United Provinces, India 248/1United Provinces of the Netherlands see

NetherlandsUnited States of America

American Revolution (War ofIndependence 1775-83) 164-65,165/3, 188

Australia 202-3Canada 1763-1914 188car ownership and production 1990s

282/1Caribbean colonies 1830-1910 193/3China 1800-1911199/2Civil Rights movement 240, 241/3Civil War 1861-65 184-85,185/3, 187,

189Cold War 242-43, 244-45, 245/3colonies 1870-1914 209, 209, 209/2colonies 1945-98 246-47/2, 246/1,247/3computer ownership 283, 283/3distribution of wealth 278economy since 1945 272-73, 272/1expansion of 1783-1910 182-83,182/2,

183/3female suffrage 270-71, 271/4First World War 219, 220, 226/3Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228,

228/1,229,241Gross National Product 1995 278/1Gulf War (1990-91) 261human rights since 1918 268immigration 187,187industrial growth 1790-1900 186-87,

186/1,186/2,187intervention overseas since 1945 242-43,

242/1,244,245/1Japan since 1945 252, 253Latin America 1830-1945 192,193/2,

226-27, 227/2Latin America since 1945 259/2League of Nations 221Marshall Plan 239migration 1918-98 275/3New Zealand 202-3oil crisis 1973-74 272/2population 1700-1900210/1, 211population since 1900 240, 240, 240/1,

241/2, 241/3population and urbanization 1900 187/3Russian Revolution 222/1

Second World War 226/4, 227, 232, 233,234, 235, 235/3

since 1900 240-41slavery 1500-1880 127,127/2,184/1,

184/2Southeast Asia 1870-1914 197,197/2Southeast Asia since 1920 250, 250/1standard of living since 1945 278terrorism 243, 243trade routes 1880-1914 208/1trade since 1945 243, 243/2Vietnam War 250/2, 251

Universal Declaration of Human Rights(1948) 268

Unterwalden 90/2,155/2Upington 257/3Upper Alsace 153/2Upper Burma 19 7/2Upper Canada 188,188/1, 189Upper Doab 194/1Upper Palatinate 152/1,154/1Upper Volta 206/1Uppsala, eastern Sweden 134/1Ur 19/3, 28,28/1,29/3Uraga 141/2Uraiyur 47/3Urartu 38/1, 39/4Urban II, Pope 94Urbino 134/1,147/3Urdaneta, Andre de 116-17/1,116/2, 117Urdunn 69/2Urewe 23/4Urgench 104/1Uri 90/2,155/2Uruguay

1830-1914 191/3,192/11914_45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1since 1945 258/1, 259/3, 272/1, 273/3

Uruk 19/3, 28, 28/1,37/1see also Warka

Ushkovskaya 50/2Ushkur 44/2Usmal, Mesoamerica 33/4USSR see Soviet UnionUst-Khemchik 50/2Utah 182,182/1,184/2Utatlan 85/3,111/3Ute people 183/4Utica 38/2Utrecht 75/3, 75/4,103/3,134/1,153/2Utrecht, Peace of (1713-14) 174,174/1Utrecht, Treaty of (1713) 157Uwajima 141/2Uxmal, Mesoamerica 84/2Uzbeks 142/2Uzbekistan 236/2, 237/3, 260/1, 262/1

Vaca, Alvar Nunez de 120/2, 121Vaisali 47/3Val Camonica 21/3Valabhi 47/3Valais 90/2, 92/1,155/2Valdivia 25/4, 121,121/4,122/2Valence, southern France 134/1Valencia

500-1500 92/2, 92/3,102/11500-1770 128/1,132/1,132/2,132/3,

134/1,152/1,156/11800-1900172/21936-39 231/3

Valenciennes 74/2,103/3Valladolid 102/1,132/2,134/1Valladolid, Battle of (1808) 166/2Valley of the Kings 37/2Valmy, Battle of (1792) 166/1Valois 92/1Valois dynasty 106,106/2Valparaiso 122/2Valtellina 90/2,147/3,154/1,155/2Van Diemen's Land

see also Tasmania202

Vanavisi47/3Vancouver 188/2,189/3, 208/1Vancouver Island 188/2, 189Vandals 56-57, 56/2, 57/3, 57/4Vanderbijlpark 257/3Vanuatu 26/1, 247/2, 247/4Varanasi

see also Benares47/3

Vasco de Gama see Gama, Vasco daVasili III, Grand Duke 148,148/1Vasilsursk 158/1Vaskovskoe 50/2Vatsagulma 47/3Vaud 147/3,155/2

Vaud, County of 92/1Vedrin-lez-Namur 135/2Velchev, Colonel 231Venda 257/3Vendome, County of 92/1Venetia

see also Venice1797-1870 174/1,175/2, 176,176/1,

176/2Venezuela

1500-1780 122/2, 123, 126,127/21800-1914 190/2,191/3,192/1,193,

193/3,210/11914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1, 229/3since 1945 258/1, 259/3, 272/1, 272/2,

274/1Venice

see also Venetia1350-1500 1061500-1600146/1,147/3banking and trade 1350-1500 107/4Black Death 1347-52 105,105/2Byzantine Empire 96civil unrest 1848-49 176crusades 1095-1291 95, 95/5empire 1100-1300 101,101/4Habsburg Empire 1556-1618 152/1industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2Naxos, Duchy of 1340-60 97/3Ottoman Empire 1683-1923 178,178/2population 1000-1500 102,102/1population 1500-1800 128/Z, 132/1,

132/2,132/3,133/4printing press 1450-70 107/4rebellions 1848-49 173/3Slavic trade 700-1000 71/3urban communities c.1500 103/2

Ver 74/2Veracruz, Mexico

1500-1750 120,120/3,122/1,131/2since 1914 227/2

Verberie 74/2Vercelli 134/1Verden 74/2Verdun 147,147/2, 218, 218/1Verdun, Battle of (1916) 218, 219/2Verdun, Treaty of (843) 74/2, 75Verkhoyansk 148/2Vermandois, County of 92/1, 93/5Vermont 182/1Verneuil, Battle of (1424) 106/2Verona 75/3,103/2,133/4Verrazano, Giovanni da 116/1, 117Versailles, Treaty of (1919) 220-21, 220/2,

228, 231Verzenay 74/2Vespasian 55Vespucci, Amerigo 116/1, 117Vexin 92/1Viatka 148/1,181/3Viborg 79/5, 149Vicenza 103/2,134/1Vichy government 232, 233/2Vicksburg, Battle of (1863) 184,185/3Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy 176Victoria, Canada 188/2Vidisa47/3Vienna

950-1500 101/3,102/1,105/21800-1900 173/3, 174,175/4, 178, 210/1centre of learning c.1770 134/1Newcomen engine 135/2Ottoman Empire 1490-1700 142, 153population 1600-1800 128/1,132/2,

132/3,133/4Spanish Road 152/1

Vienna, Battle of (1683) 158/1, 159Vienna, Congress of (1815) 167, 172,172/1,

174, 176,176/1Vienna, Siege of (1683) 158/1Vientiane 251/3Vietcong 250/2, 251Vietminh 250Vietnam

see also Annam1790-1914196/1, 197First Indochinese War 245/1Human Development Index 1994 279/2independence 1954 247/2, 250/1infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3migration 1918-98 275/3trade since 1920s 251/3urban population 1990s 251/3Vietnam War 1959-75 243, 244, 245/1women in employment 1990s 270/2

Vietnam War (1959-75) 242/1, 243, 244,245/1,250-51,250/2

Vigo, Battle of (1702) 174/1Vijaya, Prince 46, 46/2Vijayanagar 62/1, 89/4Vikings 66, 78-79, 93

Vilcas Huaman 110/1Villa, "Pancho" 226Villach 107/4Villaggio Leopardi, Italy 20/1Villaviciosa, Battle of (1710) 174/1Vilna 134/1Vilnius 181/3Vimeiro, Battle of (1808) 166/2Viminacium 54/1, 76/1Vinca, southeast Europe 20/1Viracochapampa, Peru 35/3Virgin Islands

see also British Virgin Islands1830-1910193/3US intervention 227/2

Virgin Lands territory, Russia 236, 237/3Virginia

admission to United States 182/1American Civil War 184, 185,185/3British colonization 1600-1763 124slavery 1500-1880 125, 126, 127,184/1,

184/2Virunum 54/1Visby 107/4Viscayas Islands 197/2Visigoths 55, 57, 57/3, 57/4, 74/1Visigoths, Kingdom of the 66/1Vitebsk 181/3, 222/1, 223/3Vitebsk, Battle of (1812) 167/2Viterbo 103/2Vitesk 223/3Vitoria, Battle of (1813) 166/2Vitry, County of 92/1Vix 21/4Vizcaya 156/1Vladikavkaz 263/2Vladimir 222/1Vladivostok 180, 208/1, 223/3Vo-canh 52/2Vohemar 83/2Volga Bulgars 71/3, 71/4, 77/3, 78, 78/2Volga Germans 262/1Volga steppe 76-77Volgograd see Stalingrad; TsaritsynVolhynia 71/4,146/1,151/5Vologda 181/3, 222/1Vorkuta 223/3Vorodino, Battle of (1812) 167/2Voronezh 158/1,181/3, 222/1, 223/3Voturno, Battle of (1860) 176/2Vratislavia 98/2

see also Breslau; Wroclaw

Wadai 204/1Wadan 81/3Wagram, Battle of (1809) 167/2Waiblingen 90/1Waitangi, Treaty of (1840) 202Wakayama 141/2,141/3, 200/1Wake Island 234/2, 247/2Walata 81/3Walcheren 75/4Waldeck 177/4Wales

1000-1500 93, 93/41500-1800 128,129/2, 132,133/4,146/1

Wall Street Crash 226, 228Wallachia

1000-1500 97/4,106/11500-1739 142/1,146/1, 147,178/2

Wallingford 79/4Wan 49/4Wang Mang, Emperor of China 49Wang state 31/3Wanxian 199/2War of 1812 182, 187Warberg 91/3Warburton, Peter Egerton 202/1Wareham 79/4Wargala 81/3Warka 28, 28/1, 28/2

see also Uruk"Warring States" 48, 48/1, 49Warsaw

1350-1500 107/41450-1800 133/4,158/11800-1914 172/2,173/3,181/3, 210/11990s 281/4

Warsaw, Grand Duchy of 167/2Warsaw Pact (1955) 236, 236/1, 244, 245/1Warwick 79/4Washington state 182/1,184/2Washington DC 184/2,185/3,187/3, 210/1Washukanni 36/1Wasit 69/1Wasserburg 21/3Watchet 79/4

306

raM


Waterloo, Battle of (1815) 167,167/2Watt, James 135Wei Hai Wei 208/1Wei people 31/3Wei state 31/3, 49Weihai 198/1Welfesholz, Battle of (1115) 90/1Welkom 257/3Wellington, New Zealand 202/1, 208/1Wenceslas, Prince 70Wenden 158/1Wendish Crusade (1147-1185) 91Wends 74/2Wenzhou 799/2, 255/3Weshesh 37/3Wessex 79, 79/3West Asia

1200-600 BC 38-39West Bank 260, 260/1, 261/2West Florida 182/1West Galicia 151/5,174/1West Germany 238/1, 238/2, 272/1, 272/2,

273since 1945 239

West Indies1450-1600776/2, 1171500-1880 126/1, 127, 727/2, 128

West Indies, Federation of the 247West Rennet, British Isles 20/1West New Guinea 266/2West Pakistan 248/2, 249

see also PakistanWest Pomerania 757/3West Prussia 757/5, 757/3, 777/4West Rand 257/3WestTurkana76/7West Virginia 782/7, 785/3Western Australia 203/2Western Europe

1000-1500 1020-3since 1945 238-39

Western India States Agency 248/7Western Regions Protectorate, China 52,

53/7Western Sahara 246/2, 256/7, 256/2, 266/7,

274/7Western Samoa 247/4Western Trail 783/3Western Turks 76Westphalia 100, 777/4Westphalia, Peace of (1648) 150-51, 153Wetar 7 7 9/2, 7 96/7, 7 9 7/2White Mountain, Battle of (1620) 753/3,

758/7,759/2White Russia SSR 233/3Whitehaven, northwest England 735/2Whittaker, Jeremiah 156Whydah 737/2Wielbark culture 56, 56/2Wiener Neustadt 98/2The Wilderness, Battle of (1864) 785/3William I, Prince of Orange 156William I, Kaiser of Germany 177, 777William I (the Conqueror) 93William II, Prince of Orange 156Willkawain, Peru 35/3Willoughby, Sir Hugh 776-77/7Wills, William 202/7Wilmington, North Carolina 185, 785/3Wilson, Woodrow 220, 221, 227Wilton, England 79/4Wilton, South Africa 22/7, 23/4Wilzi people 70/2Wimpfen, Battle of (1622) 759/2Winchester, England 79/4, 702/7Winchester, Virginia 785/3Windau 97/3Winneba 737/2Winnipeg 788/2, 789/3Wisby 97/3Wisconsin 784/2Wiskiauten 70, 77/3, 78/2Wislanians 70/2Wismar707/4,750/7Wissembourg 75/3Witla 75/4Wittelsbach dynasty 90/7, 106Wittenberg 734/2, 154, 754/7Wittmar, northern Europe 20/7Wittnauer Horn 27/3, 27/4Wittstock, Battle of (1636) 757/2Wolfe, James 188Wolfenbuttel, Battle of (1641) 759/2Wolgast, Battle of (1628) 759/2Worcester, England 79/4Worcester, Massachusetts 787/3Worcester, South Africa 257/3World Bank 272World Health Organization (WHO) 276World Trade Center 243World War I see First World War

World War II see Second World WarWorms 74/2, 90/7, 702/7Wounded Knee, Battle of (1890) 783/4Wroclaw 702/7, 707/4

see also Breslau; VratislaviaWu Ding 30, 37/3Wudi, Emperor of China 52Wuhan

1800-1911799/3,277/7since 1945 254/7, 255/2, 255/3, 287/4

Wuhu 738/2, 799/2Wun Rok 23/3Wuppertal270/7Wurttemberg

1526-1765 746/7, 752/7, 754/7, 1551815-71 777/4

Wurzburg 734/7, 735/2, 754/7Wusun nomads 57/4, 52, 53/7Wutai Shan 44/2Wuxi 254/7, 255/2Wuzhou 799/2Wycliffe, John 106Wyoming 782/7

Xankandi 263/2Xcalumkin, Mesoamerica 84/2Xerxes, King of Persia 41, 47/3, 42-43/7, 43Xhosa 736/7Xhou dynasty 48Xi Jiang 7 9/4Xi-an 277/7

1800-1911 799/4since 1930 224/7, 254/7, 255/2, 255/3

Xi-an Incident 225Xiamen 798/7, 255/3

see also AmoyXiang 37/3Xiangtan 738/7Xianrendong 78/7Xianyuan 48/7Xiaxian 37/3Xicalango 85/3, 111,777/3Xin Xian 37/3Xinbao-an 225/2Xing state 37/3Xingtai 37/3Xining 254/7, 255/3Xiongnu nomads 48/7, 48/2, 49, 51, 57/4, 52,

52/7Xixia state 86, 86/7, 87/2Xochicalco, Mexico 85/3Xoconochco Province 777/3Xtampak, Mesoamerica 33/4Xu Guangqi 138Xu-yi people 37/3Xuantong, Emperor 224Xunantunich, Mesoamerica 84/2Xuzhou 37/3, 254/2Xuzhou, Battle of (1949) 225/2

Yakkhas 46/2Yakutia 263

see also SakhaYakuts 748/2, 780/7Yakutsk 748/2, 223/3Yamagata 747/2Yamaguchi 200/7Yamama 69/7, 69/2Yamazaki, Battle of (1582) 87/4Yan state 48/7Yan-an 224,224/7, 225Yantai

1800-1911 798/7, 799/2, 799/41980s 255/2, 255/3

Yao 204/7Yarim Tepe 79/3Yarinococha 25/4Yarmouth 97/3Yarmuk, Battle of (636) 68, 68/7Yaroslavl 748/7, 787/3, 223/3Yawata 200/7Yaxchilan, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2Yaxuna 33/4, 84/2Yayoi-cho 79/4Yeha 23/3Yekaterinburg

see also Svardlovsk787/3

Yellow Turbans 49Yeltsin, Boris 262-63Yelwa 23/3Yemen

1200 88/3

since 1945 246/2, 260/7, 266/7, 277/3Yemen Arab Republic 260/7, 261Yemen, Democratic Republic of 260/1Yeniseisk 748/2Yi dynasty 87Yi Song-gye, General 87Yi Sun-Sin 87Yichang799/2Yidu 37/3Yin 31,37/3Yinchuan 255/3Yingkou79S/7Yogyakarta 796/7Yokkaichi 747/2Yokohama 200/7, 208/7, 277/7, 252/7Yokosuka 200/7Yonezawa 747/3Yongzhou 738/7Yopitzinco, Mexico 777/3York, England 78, 78/2, 79/3, 93/4Yorktown, Battle of (1781) 165, 765/3Yorktown, Virginia 785/3Yoruba 81, 737/2, 205Young Turks 179Ypres 97/3, 102, 703/3Ypres, Battles of (1914, 1915, 1917) 279/2Yuan dynasty 99, 99/3, 105Yuan Shikai 199, 224Yuanmou 7 7/2Yucatan Peninsula

1000-1500 84, 84/2, 85/31492-1550 120, 720/2, 1211839-68 793/2

Yueyang 255/3Yuezhi nomads 51, 57/4, 52, 53/7Yugoslavia

1914-45 220/2, 221, 227/4, 228/2, 229/3,237/4,232/7

1945_89 233/3, 236, 236/7, 237since 1989 264/7, 265, 265/3, 267/3,

269/2, 282/7Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of

1991-99 265/3Yukagirs 780/7Yukon Territory 789/3Yunotsu period 747/2Yuwu Rong people 37/3

Zaachila 85/4Zacapu 85/4Zacatecas 722/7Zaculeu85/3, 777/3Zagreb see AgramZaire 246/2, 266/7

see also Belgian Congo; Congo,Democratic Republic of

Zakro 36/7Zaman Baba 50/2Zambia 246/2, 247/4, 256/7, 256/2, 257

see also Northern RhodesiaZamosc 758/7Zanzibar

500-1500 83/21500-1790 778/7, 730/71800-1914 204/7, 205/3, 206/7, 208/7

Zapata, Emiliano 226Zapatistas 269/2Zapolya, Jan 153Zaporozhe 758/7Zapotecs 32-33, 85, 85/4Zara 705/2, 230/7Zaragoza

500-1500 74/2, 702/7, 707/41500-1800 733/4, 734/71800-1914772/2

Zaragoza, Battle of (1710) 774/7Zaragoza, Battle of (1809) 766/2Zarzi 78/7Zavist 27/4Zawi Chemi 78/7Zawila 87/3Zeeland 703/3Zeila 82, 83/2, 204/7, 205/3Zengids 88/3, 89Zengpiyan 78/7Zepa 1993 267/3Zhang Qian 52Zhangjiako, Battle of (1948) 225/2Zhanjiang, southern China 799/2Zhao Kuangyin see Taizu, EmperorZhao state 48/7Zheng He 116, 139,739/2Zhengzhou 37/3, 254/7, 255/3Zhenjiang, eastern China 738/7, 799/2,

799/4Zhitomir 222/7Zhou dynasty 31, 37/3

Zhoukoudian 16, 76/3, 77/2Zhu Ojzhen, Emperor 139Zhu Yiujian, Emperor 139Zia-ul-Haq, Muhammad 249Zibo 254/7, 255/2Zijanids 89/5Zimbabwe

see also Rhodesia; Southern Rhodesia900-1500 82/7Commonwealth of Nations since 1945

247/4democracy since 1939 256/2education 1995 279/3independence 1980 246/2, 247, 256/7,

257population growth since 1945 274/7

Zipangu see JapanZirids 88/7Ziwa 23/4Zlatoust 787/3Zogy, Albanian king/president 237/4Zohapilco, Mesoamerica 24/3Zollverein 177Zoroaster 45Zoroastrianism 44/7, 45, 62Zufar 139, 739/2Zug 90/2, 755/2Zuhab, Peace of (1639) 742/2, 143Zuilon 745/3Zulus 204-5, 204/7, 206/7Zungharia 739/3Zuni Pueblo 708/7Zurich 90/2, 754/7, 755/2Zurich, Battle of (1799) 767/2Zusmarshausen, Battle of (1643) 759/2Zutphen 753/2Zwingli, Huldreich 155Zwinglianism 754/7, 155Zyuganov, Gennady 263

3 0 7

m

n

Y

BIBLIOGRAPHYThe books listed below are recommended by thecontributors to this atlas as sources of furtherinformation on the topics covered by the maps and text.

,GiilMAL

Bentley, J.H. and Zeigler, H.F. Traditions andEncounters: A Global Perspective on the PastMcGraw-Hill 1999

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Crosby, A. W. Ecological Imperialism: The BiologicalExpansion of Europe Cambridge University Press,Cambridge 1993

Curtin, P. Cross-Cultural Trade in World HistoryCambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984

Frank, A.G. ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian AgeUniversity of California Press, Berkeley, California1998

Goody, J. The East in the West Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge 1996

Heiser, C.B. From Seed to Civilization: The Story of FoodHarvard University Press, Cambridge MA 1990

Huff, T. The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, Chinaand the West Cambridge University Press, Cambridge1993

Hugill, P.J. World Trade since 1431: Geography,Technology and Capitalism John Hopkins UniversityPress, Baltimore/London 1993

Jones, E.L. Growth Recurring: Economic Change inWorld History Clarendon Press, Oxford 1988

Landes, D. The Wealth and Poverty of Nations Little,Brown and Co/W. W. Norton London/New York 1998

Livi-Bacci, M. Concise History of World Population: AnIntroduction to Population Processes Blackwell,Oxford/Cambridge, MA, 1992

McNeill, W. The Human Condition: An Ecological andHistorical View Princeton University Press, Princeton,NJ/Guildford 1980

Mokyr, J. The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativityand Economic Progress Oxford University Press,Oxford/New York, 1992

O'Brien, P.K. (ed.) Industrialisation: CriticalPerspectives on the World Economy Routledge,London 1998

Ponting, C. A Green History of the World: TheEnvironment and the Collapse of Great CivilizationsPenguin, London 1991

Roberts J.M. Penguin History of the World, Penguin,Harmondsworth 1995

Roberts, J.M. Shorter Illustrated History of the WorldHelicon, Oxford 1996

WorldJohanson, D. and Edgar, B. From Lucy to Language

Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1996Sherratt, A. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of

Archaeology Cambridge University Press, Cambridge1980

Smart, N. The World's Religions Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge 1998

Asia and AustralasiaAdams, R.M. Heartland of Cities Chicago University

Press, Chicago 1981Allchin, B. and Allchin, F.R. The Rise of Civilization in

India and Pakistan Cambridge University Press,Cambridge 1982

Allchin, F.R. The Archaeology of Early Historic SouthAsia: The Emergence of Cities and States CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge 1995

Aubet Semmler, M.E. The Phoenicians and the WestPolitics, Colonies and Trade Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge 1993

Barnes, G.L. China, Korea and Japan Thames andHudson, London 1993

Chang, K.C. Shang Civilization Yale University Press,New Haven/London 1980

Dani, A.H. and Masson, V.M. (eds) History of Civilizationsof Central Asia Vol. 1 The Dawn of Civilization;Earliest Times to 700 BC UNESCO, Paris 1992

Ebrey, P.B. The Cambridge Illustrated History of ChinaCambridge University Press, Cambridge 1996

Fa-hsien (trans. Giles, H.A.) The Travels ofFa-HsienCambridge University Press, Cambridge 1923

Flood, J. The Archaeology ofDreamtime Collins, Sydney1989

Harmatta, J., Puri, B.N. and Etemadi, G.F. (eds) Historyof Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. 2 TheDevelopment of Sedentary and Nomadic CivilizationsUNESCO, Paris 1994

Jansen, M. and Urban, G. Mohenjo Daro Vol. 1 Brill,Leiden 1985

Kohl, PL. Central Asia. Palaeolithic Beginnings to theIron Age Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, Paris1984

Kozintsev et al. (eds) New Archaeological Discoveries inAsiatic Russia and Central Asia Russian Academy ofSciences, St Petersburg 1994

Maisels, C.K. The Emergence of Civilization Routledge,London 1993

Moorey, P. Biblical Lands Elsevier-Phaidon, London 1975Nelson, S.M. The Archaeology of Korea Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge 1993Phillips, E.D. The Royal Hordes: Nomad Peoples of the

Steppes Thames and Hudson, London 1965Possehl, G.L. (ed.) Ancient Cities of the Indus Vikas, New

Delhi 1979Possehl, G.L. (ed.) Harappan Civilization: A Recent

Perspective American Institute of Indian Studies, NewDelhi/IBH, Oxford 1993

Postgate, J.N. Early Mesopotamia Routledge, London1995

Potts, T. Mesopotamia and the East Oxford UniversityCommittee for Archaeology, Oxford 1994

Ratnagar, S. Encounters: The Westerly Trade of theHarappa Civilization Oxford University Press,Delhi/Oxford 1981

Rawson, J. Ancient China British Museum Publications,London 1980

Ray, H.P. The Winds of Change: Buddhism and theMaritime Links of Early South Asia CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge 1994

Rice, T.T. Ancient Arts of Central Asia Thames andHudson, London 1965

Stein, G. and Rothman, M.S. (eds) Chiefdoms and EarlyStates in the Near East Madison Prehistory Press,Madison 1994

Waldron, A. The Great Wall of China CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge 1990

Xinru, L. Ancient India and Ancient China OxfordUniversity Press, Oxford 1988

Zvelebil, M. "The Rise of Nomads in Central Asia", inSherratt, A. (ed.) The Cambridge Encyclopedia ofArchaeology Cambridge University Press, Cambridge1982

AfricaKi-Zerbo, J. (ed.) General History of Africa Vol. 1

UNESCO/Heinemann, Edinburgh 1981Lhote, H. The Search for the Tassili Frescoes: The Story

of the Pre-historic Rock Paintings of the SaharaHutchinson, London 1973

Phillipson, D. African Archaeology Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge 1993

Quirke, S. and Spencer, J. The British Museum Book ofAncient Egypt British Museum Press, London 1992

Shaw, T. et al. (ed.) The Archaeology of Africa: Food,Metal and Towns Routledge, London 1993

Shinnie, P. The African Iron Age Clarendon Press, Oxford1971

Tattersall, I. "Out of Africa Again ... and Again?", inScientific American Vol. 276 No. 4, pp. 46-53 April1997

Vinnicombe, P. People of the Eland University of NatalPress, Pietermaritzburg 1976

EuropeBoardman, J. The Greeks Overseas Thames and Hudson,

London 1980Boardman, J., Griffin, J. and Murray, O. (eds) The Oxford

History of the Classical Greece Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford 1986

Champion, T. et al. Prehistoric Europe Academic Press,London 1984

Collis, J. The European Iron Age Batsford, London 1984Culican, W. The Medes and Persians Thames and

Hudson, London 1965Cunliffe, B. (ed.) The Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of

Europe Oxford University Press, Oxford 1994Cunliffe, B. Rome and her Empire McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Maidenhead 1994Garnsey, P. and Sailer, R. The Roman Empire, Economy,

Society and Culture Duckworth, London 1987Harding, D. Prehistoric Europe Elsevier-Phaidon, Oxford

1978Heather, P.J. The Goths Blackwell, Oxford 1996Hood, S. The Minoans Thames and Hudson, London

1971Isager, S. and Skydsgaard, J.E. Ancient Greek Agriculture

Routledge, London/New York 1992James, S. Exploring the World of the Celts Thames and

Hudson, London 1993Lane Fox, R. The Search for Alexander Allen Lane,

London 1980Taylor, W. The Mycenaeans Thames and Hudson,

London 1983Thompson, E.A. Romans and Barbarians: The Decline of

the Western Empire Wisconsin, 1982Todd, M. The Early Germans Blackwell, Oxford 1992Walbank, F.W. The Hellenistic World Fontana, London

1992Whittle, A. Europe in the Neolithic Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge 1996

The AmericasBruhns, K.O. Ancient South America Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge 1994Burger, R.L. Chavin and the Origins of Andean

Civilization Thames and Hudson, London 1995Culbert, T.P. The Lost Civilization: The Story of the

Classic Maya Harper and Row, New York/London 1974Fagan, B. Ancient North America Thames and Hudson,

London 1995Fiedel, S.J. Prehistory of The Americas Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge 1992Freidel, D., Schele, L. and Parker, J. Maya Cosmos: Three

Thousand Years on the Shaman's Path WilliamMorrow, New York 1993

Hammond, N. Ancient Maya Civilization CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge 1982

Harrison, P. and Turner, B. Pre-Hispanic MayaAgriculture University of New Mexico, Albuquerque1978

Isbell, W.H. and McEwan, G.F. (eds) HuariAdministrative Structure: Prehistoric MonumentalArchitecture and State Government Dumbarton OaksResearch Library and Collection, Washington DC 1991

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Schele, L. and Miller, M. The Blood of Kings Thames andHudson, London 1992

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The Saljuq and Mongol Periods Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge 1968

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Holt, P.M., Lambton, A.K.S. and Lewis, B. The CambridgeHistory of Islam Vol. 1A The Central Islamic Landsfrom pre-Islamic Times to the First World WarCambridge University Press, Cambridge 1977

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Levtzion, N. Ancient Ghana and Mali Methuen, London1973

Lovejoy, P.E. "The internal trade of West Africa before1800", in Ajayi, J.F.A. and Crowder, M. (eds) History ofWest Africa Vol. 1 Longman, Harlow 1985

Mabogunje, A.L. and Richards, P. "The land and peoplesof West Africa", in Ajayi, J.F.A. and Crowder, M. (eds)History of West Africa Vol. 1 Longman, Harlow 1985

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Graham-Campbell, J. and Kidd, D. The Vikings BritishMuseum Publications, London 1980

Hallam, E.M. Capetian France 987-1328 Longman,London 1983

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James, E. The Franks Blackwell, Oxford 1988Kennedy, II. Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political

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Nelson, J.L. Charles the Bald Longman, London 1992Nicholas, D. Medieval Flanders Longman, London/New

York 1992Pryor, J.I I. Geography, Technology and War: Studies in

the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649-1571Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1988

Reilly, B.F The Medieval Spains Cambridge UniversityPress, Cambridge 1993

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Penguin, Harmondsworth 1969Shaw, S.J. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern

Turkey Vol. 1 Empire of the Gazis CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge 1976

Spufford, P. Money and its Use in Medieval EuropeCambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989

Tabacco, G. The Struggle for Power in Medieval ItalyCambridge University Press, Cambridge 1989

Thompson, E.A. The Huns Blackwell, Oxford 1996Waley, D. The Italian City Republics Longman, London

1988Wood, I.N. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751

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Smith, M.E., Umberger, E. Aztec Imperial StrategiesDumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection,Washington DC 1996

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Carrasco, P. Estructura politico-territorial del Imperiotenochca, La Triple Alianza de Tenochtitlan, Tetzcocoy Tlacopan Fondo de Cultura Economica, Mexico1996

Coe, M.D. The Maya Thames and Hudson, London 1993Collier, G.A., Rosaldo, R.I. and Wirth, J.D. The Inca and

Aztec States, 1400-1800, Anthropology and HistoryAcademic Press, NewYork/London 1982

Conrad, G.W. and Demarest, A.A. Religion and Empire:The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca ExpansionismCambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984

Fagan, B. Ancient North America Thames and Hudson,London 1995

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Isbell, W.H. and McEwan, G.F. (eds) HuariAdministrative Structure: Prehistoric MonumentalArchitecture and State Government Dumbarton OaksResearch Library and Collection, Washington DC 1991

Kolata, A. The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an AndeanCivilization Blackwell, Oxford 1993

Morris, C. and Thompson, D.E. Huanuco Pampa: AnInca City and its Hinterland Thames and Hudson,London 1985

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Clay, G.G.A Economic Expansion and Social Change:England 1500-1700 Cambridge University Press 1984

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Oxford 1987Davies, N. God's Playground: A History of Poland Vol. 1

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Dukes, P. The Making of Russian Absolutism 1613-1801Longman, London 1990

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Scalapina, R.A. and Yu, G.T. Modern China and itsRevolutionary Process: Recurrent Challenges to theTraditional Order 1850-1920 University of CaliforniaPress, Berkeley 1985

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Fulbrook, M. A Concise History of Germany CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge 1990

Furet, F. La Revolution Hachette, Paris 1988Gooch, J. The Unification of Italy Methuen, London 1986Hudson, P. The Industrial Revolution Edward Arnold,

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Matthias, P. The First Industrial Nation Methuen,London 1983

Milward, A.S. and Saul, S.B. The Economic Developmentof Continental Europe, 1780-1870 George Allen &Unwin, London 1979

Mosse, W.E. An Economic History of Russia 1856-1914I.E. Tauris, London 1996

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Pollard, S. Peaceful Conquest: the Industrializaton ofEurope, 1760-1970 Oxford University Press, Oxford1981

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The AmericasBailyn, B. The Ideological Origins of the American

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Freund, B. The Making of Contemporary AfricaLongman, London 1998

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311

5THETWENTIETHCENTURY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSMAP ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

The map of trench warfare on page 218 is based on a map in the Atlas of the First World War

by Martin Gilbert (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970), by permission of Routledge. The maps of

European urbanization on pages 132-33 are based on statistics supplied in European

Urbanization 1500-1800 by J. de Vries (Methuen, 1984), by permission of Routledge.

Among the atlases consulted by authors and editors in preparing the maps in this

atlas are the following:

Ajayi, J.F.A and Crowder, M. (eds) Historical Atlas of Africa Longman, Harlow 1985

Baines, J. and Malek, J. Atlas of Ancient Egypt Phaidon, Oxford 1980

Banks, A. A World Atlas of Military History Seeley, London 1978

Blunden, C. and Elvin, M. Cultural Atlas of China Phaidon, Oxford 1983

Coe, M., Snow, D. and Benson, E. Atlas of Ancient America Facts on File, New York 1986

Collcutt, M., Jansen, M. and Isao, K. Cultural Atlas of Japan Phaidon, Oxford 1988

Cornell, T. and Matthews, J. Atlas of the Roman World Phaidon, Oxford 1982

Darby, H.C. and Fullard, H. (eds) The New Cambridge Modern History Atlas Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge 1978

Castello-Cortes, I. (ed.) The Economist Atlas Economist Books, London 1991

Engel, J. (ed.) Grofier Historischer Weltatlas Vols 1-4 Bayerischer Schulbuch-Verlag,

Munich 1953-96

Page, J.D. An Atlas of African History Edward Arnold, London 1978

Flon, C. (ed.) The World Atlas of Archaeology Mitchell Beazley, London 1985/Portland House,

New York 1988

Gardner, J.L. (ed.) Reader's Digest Atlas of the Bible: An Illustrated Guide to the Holy Land

Reader's Digest Association, Pleasantville 1981

Gilbert, M. Atlas of the First World War Routledge, London 1970

Gilbert, M. The Dent Atlas of Russian History Dent, London 1993

Hall, D.G.E. Atlas of South-East Asia Djambatan, Amsterdam 1964

Johnson, G. Cultural Atlas of India Facts on File, New York 1996

Kinder, H. and Hilgemann, W. The Penguin Atlas of World History Vols 1-2 Penguin,

Harmonds worth 1995

Levi, P. Atlas of the Greek World Phaidon, Oxford 1970

Manley, B. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt Penguin, London 1996

Moore, R.I. (ed.) Philip's Atlas of World History Philip's, London 1994

Morkot, R. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece Penguin, London 1996

Muir, R. Muir's Historical Atlas: Ancient, Medieval and Modern Philip's, London 1963

Parker, G.I. (ed.) The Times Atlas of World History Times Books, London 1993

Pluvier, J.M. Historical Atlas of South-East Asia EJ. Brill, New York 1995

Pritchard, J. Times Atlas of the Bible Times Books, London 1996

Riley Smith, J. (ed.) The Atlas of the Crusades Times Books, London 1991

Roaf, M. Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and The Ancient Near East Facts on File,

New York 1990

Scarre, C. (ed.) Past Worlds - The Times Atlas of Archaeology Times Books, London 1995

Schwartzberg, J.E. A Historical Atlas of South Asia Oxford University Press, New York 1993

Segal, A. An Atlas of International Migration Hans Zell, London 1993

Stier, H.-E. et al. (eds) Westermann grofler Atlas zur Weltgeschichte, Westermann,

Braunschweig 1976

Thomas, A. et al. The Third World Atlas Open University Press, Buckingham 1994

Unwin, T. Atlas of World Development Wiley, Chichester 1994

PHOTOGRAPH ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

AKG London 60,179, /Erich Lessing 40; Bridgeman Art Library 30,49,143, /Artephot,

Private Collection 165, /Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris 95, /Bode-Museum, Berlin 36, /British

Museum, London 20,26,111,114, /Chester Beatty Library and Gallery of Oriental Art, Dublin

69, /Christie's Images 112, /Christie's, London 58,174, /Gavin Graham Gallery, London 156,

/Giraudon, Civico Museo Correr, Venice 131, /Guildhall Art Gallery, Corporation of London

132, /Guildhall Library, Corporation of London 160, /Heini Schneebeli 82, /Heini Schneebeli,

National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Ife, Nigeria 81, /Johnny Van Haeften

Gallery, London 129, /Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna 114, /Lauros-Giraudon, Bibliotheque

Nationale, Paris 161, /Lauros-Giraudon, Galerie Nationale, Palermo, Sicily 104, /Lauros-

Giraudon, Louvre, Paris 56, /National Museum of India, New Delhi (detail) 14, /National

Museum of Iceland, Reykjavik 78, /Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen 137, /Novosti 99, /Peter

Willi/Louvre, Paris 54, /Private Collection 135,140,162,165, 170, 177, 211,254, /Roger-

Viollet/Museo E Gallerie Nazionale Di Capodimonte, Naples 43, /Roudnice Lobkowica

Collection, Nelahozeves Castle, Czech Republic 70, /Victoria & Albert Museum, London 59,

61,73,113,163,198, /Wallace Collection, London 156; Peter Carey 197; Corbis 241,243;

E.T. Archive 15,79, 86,96,113,150, 201,204, /Amano Museum, Lima 35, /Arteaga

Collection Peru 110, /British Museum, London 31, /Canning House Library 191, /Imperial War

Museum, London 243, /Mjolnir 233, /Museo Amano, Lima 35; Robert Harding 13,15,62,

244,270, /Gavin Hellier 61, /M J. Howell 215; Michael Holford /Musee Guimet, Paris 145;

Hulton Getty Picture Collection /Hulton Getty 225, 230, /Hulton-Deutsch Collection 222;

Peter Newark's American Pictures 84,121,182,188,226, 259; Panos Pictures /Peter

Barker, 274, /Caroline Penn 279, /Paul Smith 273, /Chris Stowers 214, /Liba Taylor 276;

Popperfoto /Mike Segar/Reuters 267; Rex Features 213, 221,236,249, 257, 263,282, /Sipa-

Press, Paris 212, /Markus Zeffler 214; Werner Forman Archive 41, /Anthropology Museum,

Veracruz University, Jalapa 32, /Beijing Museum 59, /Dallas Museum of Art, USA 12.

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Atlas of World History