i

ATHABASCA UNIVERSITY

THE EXPLORATION OF MINDFULNESS AND FLOW IN AN ART

THERAPEUTIC CONTEXT

BY

RACHELA L. BUONINCONTRI

A Final Project submitted to the

Graduate Centre for Applied Psychology, Athabasca University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF COUNSELLING:

ART THERAPY SPECIALIZATION

Alberta

April 2009

ii

DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to the profession of art therapy and to those individuals that

believe in the power of creativity, imagination, and artistic expression to aid in healing

and transformation toward subjective well-being.

iii

COMMITTEE MEMBERS

The members of this final project committee are:

Name of Supervisor Dr. Paul Jerry

Name of Second Reader Dr. Kenneth Barabash

iv

ABSTRACT

This project provides a comprehensive review of the literature on art therapy,

mindfulness, and flow theory. An examination of the three topics in the area of

philosophical, theoretical and applied basis is discussed. An art therapy manual for

inducing mindfulness and flow is also included. The purpose of this project is two-fold

including: (a) to examine the relationship between mindfulness and flow through a

comprehensive literature review; and (b) to illustrate how such states of consciousness

can be induced in an art therapeutic context. The literature review sets the foundation for

the synthesis of mindfulness and flow, and also for the integration of inducing

mindfulness and flow in an art therapeutic context. The manual is intended as a guideline

for trained art therapists to induce states of mindfulness and flow with individual clients.

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My academic endeavor was not only a journey into a new career but also an adventure of

self-discovery, including the passage leading to self-growth, self-love, and self-

acceptance. Thank you to my wonderful parents, brothers, and sister-in-laws for their

faith in me to continue towards a goal and dream that has always been incredibly

meaningful to me on a personal and academic level. Thank you to my beautiful nephews

for always bringing a smile to my face, for making me laugh, and for giving me the

opportunity to live joyfully in the moment! A special thank you goes out to all of my dear

friends that have offered support and encouragement over the past few years. You have

been a reliable pillar of strength. Thank you for believing in me and for believing in my

dreams even at times when I gave up. To my art therapy colleagues and classmates, thank

you for being an inspiration. I want to especially thank Laura Worrall for her guidance

and supervision. Heather Dawson, no words can express how much you mean to me and

how much I have learned from you – thank you. To Carmen Richardson for your

mentorship and genius creativity that is as beautiful to witness as it is to learn from. To

Amy and Nalini, thank-you for being you! Your friendship means the world to me. To

my practicum supervisor, Jim Haycock, thank you for believing in me and witnessing the

‘magic’ in the profession of art therapy! To my supervisor, Dr. Paul Jerry, a heartfelt

thanks for your wisdom, commitment, and dedication in assisting me to complete this

project.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………. ii

ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………… iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………… v

TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………… vi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………... 1

Project Procedures……………………………………………………………...... 4

CHAPTER 2: ART THERAPY………………………………………………….. 6

Philosophical Basis of Art Therapy………………………………………………. 6

Theoretical Basis of Art Therapy………………………………………………… 10

Applied Basis of Art Therapy…………………………………………………….. 20

CHAPTER 3: MINDFULNESS………………………………………………….. 25

Philosophical Basis of Mindfulness………………………………………………. 25

Theoretical Basis of Mindfulness…………………………………………………. 28

Applied Basis of Mindfulness……………………………………………………. 34

CHAPTER 4: FLOW……………………………………………………………… 37

Philosophical Basis of Flow………………………………………………………. 37

Theoretical Basis of Flow…………………………………………………………. 44

Applied Basis of Flow…………………………………………………………….. 55

CHAPTER 5: SYNTHESIS……………………………………………………….. 58

References…………………………………………………………………………. 74

APPENDIX A: ART THERAPY PRACTICAL MANUAL……………………… 87

APPENDIX B: BETENSKY’S (2001) PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD........ 105

1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Art therapy, mindfulness, and flow have been receiving increased attention from

mental health practitioners, researchers, and the general public. According to some, art

therapy, mindfulness, and flow are processes by which a state of consciousness may be

derived that leads to an increased propensity towards health and well being (Gutman &

Schindler, 2007; Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Malchiodi, 2007). Research has been conducted in

the areas of art therapy, mindfulness, and flow but little is known about these three

subjects in relationship to one another. This paper proposes that flow and mindfulness are

present in an art therapeutic context (Malchiodi).

The profession of art therapy combines both art and therapy as a means towards

healing, transformation, and change (Malchiodi, 2007). Although, the profession is in an

early stage of development, it is strongly grounded in psychotherapeutic processes

(Rubin, 1999). To approach therapy in this manner is to consider that healing includes

the: (a) capacity for non-verbal means of expression; (b) cultivation of the mind-body

connection; and (c) propensity toward self-healing. Art therapy encourages clients to look

inward for answers to healing and to be open, honest, and accepting of what presents

itself through creative expression (Allen, 1995).

Mindfulness is a state of being and the focus is on awareness and acceptance of

the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness is a process that supports inward

introspection of the mind and body; and through practices such as meditation, a state of

awakening may be attained (Kabat-Zinn). Awakening infers that there is an optimal state

of consciousness that can be attained through mindfulness. To approach therapy from the

mindfulness perspective proposes that awareness and acceptance of one’s internal and

2

external surroundings are essential to conscious and healthy living. Essentially,

mindfulness is focused on understanding the mechanisms of the mind and implies that

attention must be given to thoughts, sensations, and feelings presented in any given

moment (Kabat-Zinn).

Flow has been described as a “state of being while doing” (Warren, 2006, p.103);

it is a considered an optimal state of experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). This state of

optimal experience or flow is characterized by the complete absorption and focus of

attention on the activity at hand (Schmidt, Shernoff, & Csikszentmihalyi, 2007). When

individuals experience flow their perception of time becomes warped and they perceive

the experience as pleasurable and enjoyable (Csikszentmihalyi). Proponents of flow

theory state that by focusing one’s attention on an activity for its own sake, subjective

well-being and an expanded sense of self is obtained (Csikszentmihalyi). After a flow

experience, individuals describe feeling a sense of accomplishment and increased self-

esteem (Csikszentmihalyi). The concept of flow falls under the umbrella of positive

psychology where the strength of human capacity is of focus and where research is

centered on ascertaining what leads to happiness or subjective well-being (Nakamura &

Csikszentmihalyi, 2002).

There are currently several branches of research that describe the relationship

between mindfulness and flow. One branch of research sees mindfulness and flow as

conceptually similar states of consciousness (e.g., Budilovsky & Adamson, 2002).

Another branch supports the notion that mindfulness and flow share some similar

characteristics or elements but consider them to be distinctive processes (e.g., Gutman &

Schindler, 2007). A third branch proposes that the two states are in symbiotic relationship

3

to one another whereby, the propensity to be in a mindfulness state also increases one’s

flow state (e.g., Germer, Siegel, & Fulton, 2005; Kee & Wang, 2008). Clearly our

understanding of mindfulness and flow, and their relationship to one another in a

psychotherapeutic context requires clarification. Researchers propose that interventions

must be created in order to induce states of mindfulness and flow (Germer et al., 2005;

Warren, 2006); art therapy may be a viable discipline (Malchiodi, 2007; Warren). Art

therapy may serve as a bridge or a means for creating flow and mindfulness in a

therapeutic setting (Malchiodi; Warren). For example, Warren (2006) proposed that art

therapy is a natural approach to facilitating a flow experience. Art therapy offers the

client the opportunity to be completely focused and absorbed in art-making. To

understand the relationship between flow and mindfulness has important implications not

only for art therapy, but for counselling in general and the profession of psychology as a

whole. If such states of being and doing reflect healthy practices for living, then they

require further examination and analysis.

This paper investigates the processes of art therapy, mindfulness, and flow and

synthesizes information regarding their interrelationship with one another. The goal of

the paper is to increase understanding of the processes of art therapy, mindfulness, and

flow, on their own, combined, and within the context of psychotherapeutic practice. The

paper is oriented toward informing psychotherapeutic practice, specifically art therapy

practice, and to facilitate future research in this area.

In this paper, a chapter is devoted to each term – art therapy, mindfulness, and

flow. It is evident from the literature on art therapy, mindfulness, and flow that there are

many similarities philosophically, theoretically, and within an applied context. Each

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chapter begins with a thorough understanding of the philosophical basis of the term as it

sets the foundation for comprehending: (a) the historical tone for which the term was

intended; and (b) explaining the initial use and basis for the term in a psychological

context. Second, the theoretical basis of each term will be reviewed, specifically, the

psychological mechanisms, processes, or characteristics deemed important in effecting

change. Third, the applied basis of each term will be evaluated such that an understanding

on how to induce such a state can be attained. After a comprehensive review of each

term, comparison and synthesis of the terms will be discussed in the fifth chapter of this

paper. This paper ends with a manual (see Appendix A) on how to induce mindfulness

and flow in an art therapeutic context. The manual includes a description of mindfulness

states and flow. The manual is intended to assist art therapists to induce a state of

mindfulness and flow with clients through specific art therapy interventions in order to

increase subjective well-being.

Project Procedures

In development of the comprehensive review, current available information on art

therapy, mindfulness, and flow was found through searching library collections and

appropriate databases. Such databases included PsycINFO, PsycArticles, and MEDLINE

via the Athabasca University Library and the University of Calgary Library. Various

books were accessed from the following libraries: (a) the University of Calgary, (b)

Athabasca University, (c) the Vancouver Art Therapy Institute, and (d) the City of

Calgary Public Library. Keywords applied in the search included mindfulness,

meditation, flow, optimal experience, art therapy, creativity, and psychotherapy. Further,

5

the reference lists of studies retrieved in the initial search were reviewed, and relevant

publications were selected.

In order to create the practical application component of this paper, the art therapy

manual is based on information gathered from the comprehensive review. Underlying the

manual is information outlining the theoretical and conceptual basis of mindfulness states

and flow, and information on the importance of inducing such states of consciousness in

an art therapeutic context. In addition, art therapy-based interventions for inducing

mindfulness states and flow are suggested.

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CHAPTER 2: ART THERAPY

Philosophical Basis of Art Therapy

Art Therapy

There are many events, circumstances, and influential people that have set the

foundation for the development of art therapy. Art therapy is an evolving field that has

been influenced by: (a) related fields such as art, art history, psychology, psychiatry, and

anthropology; (b) unique historical events in the twentieth century; and (c) pioneers that

advanced the development and movement of the field (Malchiodi, 2007). The following

section describes how art therapy advanced over time.

Development of Art Therapy

Throughout history humans have created art for several different reasons

including as a form of communication, symbolic expression, healing ritual, worship,

magic, to relieve physical and psychological pain, and as a form of protection to ward off

evil (Edwards, 2004; Malchiodi, 2007). Art has been documented since about 20,000

B.C. or as early as the Stone Age period whereby art was considered a natural instinct

such as language is today (Malchiodi, p. 23). Caves were marked with images and

symbols believed to serve as a form of symbolic communication. There is proof through

art that humanity has a strong bond through the language of visual art (Malchiodi). The

view of art over centuries may be an indication of the purposefulness of art and why it is

viewed as therapeutic (Malchiodi; McNiff, 1981). There are similarities in the way art

was viewed in ancient times and how it is viewed today in contemporary cultures

(Malchiodi; McNiff; Rubin, 1999; Wadeson, 1980). According to McNiff “Today’s art

therapists are practicing one of the most ancient forms of healing” (p. 5).

7

In the early twentieth century, art therapy advanced due to: (a) popularity gained

by psychoanalysis; (b) interest in symbolic and spontaneous images; and (c) psychiatry’s

fascination with the art produced by those suffering from mental illnesses (Malchiodi,

2007). During this period there was movement toward understanding the human psyche,

particularly the unconscious (Douglas, 2005). Psychoanalysis gained popularity as

Sigmund Freud’s and Carl Jung’s work linking the psyche and visual expression

progressed (Arlow, 2005; Douglas; Malchiodi).

Freud (as cited in Edwards, 2004) posited that the unconscious played a

significant role in neurosis, dreams, and the art work of his patients. He discovered early

on with his patients that their communication was actually a description of visual images

(as cited in Rubin, 1999). He recognized that dreams could be linked to the unconscious

and further expressed visually by his clients but not verbally (as cited by Wadeson,

1980). In addition to his recognition of the unconscious and visual expression, Freud also

proposed that individuals engaging in creative and imaginative processes were

denouncing reality (as cited in Edwards). Although Freud inspired others to see the

connection between art expression and the inner psyche, he favored reason and intellect

over the intuitive, creative, imaginative, and artistic aspects of psychological life and was

more interested in free association and verbal therapy (as cited in Rubin).

Carl Jung (as cited in Edwards, 2004) on the other hand, believed that the arts

were a way to reveal the unconscious. Jung encouraged his patients to express themselves

through art analysis to gain awareness of their emotions thereby leading to well-being

and positive change (as cited in Douglas, 2005). Jung was intrigued with the art

expression of his patients and throughout his career he explored his own inner psyche

8

through artistic expression, especially during times of personal crisis (as cited in

Edwards, 2001).

Carl Jung’s work influenced other professionals including Hanz Prinzhorn.

Prinzhorn was a psychiatrist in the 1920s that was intrigued with the creative process and

artistic expression of mentally ill patients (as cited in Hinz, 2006). He collected over five

thousand art pieces from patients throughout Europe for his research. Prinzhorn (as cited

in Malchiodi, 2007) believed that humans have a “universal creative urge” or drive

towards personal expression and communication that is “basic to all people, with or

without mental illness and that art was a natural way to achieve psychological integration

and wellness” (p. 27).

Art Therapy Pioneers

Art expression developed as a therapeutic modality with the efforts of pioneers

such as Edith Kramer and Margaret Naumburg (as cited in Wadeson, 1980). Both women

predicate their theories based on psychoanalytical theory and the belief that art expression

allows for unconscious material to be revealed (as cited in Rubin, 1999). By mid-century,

when Naumburg’s and Kramer’s work flourished there was a rising belief that art making

and the creative process could be a transformative and a rehabilitative force leading to

change and growth in clients (as cited in Malchiodi, 2007). Art focused on the subjective

reality and self-expression of the artists rather than on their external environment (as

cited in Edwards, 2004).

Margaret Naumburg was the founder of the Walden School in New York and has

been credited with introducing art as a therapeutic modality in the 1940s (Peterson, 2006;

Rubin, 1999). She was “one of the first to delineate art therapy as a distinctive form of

9

psychotherapy” (Malchiodi, 2007, p. 36), whereas, Kramer in the 1950s emphasized art

as therapy rather than as a tool in psychotherapy (Malchiodi). Kramer (2002) emphasized

the client’s purpose to express “inner truth” through their art (p. 222). She encouraged her

clients to express their authentic self and allow for genuine and truthful expression

through the art work in moving toward an integrated and reconciled emotional state

(Kramer, 2002). Naumburg (as cited in Rubin, 1999) emphasized psychoanalytical

techniques like free association and transference in art therapy to obtain client change. In

summary, Naumburg posited the use of art in therapy and Kramer advocated art as

therapy. The distinction is significant in understanding the theoretical and practical use of

art therapy today; art therapy has been developed along these two streams of thought

(Waller, 1993).

Art Therapy Today

Art therapy is practiced all over the world in a variety of settings (Peterson, 2006;

Stoll, 2005). It is being applied in mental health agencies, nursing homes, drug and

alcohol addiction centers, prisons, schools, hospitals, private practice, open studios,

halfway houses, wellness centers, corporate settings, outreach programs, and

rehabilitative centers for developmentally and physically challenged individuals

(Malchiodi, 2007; Peterson). Art therapists work with individuals, couples, families,

groups, communities, and may also be found working in settings as part of a clinical team

(Malchiodi; Peterson). Art therapy’s use is not limited to specific populations or age

groups (Malchiodi).

Art therapists around the world have unique standards for practicing as a

professional (Stoll, 2005). For example, art therapists may be found working as

10

psychologists, social workers, educators, occupational therapists, and nurses (Stoll).

There is a desire to establish universally recognized academic programs and professional

standards of practice (Stoll). It is uncertain whether the profession will be restricted to

licensed art therapists in the future (McNiff, 1997). As a result of the diversity in practice

and in educational standards, art therapy has developed from one-nation to the next

according to social, economic, and cultural circumstances (Stoll). Yet, the power of art

therapy is undeniable throughout the world and for this reason continues to expand and

grow as a profession (McNiff; Stoll).

Theoretical Basis of Art Therapy

Art Therapy Defined

According to the Canadian Art Therapy Association (CATA, n.d.) and the

American Art Therapy Association (AATA, 2009), art therapy is a mental health

profession that combines the intentional use of art as a therapeutic intervention to

enhance the well-being of individuals on a physical, emotional and mental level. Art

therapy includes the utilization of images, symbols, and creativity to express one’s self

through visual means with the use of diverse art materials or media (Malchiodi, 2007).

The creative expression helps individuals to increase self-awareness and autonomy,

problem-solve, regulate emotions, expand interpersonal skills, and reduce stress (AATA).

The art materials and application is the main form of communication, however, verbal

and non-verbal means of expression are encouraged as well (Kahn, 1999). The art

creation and expression are at the core of art therapy practice (Malchiodi).

The above definition is not universally accepted (Stoll, 2005). Operationally

defining art therapy has been a problem for a number of different reasons (Stoll; Ulman,

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2001). One, art therapy is used in diverse practices such as rehabilitation, education,

nursing, social work, and psychotherapy, and practice standards are based on the needs of

the organization (Stoll; Ulman). Second, art therapists have differing views and theories

on what art therapy is (Ulman). Third, the profession is young and evolving (Stoll).

Possibly the only point of agreement in defining art therapy by professionals is that “the

visual arts are used in some attempt to assist integration or reintegration of personality”

(Ulman, para 2). Art therapy is a unique form of psychotherapy that is more than the sum

of its parts (Betensky, 1995). Although many diverse practitioners are incorporating art in

therapy, this is not art therapy. Art therapy requires specialized training in the art therapy

process that is beyond the training required for counselors, psychologists, social workers,

and nurses (Heywood, 2003; Rubin, 1999).

There are two general categories by which art therapists define art therapy; one

definition is based on the art making process, and the other on the art product (Malchiodi,

2007). Art as therapy emphasizes the importance of the art-making process and the

inherent healing power of creative expression. This view proposes that art-making is

healing and transformative on its own. McNiff (1992) writes about art making as

medicine and refers to it as a form of depth psychology whereby the psyche is deeply

explored. Such exploration and art creation leads to healing. There are several authors

that have created art to heal from illness or life difficulties (e.g., Coupar, 1992; Swados,

2005). The second definition of art therapy is called art psychotherapy; it emphasizes the

therapeutic process including the art product and its symbolic communication

(Malchiodi, 2002; Rubin, 1999). The final art product becomes significant in not only

enhancing communication between the client and therapist but also in allowing the client

12

to express her issues, concerns, conflicts, and emotions via the art product (Malchiodi,

2007). Some art therapists base their work on one or a combination of both of these

definitions (Malchiodi, 2007).

Efficacy of Art Therapy

Despite the fact that art therapy has been evolving for several decades, the

efficacy of art therapy has been largely unevaluated (Gabriel et al., 2001). Only very

recently has the effectiveness of art therapy been investigated empirically through

scientific study and quantitative research (Eaton, Doherty, & Widrick, 2007; Saunders &

Saunders, 2007). Earlier studies reviewing the efficacy of art therapy were based on case

studies and qualitative reports (Reynolds, Nabors, & Quinlan, 2000; Saunders &

Saunders). The lack of empirical research in art therapy may be attributed to art therapists

not receiving formal training in conducting experimental research (Tibbets, 1995).

Another problem is in deciding what aspect art therapy should be studied (Gantt,

1998). The interest in research ranges from “how, what, why and what effect” (Gantt,

para 4). Some questions that require further research include: How do people draw? Why

do people draw? What effect does art making have on one’s psychological or physical

well-being? Where does symbolic content come from? (Gantt). Although there are

difficulties in gaining empirical evidence for the efficacy of art therapy, research in this

area is expanding (Eaton et al., 2007).

Several pilot studies have been conducted to determine the usefulness of art

therapy in improving psychological well-being in the treatment of patients suffering from

depression (e.g., Bar-Sela et al., 2007); chemical dependency (e.g., Dickman, Dunn, &

Wolf, 1996); grief and loss (e.g., Graham & Suntag, 2001); posttraumatic stress disorder

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(e.g., Lyshak-Stetzler, Singer, St. John, et al., 2007); and trauma (e.g., Eaton et al., 2007).

These studies found support for art therapy as an effective intervention. It is imperative

that further empirical research be performed in examining the efficacy of art therapy.

Art therapy is not only an enjoyable means for gaining therapeutic insight; also,

many studies propose that art therapy is effective in improving health and well-being

(Saunders & Saunders, 2007). Several quantitative studies in art therapy have

investigated the behavioural or attitudinal changes of clients involved in art therapy

(Brooke, 1995; Rosal, 1993; Saunders & Saunders). Most studies evaluated an outcome

measure before and after the use of art therapy concluding that there were significant

improvements in the outcome measure (e.g., Harvey, 1989; Saunders & Saunders). For

example, Saunders and Saunders (2007) completed a quantitative study reviewing the

effectiveness of an art therapy program with children struggling with behavioural and

attitudinal concerns such as aggression, depression, alcohol/drug abuse, and self-esteem.

The study found that the art therapy program had a significantly positive impact on all 94

children in the program. The behavioural ratings decreased significantly in severity and

frequency after the art therapy intervention. For example, hyperactivity, poor

concentration, poor motivation, fighting and other behaviours were found to decrease in

severity and frequency as compared to the participants’ intake scores.

The limitation of art therapy research is that the majority of studies lack a control

group (Reynolds et al., 2000). Scholars recommend that additional studies in assessing

the effectiveness of art therapy be conducted (Reynolds et al.). Art therapists are

determining the best way to conduct empirical research on a field of study that bridges art

and therapy, while taking into consideration the complexity of mind and body

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proponents, such as creativity and artistic expression as personal and unique attributes of

the individual.

Mechanisms of Art Therapy

Scholars are interested in understanding how and why art therapy works. What

mechanisms, factors, or processes contribute to its effectiveness? What benefits and

therapeutic value does art therapy provide? Art therapists recognize the transformative

power of art therapy and subscribe to a number of different beliefs about how art therapy

influences health and well being. Some art therapists argue for the importance of: (a)

psychoanalytical processes (Rubin, 1999; Ulman, 2001); (b) creative and imaginative

processes (London, 1989; McNiff, 1981; Csikszentmihalyi, 1996); (c) authentic

expression or self-awareness gained from art making (Allen, 1995); and (d)

phenomenological perspective (Betensky, 1995, 2001; Knill, Levine, & Levine, 2004).

Aside from such diverse beliefs, since art therapy emerged directly from two movements:

(a) psychoanalysis’s belief that images are representations of the unconscious; and (b)

belief that art-making and the creative process have therapeutic value, these primary

mechanisms will be reviewed in this section (Malchiodi, 2007). Specifically, the

unconscious, creativity, and imagination will be discussed in the context of art therapy

practice.

The unconscious. Psychoanalysis is based on the theory that the human psyche is

composed of conscious and unconscious elements (Arlow, 2005; Edwards, 2004).

Through psychoanalytical processes, the inner world or that which remains unconscious

is revealed which leads to the integration of the psyche (Arlow; Edwards).

15

Psychoanalysis has played a role in the development of art therapy and offers both a

theory and method for understanding the processes of art therapy (Edwards).

From a psychoanalytical perspective, art therapy is concerned with gaining access

into the inner world of the individual and relating such processes to the external world

(Edwards, 2004). Self-understanding is gained by externalizing and exposing internal

processes through art-making (Edwards; Malchiodi, 2007). According to psychoanalysis,

the unconscious reveals itself in a number of different ways through art expression

including by: (a) free association; (b) symbolic communication; and (c) metaphors

(Malchiodi).

Free association is the free flow of thoughts that are expressed without

censorship, criticism, or disparagement; the client expresses his truth (Arlow, 2005).

Freud developed this concept as a way of clinically working with his clients to uncover

the unconscious process and understand human behaviour (Arlow; Malchiodi, 2007).

Free association is seen in art therapy through spontaneous or free drawings (Malchiodi).

It is believed that when a client expresses himself freely that the art expression is a

manifestation of unconscious workings. The image or art creation increases self-

understanding when explored through free association with an art therapist (Malchiodi).

Through art making the unconscious reveals itself through symbolic

communication (Malchiodi, 2002). It is believed that the unconscious is projected in

visual form and expresses the client’s fears, dreams, and fantasies (Malchiodi, 2002). The

image becomes a form of symbolic communication from unconscious processes. Self-

awareness increases when unconscious components of the psyche become available

through creative work (Kramer, 2001). The final art product becomes significant in not

16

only enhancing communication between the client and therapist, but also in serving as an

external object to allow the client to discuss his problems, feelings and thoughts via the

art product (Malchiodi, 2007).

A metaphor is a “figure of speech used to imply that the properties or qualities

possessed by one thing are like those belonging to something else” (Edwards, 2004, p.

61). In art therapy a metaphor is used the same way as it is used verbally to “evoke an

idea or emotion beyond the specific object depicted” (Edwards, p. 61). Metaphors assist

in communicating a message that may be difficult to articulate. In addition, metaphors

have the potential to expand expression and also create an opportunity for viewing

something in a new and novel way. In art therapy a client draws a picture that is

figuratively an expression of her state of mind and is depicted through the image

metaphorically (Edwards). Art therapists pay attention to the client’s expression and

thoughts about the metaphorical image looking for opportunities to expand awareness

(Edwards).

Through psychoanalytical theory an understanding of the processes in art therapy

are apparent. In addition to the benefits of exposing the unconscious through free

association, symbolic communication, and metaphors, other secondary processes may

also occur during art therapy such as: (a) cathartic release; (b) self-expression; and (c)

positive physiological responses. Catharsis is the emotional release that comes from the

expulsion and expression of strong emotions (Malchiodi, 2007). The art acts as a

container for difficult emotions and sensations. The art-making process becomes a form

of self expression whereby the art gives the emotions a cognitive-linguistic voice

(Malchiodi, 2007). In addition, art therapy has an influence on the mind-body connection

17

whereby a relaxed physiological response can be experienced (Malchiodi, 2005). Art

therapy can engage the body’s relaxation response further encouraging emotional

stability, reducing stress and anxiety, and improving the therapeutic alliance (Malchiodi,

2003). Studies show that art making may act as a form of meditation that also has a

positive effect on reducing stress and anxiety (Malchiodi, 2007).

Many studies have been conducted to support psychoanalytical processes in

therapeutic practice (Arlow, 2005). Yet, little research has reviewed such processes in an

art therapeutic context. From psychoanalysis, art therapy gains a theory and a model for

practice (Edwards, 2004). Psychoanalytical mechanisms such as free association,

symbolic communication, metaphors, self-expression, catharsis, and physiological

response of the mind and body offer an understanding for how and why art therapy

works. Many art therapists follow psychoanalytical theory to guide their art therapy

practice, thereby recognizing the psychoanalytical mechanisms that play a role in its

function (Edwards).

Creativity. Creativity is defined as the ability to generate a novel idea or product

into existence (Malchiodi, 2007). A creative individual has qualities and characteristics

that may include: “spontaneity, playfulness, imagination, motivation, originality, self-

expression, inventiveness, divergent thinking, and intuition” (Malchiodi, p. 65).

Researchers propose that a creative individual possess the ability to be autonomous,

flexible, self-accepting, assertive, resourceful, persistent, and nonconforming (Ivcevic &

Mayer, 2006). Self-expression plays a significant role in everyday creativity (Ivcevic &

Mayer). Researchers propose that creativity and imagination have therapeutic value and

lead to healthy approaches to living (London, 1989; Peterson & Seligman, 2004). An

18

important factor in art therapy is to allow a client to increase her creative potential and to

enter into a state of using her imagination to improve health and well-being (Malchiodi).

Art therapy cultivates an environment for creativity to occur. Allowing a client to focus

her energy and attention on creativity enables her to tap into new ways of thinking and

being in the world (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; London). Art therapy honors creativity and

encourages original thinking.

The interest in creativity is growing within the field of psychology (Peterson &

Seligman, 2004; Simington, 2000). Creativity is seen as a sign of positive mental health

and optimal functioning (Simington). Cognitive, clinical, personality, and developmental

psychologies are interested in understanding creativity in the context of their theoretical

orientations (Peterson & Seligman). For example, personality psychologists are interested

in understanding personal characteristics, morals, values, and traits related to creativity

(Peterson & Seligman). In addition, clinical psychologists are moving towards

understanding creativity as an intervention modality, such as applying art therapy in

clinical treatments (Peterson & Seligman).

According to Peterson and Seligman (2004), there are a number of character

strengths and virtues that are important in the classification system of positive

psychology. Such strengths are meaningful in leading a good life. One such character

strength is creativity. Creativity falls under the following criteria in positive psychology’s

classification system noting that creativity is: (a) fulfilling, (b) morally valued, and (c)

not diminishing of others (Peterson & Seligman). One, creativity is fulfilling and most

people enjoy making art. The creative act itself is intrinsically motivating whereby the

individual finds personal satisfaction in the act itself. Second, creativity is morally valued

19

whereby the art creation can elicit purpose, beauty, and expression into the world.

People’s creative expressions are encouraged, without creativity the development and

expansion of civilization would cease. For example, lights, cars, computers, and airplanes

are all creative accomplishments that have expanded our human existence. Third,

creativity does not diminish others; in fact, it may inspire and encourage others to be

creative as well. Creativity is seen as a positive sign of subjective well-being and mental

health (Peterson & Seligman). Hence, creative therapies such as art and music therapy

have emerged to “promote psychological adjustment and growth through creative

expression” (Peterson & Seligman, p. 96).

Art making as a creative process allows an individual to express himself

imaginatively; over time transformation and reparation in personality formation occurs

(Malchiodi, 2007). The art product can facilitate new understanding to the problem, and

bring new perceptions and insights leading to growth, healing, and positive changes

(Malchiodi).

Imagination. Creativity allows individuals to access their “greatest resource” – the

imagination (Allen, 1995, p. 3). Imagination permits an individual to access

opportunities, choice, and potential (Allen). Fostering a relationship with one’s

imagination is a chance to develop a “relationship with our deepest self” (Allen, p. 3). Art

therapy provides access into the imagination, encouraging an individual to intimately

know himself while doing so in a manner that enables him to see past patterns and

problems that have held him back (Allen).

According to Knill, Levine, and Levine (2004), de-centering is about moving

away from the thought patterns or rigid thinking that emerges during problem solving; to

20

focus or move away from the problem at hand and move into a liminal space of the

imagination. In art therapy the client is able to open up to an alternative experience of the

world through art making and perhaps even play. By externalizing inner processes

through art making, the client is able to gain distance from the problem or concern and

detach from the experience and approach it from a novel view (Knill et al., 2004). Silence

serves this function by replacing verbal expression with the act of doing and participating

actively in life.

The mechanisms associated with psychoanalysis, creativity and imagination are

potential advocates for establishing how art therapy works and for extrapolating the

essential therapeutic factors for its effectiveness. Art therapy utilizes internal sources of

the psyche by revealing unconscious processes and increasing self-awareness (Allen,

1995; Arlow, 2005; Edwards, 2004; Malchiodi, 2002, 2007). Creativity and imagination

foster new ways of thinking and being in the world allowing clients to think, feel, and

participate in life fully (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Knill et al., 2004; London, 1989;

Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Although there is limited research on the mechanisms of art

therapy, the theories that researchers and art therapists propose are vast, and with further

research will continue to establish the profession of art therapy.

Applied Basis of Art Therapy

Art Supplies

The art therapist supplies art materials including paper, oil pastels, chalk pastels,

pencils, felt markers, paint, scissors, glue, magazines or other collage materials, glitter,

clay, notebook for writing, and other supplies as needed (Hogan, 2001; Malchiodi, 2007).

The art materials range from being fluid to resistant; diverse materials elicit different

21

emotional responses (Peterson, 2006; Malchiodi). The materials are assorted to provide

clients with an array of products to engage their senses and to encourage creative

expression (Hogan).

Directive versus Nondirective Approach

Art therapy utilizes two main approaches to art-making: (a) directive; and (b) non-

directive (Malchiodi, 2007). A directive approach includes instruction from the art

therapist to create art according to a specific theme (Malchiodi). Some examples of

directives include drawing: (a) your family as trees in the forest; (b) an emotional

landscape; and (c) a self-portrait. A nondirective approach is also called a free or

spontaneous drawing whereby the client receives no direction from the art therapist

(Malchiodi). Although both types elicit personal expression, directives elicit a particular

art outcome and goal from the client whereas free drawings are spontaneous. Art

therapists will choose to be directive or nondirective based on the needs and responses of

the client (Malchiodi).

Attitudinal Characteristics

In art therapy there are attitudinal characteristics in the client that must be

nurtured in order to support the process. Characteristics that contribute to the

effectiveness of art therapy include a permissive attitude, non-judgment, openness to new

experiences, letting go of self-criticism, acceptance of the process and art work, and

intention and commitment (Malchiodi, 2007). The art therapist is responsible for creating

a therapeutic space and alliance conducive to including such attitudinal characteristics.

Therapeutic Space

22

Edwards (2004) writes about the boundary or physical space required for art

therapy. The art space serves a function and includes specific rules. It is a temporary

space dedicated to the expression of the imaginative and creative inner world (Edwards,

2004; Knill et al., 2004). Further, the space serves to differentiate between external

reality and internal symbolic expression (Edwards).

The physical conditions that must be present include a clear and consistent

approach to offering the client art materials, encouraging their use, facilitating self-

expression, and reflecting upon the final art product, if the client agrees to do so (Rubin,

1999). Safety in therapy means that the client has the option to discuss the meaning of her

art product or sit with the image (Malchiodi, 2007; Rubin). The therapist is respectful of

the client’s decision and creates a space that allows the client to feel safe and secure

(Rubin). Respecting the client’s art is a means for respecting the client and allowing her

to express her self authentically.

In art therapy, the first step is to create the environment and then to focus on

evoking expression (Rubin, 1999). The client is given the freedom to express her self

creatively. The client is also given the opportunity to find catharsis in the process of art

making as well as reflect on how it felt to create art and express ideas, feelings, concerns

through the final art product (Rubin).

The challenge that art therapists face is to find the best approach to help a client

understand her self through the art in a way that is meaningful (Rubin, 1999). This can be

done verbally or non-verbally through diverse means such as talking about what appears

aesthetically in the image, creative writing, poetry, drama, using metaphors or symbolic

speech, and free association discussing whatever the image evokes for the client (Rubin).

23

Meaning may also be evoked nonverbally by viewing the image and allowing its

expression to be present; the art therapist acts as a witness to the art process and product

(Rubin).

Therapeutic Alliance

The therapeutic process in art therapy involves a triangular relationship between

the client, art therapist, and the artwork (Edwards, 2004). The therapist’s presence is

meaningful in art therapy as he serves as a witness to the art making process and to the

final art product (Edwards). In verbal therapy, the client and therapist solely contribute to

the therapeutic alliance; however, in art therapy the artwork adds a third component. The

dynamic interaction requires that the art therapist play an active role in deciphering when

to interact with the client and when to permit the art-making process to be the focal point

in the therapeutic process (Edwards).

To Process or Not to Process

Art therapy contains several dimensions for learning and self-discovery which

may include processing the final art product or solely witnessing the artwork (Malchiodi,

2007). Meaning can be found in processing the final art product with the therapist or

through other means such as journal writing, poetry, drama or sharing with others. To

process the final product further or to solely witness the final art product is the client’s

choice.

The following are examples of questions an art therapist may ask a client in order

to process the final art product: What was the art-making process like for you? What

comes to mind when you look at the art piece? What stands out? Tell me about the art

piece. List five words that come to mind when looking at the art piece. What title do you

24

give the art piece? Are there any changes you would make to the art piece? There are

several ways an art therapist can process the art product with a client, but what is most

important is to help the client find meaning through creative expression.

Conclusion

Positive attributes of art therapy include that it can be: (a) an enjoyable approach

to therapy; (b) utilized with diverse individuals, couples, and group settings; and (c) used

for different client concerns and issues (Malchiodi, 2007). Art therapy serves a number of

different functions but has one primary goal. This goal is fostering a movement toward

psychological well-being (Malchiodi). Art therapy empowers clients to gain self-

awareness of their thoughts, feelings, sensations, and to understand their life

circumstances through the art-making process (Malchiodi). Art therapy is a

phenomenological approach to self-discovery (Betensky, 1995, 2001). Such personal

understanding leads to the ability to self-support, self-regulate, self-sustain, and heal

through awareness (Johnson, 1998).

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CHAPTER 3: MINDFULNESS

Philosophical Basis of Mindfulness

Mindfulness Defined

Mindfulness is a quality of presence that requires gentleness and acceptance (Bien

& Bien, 2003). It entails the capacity to live life in the present moment with the ability to

do so freely without attachment, judgment, reservation, or analysis and with a willingness

and intention to accept life here and now (Bien & Bien; Bishop, 2002; Brown & Ryan,

2003; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). There are many misconceptions about what mindfulness is, to

clarify, mindfulness is not a relaxation technique, positive thinking, a trance state, or an

approach to avoiding difficulty (Brantley, 2007). The following section will explore the

philosophical basis of mindfulness including: (a) the historical basis of the mindfulness in

Buddhist philosophy, and (b) a philosophical description of the term.

Historical Basis of Mindfulness

Mindfulness originated 2,500 years ago from the teachings of the Eastern

philosophy, Buddhism (Gowans, 2003). The story begins with a Prince named Siddhartha

Gautama who lived in India; he later became known as Buddha, the enlightened one

(Gowans). The literature states that Siddhartha was shielded from the outside world as he

lived secluded within the palace gates. However, Siddhartha made his way out of the

palace and into the real world; for the first time he witnessed sickness, old age, and death.

Deeply disturbed by the suffering in the world, Siddhartha left his wife, son, and the

comfort of the palace gates to search for understanding of and liberation from human

suffering (Gowans). Undertaking several diverse practices and following various

teachers, Siddhartha discovered that by quieting the mind, inner peace and enlightenment

26

could be attained (Gowans). Buddha spent much time meditating and spoke of such a

state of mindfulness as being ‘Awake’ (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Awakening is considered an

optimal state of experience that includes deep awareness of the present moment (Kabat-

Zinn; Shapiro et al., 2006). Buddha was candidly an historical man that investigated his

own mind and the mind’s working in understanding human suffering (Kabat-Zinn).

Buddha believed that suffering was an inevitable part of life. He educated people

about his view of suffering and spoke of the cessation of suffering by focusing the mind

through meditation and by awakening to life (Gowans, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Buddha

taught people that the potential for inner peace and well-being is linked to mindfulness

and by approaching life with a compassionate heart (Gowans). At the centre of

mindfulness teaching is an approach to being fully present in the world. Buddha’s

teachings are found in the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path (see Gowans).

Mindfulness as a State of Being

Mindfulness is a difficult term to comprehend because it describes not only a

practice but a way of being (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness is not a state of achievement

or a goal to be realized; it is a compassionate state of being that requires one to look

inward towards his heart’s intrinsic capacity. Intrinsic qualities such as affection,

compassion, openness, and kindness are required (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness is not

about changing who we are but about accepting and acknowledging who we are (Kabat-

Zinn, 1990). In essence, mindfulness is not a prescription on how to live life, but on how

to approach life and be fully engaged in life, as we are (Kabat-Zinn, 2005).

Mindfulness is based on the belief that the wandering mind is the source of human

suffering (Kabat-Zinn, 1990, 2005). According to Wallace and Shapiro (2007) all

27

individuals are prone to cognitive imbalances that stem from the wandering mind; such

imbalances include: (a) cognitive deficit or absentmindedness; (b) cognitive

hyperactivity, whereby the mind is overactive and prone to misconceptions and

assumptions; and (c) cognitive dysfunction or misapprehension of circumstances. Central

to mindfulness practice is to overcome cognitive imbalance (Wallace & Shapiro).

Mindfulness is about attending to what the mind is doing, and through stillness

one may lead her life with intention and awareness (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). According to

Kabat-Zinn (2005) “In awakening, we free ourselves from the suffering and anguish that

come from mis-taking the nature of reality…” (p. 129). Awakening is about bringing

awareness to the cognitive imbalances that shadow our daily life. Mindfulness has been

described as “psychological freedom” and as “emancipation from one’s own habitual

view of self and the world” (Martin, 1997, p. 293). In short, mindfulness is about

stepping back from the incessant workings of the mind and instead cultivating a

conscious and objective approach to living that is focused on the here and now (Kabat-

Zinn, 1990).

Mindfulness Today

Historically, mindfulness is based in Buddhist teachings and the experiences of

the Buddha’s understanding of human suffering. Today the term offers additional views

as related to health and well-being and serves as a complement to treating illness (Kabat-

Zinn, 1990, 2005). People today commonly suffer from stress, overexertion, depression,

anxiety, and other physical and psychological illnesses that are prominent in our fast-

paced world (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Our thoughts are clouded, our lives are overrun with

things to do; this is an unhealthy and unproductive approach to living (Kabat-Zinn,

28

1990). Our mind is consumed and the focus of our attention is suboptimal. Mindfulness is

not only a philosophy; it also holds prominence in improving psychological and physical

health through practice and application (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). The next section will review

the integration of mindfulness in the context of psychology.

Theoretical Basis of Mindfulness

Mindfulness and Health

Mindfulness has historically been practiced within a spiritual context; however,

its application in psychotherapeutic practice is relatively recent and not affiliated with

any particular philosophy or belief (Allen, Blashki, & Gullone, 2006; Kabat-Zinn, 2005).

Mindfulness in the context of mental health has been adopted as a form of treatment

employed to increase awareness and mental skills to better deal with emotional,

behavioural, and cognitive maladjustments associated with disorders (Bishop et al., 2004;

Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002). Mindfulness-based approaches have been applied

primarily in the treatment of stress reduction (Kabat-Zinn, 2005), and as a supporting

form of cognitive treatment to combat the relapse/recurrence of depression (Segal et al.;

Teasdale et al., 2000).

Recently an interest in mindfulness in psychotherapy has been developed as a

result of two main approaches: (a) Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR) (Kabat-

Zinn, 1982, 1990, 2005), and (b) Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) (Segal

et al., 2002). The MBSR Clinic was conceived by Jon Kabat-Zinn and his colleagues

from the University of Massachusetts Medical School in 1979 (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). The

program was developed for two primary reasons: (a) to relieve stress, pain and suffering,

and (b) to serve as a model for other clinics and centers (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, 2005).

29

Initially, the clinic provided services to diverse patients that were not responding to

traditional medical treatments (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). The eight-week educational course

teaches patients to increase awareness of internal and external stimuli through meditation

practice (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). MBSR successfully followed through on its primary

intentions. Research has found that mindfulness is an effective form of treatment for

reducing pain, stress, and a number of other conditions (Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Kristeller &

Hallet, 1999). In addition, the program is being offered in approximately 240 clinics,

hospitals, and centers worldwide (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Interest in MBSR is emerging;

however, empirical support at this point is still limited (Bishop, 2002).

Efficacy of Mindfulness

Mindfulness has been applied in psychology and has been the focus of research

with diverse populations (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, 2005) and diverse physical and

psychological disorders (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006). Mindfulness has

been applied in psychology and has been the focus of research with diverse populations

(Kabat-Zinn, 2003, 2005). Research shows that as mindfulness increases so does

improvement in well-being (Anderson, Lau, Segal, & Bishop, 2007). Some examples of

the types of physical and psychological conditions treated with mindfulness include:

chronic pain (e.g., Bonadonna, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 1982), cancer (e.g., Carlson, Speca,

Patal, & Goodey, 2003; Speca, Carlson, Goodey, & Angen, 2000), anxiety and panic

disorders (e.g., Miller, Fletcher, & Kabat-Zinn, 1995), depression (e.g., Segal et al.,

2002), and substance abuse (e.g., Leigh, Bowen, & Marlatt, 2005). Mindfulness has been

exemplified as an efficacious form of treatment in many of these conditions (Kabat-Zinn,

30

2005). In all of the mentioned studies, mindfulness was a means of coping with the

illness or disorder.

Mindfulness is not a cure but a method for restoring health and balance and for

coping with stress, illness, and suffering (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Studies have found that

mindfulness meditation significantly reduces stress, depression, and anxiety and has been

well-documented through the use of psychometric tools (Yuen & Baime, 2006). In

addition, regular meditation practice has been attributed to improvements in self-

confidence, relationships, quality of life, internal locus of control, and appreciation and

enjoyment of life (Yuen & Baime).

Mindfulness Defined

Only recently has mindfulness been operationally defined in the literature by

clinicians and researchers (Bishop et al., 2004). For the purpose of this paper,

mindfulness is a psychological process of “regulating attention in order to bring a quality

of non-elaborative awareness to current experience and a quality of relating to one’s

experience within an orientation of curiosity, experiential openness, and acceptance”

(Bishop et al., p. 234). Mindfulness has been defined by a model including: (a) the self-

regulation of attention, and (b) acceptance of the present moment (Bishop et al.). To be

mindful, one must be aware of her thoughts, feelings, and sensations and accept them as

they arise in the present moment (Bishop et al.; Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Acceptance in

mindfulness does not refer to avoidance or “resignation” of the experience, but rather that

there is a “reduction in the degree to which the experience is evaluated and suppressed”

(Allen et al., 2006, p. 288). Acceptance is about the willingness to let go and not judge

the experience (Germer et al., 2005). The intent or purpose for practicing mindfulness

31

(i.e., through mediation) is to increase self-awareness and to accept the reality in which

one lives (Hall, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 1990).

Mechanisms of Mindfulness

Future research on mindfulness is moving toward investigating the actions or

mechanisms that underlie mindfulness interventions, questioning how mindfulness works

(Anderson et al., 2007; Shapiro et al., 2006). Researchers propose that there are a number

of mechanisms that play a role in facilitating change when it comes to mindfulness-based

interventions (Shapiro et al.). Such change occurs on a cognitive, behavioural, emotional,

physical, and spiritual level. For the purpose of this paper, a discussion of the

psychological mechanisms will be reviewed, primarily focusing on the cognitive

mechanisms.

Attention-regulation. The main focus of mindfulness practice involves the

modification of cognitive processes (Ramel, Goldin, Carmona, & McQuaid, 2004).

Mindfulness is defined as a process of recognition and acceptance of thoughts or feelings

that arise in the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). The objective of mindfulness is to

increase awareness while decreasing the desire to ‘reflexively’ react to mental processes

(Bishop et al., 2004; Hall, 2003). Attention is focused on thoughts and feelings and then

released (Bishop et al.). In fact, such “thoughts and feelings are observed as events in the

mind, without over-identifying with them and without reacting to them in an automatic,

habitual pattern of reactivity” (Bishop et al., p. 232). Cognitive processes play a central

role in mindfulness especially through attention-regulation (Bishop et al.).

Attention-regulation is a primary mechanism of action in mindfulness that leads

to positive change (Bishop et al., 2004). The self-regulation of attention is important as it

32

allows the individual to focus his attention on changes in feelings and thoughts in the

present moment (Bishop et al.). When practicing mindfulness through the sitting

meditation, for example, the individual’s focus is on the breath, yet, as new thoughts and

feelings are recognized, attention switches to those sensations for a short period of time,

and then back to the breath. Thus, regulating attention also includes “sustained attention”

on the present moment and “switching” between recognition of sensations and focus on

the breath (Bishop et al.). As such, mindfulness requires attention as well as flexibility in

cognitive focus (Bishop et al.; Segal et al., 2002). By regulating attention energy is

focused on the here and now and leads to a feeling of being alert, vigilant, and alive in the

present moment (Bishop et al.).

The self-regulation of attention also functions to “inhibit secondary elaborative

processing of the thoughts, feelings and sensations as they arise in the stream of

consciousness” (Allen et al., 2006; Bishop et al., 2004, p. 233). Mindfulness is associated

with the focus of energy on selective stimulus and with enhancement in cognitive

inhibition (Bishop et al.). For example, researchers studying the effects of mindfulness on

the relapse/recurrence of depression have found that rumination, defined as the focus of

one’s attention on a negative mood state, leads to the maintenance of depression and

amplified sad affect (Ramel et al., 2004; Teasdale et al., 2000). Mindfulness helps to

reduce ruminative tendencies in thought processes as individuals learn to relate to the

content of the mind in an objective manner (Ramel et al.; Teasdale et al.). Such function

thereby decreases the relapse/recurrence of depression because the individual no longer

thinks repeatedly about his state of mind and causes and consequences; instead the focus

shifts to the present moment (Ramel et al.; Segal et al., 2002; Teasdale et al.). By

33

inhibiting secondary processes of the mind, attention is focused on the present moment

rather than on insignificant stimuli. In summary, regulation of attention requires cognitive

control, reflexivity, and monitoring.

Metacognitive. Metacognition includes decentering whereby thoughts are

“understood as transient mental events rather than necessarily direct representations of

reality, leading to a form of metacognitive insight” (Allen et al., 2006, p. 288).

Metacognition refers to the monitoring of one’s own attention and thought processes

which is a primary mechanism in mindfulness (Allen et al.). Paying attention in

mindfulness includes a number of different domains such as paying attention: (a) in a

specific way; (b) to the present moment with intention and purpose; and (c) in a non-

judgmental way (Allen et al.). Paying attention in a specific way requires an individual to

monitor and direct the focus of her attention. The practice of directing attention and

maintaining present-moment focus requires concentration and results in an increased

sense of awareness of the mind’s workings and possible ruminative tendencies and a

sense of accomplishment or triumph over attention processes (Allen et al.). Paying

attention in a non-judgmental manner allows individuals to evaluate their subjective

experiences in a new and novel way contrary to old patterns of adaptability. Thereby,

mindfulness teaches an individual to notice her subjective experiences rather than analyze

the experience. In contrast to cognitive behavioural therapy, mindfulness does not change

or disrupt cognitive dysfunction but does change one’s relationship to cognitions (Allen

et al.).

34

Applied Basis of Mindfulness

Shapiro et al. (2006) have taken the definition of mindfulness “paying attention in

a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment and non-judgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn,

1994, p. 4) and propose that three axioms or building blocks are present that form the

primary mechanisms of mindfulness. These three axioms include: (a) intention; (b)

attention; and (c) attitude. It is proposed that such axioms be present in an applied

context.

First, one must have intention or personal vision and reason to practice

mindfulness; and this intention may change and evolve over time (Shapiro et al., 2006).

Second, attention is about noticing or observing the internal and external experiences that

occur from moment to moment (Shapiro et al.). Third, the qualities and attitudes one

brings to paying attention is another fundamental component of mindfulness. It is not

enough to have intention and to pay attention one must also have attitudinal

characteristics as well including compassion, kindness, and openness (Kabat-Zinn, 2005;

Shapiro et al.).

Mindfulness is an approach to living that can only be learned through practice

(Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Some examples of mindfulness-based practices include a sitting

meditation, yoga, walking or eating meditation, body scan, and journal writing (Hall,

2003). To demonstrate mindfulness in the context of this discussion, the following is an

example of a sitting mediation. According to Kabat-Zinn (2005), the participant can

either sit in a chair or lay on the floor, and centers attention on his breath. When thoughts

and feelings arise, the goal is to acknowledge the sensations and recognize the point at

which the mind wanders away from the breath. When this point of recognition is noted,

35

the participant draws his attention back to the breath. This process is repeated each time

the mind shifts attention away from the breath. The goal of the sitting mediation is to

teach the participant to “passively observe thoughts and feelings simply as mental events

with no inherent value of their own” (Bishop, 2002, p. 72).

Another example of a mindfulness meditation practice is the body scan (Kabat-

Zinn, 2005). This meditation occurs lying down and attention of the mind is brought

systemically to different parts of the body (Kabat-Zinn). Attention is brought first to the

toes on the left foot and up to the left leg, ankle, shin, knee, thigh, groin, left hip, and then

over to the toes on the right foot and systemically upward toward the right hip. The focus

then shifts from the hips to the buttocks, genitals, lower back, abdomen, upper back,

chest, ribs, breasts, heart, lungs, rib cage, collarbones, shoulders, arms, fingers, palms,

backs of hands, wrists, forearms, elbows, upper arms, armpits, and up into the neck and

throat region, ending with the face and head. Metaphorical expressions may be expressed

by the practitioner to bring attention to feelings or sensations surrounding each area of the

body. For example, when bringing focus to the heart questions may be asked such as: is

your heart heavy, hard, broken, or light? The body scan requires approximately 45

minutes and the purpose is to bring awareness to the body (Kabat-Zinn).

Meditation is a practice, whereby the goal is to focus attention on the present

moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). By way of this practice, mindfulness develops (Kabat-Zinn,

2005). Through the recognition of thoughts, feelings, and sensations, one is able to let go

of the commotion, worry, stress, and chaos that daily life presents (Hall, 2003). Through

the awareness that mindfulness creates, life becomes more manageable and meaningful

(Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Through the cultivation and practice of mindfulness it is possible to

36

be mindful during everyday activities. Mindfulness can be activated at any time during

the day as long as one has intention, attention, and attitude (Shapiro et al., 2006).

Conclusion

Although mindfulness originated in the Buddhist religion, the Buddha himself

was not a Buddhist or a monk (Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Mindfulness is really a universal

function that can be attained and cultivated by all regardless of religious affiliation,

gender, and age (Kabat-Zinn). In essence, mindfulness teaches one to investigate the

mind through the stabilization of the mind’s functions (Kabat-Zinn). Self-regulation of

attention and decentering from one’s thoughts, feelings, and sensations brings greater

awareness to one’s state of being, and greater resiliency to coping and managing life

circumstances. Today mindfulness has been received as a complementary form of

treatment in medical and mental health settings. It is a promising intervention in

psychotherapeutic practice (Baer, 2003).

37

CHAPTER 4: FLOW

Philosophical Basis of Flow

Flow is a state of optimal experience. It comprises of both a theory and a model

for inducing such a state of consciousness. Optimal experience in the context of flow

theory is the name given to a state of consciousness that is linked to happiness and

positive well-being. To understand the concept of flow requires a deep understanding of

the philosophical base of the man that conceived the term. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi is the

psychologist that has developed and researched flow over the past 30 years

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The following section will describe Csikszentmihalyi’s

philosophy of human nature, consciousness, and the mind, and also describe his

collaboration with positive psychology. This section will describe Csikszentmihalyi’s

background basis for developing and researching the term flow.

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

Psychologist. Csikszentmihalyi has conducted research in the area of happiness,

optimal experience, intrinsic motivation, and creativity. His work over the past three

decades has resulted in the concept of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). He has written

several books and published numerous papers on the subject (e.g., Csikszentmihalyi

1975, 1990, 1993, 1996, 1999). His work is receiving a great deal of attention by scholars

and the general public (Warren, 2006).

As part of his doctoral research Csikszentmihalyi spent time observing artists

(Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006). He became fascinated by the intense

concentration the artists held during the art-making process. As a psychology student, he

was interested in learning about human behaviour, specifically what motivated these

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artists to intensely concentrate on making art? During his observation he noted that the

paintings were not being sold and they were not going into a museum to be viewed by

others, therefore there was no extrinsic reward or reason for the artists’ hard work. Thus,

from a psychological perspective his quest was to understand the causal reason for their

actions, which led him to discover the concept of flow (Csikszentmihalyi &

Csikszentmihalyi).

Philosophy of human nature. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) proposed that at the core of

all human action, whether it includes the chase of money, power, beauty, or health, the

underlying aspiration is happiness. Such actions are deemed meaningful because people

expect that they will lead to happiness. Csikszentmihalyi has dedicated several decades of

research to understanding happiness specifically the qualities that an individual possesses

and her experience of enjoyable activities.

Csikszentmihalyi’s (as cited in Warren, 2006) work is in direct relation to the

stressful climate of living in today’s society whereby work hours are longer, employers

have higher expectations and place higher demands on their employees, materialism is

prominent, and the search for happiness is apparent. In today’s society, it is evident from

research and from the experiences of the general public that “true” happiness through

external rewards is unachievable (Baher & Stauth, 2003). Western societies, especially,

are programmed to believe that extrinsic goals such as money, a school grade, a

popularity contest, an increase in power or status, the prolongation of health or life, a

holiday, a new car, and/or a new house will lead to true happiness; this is not the case

(Baher & Stauth). True happiness is about improving the quality of an individual’s life

experience, not waiting for something external to happen to make him happy

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(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Society’s ideology in materialism was once a dominant belief,

however people are recognizing that it is a trivial truth that holds little merit

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1999).

In Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975) first book called Beyond Boredom and Anxiety

(1975), he discusses the philosophical basis for the search of happiness. He described

how people are commonly in a state of anxiety or boredom and that in order to be happy

one must find a medium between these two states. Boredom is a subjective experience

whereby the individual’s skills are greater than challenges. Anxiety is the opposite state

whereby, challenges are perceived to be greater than skills. Interestingly, most people

pursue happiness through the desire of external or materialistic gains such as power,

money, and prestige while other people sacrifice such gains in order to pursue

intrinsically rewarding goals and undertake activities for their own sake.

Csikszentmihalyi’s research has focused on understanding what motivates people to

“give up material rewards for the elusive experience of performing enjoyable acts”

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 1). Essentially, he is interested in understanding what

happiness consists of and how we can improve the quality of our life.

Philosophy of consciousness. The world we live in appears chaotic and “there is

not much that we as individuals can do to change the way the universe runs”

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 9). We have limited power and control over injustice found

in the world. However, we ultimately have direct control over our mind and how it

perceives, interprets and in turn, responds to everyday experiences. As such, one’s mind

directly impacts how an individual: (a) conducts his life, (b) experiences joy, and (c) how

40

he feels about himself. “Inner harmony” plays a direct role in happiness and “mastery

over consciousness” is the means (Csikszentmihalyi, p. 9).

Consciousness is comprised of psychic energy or stimuli including events,

experiences, sensations, feelings, and cognitions that are experienced subjectively and

can be manipulated and changed (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Although, there is a great deal

of stimuli from the external environment and from within one’s body that can potentially

enter consciousness, only those experiences that an individual chooses to process actually

become part of his life (Csikszentmihalyi). The events of consciousness shape and create

one’s reality, “although we believe that there are “things” outside consciousness, we have

direct evidence only of those that find a place in it” (Csikszentmihalyi, p. 27).

Intentions allow an individual to bring order to consciousness (Csikszentmihalyi,

1990). Information shaped by “biological needs or by internalized social goals” are

intentions (Csikszentmihalyi, p. 27). Intentions arise as a means of obtaining something

that the individual wants or needs (Csikszentmihalyi). Scholars over the years have called

intentions by other names such as drives, impulses, and desires. However, the term

intention in this context is not concerned with the underlying reason for why the

individual has the intention but rather that the individual has an intention

(Csikszentmihalyi). As such, the reason for intending something is not as important as the

intention itself. Humans have the capacity to achieve goals and bring order to one’s state

of consciousness through intentions.

Philosophy of the mind. The mind is in chaos without direction (Csikszentmihalyi,

1975, 1990, 1993; Foster & Lloyd, 2007; Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Shapiro et al., 2006).

Individuals must direct attention to goal-oriented activity otherwise their attention will

41

focus on negativity and useless stimuli (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993; Foster & Lloyd). It is

evident from Csikszentmihalyi’s book The Evolving Self, that he believes that there is

“something inherently wrong with how the mind functions” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, p.

29). Although the mind is complex, it is conducive to biases and dangers. By gaining

mastery over the mind, and learning how the mind works is important in gaining control

over one’s life.

There are two general ways to prevent an individual’s mind from drifting. One is

through external means such as focusing on external events like socializing, reading,

writing, playing sports, art-making, and watching television (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993).

Two, is to develop a discipline that is focused inward like meditation and yoga. Both

ways require energy, practice and discipline. The goal is to bring order to consciousness

and shape one’s experiences through by focusing the mind. Through purposeful activity

that requires skill, the mind is released from its disordered and unruly state

(Csikszentmihalyi).

Positive psychology. The scholarly work of Csikszentmihalyi has been a leading

force in positive psychology. The concept of flow is allied with positive psychology as it

lends a theory for developing human potential and understanding what leads to subjective

well-being and a life worth living (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Responsibility

in understanding happiness is in the hands of researchers, academics, and the government

(Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Such understanding forces and imposes substantial changes

in the ideological beliefs once deemed true, psychology also needs to change with the

times (Peterson & Seligman). Csikszentmihalyi’s work is linked to positive psychology

as the concept of flow is connected to subjective well-being. In order to better understand

42

the concept of flow, the following section will describe the general philosophy of positive

psychology.

Primarily the focus of mental health practice, specifically clinical psychology has

been on pathology. The focus has been on what is wrong with people. Clinical

psychology focuses on pathologies and complaints such as depression, anxiety, and

hopelessness to name a few. Pathologies can be measured and described through the

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychological

Association, 2000) but this document does not state what is right with people (Peterson &

Seligman, 2004). This format in psychology lends little understanding towards clarifying

what people should strive for in their life, rather it encourages wellness through the

elimination or absence of illness and/or distress, the same way that medical doctors

practice (Peterson & Seligman). It is believed that by eliminating ailments or pathologies

will lead to happiness.

A shift is taking place in psychology away from pathology and focusing to

positive psychology whereby, the positive core constructs of human experience are being

reviewed (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002; Peterson & Seligman, 2004). The

positive psychology movement has flourished over the past five years and there are

numerous researchers and authors adding to the field’s strength (Gable & Haidt, 2005;

Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2004). Conferences are being conducted to create

collaboration around the world, as well, courses are being offered in universities in the

field (Gable & Haidt; Seligman et al., 2004). Positive psychologists are marveled by the

progress of the field over the past few years (Gable & Haidt).

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There are three main topics of study that fall under the domain of positive

psychology including: (a) positive subjective experiences; (b) positive characteristics or

traits, and (c) the study of establishments that encourage and instill positive experiences

and traits (Seligman et al., 2004; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Positive

psychology is defined as “the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the

flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions” (Gable & Haidt,

2005, p. 104). It should be noted that positive psychology does not deny human suffering

but is intended to balance out the totality of human experience including “the peaks, the

valleys and everything in between” (Seligman et al., p. 410).

Flow is a theory that has emerged out of positive psychology. It is interested in

understanding what motivates individuals toward enjoyable activities that bring no

external reward or compensation (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The concept of flow is

important in enhancing the quality of life and it is meaningful in psychology as it is

concerned with subjective well-being and educating individuals on how to live life fully.

Optimal experience or flow is a state of involvement and absorption in purposeful

activity in the present moment. Flow theory advocates for a way of living that is

prosperous, enjoyable, and worthwhile (Csikszentmihalyi).

Flow Today

The experience of flow is being explored by occupational therapists,

psychologists, psychiatrists, sociologists, educators, and the general population

(Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002). The concept is being researched by those

interested in linking flow with mental health, sports, work, leisure, corporate industries,

creativity, and the expressive arts (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow is a popular concept

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that has captured the publics’ attention especially because it holds much promise in

uncovering an understanding of happiness. Flow proposes that happiness comprises of an

inner locus of control and can be attained by anyone at any time (Csikszentmihalyi).

In summary, Csikszentmihalyi’s work is multifaceted and highly diverse. He has

accomplished research in the area of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, happiness,

boredom and anxiety, positive psychology, and creativity. His initial work on intrinsic

motivation developed into the concept of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). His

philosophical and theoretical orientation is linked to positive psychology. His goal is

strongly grounded in the pursuit of understanding happiness and what contributes to a life

worth living. Flow theory is a model for pursuing purposeful goals and focusing attention

on activities that bring order to a mind normally in chaos (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990,

1996, 1999; Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006).

Theoretical Basis of Flow

Definition of Flow

Flow is a deep state of activity whereby, the individual engages in a challenging

task that requires complete demand of attention and focus (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The

activity is pursued with intention; all else unrelated to the activity fades away including

worry, anxiety, and preoccupation with one’s self (Dietrich, 2004). The task includes a

balance of challenge and skill as well as clear set goals and immediate feedback

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). A major component of flow is that the activity is enjoyable for

its own sake, indicating that it is intrinsically motivating and intrinsically rewarding

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). People that have experienced this state of flow describe it as:

45

ecstasy; an alternative reality; a loss of self-consciousness; spontaneous; effortless;

enjoyable; and pleasurable (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 1999; Warren, 2006).

Initial Research on Flow

In order to fully understand the concept of flow, it is important to comprehend the

research behind the term. Csikszentmihalyi (1975) studied individuals’ experiences of

enjoyment and intrinsic motivation. He wanted to learn why individuals pursue activities

for intrinsic value. He contended that understanding such human experience could benefit

society by leading to a theory of happiness. He conducted a qualitative study that

including hundreds of people from all across the world, he requested a description of

what it felt like to perform activities they enjoyed (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990, 2002).

Participants in the study included, for example, artists, musicians, surgeons, chess

players, and athletes (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Unique similarities in the way people

described optimal experience and enjoyment was found without discriminate difference

across culture, gender, or age (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). From the participants’ accounts

of their experiences, the theory of optimal experience based on the concept of flow was

developed (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

Initially the research consisted of questionnaires and interviews with participants.

Later a technique called Experience Sampling Method (ESM) was developed to improve

measurement of subjective experiences (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). ESM consists of an

electronic paging device that participants wear for a week and when the pager is activated

the participant writes what he is doing, what he is thinking of, how he feels at that

moment, who he is with or is he alone, and the participant also rates his skill level and

challenge level for the activity he is undertaking (Csikszentmihalyi; Foster & Lloyd,

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2007). From the information gathered in the studies an understanding of the similarities

in experience were gathered forming the premise of flow theory (Csikszentmihalyi).

According to Foster and Lloyd (2007) three types of activities were found in

common amongst participants all over the world: work, leisure, and maintenance. Work

or productive activities include anything related to school, volunteer, or work. Leisure

activities include passive and active tasks. Passive leisure activities include watching

television, surfing the internet, or resting. Active leisure activities for example, include

cooking, sports, hobbies, playing music, live theatre, and socializing. The active leisure

activities require deep engagement and attention in comparison to the other types of

activities. Maintenance activities are those activities that are essential for daily living

such as taking a shower and getting dressed, grocery shopping, preparing a meal, and

cleaning the house; these activities are considered mindless and do not require much

effort or attention. Flow was found to be present in all three types of activities. According

to Csikszentmihalyi (1990) flow can be attained in everyday activities.

Components of Flow

From the qualitative studies on flow, a set of components were established that

uniquely defined this state of optimal experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). There are

eight components of flow including the: (a) balance of challenge and skill; (b) fusion of

awareness and action; (c) clear goals; (d) feedback; (e) focus of attention; (f) sense of

control over actions; (g) loss of self-consciousness; and (h) transformation of time

(Csikszentmihalyi; Foster & Lloyd, 2007; Warren, 2006).

One, the skill level and challenge level of each of the participants were charted

and Csikszentmihalyi (1990) found that flow was linked to experiences requiring high

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challenge and high skill in comparison to average individual scores. He described this

state of optimal experience or flow as the “boundary between boredom and anxiety, when

the challenges are just balanced with the person’s capacity to act” (Csikszentmihalyi, p.

52). The skills and challenges are perceived constructs and were rated subjectively by the

participants in the study. Two, there is a fusion of awareness and action that is described

as spontaneous and automatic (Csikszentmihalyi). People lose themselves in the activity,

“where they stop being aware of themselves as separate from the actions they are

performing” (Csikszentmihalyi, p. 53). Three, clarity of intention is required. The task

must include goals that are attainable and manageable (Csikszentmihalyi). Four,

immediate feedback is required usually in the form of personal evaluation

(Csikszentmihalyi). Five, attention is placed on the task leaving no focus on external

stimuli thereby, no room for worry or anxiety (Csikszentmihalyi). In fact, individuals

would not feel hunger, thirst, fatigue, or aches and pains during a flow experience but

would as soon as the activity was accomplished (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002).

Six, the “paradox of control” means that there is a sense of control over the activity and

environment, whereby the activity feels effortless. However, there is also a sense of

surrender or freedom that feels as though one is out of control (Foster & Lloyd, 2007, p.

35). Seven, loss of self-consciousness means to release one’s concern about her self and

focus all energy on the activity (Csikszentmihalyi). In anxiety and depression studies it

was found that an individual enters such states because too much focus and energy is

placed on one’s self. For example, the relapse and recurrence of depression is linked to

rumination in thought processes suggesting that preoccupation with the self can lead to

disorder (Segal et al., 2002). In fact, Csikszentmihalyi (1990) wrote that when one is

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engrossed or deeply concerned with the self, psychic energy is consumed leaving little

time for enjoyment and creativity. Thus, releasing self consciousness may be meaningful

in mental health research as it is in flow theory. Eight, time is transformed, whereby

one’s perception of time is different than measured time (Csikszentmihalyi). Hence, time

measured by the clock is either faster or slower than what is perceived by the individual.

According to Dietrich (2004) “timelessness is one of the hallmarks of any altered state of

consciousness” (p. 758).

Autotelic Experience and Personality

The autotelic experience refers to “a self-contained activity, one that is done not

with the expectations of some future benefit, but simply because the doing itself”

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 67). A person with an autotelic personality experiences a

state of flow regularly (Csikszentmihalyi). The autotelic individual can regulate

consciousness and manage his psychic energy or the stimuli that enters the realm of

consciousness (Csikszentmihalyi). According to Csikszentmihalyi we are bombarded

with stimuli entering our stream of consciousness and it is important to bring order to

consciousness to regulate function within a state of optimal experience. Even during

unbearable situations an individual with an autotelic personality is able to enjoy such an

experience simply for its own sake (Csikszentmihalyi). It is believed that all people have

the potential to obtain autotelic experiences through training and discipline

(Csikszentmihalyi; Warren, 2006).

Psychic Entropy

Happiness is a state of mind that involves the order of consciousness and the

focus of attention (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Psychic entropy, the opposite of flow, is

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described as a state of consciousness whereby, the mind is in chaos and stimuli are

flooding the individual’s system beyond the scope of her ability to bring order to

consciousness (Csikszentmihalyi). Psychic entropy conflicts with an individual’s

intentions and may lead to psychological disorders or the experience of negative

experiences such as anxiety, fear, and rage (Csikszentmihalyi). Flow is considered a

means to happiness that enables an individual to focus her attention on activities and

perform at an optimal level of experience (Csikszentmihalyi).

Efficacy of Flow

From the literature review on flow it is unclear whether: (a) all characteristics of

flow need to be present in order to call the experience “flow”; (b) certain characteristics

take precedence over others in the experience of flow; and (c) flow is associated with

other psychological states especially other terms related to positive psychology

(Demerouti, 2006; Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Wright et al., 2006). Basically, the theory

of flow describes an optimal state of experience, yet, there is limited research to validate

what it is and what it is not. However, this does not discount the flow experience that

individuals have described it only confirms that there is considerable work to be further

explored on this topic.

According to Wright and colleagues (2006), research needs to further investigate

“what flow is, when and how it might be used, and what it is likely to achieve” (p. 27).

The theory of flow is testable (Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996); there are many areas

that are currently unexplored (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2005). For example, one,

there is little research of flow in psychotherapeutic contexts where attention is focused on

inner resources (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi). Two, flow has not been examined in

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group settings where participants of a group share a flow experience (Nakamura &

Csikszentmihalyi). Three, there is little research on the mechanisms of flow specifically,

attention processes.

From the literature, flow has been investigated in several different arenas

including: art and creativity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996); work (Csikszentmihalyi &

LeFevre, 1989; Demerouti, 2006); sports (Harmison, 2006; Jackson, 1995, 1996); leisure

(Csikszentmihalyi & LeFevre, 1989); relationships (Graham, 2008); and education

(Shernoff et al., 2003). Researchers in diverse areas of study are interested in advancing

the flow theory which is important in this early stage of development (Nakamura &

Csikszentmihalyi).

Mechanisms of Flow

Understanding the mechanisms associated with flow will lend support for the

theory and practice of flow. This section will explore two primary psychological

mechanisms related to the experience of flow: (a) consciousness and attention; and (b)

intrinsic motivation.

Consciousness and attention. According to Csikszentmihalyi (1990) the quality of

life is dependent on one’s control of consciousness and the focus of attention. The

concept of flow is based on a theoretical model of consciousness that describes how using

one’s attention in an optimal manner leads to subjective well-being and a life worth

living. The study of consciousness or the use of attention from the perspective of flow

theory has been unevaluated empirically. Thereby, the difficulty in establishing an

understanding of the mechanisms involved in flow is a result of the lack of research to

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support the theory. For the purpose of this paper, a review of Csikszentmihalyi’s

theoretical description of consciousness and the use of attention will be described.

To be fully human requires one to master his emotions and cognitions; thereby,

such mastery warrants an understanding of consciousness and how it works

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Consciousness in this context is not a mystifying process but

one that is supported by biological and neurological processes, also requiring a self-

directed proponent. Individuals have the capacity to override genetic and biological

information that directs action (Csikszentmihalyi). Consciousness functions to inform the

individual about his external and internal environment and through evaluation the

individual acts accordingly (Csikszentmihalyi). Thereby, consciousness acts as a

“clearinghouse for sensations, perceptions, feelings, and ideas establishing priorities

among all the diverse information” (Csikszentmihalyi, p. 24).

Consciousness allows individuals to choose how to respond to their environment.

For example, an individual may be faced with a difficult life situation and depending on

how she chooses to face the challenge, it is possible to overcome the challenge “by

changing the contents of consciousness” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 24). This is a quality

that individuals can develop in order to live life successfully and find joy in living.

Individuals can develop the potential to live life in this manner by bringing order to

consciousness and mastering control over emotions and cognitions. Control is fostered

through intention and the choice to attend to one’s consciousness. Flow is a model that is

intended to help individuals bring order to consciousness through purposeful activity and

the focus of attention.

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The conception of attention processing in flow theory is based on a

phenomenological approach related to information theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

Phenomenology refers to the idea that events in consciousness are phenomenon that are

experienced and interpreted as they arise in the moment (Csikszentmihalyi). Information

theory refers to an understanding that sensory data is dynamic and takes into

consideration memory and attention processing. From Csikszentmihalyi’s theoretical

framework this means that conscious stimuli composed of feelings, thoughts, sensations

and intentions can be manipulated and directed by the individual. Thereby, we have

direct control over stimuli that enters into our realm of consciousness and we can

intentionally monitor and order such information. Important to this theory is that our

awareness of such information is imperative whereby the stimuli can be consciously

directed.

According to Csikszentmihalyi (1990) a phenomenological approach to

understanding consciousness is a vital component of flow theory. The flow theory is

based on the dynamics of consciousness and the way information is processed and

experienced as part of one’s reality. Flow may be linked to psychoanalysis or may gain

grounding through consciousness studies. It may also be beneficial to develop a more

grounded basis for flow theory through neuroscientific study.

Intrinsic motivation. Central to psychology has been the study of human

motivation. Flow theory is linked to the notion that individuals will find enjoyment in an

activity as long as the activity is intrinsically motivating. The focus of intrinsic

motivation has been at the core of developing flow theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

Motivation theories in psychology investigate what directs and energizes human

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behaviour, specifically investigating why individuals engage in behaviour (Deci & Ryan,

1985). Two main types of motivation that fall along a continuum include mechanistic and

organismic (Deci & Ryan). Mechanistic refers to those theories of motivation based on

physiological drive and distinguishes individuals as passive in their environment (Deci &

Ryan). Organismic motivation is based on the view that individuals are active

participants in their environment, motivated by not only physiological need but also inner

desire; it is the intrinsic need that provides motivation for action (Deci and Ryan).

Motivation theories take into account the nature of humans and what leads to

action-oriented direction in their lives. Individuals that are intrinsically motivated

experience enjoyment, pleasure, competence, self-determination, and an internal locus of

control (Deci & Ryan, 1985). During intrinsically motivated action, individuals may

experience a state of flow (Deci & Ryan).

Flow theory is based on an organismic view of motivation and also proposes that

“affects and emotions as either initiators or concomitants of intrinsically motivated

behaviour” (Deci & Ryan, 1985, p. 28). Flow theory is based on the premise that intrinsic

motivation is relevant to seeking enjoyment. The individual enjoys the activity and will

do the activity over and over again for its own sake. According to Csikszentmihalyi

(1990) the purpose or motivation for completing the activity is for pleasure. However, it

is unclear from the literature whether individuals experiencing flow are motivated by

enjoyment only.

It is hypothesized that if activities are intrinsically motivated by enjoyment then

the activities will have a strong relationship between challenge and enjoyment. Even

highly challenging activities are enjoyable. The relationship between the challenge and

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enjoyment of an activity is unclear in the literature. As such, some studies have found a

weak relationship between challenge and enjoyment of an activity (Moneta &

Csikszentmihalyi, 1996); a positive but weak relationship (Tauer & Harackiewicz, 2001);

and no relationship (Csikszentmihalyi & Shernoff, 2003). It is uncertain whether

individuals engage in intrinsically motivating activities for enjoyment-sake only or if

other factors, such as competence, also plays a role. It is unclear what intrinsically

motivates individuals to experience flow.

Intrinsic motivation is also based on a theory of perceived competence (Deci &

Ryan, 1985). Intrinsically motivated behaviour is maintained and continued when the

individual perceives her self competent at an activity (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Researchers

have found a relationship between perceived competence, feedback and enjoyment

(Reeve & Deci, 1996; Vaneskeene & Deci, 2004). That is, individuals enjoyed an activity

more if they won a competition in comparison to those that lost the competition (Reeve &

Deci, 1996; Vaneskeene & Deci, 2004). Competence has been found to be a mediator

between feedback and enjoyment (Reeve & Deci, 1985). It is unclear from the research

whether competence plays a role in flow.

Consciousness, attention, and intrinsic motivation studies are potential

mechanisms for establishing how flow works. Overall, the research in the realm of

motivation studies adds to our understanding of the concept of flow. Further research

must be conducted to gain insight into the mechanisms of flow and how it affects health

and well-being.

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Applied Basis of Flow

People have reported flow during diverse sports activities, playing musical

instruments, creating art, playing chess, reading, writing, watching television, during

work, spending time with a friend, and many other activities. It is assumed that such

activities are considered enjoyable by the participants undertaking them. Flow can be

experienced anytime without apparent reason (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Warren, 2006).

Although flow may occur by chance the likelihood that it will occur during a structured

activity is more likely (Csikszentmihalyi).

What needs to be present for flow to happen? According to Csikszentmihalyi

(1990) the following intrinsic factors must be present in order for flow to occur: (a) clear

goals; (b) immersion in the activity; (c) deep concentration and focus of attention on the

activity; (d) choice and intention to engage in the activity; and (e) enjoyment. Extrinsic

factors that contribute to the flow experience include: (a) undertaking activities outside of

the realm of normal everyday activity; and (b) no distractions interfering with the flow

state. Attitudinal characteristics required for the experience of flow include discipline,

will, perseverance, and determination (Csikszentmihalyi).

Wright and colleagues (2006) studied what flow comprised of before, during, and

after a flow experience. The findings indicate that to get into a flow state, the individual

needs to: (a) be in a relaxed state, (b) have no interruptions, and (c) make an intention to

start the activity. During flow, individuals experience: (a) immersion in the activity, (b)

clear idea of achievement, (c) immediate feedback in their performance which increased

a sense of feeling joy and pleasure while reducing worry, and (d) outside stimuli

disappears. After flow individuals experienced: (a) joy, (b) a sense that time had passed

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quickly, (c) that the occurrence was stimulating, and (d) increased motivation. Individuals

stated that starting the activity itself was a means for entering into a flow state. As such,

the act of doing or beginning the activity was important in inducing a flow state. The

engagement of mind and body, physical and mental merging, was important to creating a

flow experience.

Since flow is an intrinsically motivated state, we can assume certain external

conditions must be present but the applied context relates to intrinsic qualities and

characteristics associated with the autotelic personality (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). In

order to experience flow an individual must engage in an activity that is enjoyable for its

own sake. That is, the activity must hold personal meaning and purpose for the individual

and also bring a sense of contentment. The individual must have the ability to meet the

challenge and have the skill set to reach her goal. The essential ingredient in flow

experience is that the activity must be something that the individual enjoys doing and her

skill and challenge level increases over time leading to a sense of accomplishment and

pleasure (Csikszentmihalyi). To experience flow an intention and choice to enter into a

state requiring complete attention and focus on the activity is vital and also there needs to

be a space with no distractions to interrupt one’s frame of mind (Wright et al., 2006).

Emphasis is placed on doing the activity (Csikszentmihalyi).

Conclusion

Flow theory advanced from research conducted on the pursuit of happiness.

Csikszentmihalyi (1990) focused his research on understanding what happiness is, how

people experience happiness, and why people experience happiness. Flow is a state of

optimal experience. It is a dynamic process of being while doing and requires the

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continued experience of focusing one’s attention (Csikszentmihalyi; Warren, 2006). Flow

is intended to serve as a means for coping and managing daily life stressors. In addition,

flow is a way to cultivate meaningful and purposeful life experiences (Warren). As such,

flow appeals to psychotherapy as it is interested in the quality of life experience and in

general, happiness and subjective well-being.

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CHAPTER 5: SYNTHESIS

Comparing Mindfulness and Flow

Summary of Mindfulness

Mindfulness is grounded in Buddhist teaching and philosophy. It is applicable in a

psychotherapeutic context as it is based in understanding and relieving human suffering.

Buddhism attributes the source of suffering to the wandering mind (Wallace & Shapiro,

2007). The unbalanced and unfocused mind leads to cognitive disturbances that interfere

with daily living (Wallace & Shapiro). The premise of mindfulness is to attend to the

workings of the mind in order to live life fully in the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 1990).

Mindfulness is a state of being whereby one’s reality is constructed thoughtfully

rather than mechanically or impulsively (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Awareness is important

because instead of living one’s life on autopilot, the individual can make conscious

choices to attend to his mind’s functioning. The individual can choose how to respond to

feelings, thoughts, and sensations by decentering or deconstructing one’s conditioned

responses to internal or external stimuli (Kabat-Zinn).

Mindfulness includes ultimate acceptance of the present moment and a quality of

serene presence (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness consists of openness to novel

experience and receptivity to one’s own experience and perspective in the present

moment (Langer, 2005). Flexibility and reflexivity in attention which adds to a sense of

resiliency in daily living (Wallace & Shapiro, 2007).

The psychological mechanisms relevant to mindfulness include: attention-

regulation, and metacognitive processes (Shapiro et al., 2006). Focusing the mind on the

present moment can be attained by paying attention to one’s breath while accepting

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stimuli that enters into one’s present moment experience. Through intention of focusing

the mind through meditation practice, cognitive balance is established leading to health

and well-being.

Mindfulness is an approach to living that can only be cultivated through practice

(Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness is carried out in an applied context primarily through

meditation. A popular meditation practice focuses attention on one’s breath. When

thoughts and feelings arise, the goal is to acknowledge the sensations and recognize the

point at which the mind wanders away from the breath. When this point of recognition is

noted, the participant draws her attention back to the breath. This process is repeated each

time the mind shifts attention away from the breath. The goal is to observe the thoughts

and feelings passively without instinctive reactivity or automatic identification with them

(Bishop et al., 2004).

Mindfulness is meaningful in a psychotherapeutic context as it establishes an

intervention for maintaining and sustaining attention to the present moment (Bishop et

al., 2004). Through attention-regulation one has the ability to see objective and subjective

experiences more clearly without the distraction of useless stimuli (Kabat-Zinn, 1990).

As such, mindfulness provides release of stress, anxiety, and ruminative thoughts that

lead to health and well-being. Although practiced through meditation it can also be

applied regularly in one’s daily life through intention and the will to pay attention to

experiences in the present moment. There are several activities that may induce a state of

mindfulness, such as: art-making, writing, drawing, reading, gardening, cooking, yoga,

tai chi, and a variety of other activities. Mindfulness teaches individuals to take

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responsibility for their life experience and to do so through autonomy, choice, and the

will to find power in awakening to life and all that it has to offer in the present moment.

Summary of Flow

Flow is a psychological state of optimal experience whereby consciousness is

balanced with one’s intentions and goals (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow theory posits

that the mind, if left unattended will wander and reflect on useless and negative stimuli

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990, 1996). Flow proposes a means for attending to the mind

in a manner that cultivates optimal life experiences.

Included in the flow experience are several elements such as the complete

absorption in an activity, clear set goals, immediate feedback, skills to complete the

activity, ability to meet the challenge, fusion of action and awareness, timelessness,

intrinsic motivation, and the loss of self-consciousness. The flow experience is enjoyable

and people indicate that the activity itself is intrinsically motivating whereby they would

pursue it for its own sake. This model of flow suggests that happiness is an intrinsic

factor that can be attained through inner strengths and resources.

Flow can be described by: (a) the prerequisite components made possible for it to

occur; or (b) reflecting on the effect it has had on the individual after the fact (Warren,

2006). It is difficult to ascertain exactly what is taking place during a flow for a number

of different reasons. The experience of flow is based essentially on subjective inner

experience and the phenomenological experience of human consciousness (Wright et al.,

2006). Individuals taking part in flow research are not only participants but also the

primary researchers. As such, flow may be a very personal experience that can only be

described by the person experiencing it.

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Flow is meaningful in a psychotherapeutic context as it is interested in the quality

of one’s life experience. Flow is interested in understanding what motivates individuals

toward enjoyable activities that are intrinsically rewarding. It is a model and a theory for

pursuing purposeful goals and focusing attention on activities that bring order to one’s

state of being (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990).

Comparison of Flow and Mindfulness

Philosophical basis. From the literature review on flow and mindfulness there are

several characteristics or elements that are shared by the two concepts on a philosophical

level. Mindfulness stems from a philosophy seeking to relieve suffering, whereby flow

originated from research on intrinsic motivation and enjoyment. Flow and mindfulness

are both concerned with helping individuals to move toward subjective well-being. The

premise of both theories is to enhance the potential of human ability by moving toward

optimal life experiences. Similarities shared by flow and mindfulness include: (a) the

mind as a chaotic entity; (b) subjective well-being as an internal resource; (c) positive

psychology; and (d) phenomenological approach. The major differences between flow

and mindfulness include how they promote human potential and the concepts used to

describe the philosophical beliefs.

Both mindfulness and flow view the mind as a chaotic entity (Csikszentmihalyi,

1975, 1990; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). The chaotic mind is at the core of human suffering and

can interfere with the attainment of joy and pleasure. Flow proposes that the mind is

conditioned to think in negative and pessimistic ways and therefore requires purposeful

activity to function at an optimal level (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Mindfulness suggests

that the wandering mind leads to cognitive imbalance and the focus of attention on the

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present moment is required to restore cognitive functioning and well-being (Shapiro et

al., 2002). Both theories propose that the key to subjective well-being is to understand

how the mind works and to attend to stimuli in consciousness in a reflective manner

rather than in a mechanical and habitual way (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Shapiro et al.).

Mindfulness and flow teach us that subjective well-being is an internal resource

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Flow theory is based on the premise that happiness is an

intrinsic factor, not something that money can buy (Csikszentmihalyi). Ironically, the

Buddha himself left his worldly possessions to pursue peace of mind and on his journey

learned that going inward to attend to the workings of the mind was the key to relief from

suffering. In essence, mindfulness and flow philosophically contend that external stimuli

or stimulus-driven pleasure will not lead to happiness. Both establish that well-being is

associated with the need to cultivate attitudes, behaviours, and strengths as highlighted by

positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Wallace & Shapiro, 2007).

Mindfulness and flow promote inner strengths as a source of health and well-being.

Mindfulness and flow are allied with positive psychology and the movement

towards valuing positive attributes and experiences (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000;

Shapiro et al., 2002). The strength of human capacity is fostered by mindfulness and flow

theory. Mindfulness and flow are dedicated to expanding human potential and focusing

on the positive characteristics, traits, and subjective experiences that lead to well-being.

Mindfulness is interested in the positive resources of the individual and her internal

healing potential (Shapiro, Schwartz, & Santerre, 2006). Flow is concerned with optimal

life experiences, and the individual’s potential to create such experiences in her life on a

regular basis through purposeful activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

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Both flow and mindfulness are dynamic processes that include a

phenomenological view of consciousness. The difficulty with studying phenomenological

processes is that the participants involved in the research are also primary researchers;

flow and mindfulness struggle with the same empirical concerns. As such, both theories

encourage the unfolding of phenomenon in consciousness and conceive that individuals

have the means to cope or manage with contents in consciousness since energy is not

wasted on useless stimuli occupying one’s state of presence (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990;

Kabat-Zinn, 1990). That is, during flow, an individual’s attention is completely focused

leaving no energy to focus on external stimuli that may distract the individual. In

contrast, however, during mindfulness an individual’s attention is focused on the breath

and when the focus is distracted away from the breath, the individual has one primary

goal, that is to return his attention back to the breath. Mindfulness and flow teach

individuals to attend to stimuli in the present moment.

One significant difference between flow and mindfulness is in how they promote

and foster human potential. Mindfulness is a state of being; whereas, flow is a state of

being while doing (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Warren, 2006). Mindfulness teaches individuals to

focus attention on the workings of the mind through practice such as meditation. It is

through such practice and discipline that individuals learn to accept the contents that

enter in and out of the present moment experience. Mindfulness also encourages

attitudinal characteristics such as compassion and openness as a way of approaching life

(Kabat-Zinn). Flow on the other hand, teaches individuals to focus attention on activities

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The focus is outward even though the after-effect of flow has

an internal impact (i.e., enjoyment and self growth). Perhaps there are similarities in how

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flow and mindfulness foster human potential however, the research on flow focuses

primarily on external activities such as sports, work, and relationships, rather than on

internal sources such as psychotherapy, meditation, and tai chi (Nakamura &

Csikszentmihalyi, 2002).

Another significant difference between the philosophical basis of flow and

mindfulness is associated with the concepts and terms used to describe various

philosophical beliefs. In mindfulness theory, the concepts are derived from Buddhist

teaching and philosophy, whereby flow is centered on Western terminology. For

example, flow describes a state of optimal experience, whereby challenge and skill are

high and the individual is completely engaged in activity. Mindfulness, on the other hand,

proposes that a state of optimal experience is equivalent to the Buddhist teaching of being

“Awake” (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Awakening refers to a state of consciousness that is

optimal and requires tending to the workings of the mind. In addition, meditation is a

practice for awakening, whereas, the flow model and all of its constituent components are

important in attaining a state of optimal experience. Thereby, meditation is equivalent to

the “purposeful activity” described by flow theory. Again, the means of attaining the state

of optimal experience is diverse and the concepts are different. As a result of the

differences in terminology (East versus West) it is difficult to compare and contrast

mindfulness and flow. Perhaps a study comparing the terminology of flow and

mindfulness would be useful in order to gain further understanding of their similarities

and differences.

Primarily, mindfulness and flow are similar in that they both focus on subjective

well-being and approach psychology from a positive viewpoint. Both mindfulness and

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flow advocate that it isn’t important what we do in life but how we approach life

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). The key to optimal life experience is

provided in understanding how consciousness works. Although mindfulness and flow

share similar philosophical beliefs, their model and goals are slightly different.

Theoretical basis. Flow and mindfulness are primarily concerned with how one

attends to information. On a theoretical level, both theories propose that attention-

regulation and maintenance is vital for subjective well being (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990;

Kabat-Zinn, 1990). In a psychological context, attention-regulation is important for

healthy functioning especially for individuals that suffer from stress, anxiety, or

depression. The following section will explore the similarities and differences related to

flow and mindfulness in relation to attention-regulation. Physiological and neurological

mechanisms associated with mindfulness and flow theory will also be considered in this

section.

The difficulty in comparing flow and mindfulness from a theoretical perspective

is that flow has been largely unevaluated in a psychotherapeutic context, especially in

comparison to mindfulness. As a result, it is challenging to compare attention processes

in flow and mindfulness. However, from the research it is likely that flow and

mindfulness share similarities in self-regulation of attention.

Self-regulation is a function of adapting to change as well as sustaining and

maintaining the ability to function (Shapiro et al., 2006). Mindfulness and flow have a

common ground and that is the importance of focused and sustained attention (Wallace &

Shapiro, 2007). However, in mindfulness, attention is uncensored whereby thoughts,

feelings, and sensations are observed but attention is not centered on any stimuli other

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than the intended focus (e.g., the breath or the present moment). In contrast, attention in

the experience of flow is censored and the focus is on the activity. However, the goals are

different in that mindfulness is about non-striving whereas flow is about the attainment of

clear set goals (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Essentially, mindfulness and

flow differ in their approach to attention-regulation whereas mindfulness is uncensored

and flow is censored.

In mindfulness practice, there is a constant shift in the focus of attention back to

the present moment. At the core of mindfulness is the intention to pay attention non-

judgmentally to the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Shapiro et al., 2006). However,

in flow, the intention to pay attention and to focus on the activity is required before the

start of the activity, yet it is unclear whether this state of attention-regulation is required

throughout the flow experience. From the research it appears that “something” happens

during flow that sustains one’s attention and focus on the activity; however, it is unclear

whether this state of maintaining attention is intentional or not. On a cognitive level is the

individual responsible for maintaining attention throughout the flow experience? Or are

there neurological and/or physiological mechanisms that take effect to sustain attention

without the individual’s cognitive awareness?

It is unclear whether metacognitive processes occur during flow. In fact,

Csikszentmihalyi (1990) wrote that individuals do not recognize that they are hungry or

fatigue until after a flow experience. Once an individual enters a flow state nothing else

matters but the activity. It seems as though one’s attention during flow is captured by the

activity leaving no energy to process extra stimuli (Warren, 2006). Further, awareness is

unintentional and effortless, whereby, action and awareness merge, self-consciousness is

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diminished, and the individual experiences a reality outside of the norm (Warren). The

activity in flow is “spontaneous, automatic, and self-unaware” (Warren, p. 104); quite the

opposite of mindfulness. Hence, flow seems to diverge from mindfulness during the

experience. To interrupt an individual during flow would suspend the experience, thereby

rendering it difficult to study in-course. The attention processes active during flow

require further investigation. To understand what is happening during flow may have

significance in comprehending how flow and mindfulness are interrelated.

According to Shapiro and colleagues (2006) self-regulation of attention in

mindfulness research is based on feedback loops. Such an understanding of attention-

regulation may also be linked to the experience of flow. The feedback model includes:

“intention – attention – connection - regulation –order – health” (Shapiro et al., p. 380).

For example, one’s intention to pay attention non-judgmentally leads to a connection

with one’s environment or activity in the present moment further establishing self-

regulation and then greater order of self, health, and well-being. The feedback loop also

serves as a model for comprehending the benefits of self-regulation and the intrinsic

motivation towards such action. Thereby, there are positive health benefits of regulating

attention that are advocated by both mindfulness and flow theory. The feedback loop may

serve as a model for professing the benefits of mindfulness and flow.

According to Gutman and Schindler (2007) mindfulness and flow may share

similarities in physiological and neurological mechanisms, as well as, the stimulation of

the brain’s reward system. Flow and mindfulness share common features such as: intense

concentration; diminished focus on the external environment; complete absorption in the

present moment; a sense of union with the world; release of worry and anxiety; and

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subjective well-being and contentment. It is believed that both flow and mindfulness

activate the brain’s reward system which distinguishes pleasurable activities from

harmful activities whereby, pleasurable activities are repeated while harmful activities are

avoided.

Related to the research on the brain’s reward system is Herbert Benson’s research

on the relaxation response. Benson (1974) proposes that certain activities elicit a

relaxation response that is beneficial to one’s health and well-being. The relaxation

response is opposite to the body’s fight/flight response (Gutman & Schindler, 2007). For

example, the response has been found to decrease heart rate and blood pressure (Newberg

et al., 2001), and increase immune functioning (Jacobs, 2001). It is believed that flow and

mindfulness elicit such physiological responses (Gutman & Schindler). Benson and

colleagues (1974) state that the relaxation response can be found in activities that share

the following characteristics: (a) quiet environment or space; (b) increased inward focus;

(c) everyday anxiety and worry is unnoticed; and (d) attention and concentration is

centered on an activity. Understanding the neurological and physiological mechanisms of

flow and mindfulness would provide further merit for their importance in a psychological

context.

Applied basis. Mindfulness teaches individuals to focus attention on the workings

of the mind through practice such as meditation. It is through such practice and discipline

that individuals learn to accept the contents that enter in and out of the present moment

experience. Flow on the other hand teaches individuals to focus attention on activities

that either focus on external stimuli such as, socializing, sports activities, work, and

school, or on internal stimuli such as, meditation, art-making, or yoga. Flow encourages

69

individuals to focus attention on activities in order to organize consciousness.

Mindfulness, in contrast teaches individuals to bring order to consciousness through

silence and by going inward. Both mindfulness and flow bring order to inner processes

through activity, whether the activity is the breath or action-oriented tasks may not be

relevant.

Mindfulness and flow both occur on a continuum of intensity. Warren (2006)

proposes that flow is equivalent to an intense state of mindfulness. Wright and colleagues

(2006) conceived that mindfulness is a phenomenon found in the experience of flow.

Researchers believe that in some way, flow includes a mindfulness component (Warren;

Wright et al.). Thereby, it is assumed that by cultivating mindfulness a flow state may be

induced.

Mindfulness can be cultivated daily and easily by focusing on the breath or by

forming an intention to focus attention on the present moment. For example, an

individual can be mindful by asking himself questions such as: What am I feeling right

now? What am I sensing right now? What is in awareness at this moment? (Germer,

Siegel, & Fulton, 2005). Flow, on the other hand, is difficult to cultivate easily especially

because there is no simple way to enter a flow state, although it is proposed that flow can

be experienced in daily activities such as in conversations with others, watching

television, reading, and writing (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi proposes that

if the requirements for flow are present, it is likely that one will enter into a flow state.

Flow is cultivated through activity that is enjoyable, whereby one has the skills to meet

the challenge.

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Flow and mindfulness share similarities in the environmental space required to

induce their respective states such as: quiet space without interruption; activity that

requires attention; and the intention to pay attention. Flow and mindfulness both begin

with the intention and the will to pay attention. The environmental space required for

flow and mindfulness is more conducive to one’s internal frame of being more so than

one’s external environment.

Conclusion

Mindfulness and Flow

Flow and mindfulness share similar elements and characteristics. It is

indeterminable if these two states are one of the same along a continuum of optimal

experience or if they are distinct processes. One possibility is that flow is an extension of

mindfulness philosophy and practice in everyday life whereby mindfulness is one

component of flow (Wright et al., 2006). Another possibility is that the diverse

characteristics of flow and mindfulness create a unique entity of consciousness rendering

them as distinct processes (Gutman & Schindler, 2007). However, it is difficult to

ascertain the relationship between mindfulness and flow given the limited research on

flow theory in particular. It could be argued that the philosophical foundation of

mindfulness and flow actually impedes our understanding of their true theoretical

processes and interferes with the ability to compare the two. Both mindfulness and flow

would benefit from comparison studies through the evaluation of physiological and/or

neurological mechanisms.

Flow and mindfulness conceive that optimal life experiences are dependent on the

use of psychic energy or consciousness (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Kabat-Zinn, 1990).

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Flow theory proposes that vast amounts of psychic energy entering consciousness

requires attention otherwise, the individual may enter into a state of psychic entropy or

psychological distress (Csikszentmihalyi). Further, the individual needs to bring order to

consciousness and move towards self-growth. The way to bring order to consciousness is

by creating intention and to set clear goals for focusing attention (Csikszentmihalyi).

Mindfulness advocates that the wandering mind leads to cognitive imbalance and

psychological distress (Shapiro et al., 2006). In order to balance the mind, attention must

be given to the present moment whereby thoughts, feelings, and sensations are brought

into awareness and accepted non-judgmentally (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). The goal of

mindfulness is to be aware of all that enters into consciousness but not to expend energy

attached to any stimuli, other than by focusing on the present moment (e.g., the breath).

Both theories predicate that consciousness plays a central role in the demise of

psychological distress and/or the opposite, psychological well-being (Csikszentmihalyi;

Kabat-Zinn). The goal of both theories is to educate people to attend to consciousness in

a manner that leads to subjective well-being. Mindfulness teaches individuals to focus on

the here and now, while flow teaches individuals to engage in enjoyable activities.

From the literature review on mindfulness and flow, it is noted that the two terms

share similarities in describing the philosophy of human nature. One similarity is found in

the illustration of the wandering mind as a source of cognitive imbalance or

psychological distress (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Another similarity is

that optimal experience is a subjective inner experience and disassociated with stimulus-

driven pleasure. Another similarity is that the mind is in chaos without direction and

thereby focusing the mind leads to subjective well-being (Csikszentmihalyi; Kabat-Zinn).

72

Flow and mindfulness share commonalities in attention-regulation. Important to

both mindfulness and flow is sustained and maintained attention on the present moment

(Wallace & Shapiro, 2007). However, the confusion remains with understanding what

happens during the experience of flow. Such clarification is imperative in further

understanding the attention-regulation processes in flow. Mindfulness and flow are

beneficial processes for psychotherapeutic practice as they are focused on the mind and

cognitive skill to aid in health and well-being.

From an applied perspective, it is difficult to know how to induce a state of flow.

Essentially, it is important to engage in enjoyable activities that are challenging, require

skill, and have the potential for meaning and purpose in one’s life (Csikszentmihalyi,

1990). By practicing mindfulness one may enter into a flow experience (Warren, 2006).

Mindfulness is normally practiced through meditation but can be cultivated in one’s daily

life through intention. The importance of flow and mindfulness is in training the mind to

focus on the present moment, whether that is by focusing on one’s breath or by engaging

in an enjoyable activity. The premise of mindfulness and flow is to be present in

whatever one is doing, and to intentionally focus on one’s life in the here and now.

Art Therapy, Mindfulness, and Flow

Both mindfulness and flow require practice in order to cultivate such states of

consciousness. However, the difficulty is that there are not many structured interventions

for inducing flow and mindfulness rendering it difficult to practice. Art therapy provides

an avenue for the practice of flow and mindfulness. Art therapy is a profession that

acknowledges the importance of active participation in one’s life (Allen, 1995). Through

art-making, observation and reflection, a sense of awareness can be attained that leads to

73

subjective well-being (Malchiodi, 2003). Art therapy is a viable intervention for inducing

flow and mindfulness because it includes: (a) an enjoyable activity; (b) a functional

space; (c) focus on the mind’s workings; and (d) an inward focus. Art therapy aids to

focus clients’ attention to the present moment through the art process and art product, and

allows the process to be bearable through the pleasurable experience of creative

expression (Allen).

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APPENDIX A

Art Therapy: A Practical Guide for Inducing States of Mindfulness and Flow

This manual is intended for the use of trained art therapists interested in inducing

a state of mindfulness and flow with their clients. In today’s society, individuals are

consumed by the over-exertion of daily living including stress accrued from work,

school, and/or family demands. People’s thoughts are clouded, lives are overrun with

things to do, and this manifests in an unhealthy and unproductive approach to living

(Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Our mind is consumed and the focus of our attention is suboptimal.

Mindfulness and flow both tap into the individuals’ subjective experiences and propose a

means to engage life fully at an optimal level of experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990;

Kabat-Zinn). This can be effective for mental health by empowering individuals to seek

out their own resources and inner strengths for defining and reaching a subjective state of

optimal experience. Art therapy, mindfulness, and flow are all interested in helping

individuals be present in their lives and to find more satisfying approaches to living life

fully.

How to Use this Manual

This manual is a practical guide for inducing states of mindfulness and flow in an

art therapeutic context with clients. The guide is proposed to enrich art therapy practice

by inviting mindfulness and flow states. The manual combines art therapy philosophy

and practice with the proponents of mindfulness and flow. The author of this manual

subscribes to a phenomenological perspective of art therapy and approaches the practice

from an arts-based perspective. The exercises will follow Betensky’s (2001) method of

art therapy (see Appendix B). This manual is intended to be used by trained art therapists

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and serves as a practical guideline that can be adjusted according to the needs of the

client. Included in the manual are a number of exercises for inducing states of

mindfulness and flow with clients. The guideline describes examples of opening and

closing exercises for the session with the client, as well as a format for presenting the art

exercise and materials recommended for use.

Mindfulness

What is Mindfulness?

Mindfulness is a state of being that includes radical acceptance and awareness of

the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Mindfulness includes a number of attitudinal

characteristics such as: non-judging, patience, a beginner’s mind, trust, non-striving,

acceptance, and letting go (Kabat-Zinn). In addition, mindfulness includes intrinsic

qualities of being such as affection, compassion, openness, and kindness (Kabat-Zinn).

From a psychological perspective, mindfulness is two-tiered including the self-

regulation of attention and acceptance of the present moment (Bishop et al., 2004).

Mindfulness is a psychological process of “regulating attention in order to bring a quality

of nonelaborative awareness to current experience and a quality of relating to one’s

experience within an orientation of curiosity, experiential openness, and acceptance”

(Bishop et al., p. 234).

Mindfulness has been linked to improving stress, anxiety, depression and a

number of other psychological conditions (Anderson et al., 2007). The premise of

mindfulness practice is to create a sense of awareness that directs attention to the present

moment fostering a sense of connectedness with the here and now (Kabat-Zinn, 1990).

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Such focus is believed to eliminate the suffering and pain associated with the wandering

mind, ruminative thoughts, and unproductive attention-regulation (Kabat-Zinn).

Common mindfulness practices include meditation, yoga, body scan, and writing

(Hall, 2003). However, researchers have created a practice called Mindfulness-based Art

Therapy (MBAT) which combines art therapy and mindfulness (Moneti et al., 2005).

Researchers believe that art therapy induces a state of mindfulness (Malchiodi, 2007).

Since mindfulness encourages inward introspection, art therapy offers a method.

It is likely that any type of art therapy practice will induce a mindfulness state.

However, art therapists need to be aware that the requirements for mindfulness include:

(a) no interruption to the mindfulness state; (b) focus of attention on the activity; (c)

attitudinal components such as openness, beginner’s mind, and letting go; and (d) a space

conducive to foster such attitudinal characteristics which is naturally inherent in art

therapy practice and philosophy.

Flow

What is Flow?

According to Csikszentmihalyi (1990) flow is a psychological term used to denote

a state that occurs when an individual is completely immersed in an activity. Flow is a

deep state of activity whereby the individual engages in a challenging task that requires

complete demand of attention and focus. To be in a state of flow entails that there is a

challenge to be met, skills to be used, and clear set goals to attain. Expectations are clear

and attainable. Attention is focused and intention is made towards the goal. In addition,

outside external factors become irrelevant as the primary focus is on the activity at hand.

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A major component of flow is that the activity is enjoyable for its own sake, indicating

that it is intrinsically motivating.

Flow theory has emerged out of positive psychology. It is interested in

understanding what motivates individuals toward enjoyable activities that are intrinsically

rewarding (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow theory is based on the premise that intrinsic

motivation is relevant to seeking enjoyment. The individual enjoys the activity and will

do the activity over and over again for its own sake (Csikszentmihalyi).

Flow is a model for pursuing purposeful goals and focusing attention on activities

that bring order to one’s state of being (Csikszentmihalyi). Individuals can develop the

potential to live life in this manner by bringing order to consciousness and mastering

control over emotions and cognitions (Csikszentmihalyi). Control is fostered through

intention and the choice to attend to one’s consciousness through purposeful activity

(Csikszentmihalyi).

There are eight components of flow including the: (a) balance of challenge and

skill; (b) fusion of awareness and action; (c) clear goals; (d) feedback; (e) focus of

attention; (f) sense of control over actions; (g) loss of self-consciousness; and (h)

transformation of time (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Foster & Lloyd, 2007; Warren, 2006).

To enter into a state of flow requires the focus and absorption of attention on an activity

that one enjoys doing.

Flow can be experienced anytime without apparent reason (Csikszentmihalyi,

1990; Warren, 2006). To experience flow an intention and choice to enter into a state

requiring complete attention and focus on the activity is vital and there needs to be a

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space with no distractions to interrupt one’s frame of mind (Wright et al., 2006).

Emphasis is placed on doing the activity (Csikszentmihalyi).

Flow has been linked to self-esteem, happiness, life satisfaction, and work

productivity (Wright et al., 2006). Flow serves as a means for coping and managing daily

life stressors (Warren, 2006). In addition, flow is a way to cultivate meaningful and

purposeful life experiences (Warren). As such, flow appeals to psychotherapy as it is

interested in the quality of life experience and in general, happiness and subjective well-

being (Warren).

Mindfulness and Flow

Mindfulness and flow describe that what we attend to or pay attention to in life is

an important factor in determining the quality of our life experiences and more so the

quality of our moment to moment experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Kabat-Zinn,

1990). Attention is the variable that either supports a healthy and productive life or leads

to illness and pain (Csikszentmihalyi; Kabat-Zinn).

Csikszentmihalyi (1990) and Kabat-Zinn (1990) leave us with is a philosophy and

a model for living life fully and completely – their primary core statement is to pay

attention. Happiness and relief from suffering are found in moments of optimal

experience whereby attention is focused on now. In addition, by gaining mastery over our

consciousness we can live fully present and engaged in life in the present moment. Flow

theory proposes that the way towards optimal experience is by training the mind to focus

on purposeful activity. Mindfulness theory proposes that the way towards optimal life

experiences is to awaken to the moment by fully engaging in the present moment

experience. As such, mindfulness and flow suggest that the point in power in our lives is

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the focus of our immediate attention on the present moment. Art therapy is an

intervention that teaches us to focus on the present moment, to engage our senses fully,

and become aware of what is represented in our consciousness through creative

expression. Through creativity, reflection, and self-growth, subjective well-being can be

attained.

Art Therapy Art therapy facilitates healing towards psychological well-being by: increasing

self-awareness and self-understanding, empowering clients towards inherent personal

healing, expressing difficult emotions, sensations, and thoughts, experiencing one’s

authentic self, and witnessing one’s own life through art (Hinz, 2006; London, 1989;

Malchiodi, 2002). Mindfulness and flow are states of consciousness that have positive

affect on subjective well-being and therefore would be beneficial in an art therapeutic

context (Monti et al., 2005; Warren, 2006).

Art therapy is a viable intervention for inducing flow and mindfulness. Warren

(2006) proposes that art therapy is a natural approach to facilitating a flow experience.

Art therapy offers the client the opportunity to be completely focused and absorbed in art-

making. Art therapy can either be a practice that assists individuals to engage in a flow

activity or it can help individuals uncover potential flow activities. Through fostering

creativity and imagination, the values of flow and intrinsic motivation are introduced to

the client. In a psychotherapeutic context the goal may entail helping individuals to

identify the activities that he enjoys doing and to assist the client in devoting attention

toward these activities (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2002; Warren, 2006).

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Monti and colleagues (2005) proposed that the combination of verbal and non-verbal

interventions, as offered by art therapy and mindfulness meditation enrich

psychotherapeutic practice. Art therapy can induce mindfulness and flow because it

includes: (a) an enjoyable activity; (b) a functional space; (c) focus on the mind’s

workings; and (d) an inward focus. Art therapy aids to focus clients’ attention to the

present moment through the art process and art product, and allows the process to be

bearable through the pleasurable experience of creative expression (Allen, 1995).

Flow and mindfulness are both states of experience that are primarily concerned

with how energy is used in consciousness; art therapy also follows a phenomenological

perspective (Betensky, 2001). However, art therapy offers a unique component. It allows

clients to not only be present with their subjective and objective experiences but also to

“see” their experiences via the art creation (Monti et al., 2005). From a phenomenological

perspective, art therapy allows us to see what is truly authentic to our state of being

(Betensky). That is, it allows us to see our experience of consciousness directly through

creative expression. Once we are able to see our consciousness directly we also have the

opportunity to see our experience in novel and diverse ways (Betensky). From a

therapeutic stance this is beneficial because such experiences assist the client in gaining

self-awareness, focusing attention on the present moment, and understanding their inner

truth and consciousness which all can lead to subjective well-being (Allen, 1995;

Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Malchiodi, 2007). Art therapy teaches us to

look and see in new ways providing us with the opportunity to learn, grow, and expand

our sense of self.

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Primarily art therapy is concerned with externalizing one’s inner experience

through art expression (Allen, 1995). Thereby, making one’s energy visible and bringing

one’s state of awareness outward through the art expression (Allen). Art therapy is a way

to get to know our deepest self (Allen). In addition, it allows us to attend to phenomenon

that enters consciousness in the present moment through creative expression (Allen).

Essentially, art therapy teaches us to focus our attention on the here and now which is

also the premise of mindfulness and flow theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Kabat-Zinn,

1990).

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Exercise One

Theme: Intention

Purpose: The purpose of this exercise is to allow the client the opportunity to set his/her

intention for entering into art therapy. This allows the client and therapist to build a sense

of rapport. It serves to clarify the client’s goal(s) for counselling, and to open dialogue for

what art therapy is and what it can offer.

Opening: (Directive to the client). Express how you are feeling in this moment. Express

at least five feelings.

Art Activity: (Directive to the client). Draw a picture of your intention for art therapy

practice. What is it that you intend to gain from art therapy? An intention can be anything

that is important and meaningful to you personally.

Processing: What does your image represent? What did you notice?

Closing: (Directive to the client). Write in your notebook about what today’s art therapy

experience was like for you. Your notebook, along with your art work will serve as a

record of your work accomplished in art therapy.

Art Materials: White paper, colored paper, magazines, tempera paint, paintbrushes,

water canister, oil pastels, chalk pastels, and notebook.

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Exercise Two

Theme: Mandala drawing

Purpose: Mandala means sacred circle and is described as an individual’s map of

consciousness (Malchiodi, 2007). The purpose of this exercise is to have the client focus

on the present moment through the creation of a mandala representing his/her current life

experience. The directive is as open as possible to allow for free expression.

Opening: A grounding exercise to begin the session includes focusing on one’s breath.

The client closes his/her eyes while focusing on his/her breathing for three minutes.

Art Activity: (Directive to the client). Draw a circle on your paper. The circle can take

up a large or small part of the page. Fill in the circle and/or the page until you feel that

your image is complete.

Processing: What was the art-making process like for you? What comes to mind when

you look at the art piece? Tell me about the art piece.

Closing: (Directive to the client). In your notebook, create a title for your mandala. List

five words that come to mind when you look at your mandala and create a short statement

using those five words. The purpose of this exercise is to document a summary of today’s

session for your records.

Art Materials: White paper, colored paper, oil pastels, chalk pastels, felt markers,

tempera paint, paintbrushes, water canister, and a notebook.

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Exercise Three

Theme: Scribble Drawing

Purpose: The purpose of the scribble drawing is to allow the client to draw

spontaneously while experiencing a state of non-judgment, beginner’s mind, openness,

and diminished self-consciousness.

Opening: The purpose of this opening exercise is to ground the client in the present

moment. (Directive to the client). Name five things you see, five things you hear, and

five things you sense.

Art Activity: (Directive to the client). Scribble on the paper using oil pastel(s) and/or felt

pen(s). If you want you can close your eyes while scribbling. Continue scribbling until

you feel that your portrait is complete.

Processing: What was the process like? What did you notice?

Closing: (Directive to the client). To document today’s session, summarize in one

sentence what it felt like to scribble. In your notebook this week create scribble drawings.

Art Materials: White paper, oil pastels, felt markers, and notebook.

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Exercise Four

Theme: Free Drawing

Purpose: The purpose of this exercise is to allow the client the opportunity to enter a

state of mindfulness and flow without a directive. The client has the freedom to express

whatever comes to his/her mind through creative expression.

Opening: Finger paint with the non-dominant hand as a pre-play warm up exercise.

Art Activity: (Directive to the client). Using the art supplies available draw one picture

or as many pictures as you would like.

Processing: Ask the client for permission to hold the picture up. If the client would like

to process the image through discussion or writing then do so, otherwise observe and

witness the image through silence only.

Closing: (Directive to the client). Taking what you have learned today from your art

creation, how can you apply this information so that it positively affects your life this

week? In your notebook, write one word that comes to mind about today’s session.

Art Materials: White paper, colored paper, oil pastels, chalk pastels, felt markers,

magazines, glue, scissors, finger paint, tempera paint, paintbrushes, water canister, and a

notebook.

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Exercise Five

Theme: Going Inward

Purpose: The purpose of this exercise is to allow the client the opportunity to go inward

and access his/her inner resources as a means to move toward strength and well-being.

Opening: (Directive to the client). Close your eyes and visualize a place that brings you a

sense of inner harmony. While in this place, observe feeling, thoughts, and sensations

that come to mind. If your mind begins to wander, go back to envisioning this place of

inner harmony.

Art Activity: (Directive to the client). Choose two paintbrushes. Choose two colors of

paint, one for each brush. Stand up in front of the paper with a paintbrush in each hand.

The brushes do not touch the paper at this time. Eyes closed. Focus attention on what it

feels like to hold the brush in your hands. (Continue for a minute). Now begin moving the

paintbrushes in the air in small circles. (Continue for a minute). Now begin moving the

paintbrushes in the air in progressively bigger circles. (Continue for a minute). Now

move the paintbrushes in a combination of small and big circles as you wish. (Continue

for a minute). Move closer to your piece of paper. I want you to continue this movement

of your paintbrushes on paper. When you need more paint, open your eyes and continue

painting until you feel that your portrait is complete. You may add different colors if you

wish to do so. (Allow the client to stay in this space uninterrupted until she is complete).

Processing: What was that like for you? What did you notice? What title do you give

your portrait? What are five words that describe your portrait?

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Closing: (Directive to the client). In your notebook, write what you have learned today

about inner harmony. Reflect on how you can access this point of strength daily in your

life. Choose a symbol that evokes this state of inner harmony.

Art Materials: White paper (tacked on to a wall), tempera paint, two paint brushes, a

water canister, and a notebook.

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Exercise Six

Theme: Just Breathe

Purpose: The purpose of this exercise is to focus on the breath and bring awareness to

the present moment. Focusing on one’s breath is an easy way of teaching a client to

practice mindfulness regularly.

Opening: Listen to sounds of the ocean.* Reflect on how the rhythm of the ocean sound

is similar to one’s breath. Breathe in and out.

Art Activity: Continue listening to the sound of the ocean. Have the client close his/her

eyes and focus on his/her breathing. Open eyes and have the client draw a picture of

his/her breath.

Processing: What did you notice? What did you feel and sense while creating the image?

What do you see?

Closing: Close with a visualization of the breath. (Directive to the client). Eyes are

closed. Visualize the breath coming up through the feet and out through the mouth. Again

the breath comes up through the feet and out through the mouth.

Art Materials: White paper, colored paper, oil pastels, chalk pastels, felt markers,

tempera paint, brushes, and water canister.

• (One suggested C.D. is Relaxing Pachelbel by Joseph Stevenson).

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Exercise Seven

Theme: Clay

Purpose: The purpose of this exercise is to have the client focus inward while

disregarding external stimuli by keeping his/her eyes closed. The exercise allows the

client to experience letting go of expectation and rather to cultivate a frame of mind that

includes openness, non-judgment, and acceptance of the present moment.

Opening: (Directive to the client). Draw a picture of five things you saw today. The

purpose is to bring awareness to one’s day and to examine one’s thoughtful approach to

daily living.

Art Activity: The client closes his/her eyes. Holding the piece of clay in his/her hands,

the client is asked to hold the clay for a few minutes. The client is asked to shape the

piece of clay, listening to what the clay wants to be, not what the client wants it to be.

When the client is ready, he/she can create the image doing so with his/her eyes closed, if

comfortable.

Processing: What was the process like for you? What did you notice? Was it difficult or

easy? Tell me about your creation.

Closing: (Directive to the client). In your notebook, write as though the image is

speaking to you. What does the image want you to know?

Art Materials: Clay, water canister, and notebook.

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Exercise Eight

Theme: Drawing your Here and Now

Purpose: The purpose of this exercise is to create awareness of one’s consciousness in

the present moment. The opening exercise is a warm-up of bringing order to

consciousness even when one’s present moment appears chaotic.

Opening: (Directive to the client). Thinking of the word chaos, create an image that

represents chaos. Use the art supplies in a chaotic way. From that image pick a part of the

picture that you like and develop it further on a separate piece of paper (adapted from

Liebmann, 2004).

Art Activity: Using the art supplies available create an image that represents your life

here and now.

Processing: What did you notice? When looking at the image what stands out? What do

you see?

Closing: (Directive to the client). In your notebook, write about what stood out in today’s

session.

Art Materials: White paper, colored paper, oil pastels, chalk pastels, felt markers,

tempera paint, brushes, water canister, and a notebook.

104

Exercise Nine

Theme: Things I Enjoy

Purpose: The purpose of this activity is to gather information about the client on what

areas of life they may have experienced flow. Flow experiences are enjoyable, so the best

approach is to inquire about what the client enjoys doing (Warren, 2006).

Opening: (Directive to the client). Create a scribble drawing. Once you complete the

drawing, create a story about the image. Begin the story with the phrase “In this moment”

Art Activity: (Directive to the client). Create an image depicting things that you enjoy.

The drawing could include one or several images.

Processing: What was the process like for you? What did you feel in your body? What

do you see? Tell me about your picture.

Closing: (Directive to the client). In your notebook write about how can you cultivate

some of these things that you enjoy into your daily or weekly life?

Art Materials: White paper, colored paper, oil pastels, chalk pastels, felt markers,

tempera paint, brushes, water canister, and a notebook.

105

APPENDIX B

Betensky’s (2001) Phenomenological Method of Art Therapy

Sequence 1: Pre-art play with art materials

Direct experiencing

Sequence 2: The process of artwork – Creating a phenomenon

Sequence 3: Phenomenological intuiting

Phase 1: Perceiving

(a) Visual display

(b) Distancing

(c) Intentional looking

Phase 2: What-do-you-see procedure

(a) Phenomenological description

(b) Phenomenological unfolding

Sequence 4: Phenomenological integration

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