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ATHABASCA UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

UNIVERSITY OF LETHBRIDGE

A COMPARISON OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY WITH WESTERN CODES OF

ETHICS FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS: SUPPORTING A UNIVERSAL DECLARATION

BY

MICHAEL FEDYNIAK

A Final Project submitted to the

Campus Alberta Applied Psychology: Counselling Initiative

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF COUNSELLING

Alberta

(August, 2007)

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Abstract

Ethics in psychology entails consideration of central values for virtuous practice. Genuine

awareness of shared values and alternate world view perspectives are essential if

collaboration on an international level is to be effective. This project examines the

merging of minds through including a comparison between a Buddhist philosophical

world view with Western philosophy and the CPA code of ethics for psychologists. The

comparison may bridge understanding of the two paradigms, which in turn can guide

ethical practice. Buddhist values of compassion, benevolence, human suffering, and

discipline are worthy constructs for consideration in the arena of ethics. Cognisance of

linguistic meaning of these constructs is required. The process of self-reflexive and

multicultural competence may enhance the practice of psychology.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. J. Pettifor and Dr. A. Barber for their

support and involvement in this project. Their expertise assisted my learning and was

greatly valued. I would also like to acknowledge ongoing encouragement and support

from my good friend James McDonald.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Pagei

Supervisor Signature Page.ii

Second Reader Signature Page..iii

Abstract..iv

Acknowledgementsv

Table of Contents...vi

Introduction1

Purpose and Goals..1 Rationale.2 Theoretical Foundations..4

Western Philosophy4

Teleology5 Utilitarianism..5 Virtue ethics5 Deontology.6 Social contract theory.6 Divine deontology..6 Intuitive deontology7 Existentialism.7

The Canadian Code of Ethics.8

Ethical Principles9 Decision-Making Model11 Buddhist Philosophy..12

Core Principles...13 Dharma & Karma...13 Four Noble Truths & The Noble Eight-Fold Path .....14 Precepts...14 Virtues.15 Teleology16

Utilitarianism..16

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Virtue ethics....16 Deontology.17 Existentialism.17 Procedures..19

Methodology for Review of the Literature19

Research Collaboration..20

Research Reflexivity..20

Comparative Assessment23

Western and Buddhist Worldview Assessment..24 Positivism/ Post-Positivist Paradigm..24 Interpretive/ Constructivist Paradigm.25 Emancipatory Paradigm..27 Discussion and Comparison of Key Constructs..30 Compassion.30 Foundation of Compassion.31 Impediments to Compassion...33 Suffering.35 Postpositivist paradigm...36 Interpretive/ constructivist paradigm..37 Emancipator paradigm37 Discipline39 Meditation and mindfulness....39 Integration45

Implications.47

Conclusion...52

References53

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A COMPARISON OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY WITH WESTERN CODES OF

ETHICS FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS: SUPPORTING A UNIVERSAL DECLARATION

Introduction

Purpose and Goals

Current scholastic insight into ethics in psychology presents a calling to re-examine

virtue and moral values as its base for ethical behaviour, thinking, and being (Pettifor,

1996, p. 1). Implications of this calling are that ethical thoughts, actions, and behaviors of

psychologists are interwoven through their every professional interaction. Thus ethical

responsibility is incorporated in our personal lives rather than consisting of only rule based

ethical prescriptions for the office. The purpose of this study is to re-visit virtue and moral

values as a basis for ethical practice through a comparison of Buddhist philosophy with

Western codes of ethics for psychologists; for example, the code of ethics outlined by the

Canadian Psychological Association (CPA, 2000). The results will be relevant in considering

the feasibility of a universal declaration of ethical principles for psychologists. In accordance

with the above purpose, this research project is to promote awareness of aspirational

standards of practice that are reflective of the highest ethical ideals in their professional and

scientific work (International Union of Psychological Science Ad Hoc Joint Committee,

2005, p. 2). The Buddhist concept of compassion may be the primary link between Eastern

and Western approaches to ethical thinking.

Virtue and moral values will be considered through achievement of the following

research goals. The first goal is to compare ethical principles (Respect for the Dignity of

Persons and Responsibility to Society) in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists

(2000) with Eastern Buddhist philosophical frameworks on ethics. The second goal is to

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explore the relevance of compassion as a vehicle for aspirational ethics. The third goal is to

examine whether common humanity seems to supersede cultural differences when

considering a universal declaration of shared values. This third goal may provide insight into

consideration of the importance of cultural beliefs and ethics in the global arena (Pettifor,

2006).

This research comparison between Western CPA code of ethics and Buddhist

philosophy provides a rationale for the scholarly comparative assessment along with relevant

theoretical foundational underpinnings. Discussion also considers the methodology and

procedures used, followed by comparative analysis and synthesis of findings, and closing

comments on the implications of the results.

Rationale

Within the field of psychology we are seeing the proliferation of scientific and

applied specialisation, regional revitalisation, the expansion of psychology in developing

countries, the feminisation of psychology, and the emergence of new paradigms that

accentuate contextual realities and challenges (e.g., multiculturalism and indigenization)

(Stevens & Wedding, 2004, p. 481) on an international level. In light of these realities,

psychologists will benefit substantially from interconnectedness with other professionals

beyond their own national frames of reference. The endeavour of interconnection requires

awareness of cultural infusion and understanding (Arthur & Collins, 2006), which then opens

the door for global awareness of universal values and morality within the domain of ethics.

The current draft of the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists

(International Union of Psychological Science Ad Hoc Joint Committee, 2005) addresses

global awareness of universal values as it acknowledges that the lives and identities of

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human beings both individually and collectively are connected across generations, and that

there is a reciprocal relationship between human beings and their natural and social

environments. (p. 2).

Over half of the current world population lives in a region where Buddhist philosophy

presently is, or has been, an influential or dominant cultural force (Harvey, 2000). Thus,

when considering collaboration and offering services on a global level, in an ethically sound

and culturally infused manner, it stands to reason that awareness of what a Buddhist

philosophical outlook has to say is very relevant. It is also relevant to consider the

philosophical outlook of other major world religions.

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Theoretical Foundations

Theory promotes an understanding of concepts by establishing relationships

between or among constructs that describe or explain a phenomenon by going beyond the

local event and trying to connect it with similar events (Mertens, 1998, p. 2). Theoretical

underpinnings, then, are critical for establishing a foundation of understanding when

considering the topic of ethics in psychology. Theoretical postulates from Western

philosophy and Eastern Buddhist philosophy suggest that psychologys formulation and

practice of ethics are connected to a larger world which includes foundations in the worlds

wisdom traditions in philosophy and religion (Pettifor, 1996, p. 1).

Western Philosophy

Western ethics are examined relative to the dominant schools of thought of teleology,

deontology, and existentialism. The guiding principles, value statements, and decision

making steps outlined in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (Canadian

Psychological Association, 2000) are described in relation to the aforementioned

philosophical schools of thought.

Ethics is the study of good and bad, and of the general nature of morals in different

societies (Pettifor, 2004, p. 265). Discussion on ethics has a longstanding history and the

relationship between individuals and society has extended through the age of enlightenment

and continues to present day (Pipes, Holstein, & Aguirre, 2005). The dominant schools of

teleology, deontology, and existentialism are examined with particular attention to three of

the most central theories of ethics influencing the Western world: utilitarianism, virtue ethics,

and deontology (Keown, 2005; Pettifor, 1996). It should be noted that there are many variant

interpretations within each of these three central theoretical approaches.

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Teleology

Teleology is an ends-oriented theoretical school of thought that encompasses both

utilitarian and virtue ethics. Theoretical postulates of each are outlined.

Utilitarianism. The main tenet of utilitarianism is that the greatest pleasure and least

pain for the greatest number is the criterion for what is ethically good (Hadjistavropoulos &

Malloy, 2000, p. 104). Utilitarianism is a philosophical perspective proposed by Jeremy

Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), in which good is judged by the

expectation of good consequences (Keown, 2005). Moreover, utilitarian ideology proposes

that the ends justify the means with the salient consideration being the greatest good for the

greatest number (Pettifor, 1996). An advocate of utilitarian principles would argue the

possibility of calculating the greater good through the use of cost-benefit assessment

(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). The notion of rule-utilitarianism (p. 105) has been

considered which advocates that the greatest good should be realized through the process of

following prescribed rules.

Virtue ethics. Virtue ethics is also end-oriented and rooted in teleology

(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Virtue ethics, developed by Aristotle, advocates for the

position that the ultimate good is a life well-lived (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). The

essence of virtue ethics is not simply to follow certain kinds of rules, nor seek pleasant

consequences, but first and foremost to be or become a certain kind of [moral] person

(Keown, 2005, p. 23). Virtue, as presented by Aristotle, is its own reward (Keown, 2005, p.

25) where a virtuous person can be expected to lead a more rewarding and fulfilling life. It

has been indicated that virtue-based ethics seems to be making a comeback in both science

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and practice, largely because of dissatisfaction with rule-governed or action-centered ethical

systems (Pettifor, 1996, p. 5).

Critics of teleology argue that because it is ends oriented, it fails to consider means or

authentic intent (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 106). More specifically, the

utilitarian mindset has been criticised for violating respect for individuals who may have

been exploited or oppressed for an anticipated or expected greater outcome (Pettifor, 1996).

Deontology

Deontology underscores the importance of abiding by principles

(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Deontological systems, rooted in the philosophical

thought of Kant, place emphasis on duty and obligation and are characterized by

retrospective insight for justification. Furthermore, the unconditional regard for each

individual takes precedence over the collective group. An advocate of deontology would

maintain that human beings should never be exploited or manipulated merely as a means to

an end (Pettifor, 1996, p. 6), thus the end never justifies the means (p. 6). Deontology has

several variations: social contract theory, divine deontology, and intuitive deontology

(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000).

Social contract theory. In social contract theory members of society collectively

agree upon certain standards or principles of behaviour (Rousseau, 1762/1979)

(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 105). Ethical behavior, therefore, entails acting in

accordance to standards set forth by the society and the profession of psychology.

Divine deontology. Divine deontology emphasize principles, rules, or commandments

which are provided by divine authority in the form of religious doctrine or affiliated texts

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(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Behaving ethically in accordance to divine deontology,

for example, entails following rules set forth by God or a higher divinity.

Intuitive deontology. Intuitive deontology is a perspective towards ethics which views

right conduct as that which any rational person would condone using his or her intuitive

ability to reason ethically (e.g., Kants [1788/1977] categorical imperative or Rosss [1975]

primae facie theory) (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 105).

The deontological perspective has been criticized for focusing on the means

(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000) without consideration for the end results and,

consequentially, the collective good of society.

Existentialism

The existential school of thought maintains the belief that a free process exists for the

individual to create his/her own essence, and carve out who one genuinely is

(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Sartre (1957/1998), a 20th century French

existentialist, argued that existence precedes essence (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000,

p. 106), thus we exist as humans and then, through the process of free will, we become who

we believe we should be through free choice. An advocate of existential thought maintains

that the responsibility for behavior rests on an individuals shoulders. Furthermore, according

to this perspective all actions may influence all individuals, all of society, or all of

humanity (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 106).

Existentialism has also been subjected to criticism. Arguments against existential

postulates pertaining to ethics have maintained that the theory lacks methodology and offers

little guidance supplementing the proposed insight that an individual should be responsible

and authentic (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000).

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The theoretical perspectives of utilitarianism, virtue ethics, and deontology contribute

to the philosophical mosaic of the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists. A brief

overview of the philosophical orientations reflected in the CPA code is considered.

The Canadian Code of Ethics

A primary purpose of professional codes of ethics is to guide and regulate practice in

ways that protect the public from harm. Therefore, professional codes are very practical in

addressing issues of current concern within the profession. At the same time, the

determination of what is right and wrong behavior is influenced by philosophical and

religious values and concepts, and from historical and current events (Pettifor, 1996), all of

which have affiliation with the aforementioned theoretical perspectives. Codes of ethics are

described as living documents that continue to evolve and grow in order to guide

psychologists in their professional relationships (Pettifor, Sinclair, & Strong, 2005).

Inasmuch as the underlying values of codes of ethics reflect cultural mores and values of the

society in which they are rooted (Pettifor, Estay, & Paquet, 2002), codes evolve to

accommodate changing values in society. Today all professional codes of ethics and codes

of conduct address in one way or another the issues of respect, rights, confidentiality,

informed consent, diversity, well-being of consumers, competency, professional boundaries,

conflict of interest, honesty, and, sometimes, responsibility to society (Pettifor et al., 2002,

p. 260).

Ethical principles of the CPA code are outlined, followed by affiliated value

statements that fall within the context of the utilitarian, deontological, and virtue-based

philosophical approaches. The decision making component of the CPA code, and its

philosophical orientation, is also discussed.

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Ethical Principles

Jordan and Meara (1990) propose that a focus on relevant ethical principles in

relation to ethical dilemmas provides psychologists with required tools to conceptualize the

challenging demands of our pluralistic society. They denote principle ethics to be

approaches that emphasize the use of rational, objective, universal, and impartial principles

in the ethical analysis of dilemmas (p. 107). Principle ethics delineated in the CPA code are

as follows: (a) Principle 1, Respect for the Dignity of Persons, (b) Principle II, Responsible

Caring, (c) Principle III, Integrity in Relationships, and (d) Principle IV, Responsibility to

Society (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). A central structure to the CPA code is having the

standard and value statements specifically linked to affiliated principles.

It is my observation that the aforementioned principles are grounded in philosophical

theory despite the differing viewpoints that exist within philosophical classifications of

principles. Principle I, Respect for the Dignity of Persons, has been described as

fundamentally Kantian (i.e., deontological (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 110), as

it emphasizes rights of the individual which are not compromised as a means for the benefit

of the larger group. Value statements under this principle outline general respect, general

rights, non-discrimination, fair treatment, informed consent, freedom of consent, protection

of vulnerable persons, privacy, and confidentially (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001), all of which

honour the concept of individual autonomy. Principle II, Responsible Caring, may be viewed

through a teleological lens, as the values under this principle (general caring, competency

and self-knowledge, risk/benefit analysis, maximum benefit, offset & correcting harm, care

of animals, and extended responsibility) (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001) emphasize consequences

or outcomes (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). For example, one measure of the level of

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professional competency and self-knowledge of a psychologist may be correlated to client

outcome; being a self-aware person and a reflective thinker are characteristics affiliated with

master therapists when compared to novice therapists (Jennings & Skovholt, 1999). Principle

III, Integrity in Relationships, emphasizes the value statements: accuracy of practice,

honesty, openness, lack of bias, straightforwardness, avoidance of incomplete disclosure,

avoidance of conflicts of interest, reliance on the discipline, and extended responsibility

(Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). Thus existentialist philosophical roots are salient with an

overarching emphasis of authenticity (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Principle IV,

Responsibility to Society, places an underlying focus on respecting rules and affiliated values

of society, and therefore has deontological roots (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Value

statements, such as development of knowledge, beneficial activities, respect for society,

development of society, and extended responsibility to society (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001)

underscore adherence to respecting societal laws and rules, and advocate for change

regarding harmful elements of society. Value statements that provide guidance to change

aspects of society that violate ethical principles are aspirational in nature.

The principles Respect for the Dignity of Persons, Responsible Caring, Integrity in

Relationships, and Responsibility to Society have been designated as aspirational in focus

with a holistic virtue-based orientation ensuing (Pettifor, 1996; Pettifor et al., 2005). The

CPA code clearly links principles with value statements in an aspirational fashion (Pettifor,

1996), which together contribute to the highest standards of ethical thinking, behaving, and

some would say being (p. 2). Virtue ethics place a primary focus on an individuals

character as opposed to a particular solution to an ethical dilemma (Fuentes, Yarrow, &

Willmuth, 2005). Furthermore, the unique components of virtue ethics are the identification

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of the motivation, emotion, character, ideals, and moral habits of a person who functions in

the traditions and practices of a culture, group, or community (p. 364). The principle

Respect for the Dignity of Persons, for example, indicates a virtue-based, aspirational focus

through identifying that all persons possess moral rights with the addition of a caveat that the

manner in which such rights are honored and exercised vary across cultures and

communities.

Decision-Making Model

The decision-making model has roots in utilitarian philosophy by considering the

consequences of alternative courses of action resulting from the decision-making steps.

Assessing the consequences requires a comparison of the proposed actions to the four

aspirational ethical principles. The decision-making model promotes the sharing of ideas and

a deeper understanding of human relations. A moral dilemma approach is supported which

encourages collaborative relating between concerned parties (Pettifor et al., 2005). The steps

are virtue-based as they depend on good character rather than rule based prescriptions for

good behaviour. Adherence to the principle of responsibility to society reveals a focused

awareness on the collective good of the community.

The CPA code, with its balance between respect and caring for others, and care and

concern for society, has roots in deontology, teleology, virtue, and existential philosophy.

In summary, ethical principles provide a philosophical foundation to support ethical

decision making and action, and the development of codes of ethics, and codes of conduct

(Jordan & Meara, 1990). It should be noted that codes of conduct in and of themselves

represent enforcement of minimal standards of behavior deemed ethically acceptable

(Pettifor, 1996). Virtues and values, on the other hand, reflect the internal composition of

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character (Jordan & Meara, 1990, p. 109) and thus the highest aspirational focus when

considered in accordance to ethical principles. May (1984), as cited in Jordan & Meara

(1990), maintained that virtues are not mere correlates of affiliated principles, rather, they

represent ideals for the professional that go beyond the boundaries of rules or principles (p.

110).

The CPA code, designed to minimize harm and maintain an aspirational agenda, is

influenced by the values of the culture in which it was created. Western influence on the

values of individual responsibility, achievement and decision making may conflict with

cultural values of family, community, interdependence, and collective identity (Pettifor,

2001, p. 29). Thus consideration of additional ethical philosophical influence (Eastern

Buddhism) is worthy of elaboration. Over half of the current world population lives in a

region where Buddhist philosophy presently is, or has been, an influential or dominant

cultural force (Harvey, 2000).

Buddhist philosophy

In Buddhism right [or appropriate] view (Harvey, 2000, p. 11) is considered to be

the foundation of moral development. The major traditional schools of thought in Buddhist

philosophy are the pre- Mahāyāna and Mahāyāna disciplines (Tachibana, 1992).

Comprehensive study of Buddhist ethics has been rather complex due to the breadth and

range of subject matter (Heim, 2007). Furthermore, many of the 200 Mahāyāna texts have

not been translated and freedom from government restrictions in East Asian regions has

occurred only recently (Chappell, 1996). Mahāyāna philosophy is most closely related to the

central focus in this project as Mahāyāna places special emphasis on serving others (Keown,

2005). Yet the theoretical underpinnings presented are reflective of Buddhist philosophy as a

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whole. A brief overview of the moral core of Buddhist thought is provided followed by

theoretical and philosophical foundations.

The moral core of Buddhism entails principles, precepts, and virtues elucidated by

Shakyamuni (Buddha) (Keown, 2005). Core principles of Dharma, including the four noble

truths and the eight-fold path, and karma are discussed, along with the five precepts and

central virtues. Consideration of the philosophical classification of Buddhist ethics and

affiliated worldviews, using Western terminology, are also provided. Theoretical analysis of

Buddhist thought will close with consideration of the construct of compassion which is a

pivotal value in Mahāyāna philosophy (Chappell, 1996).

Core Principles

Dharma & Karma. Dharma includes the tenet of a universal law which governs both

the physical and moral order of the universe (Keown, 2005, p. 3). Dharma entails the

principle of order and regularity prevalent in natural phenomena; the idea of a universal

moral law with affiliated requirements being revealed by enlightened individuals is an

adjunct postulate (Keown, 2005). Dharma is manifested in the law of karma (p. 4), which

governs the process whereby moral deeds influence individuals in their present and future

existence. Simply stated, karma means a particular kind of moral action, that is indicative of

good and bad things that happen to an individual consequential actions (Keown, 2005).

Good and bad are essentially seen to be a matter of intention and based on an individuals

choices. It is important to emphasize that karma does not claim that everything that happens

to a person is determined solely by karma (Keown, 2005). For example, some events such as

winning a game or catching the flu may happen merely as random events. Moreover,

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individuals are always free to resist previous conditioning and establishing new patterns of

behaviour (p. 7).

Four Noble Truths & The Noble Eight-fold Path. The four noble truths foundational

to Buddhism are: (a) all existence is suffering, (b) suffering is caused by craving, (c)

suffering can have an end, and (d) the means to the end of suffering is through following the

Noble Eight-fold Path (Keown, 2005). The fourth noble truth, the Noble Eight-fold Path,

outlines the means in which one can obtain an enlightened state, thus seeing truth as to how

things are in reality. The Eight-fold Path is as follows: (a) right view, (b) right resolve, (c)

right speech, (d), right action, (e), right livelihood, (f), right effort, (g) right mindfulness, and

(h) right meditation (Keown, 2005; Saddhatissa, 1970). Right view and resolve entail an

insight oriented division, whereas right speech, action, and livelihood are indicative of the

morality division; right effort, mindfulness, and meditation are encompassed in the

meditation division. Right path denotes a path of practical wisdom [and] is described by

the Buddha as producing vision (cakkhukaraņi) and understanding (ñāņakaraņi), conducive

to the attainment or higher knowledge (abhiññā), enlightenment (sambodhi), and peace or

tranquility (nibbāna) (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991, p. 134).

In summary, individuals have free will to engage in the aforementioned principles

and path where they essentially create themselves through moral choices (Keown, 2005).

Moral choices become illuminated through an emphasis on the five precepts.

Precepts

Ethical requirements outlined in Buddhism are in the form of five precepts or general

duties: (a) refraining from harming living creatures, (b) refraining from taking what has not

been given, (c) refraining from over indulging in sensuality and from sexual immorality, (d)

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refraining from speaking falsely, and (e) refraining from taking intoxicants (Keown, 2005;

Saddhatissa, 1970).

Moral discipline consists of observance of the moral precepts (moral guidelines laid

down by the Buddha) and cultivation of virtuous acts, which entails the accumulation of the

good qualities necessary to attain nirvana, which is the transcending of unpleasant realms

(Harvey, 2000).

Virtues

The breadth of virtues in Buddhism can be derived from three fundamental virtues:

non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding (Keown, 2005). These are the polar

opposites to the evil roots of greed, hatred, and delusion. Non-attachment consists of the

absence of selfishness and egoistic desire and designating privileged status to ones own

needs. Benevolence entails an emphasis of goodwill to all others. Understanding, in

accordance to Buddhist thought, requires knowledge of the Four Noble Truths.

In addition to the three foundational virtues is the central virtue of compassion, which

the Dalai Lama maintains is the most important moral quality (McCarthy, 2001). Although

compassion is important in all Buddhist schools, substantial emphasis has been placed on this

virtue in the Mahāyāna discipline (Keown, 2005), where a bodhisattva, one who has entered

on the path of enlightenment and, motivated by compassion, has vowed to help other sentient

beings realize enlightenment prior to becoming a [B]uddha (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko,

1991, p. 409). Moreover, through compassion a bodhisattva commits to relinquishing

suffering in all. A more in-depth discussion on compassion is included following

philosophical classifications of Buddhist ethics.

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To date there is no agreed upon methodology for Eastern and Western philosophical

comparisons in relation to ethics, yet attempts have been made to gain theoretical

understanding (Keown, 1996, 2005; Prebish, 2001). Discussion of Buddhism being related to

teleological, deontological, or existentialist philosophies is provided.

Teleology

Within the realm of teleological classification, utilitarian and virtue-based assessment

is warranted. Examination of how Buddhist ethical postulates fit in accordance to each is

provided.

Utilitarianism. Buddhist ethics maintains close resemblance to utilitarianism since, in

accordance with ends focused assessment, the doctrine of karma in Buddhism teaches that

there is a close relationship between good deeds and future happiness (Keown, 2005, p. 26).

Thus, consideration of good consequences is emphasized, and Buddhism has often been

associated with Western consequentialism on the following grounds:

(1) Buddhism defines the good hedonically in terms of worldly well-being; (2) the

Buddhist agent acts in such a way as to ensure her or his own well-being in future

lives (action is motivated by the desire for personal happiness); and (3) the Buddhist

criterion of right action is conduciveness to increased happiness (Keown, 1996, p.

330).

Virtue ethics. Buddhist ethics appears to have substantial resemblance to virtue-based

ethics (Keown, 1996, 2005; McCarthy, 2001; Veleq de Cea, 2004). Essentially, Buddhism is

first and foremost a path of self-transformation that seeks the elimination of negative states

(vices) and their replacement by positive or wholesome ones (virtues) (Keown, 2005, p. 25).

Thus a salient emphasis is placed on being a moral person. Veleq de Cea, (2004) postulates a

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system of Buddhist ethics consisting of instrumental actions (leading to conditions favorable

for nirvanic virtues) in accordance with teleological actions (where actual nirvanic virtues are

displayed) thus the goal of cessation of suffering is maintained. Also in accordance to virtue-

based ethics is altruistic conduct which consists of directing moral action for the benefit of

others (Harvey, 2000).

Deontology

Deontology places a substantial emphasis on rule following (Hadjistavropoulos &

Malloy, 2000). Buddhism has elements which are deontological in nature through placing

emphasis on rules and precepts that approach the status of moral absolutes (Keown, 2005,

p. 26). Precepts are voluntarily assumed. However, the deontological obligation to live a

moral life is emphasized for all in Buddhism.

Existentialism

Buddhism appears to have existential attributes within its philosophical repertoire.

Buddhism underscores the nature of free will (Keown, 2005) which is indicative of

existentialist thought. Furthermore, according to existentialism all actions may influence all

individuals, all of society, or all of humanity (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 106). In

relation to this central tenet there seems to be points of convergence and divergence.

Mahāyāna appears to relate to the phenomenological criteria of interconnectedness. Through

the boddisattva ideal there seems to be convergence with existential thought since emphasis

is placed on saving all beings (Chappell, 2001) and not seeking enlightened existence for

themselves alone (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991). Moreover, it is postulated that all

phenomena share the attribute of emptiness (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991, p. 362)

revealing the union of everything. On ontological grounds, the nondualistic nature of

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Mahāyāna postulates that mind is actually one with the entire universe (Wei-hsun Fu &

Wawrytko, 1991); a belief which is described to be possible if the core of my own ego-

consciousness is not self-existing but hollow, because groundless: If consciousness is not

inside, there is no outside (p. 304). Epstein (1999) outlines that Buddhism teaches that we

are not so much isolated individuals as we are overlapping environments (p. 135). A point

of divergence, however, should also be considered, as in Buddhism there is still the

teleological dimension where focus is placed on personal actualization and self-realization

(Keown, 1996). Thus Buddhism contains elements indicative of egotism and altruism

(Keown, 2005).

The philosophical schools of thought of teleology, deontology, and existentialism

have been discussed in relation to ethical theory prevalent in Western and Buddhist ethics. In

addition, philosophical and theoretical assessment of the CPA code was presented, all of

which provides a common ground for comparison between Western and Buddhist modes of

ethical meaning making which, after further analysis, may result in insight that can be

extended from the meta-theoretical level to the domain of practical application. Prior to the

comparative analysis a discussion of procedures is presented.

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Procedures

A research strategy requires identification of preliminary sources, identification of

primary search journals, and accessing personal networks (Mertens, 1998). Furthermore,

ethical research entails consideration of research paradigms, researcher bias, and potential

stakeholders, in conjunction with a full account of methodology. Methodology is discussed

which describes the literature review process. To follow will be an account of researcher

reflexivity, which, in accordance to emancipatory research frameworks, addresses personal

bias and world view.

Attempts to contribute to primary research in any topic of interest usually involves

the initial undertaking of conducting a literature review (Mertens, 1998). The objective of a

review of the literature is to explain what is understood about a topic and to support the

rationale of the research (Mertens, 1998). This project includes a review of the central

theoretical and philosophical foundational themes of Buddhism, Mahāyāna school in

particular, along with Western philosophy and the CPA code of ethics for psychologists. The

theoretical review entails consideration of different world views and provides a foundation

for the comparison and thus the foundation for merging of paradigms.

Methodology for Review of the Literature

Preliminary sources that were targeted consisted of various databases accessed

through the University of Calgary library and the University of Alberta NEOS consortium

catalogue. Electronic databases accessed were PsychINFO, Psychological and Behavioral

Sciences, Academic Search Premier, and JSTOR Journals. Google Scholar was accessed for

review of the Journal of Buddhist Ethics for relevant articles to the topic of interest. Key

words and phrases searched for were: Buddhist ethics, Western ethics, code of ethics, ethics

20

in psychology, Mahāyāna Buddhism, compassion, and Canadian code of ethics. The

Ancestry approach (Mertens, 1998, p. 41) was incorporated throughout the literature search

process. The ancestry approach entails examination of reference lists found at the end of

applicable books or journal articles. Diverse articles were chosen including primary research,

literature reviews, and research from the three dominant research paradigms: positivism/

postpositivism, interpretive/ constructivism, and emancipatory world views. Journals

included range from an empirical/ science orientation to a philosophical/ religion orientation

with the intent of a balance with world view inclusion. Articles were excluded from this

project if the emphasis was solely on medical ethics and unrelated to the practice of

psychology or psychotherapy. The only exception to this was the inclusion of a journal on

nursing research (Advances in Nursing Science), which was highly relevant during discussion

on ethics in a multicultural context. An attempt was made to consider Buddhist literature

relating to the Mahāyāna discipline exclusively. However, many constructs presented are

relevant to Buddhism as a whole. Thus sources were included which provide a synopsis of

literature from various schools of thought in Buddhist studies which bore relevance.

Research Collaboration

Peer networking was conducted and consisted of direct collaboration with the project

supervisor, a specialist in ethics in psychology, and email correspondence with an academic

professor specialising in Buddhist philosophy from the University of Calgary. Peer

networking assisted in ensuring a balance of perspectives were represented and maintained.

Research Reflexivity

Informal self-assessment of researcher bias, worldview, and personal and

professional investments into the project require consideration. Research self-assessment is

21

essential as [a] researchers theoretical orientation has implications for every decision made

in the research process, including the choice of method (Mertens, 1998, p. 3).

Throughout graduate training I noticed a shift in thinking as academic exposure

changed from the science of psychology during initial undergraduate training towards

philosophical considerations in psychology in my graduate years. This shift provided impetus

to re-examine my own values, sense of culture, and world view. A strong awareness of

suffering in the world, causes of suffering within my own sphere of experience, and Euro-

centric upbringing, have resulted in a strong desire to learn more about integration and

unified interconnectedness with others. Interest in universal values stems out of profound

awareness of the desire and inclination towards the state of happiness in everyone.

A change in thinking was not exclusive to the domain of academic pursuits and also

entailed openness in the spiritual domain. My interest and understanding about the human

experience has gravitated towards a Buddhist perspective from early childhood exposure to

Western Catholicism. Martial arts has played a valuable role in my life and resulted in

experience with a discipline which emphasizes connection between mind, body, and spirit.

Interest in Buddhism resulted in a retreat to a Monastery during undergraduate years and

provided exposure to meditation first hand. Meditation has been an ongoing personal practice

ever since.

Professional endeavours can not be considered exclusive from world view

orientation. I gravitate towards an emancipatory world view in my professional life and

actively take on an advocacy role for clients. I find it challenging to observe power

hierarchies and, often affiliated, an overarching normative dominance that ensues. Moreover,

I have found that economic gain, maintenance of power, and an overemphasis on

22

individualistic orientation has resulted in an atmosphere not supportive of practitioners and

clients. Client care and an other orientation is the essence of the human care industry. I am

fortunate to be affiliated with a university offering graduate education where self-reflexivity

is not only accepted but encouraged throughout the learning process.

In light of the proposed research methodology a procedural foundation exists for the

central comparison for this project. Comparative analysis is now provided.

23

Comparative Assessment

Comparison between Western and Buddhist philosophy as it relates to ethics will be

oriented in a top-down manner, whereby worldview influences that guide ontological and

epistemological processes of inquiry are considered first. A detailed consideration of

precipitating, salient constructs essential to both Western and Buddhist ethical systems will

follow. Results of the comparative assessment will address the three research goals: 1) To

compare ethical principles (Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Responsibility to Society)

in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (2000) with Eastern Buddhist philosophical

frameworks on ethics, 2) to explore the relevance of compassion as a vehicle for aspirational

ethics, and 3) to examine whether common humanity seems to supersede cultural differences

when considering universal declaration of shared values.

A worldview is essentially a set of assumptions about how human beings and the

world in which we live function (Arthur & Collins, 2006, p. 65). An accumulation of

objective and subjective interpretations generated from experiential, perceptual awareness of

the world are derived in a worldview which then offers guidance for further interpretation

and categorization of experience. Worldviews are not exclusive to assumptions and biases

and are often presumed as truths and are rarely the focus of personal or collective

evaluation (p. 65). The positivism/ post-positivism, interpretive/ constructivist, and

emancipatory worldviews are discussed from the Western and Buddhist perspectives in

relation to ethics, followed by discussion of key constructs which are used for further

comparison.

Philosophical paradigms or worldviews present ways of viewing the world that

facilitate thinking and action (Mertens, 1998). The positivist/postpositivist,

24

interpretive/constructivist, and emancipatory paradigms are explored in relation to Buddhist

philosophy and the CPA code.

Western and Buddhist Worldview Assessment

Positivism/ Post-positivist Paradigm

Philosophical assumptions underlying the positivism/ post-positivism paradigm are

that the social world can be studied in the same way as the natural world, that there is a

method for studying the social world that is value-free, and that explanations of a causal

nature can be provided (Mertens, 1998, p. 7). Ontological formulations of the world and

human nature according to post-positivism are in accordance to one prevalent reality

(Mertens, 1998).

In Western academia empiricism and scientific inquiry represents a dominant

influential epistemological force. Kendler (1993) postulates that psychology and ethics are

socially created concepts incapable of being equated to a limited set of circumscribed

observational events (p. 1046). Kendler (1999) also proposes that empirical evidence

can validate factual truth but not moral truth (p. 829), thus indicating that empirical findings

are unreliable for deriving and guiding human values. Blickle (2004) maintains the

perspective that there is a value base in psychology including concepts such as rationality,

empirical support for assertions, impartiality, openness to revisions, and the

acknowledgement of limits to ones own competence (p. 274). An empirical, post-positive

vantage-point with roots in traditional Western-European views has contributed substantially

to the practice of psychology (Arthur & Collins, 2006). Catano (1994) proposes that the

[Canadian] Code of Ethics must become part of the shared background of scientific activity

25

(Forging a Single System, ¶ 1). Prior to examination of alternate worldviews consideration of

the post-positivist mindset in Buddhist philosophy requires consideration.

In review, post-positivism places emphasis on empirical methods of inquiry into

phenomena in addition to the belief in one objective reality (Mertens, 1998). The closest

Buddhism appears to come to this paradigm is the attention placed on moral teachings which

constitute the subject matter or raw data of ethics (Keown, 2005, p. 27). Inquiry under this

paradigm is further complicated due to the fact that [c]ontemporary Buddhist groups rarely

publish position papers and the great thinkers of the past left no legacy in the form of

treatises on ethics (p. 27). The verbal instruction and passing on of teachings and

experiences appears to be more salient contributors of ethical evaluation than reliance on

empirical external data in Buddhist thought.

Interpretive/ Constructivist Paradigm

The central tenet of the interpretive/ constructivist worldview is that reality is

socially constructed (Mertens, 1998, p. 11) and values are not mutually exclusive to

research and derived knowledge. A further assumption to constructivist thought is that

humans construct knowledge as opposed to finding and discovering it (Mertens, 1998).

Therapeutic practice of psychology has been described as a linguistic process where

therapeutic problems are not solely defined as problems in an objective reality, but may be

defined as problems via members of the involved system (Fong & Lease, 1994). The creative

power of dialogue in contributing to the CPA code of ethics has been outlined by Pettifor et

al. (2005), where open consultation, reflection, and collaboration of ideas have been pivotal

processes. The proposed purposes of the CPA code of ethics, to establish the identity and

credibility of the profession of psychology, to act as a support and guide to individual

26

professionals, and to help meet the responsibilities of being a profession (Pettifor, et al.,

2005), may be described as having roots in constructivist insight, where collaboration, self-

reflection, and dialogue are central reflexive processes in constructing moral agents in the

profession. In line with the constructivist belief in multiple realities is the potential for

differential interpretation of guiding ethical principles. It has been presented that

psychologists need more than a code of ethics for guidance despite its relevance (Pettifor,

2001; Rave & Larsen, 1995).

Buddhism appears to be interpretive/ constructivist in nature as there is the belief that

there is a nonsubstantive essence of reality, otherwise known as absolute nothingness, which

goes beyond the factual level (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991).

In constructivist thought knowledge is considered to be a construct, or construction, created

by the mind (Fox, 2001). In line with constructivism and in accordance with Buddhist

viewpoints, meditation has been theoretically and philosophically conceptualized to

complement constructions of our reality (Delmonte, 1987). Byrom (1976), as cited in Corsini

& Wedding (2000), maintained that teaching by the Buddha began with outlining:

We are what we think

All that we are arises with our thoughts

With our thoughts we make the world

It is good to control them,

And to master them brings happiness. (p. 413)

Hallisey & Hansen (1996) propose that moral life is enabled by narrative and that

Theravādin commentators have recognized substantial nature of Buddhist narratives with

affiliated work-like elements. [T]hrough narrative we are able to imagine ourselves in the

27

place of another (p. 314). Thus through passage of story in conjunction with affiliated

principles (more structured elements) of Dharma teachings, Buddhism reveals methodology

for constructing a moral being in accordance to the interpretive/ constructivist paradigm.

Interpretation of ethical codes, defining ethical principles, and ethical decision

making may be related to ones position in culture, in particular, ones position in relation to

power (Rave & Larsen, 1995). Differential power and social construction has been

considered by the emancipatory paradigm.

Emancipatory Paradigm

The emancipatory paradigm directly address[es] the politics in [psychological]

research by confronting social oppression at whatever levels it occurs (Mertens, 1998, p.

15). There has been disagreement on whether Western psychologists have a responsibility

towards the promotion of social justice and contributing to societal change (Pettifor, 2004).

Stevens & Wedding (2004) indicate that international psychology maintains a commitment to

social justice based on its definition. Toporek, Gerstein, Foaad, Roysircar, & Israel (2006)

propose that social justice is a central identifying feature of counselling psychology.

Feminist theory has largely contributed to emancipatory thought (Mertens, 1998). The

Feminist Therapy Code of Ethics (1999) maintains that the personal is political (¶ 2).

Moreover, the code outlines the following central tenets:

A belief in the equal worth of all human beings, a recognition that each individuals

personal experiences and situations are reflective of and an influence on societys

institionalized attitudes and values, and a commitment to political and social change

that equalizes power among people. (¶ 2)

28

Feminist ethics entail consideration that personal identity and values are inextricably

connected with professional values and ethics (Pipes et al., 2005). In accordance with

emancipatory ontology multiple realities are influenced by social, political, cultural,

economic, ethnic, gender, and disability values (Mertens, 1998). The CPA code of ethics

outlines that social structures and policies that have beneficial purposes are defined as

those that more readily support and reflect respect for the dignity of persons, responsible

caring, integrity in relationships, and responsibility to society (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001, p.

87). An emancipatory focus is indicated in the CPA code of ethics through acknowledging

the larger social system when considering ethical care and concern towards individuals and

society at large.

The emancipatory paradigm governing modes of phenomenological inquiry maintains

the ontological stance that multiple realities are shaped by cultural and social processes, and

advocates for a social action agenda in accordance with culturally infused ethical awareness

(Arthur & Collins, 2006; Mertens, 1998).

Evolving from traditional Buddhist ethics is the emergence of a movement known as

engaged Buddhism (Keown, 2005; Queen, 2000). Engaged Buddhism, founded by Thich

Nhat Hanh, focuses on larger questions of public policy such as social justice, poverty,

politics, and the environment (Keown, 2005, p. 32). Engaged Buddhism emphasizes

awareness in daily life, social service, and social activism as central ideas for consideration,

and is a philosophical construct which applies to human rights issues.

Queen (2000), a modern philosopher on engaged Buddhism proposed four styles of

Buddhist ethics: (a) The ethics of discipline, (b) the ethics of virtue, (c) the ethics of altruism,

and (d) the ethics of engagement. The ethics of discipline reveal that conduct caused by

29

mental impurities (greed, hatred, and delusion) may be combatted by observing the precepts

or moral guidelines (Keown, 2005). The ethics of virtue entail relationship coming to the

forefront and constructs, such as compassion, kindness, sympathetic joy, and equanimity,

being salient themes. The ethics of altruism entail service to others as the predominant

consideration. Ethics of engagement entail consideration of the aforementioned three ethical

prescriptions directed towards concern for a better society. Thus it is clear that the engaged

Buddhism movement has an active role in social advocacy with an affiliated role in guiding

ethical commentary on the moral social process.

Assessment of paradigms reveals that in Western psychology and ethics philosophy a

balance seems to exist across all three paradigms, positivism/ postpositivism, interpretive

constructivism, and emancipatory, in relation to ethics, as each paradigm holds value in

traditional and present zeitgeists. This is apparent when considering the prevalent value of

quantitative methods of inquiry represented in the medical model at one end of the spectrum,

with value towards social justice and equality displayed at the other end representing the

sociopolitical model. Catano (1994) advocates for a balanced approach when considering

facts and theory, and norms, values, and principles maintaining that The Code of Ethics

should be seen as the mechanism which serves to bridge the realms of scientific and practical

discourse in psychology (Moral Phenomena, ¶ 1) when deriving new knowledge. In framing

Buddhist views in the Western paradigms presented there appears to be a stronger correlation

between Buddhist ethical philosophy with interpretive/ constructivist and emancipatory

worldviews, yet influence from all three paradigms exist. The practice of meditation to

cultivate right thought, action, speech, livelihood, view, resolve, effort, and mindfulness

entails focus on mental events; a process which can be considered both objective and

30

subjective in nature. Moreover, narrative practice and social activism are emphasized in

ethical teaching and practice.

The review has entailed examination of Buddhist ethics philosophy and the CPA code

of ethics across the spectrum of Western philosophical and worldview classification. A

review of the literature on Buddhist ethics reveals constructs worthy of further elaboration

which may be comparable with elements of the CPA code of ethics. Key constructs are now

considered.

Discussion and Comparison of Key Constructs

Central to Buddhist philosophy and practice are the constructs of compassion and

discipline of mind, both of which are central to and essential for the cessation of suffering in

self and others. The constructs of compassion, discipline of mind, and suffering are pivotal to

the Buddhist ethical practice of virtuous being and appear to have Western correlates as

implicit or explicit themes in the CPA code of ethics.

Compassion

In Buddhism compassion is indicative of active sympathy, [and] gentle affection

(Eynde, 2004, ¶ 3). Glaser (2005) postulates that compassion is the basis of connection,

intimacy, openness, kindness, hospitality, and joy. It is an expression of human freedom,

flowing from a sound intuition of the unity of life and all living things (p. 11). In Mahāyāna

Buddhism the bodhisattva reflects the quintessence of compassion where attentiveness to the

needs of others is strongly emphasized (Keown, 2005). Glaser (2005) maintains that the

seeds of compassion are found in empathy, or the ability to enter into and know, at least in

part, the suffering of another (p. 42). The foundations of compassion and impediments to

compassion are discussed.

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Foundation of Compassion

An important precursor to compassion in Buddhist philosophy is awareness of the

concept of interdependent arising which postulates that all psychological and physical

phenomena constituting individual existence are interdependent and mutually condition each

other or that they stand in a relationship that can be in terms of simultaneity as well as

succession in time (Eynde, 2004, ¶ 3). The tenet of interdependent arising calls into question

the central focus of self in Western psychology since, in Buddhism, all existence is believed

to be interdependent with conditioned creation of experiences that go against an exclusive

permanent self structure. Glaser (2005) postulates that compassion frees us from the pain of

our misguided egocentric strivings (p. 69). The implication of interdependent arising is that

all others need to fall within the realm of our care and concern. Mahāyāna, also referred to as

Great Vehicle, placing a strong emphasis on others maintains that we can never be

completely free as long as others to whom we are inextricably linked suffer (Glaser, 2005,

p. 15). Hershock (2000) maintains the following regarding a Buddhist view of an

interdependent world:

It is a world for which we are intimately responsible, which already expresses

or evidences our patterns of valuation, and to which we may always and

creatively contribute. In such a world, it is not possible in any nontrivial sense

to see ourselves as autonomously existing individuals. We are, and have

always been, given-together. And thus, our most basic right is not to be let

alone but rather to see the exact nature of our always shared responsibility

and to realize the greatest virtuosity possible in responding to our situation as

needed. (p. 11)

32

Thus reflection on the construct of interdependent arising awakens a mindset that shifts away

from a mutually exclusive existence where neglect or habituation to the conditions of others

can occur and adopts a view of reality of interconnected being. Genuine compassion entails

engaging in wise action for the benefit of others, which is exclusive to the promotion of self-

interest. Thus the concept of no-self is central to the Buddhist mindset of altruistic

compassion which, when achieved or realized, contributes to the framework for ethical

action.

The construct of compassion has not been a principle focus in psychological work in

the West (Glaser, 2005; Ladner, 2004), which may be due to the fact that it falls outside the

realm of the empirical mode of inquiry. Western emphasis on research methodology has

stood the test of time and, consequentially, presents one of the more dominant modes of

understanding, which may result in this epistemological force holding the most credible truth.

It is important to note that the belief in scientific empiricism and empirically supported

interventions has the potential to exclude the use of culturally appropriate humanistic and

spiritual healing experiences (Pettifor, 2001, p. 30). Ladner (2004) postulates that it is not

the behavior but the state of mind motivating the behavior that determines the presence or

absence of compassion (p. 13). Thus compassion is the precursor to ethical behavior, which

is outside the realm of quantification or measurability, and appears to be more reflective of

authentic matters of the heart.

The need for protection from harm underscores the necessity for and focus on

individual human rights, which in essence, entails matters of the heart through care and

concern for the well being of others. The CPA code of ethics is attentive to individual

autonomy through Respect for the Dignity of Persons and affiliated values of non-

33

discrimination, fair treatment and due process, freedom of consent, protection for vulnerable

persons, privacy, and confidentiality (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). Honouring individual

autonomy and equality of human rights is of pivotal importance to ethical practice and

underscores the care and concern which bares resemblance to the construct of compassion.

The CPA code includes the cultivation of community through adherence and attentiveness to

the needs of society. The principle Responsibility to Society emphasizes importance of

working in partnership with others being open to external influence, in addition to self-

reflexivity, to promote the welfare of all (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). Thus an explicit element

of interdependence is observed.

On epistemological grounds there appears to be a salient point of convergence

between the Buddhist view of compassion and the CPA codes adherence to responsible

caring and respect towards society. Assessment of compassion in Buddhism and the CPA

code of ethics reveals the common theme of the virtue benevolence. Benevolence, as defined

in The Oxford Dictionary, Pollard (1994), means wishing to do good to others (p. 72).

Keown (2005) describes benevolence to mean an attitude of goodwill to all living creatures

(p. 13). Nussbaum, as cited in Eynde (2004), maintains that compassion and benevolent

action are connected. The overarching intention to assist others is a salient component of

compassion and is valued considerably by both Eastern and Western philosophy, and

throughout the practice of ethics.

A discussion on compassion would be incomplete without mention of impediments to

this construct. Impediments according to Eastern and Western thought are considered.

Impediments to Compassion

34

In Buddhism, impediments to compassion are the emotional states of desire, hatred,

aggression, and ignorance which all promote the experience of suffering (Eynde, 2004).

Diminishing the impediment states is of the utmost importance which becomes apparent

when reflecting on our interdependent or conditioned arising since our mutual

dependency indicates that whatever can be done to reduce suffering in the world should be

done (Compassion and Politics, ¶ 6). Moreover, Emotional intelligence, coupled with

wisdom and sound reasoning, are essential for compassion (Glaser, 2005; Ladner, 2004).

Thus in Buddhist thought, the heart is not an adjunct to thinking. It is a direct presence that

allows a complete attunement with reality (Glaser, 2005, p. 17). Neglecting emotional

reasoning with cognitive analysis in ethical problem solving hinders the cultivation of

compassionate responding.

In Western philosophy individuation and an emphasis on autonomous thinking rooted

in postpositivism provides a clear objective distinction between self and other. A Western

perspective when considering human rights has focused on establishing the minimum

conditions of our secure and dignified coexistence while preserving a clear demarcation

between the public and private spheres (Hershock, 2000, p. 9). An individualistic mindset,

coupled with a strong value towards objectivism, runs the risk of segregating emotional

experience from reason based assessment. Moreover, segregating cognitive analysis and

affective domains when assessing practical case studies may result in becoming primarily

abstract thought puzzles to be analyzed according to specified rules (Jordan & Meara, 1990,

p. 108), which may minimize capacity for compassion as caregivers.

Goal driven self-achievement and professional recognition have affiliated status and

power: a frame of reference which is mainly ego based and self-serving and a possible

35

detriment to pure focus on the wellbeing of others. It should be noted that power and

privilege have a segregating element in any culture, society, or political system and are

equally a concern in Eastern and Western societies. Arthur and Collins (2006) outlined that

power does not always have a detrimental influence; it is the differential distribution of

power across various groups in society that leads to systemic forms of oppression and a sense

of disempowerment among members of non-dominant populations (p. 83).

Suffering

The construct of suffering in Buddhism is one of the four noble truths; existence is

suffering (Keown, 2005; Walsh-Frank, 1996). The source of suffering is clinging and

craving, which is the second noble truth in Buddhism (Keown, 2005). Clinging to illusionary

views of self and thought patterns, as well as material things to derive happiness, produces

the state of suffering according in Buddhist thinking. Furthermore, craving emotional states

and/or material possessions for ownership are methods to substantiate a sense of permanent

self which is believed to be the root of happiness. This view of the world in Buddhism is

indicative of the absence of wisdom. Glaser (2005) maintains that in Buddhism a lack of

wisdom or ignorance has the following repercussions:

Ignorance creates the identification with me and mine. It, in turn, depends upon an

illusion of separateness and a belief in inherent self-existence. However, because

ignorance depends upon illusion, it is by nature weaker than the true reality that we

and all phenomena do not exist absolutely and independently, but as subtly

interconnected processes. (p. 45)

In Mahāyāna Buddhism suffering is of pivotal importance as it is a universal state and

those who understand its source are virtually mandated to help others (Walsh-Frank,

36

1996, Conclusion, ¶ 3), hence the importance and honour affiliated with bodhisattva. A

bodhisattva is one who acts with courage and bravery to accomplish full awakening for the

benefit of all beings (Glaser, 2005, p. 19). In line with bodhisattva thinking, it is believed

that through perceiving the interminable pain and sorrow of other living beings who are,

like us, caught in a web of suffering, we become filled with a burning impulse to free them

(p. 19). According to Buddhism, inducing a compassionate focus that is other-centered to

minimize suffering is indicative of the height of ethical being.

Western psychology is vast and diverse and an assessment of theoretical assessment

of suffering from the multitude of schools of thought would be beyond the scope of this

paper. To understand suffering from the perspective of Western philosophy in a

comprehensive manner worldview classification is required. Suffering can be considered

from the perspectives of postpositivist, interpretive / constructivist, and emancipatory

worldviews. Such classification is required since suffering does not appear to exist as an

exclusive stand-alone construct in the practice of clinical psychology (Miller, 2005).

Postpositivist paradigm. Postpositivism is affiliated with the medical model when

considering the overarching emphasis on science and empiricism. From this viewpoint

individuals are thought to be victims of disease (Brickman et al., 1982, p. 372). Miller

(2005) postulates that the medicalization (p. 305) of emotional pain and suffering are

redefined as disorders of the individual produced by the brain, psyche, or environment,

[whereby] the meaning of human suffering is fundamentally altered (p. 305). Suffering, as a

human emotion, is accounted for in terms of empirical categorization of cognitive, biological,

or sociological explanations (Miller, 2005), when considering the medical modal and

objectivism as presented in the postpositivist paradigm.

37

Interpretive/ constructivist paradigm. In constructivism multiple realities are

postulated to exist (Mertens, 1998). In constructivist psychology a de-pathologizing

perspective is emphasized to allow for creation of new meanings which encourage growth

and change (Griffin & Vinson, 1999). A non-pathologizing view sees client problems as

developmental challenges that occur simultaneously with moments of emotional

disequilibrium (Griffin & Vinson, 1999). From this perspective suffering may be viewed as a

construction which no longer serves the individual and, therefore, requires reframing to

minimize or reduce the emotional discomfort. In honouring multiple realities, the

constructivist frame of reference values the subjective portrayal of the suffering experience

which would be considered as unique to the individual and the psychologist would attempt to

gain insight into the nature of the individuals view of reality.

Emancipatory paradigm. This worldview addresses the impact of the larger social

system when considering suffering (Arthur & Collins, 2006). In accordance with this

worldview suffering may not be central to the individual, but the result of systemic barriers

that impose restrictions on individuals. The emancipatory worldview has often been affiliated

with the feminist ethics (Arthur & Collins, 2006). Feminist ethical principles support

experiential learning and transformative learning (Pettifor et al., 2002, p. 261), thus the

subjective internal journey of the individual is honoured. Suffering from this mindset would

likely entail learning the subjective experiences of the individual in accordance with social

dynamics and ethical responsibility.

A Western philosophical view of suffering, resulting from the aforementioned

paradigms, appears to cover a full spectrum from an objective, diagnostic, and largely

38

cognitive appraisal, to one where a multitude of subjective accounts are considered from the

vantage point of the individual and from a collective society.

The CPA code of ethics consists of a prescriptive and aspirational stance towards

ensuring minimization of harm and suffering through emphasis placed on respect and

responsibility. In this context care for individuals, society, and the profession of psychology

are advocated. The principle of responsibility to society reflects a balanced and inclusive

approach to psychological intervention and practice where minimizing suffering is honoured

from the various worldviews. The CPA code of ethics (Sincair & Pettifor, 2001) postulates

that:

Freedom of enquiry and debate (including scientific and academic freedom) is a

foundation of psychological education, science, and practice. In the context of

society, the above expectations imply that psychologists will exercise this freedom

through the use of activities and methods that are consistent with ethical

requirements. (p. 87)

The cultivation of compassion and minimizing of suffering in self and others requires

competent skill development and virtuous being in both Buddhism and the CPA code of

ethics. The ability to maintain an other focus, act with benevolence, and genuinely identify

with the suffering of others induces a call to helping professionals which is explicitly

identified in Buddhist teachings and in the CPA code of ethics. Although suffering has

different epistemological roots in Buddhism when compared to Western philosophy and the

CPA code of ethics, the common theme of virtuous intent to reduce suffering in others, and

in the world, is apparent in both. Compassion, and its salient other orientation, is a construct

worthy of cultivation in both Buddhism and Western practice of psychology. Compassion is

39

a plausible construct worthy of consideration in the global arena of psychological practice.

The cultivation of compassion falls under the umbrella of the construct of discipline and

competency skill development, which is now discussed.

Discipline

The construct of discipline is emphasized throughout Mahāyāna Buddhism, as it is a

central to in order to cultivate the state of mind necessary for the minimization of suffering

and for cultivation of compassionate care. Adherence to the noble eightfold path: (a) right

view, (b) right resolve, (c) right speech, (d) right action, (e) right livelihood, (f) right effort,

(g) right mindfulness, (h) right meditation and precepts: (Keown, 2005) requires intention to

live virtuously. Cultivation of insight, wisdom, and virtuosity required to live this path is

affiliated with the practice of meditation which entails discipline. There is a diversity of

styles of meditation, all with different aims and intentions. A brief overview of meditation

and the practice of mindfulness will be considered as it is the vehicle to compassionate being

and is central to Buddhism.

Meditation and mindfulness. Many forms and styles of meditation have been

constructed and passed on through humanitys spiritual traditions (Bogart, 1991). The vast

majority of styles have a central premise, which focuses on the withdrawal of attention from

the outer world and from typical patterns of perception, with an accompanying experience of

inner awareness. Meditation denotes self-experience, self-realization, and from Buddhist

traditions, it is a practice that aims to achieve the ultimate truth and view of reality (Perez-

De-Albeniz, 2000). The process of meditation has been described as the attainment of a

deeply restful yet fully alert state practiced as a self-regulatory approach to stress reduction

and emotion management (Murata et al., 2004, p. 189). Meditation on Buddhisms central

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virtues, non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding assists with the cultivation of

virtuous being (Keown, 2005). Kabat-Zinn (1993) maintains that mindfulness targets a

persons attitude resulting in a general sense of well-being through the cultivation of wisdom.

Wisdom and greater awareness is developed through mindfulness practice, which assists

people live each moment of their lives even the painful ones as fully as possible

(Kabat-Zinn, 1993, p. 260).

Glaser (2005) discusses the mindful and meditative practice of lojong, which is a

form of mind training that can assist in cultivating equanimity. Equanimity, as defined by

The Oxford Dictionary, Pollard (1994), is calmness of mind or temper (p. 269). Glaser

maintains that equanimity is not a necessary constituent of the compassion we ordinarily

feel (p. 133), as typical compassion we are familiar with can be rather limited by being

reserved for a select few. Furthermore, equanimity provides a stable emotional foundation

from which to properly cultivate compassion. Glaser (2005) outlines the three stages of

equanimity development in accordance to lojong mindfulness practice, which are: (a)

motivational equanimity, where we deeply wish for all beings-without exception-to have

happiness and be free of suffering (p. 133); (b) dissolving projections, which focuses on

dissolving projections of friends, enemies, and neutral persons by investigating and seeing

through our attachment, anger, and indifference; and (c) building on the previous two,

through reflection on similarity to others and realize that all beings are, in this deepest

sense, like ourselves, we come to see our equality with them, and we arouse a passionate

commitment to work for the benefit of all others (p. 133).

A full account of meditation and mindfulness training is beyond the scope of this

paper, yet it is important to emphasize that both are central disciplines for cultivation of

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attention, awareness, and virtuous being. In Buddhist thinking, the person who can control

attention can therefore control and cultivate specific [virtuous] emotions and motives

(Corsini & Wedding, 2000).

In Western psychology, the construct of discipline is interwoven throughout ethical

training and practice. The standards indicated in the CPA code of ethics range from minimal

behavioral expectations to more idealized [aspirational], but achievable, attitudes and

behaviours (Pettifor, 1996). Discipline rooted in ethical training and in the CPA code of

ethics are discussed.

Pettifor et al. (2002) postulate that the literature on teaching ethics to psychologists

entails the following perspectives: (a) the need to know the rules and prescriptions on what

is considered right and wrong behavior in order to behave correctly and to defend themselves

against allegations of misconduct (p. 262), and (b) the need to be able to identify dilemmas

and to use ethical decision-making steps and critical thinking in order to apply moral

principles to resolve these dilemmas (p. 262). According to Pettifor et al. (2002) the

learning of ethics implies that the learners are familiar with the information obtained and that

they are able to integrate all the learning components into effective decision-making through

a process of critical reflection and personal experience (p. 262). A commitment towards

competency skill development, self-assessment, and engaging in reflexive thinking is critical

for learning and practice of ethics in Western psychology. The CPA code of ethics decision

making steps promote critical thought and problem-solving by intent (Pettifor et al., 2002),

which allow for an aspirational focus. Pettifor et al. (2002) maintains that a variety of

strategies for learning in ethics training, experiential, interactive, problem-based, case study

analysis, and vignette review, are beneficial. Moreover, individuals may be capable of using

42

different learning styles as long as they facilitate an integration of knowledge, skills, and self-

awareness (p. 267). In Western psychology, in line with competence and cognitive

complexity skill development required for a working aptitude for application of the CPA

code of ethics, it appears knowledge and skill application is more readily measurable

(Fuentes et al., 2005); whereas values and attitudes may be more difficult to assess as

they are not created in graduate school and are not limited to professional spheres of activity

(p. 365).

Consideration of the role of discipline in Buddhism and Western psychology has

resulted in the salient construct of reflexivity as a common theme interwoven through both

perspectives. Self-reflexivity is the process of stepping back from what is known, what is

being said, and what can be learned several times throughout the process, paying close

attention to similarities, differences, anomalies, and personal reactions (Arthur & Collins,

2006, p. 287). A commitment towards opening up awareness to internal processes to enhance

learning is underscored in Buddhist and Western methods of ethical training. Dockett,

Dudley-Grant, & Bankart (2003) maintain that understanding of oneself ultimately

promotes understanding of and the ability to help others (p. 106).

A point of divergence when considering the construct of discipline in both Buddhism

and Western psychology is notable in relation to the personal/professional distinction. In

Buddhism, an emphasis on awareness of interconnectedness, responsibility to end suffering,

and the cultivation of wisdom towards virtuosity results in a form of being that is to be

actively cultivated mindfully in each moment of conscious awareness and is manifested in all

thoughts and actions. Dockett et al., (2003) discuss that the Buddha encourages self-

discipline and reflexivity and counsels people to continually reflect on the consequences

43

of their actions before proceeding and to refrain from actions that are not conducive to

harmony in each situation [italics added] (p. 148). Virtuous being in Buddhist thought is to

be cultivated moment-by-moment, which is in line with the present moment reality

orientation of Buddhist culture (Dockett et al., 2003). Western psychology appears to place a

larger emphasis on a linear path entailing a future focus (Dockett et al., 2003). This

emphasis, coupled with a greater orientation towards individualism and reductionism, results

in boundaries in personal / professional distinction. Such boundaries are essential in

respecting individual autonomy and ensuring protection from harm. A distinct boundary can

be noted in the CPA code of ethics when considering that psychologists have an

affirmative duty to indicate when they are speaking as a matter of a personal opinion as

opposed to speaking as experts (Pipes et al., 2005). It is important to note that not all

Western paradigms relating to ethics in psychology maintain a segregation between the

personal and professional. For example, Feminist Psychology postulates that personal

values and professional identity are inextricably interwoven with the idea of professional

values and ethics (p. 329).

Virtue ethics, which appears to be a common overarching guiding philosophy in

Buddhism and in the CPA code of ethics, suggests that the kind of person someone is (in

some total sense) drives what the person does and how the person thinks in the professional

as well as in the personal realm (Pipes et al., 2005, p. 330). After comparison, it appears that

underlying universal values of benevolence, compassion, and self-reflexivity, affiliated with

both Buddhist and Western ethical systems, are prevalent regardless of worldview,

dichotomous classification of individualism / collectivism, future / present orientation, and,

thus, classification according to cultural influence.

44

In light of universal shared values between Buddhist and Western culture it is

essential to re-visit emic and etic perspectives, as these perspectives impact understanding of

multicultural correspondence (Arthur & Collins, 2006). The emic vantage point maintains

that specific cultural knowledge (p. 18) is required when working with diverse groups.

Therefore, an emphasis is placed on understanding cultural uniqueness through ontological

and epistemological considerations that are compatible with unique cultural experiences. In

essence, a culture-specific (p. 18) orientation is maintained from this perspective. The Etic

vantage point postulates that there are commonalties across cultural groups (p. 18) and that

encounters are multicultural in nature (p. 18). Therefore, a stronger universal orientation is

maintained.

Pros and cons of the emic and etic debate are beyond the scope of this discussion, yet

awareness of each is beneficial when considering implications of a merging of minds from

Buddhist and Western frames of reference. Consideration of emic presuppositions honour

cultural backgrounds through promoting awareness of cultural uniqueness (Arthur & Collins,

2006), yet making specific cultural conclusions based on cultural reductionism may run the

risk of marginalization and erroneous assumptions. Etic presuppositions honour a

heterogeneity of experiences (p. 20) and that mindset that although clients may have

similar backgrounds, their experiences, their worldview, and their needs are never identical

(p. 20).

Arthur & Collins (2006) present a balanced approach when considering emic and etic

perspectives emphasising culturally-infused practice. Balance is central to the Mahāy�