Q1: Name the bones of the:

ALower armRadiusUlnar

BUpper legFemur

CShoulderScapulaClavicleHumerus

DLower legTibiaFibula

EBreastboneSternum

Q2: Describe 4 functions of the skeletal system

1Support the body by providing the frame

2Protect the internal organs For example, cranium protects the brain; ribs protect the heart and lungs)

3Allow movement in conjunction with muscles

4Produce red blood cells and white blood cells (in the marrow of some bones)

Q3: Describe 3 functions of the intervertebral disc

Each disc consists of a tough cartilaginous annulus fibrosis and a jelly-like nucleus pulposus.

Illustration from Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Website.

1Transmits loads through the spinal column.

2Absorbs the stress and shock the body incurs during movement and prevents the vertebrae from grinding against one another.

3Allows articulation between vertebral bodies, permitting complex motion to occur.

Q4: Describe the vertebral column

The vertebral column is made up of 4 regions:

Cervical region

Posteriorly concave curve (lordosis)Consists of 7 bones: C1-C7

Most mobile region in the spine. Can move in all 3 planes.

Thoracic region

Anteriorly concave curve (kyphosis)Consists of 12 bones: T1-T12

Less mobile because of the attachment of the ribs. Stiffer in extension, more mobile in rotation and side flexion.

Lumbar region

Posteriorly concave curve (lordosis)Consists of 5 bones: L1-L5

More flexible than thoracic region. Greater mobility in flexion and extension, less in rotation and side flexion.

Sacral region

Anteriorly concave curve (kyphosis)Consists of the sacrum and the coccyx. Sacrum: 1 fused bone from 5 verterbraeCoccyx: 3-5 vertebrae.

Illustration from Backswing For Health. http://www.backswing.co.za/

Q5: Brief Explanations

aThe bone is called a dynamic structure because bone tissue is constantly being broken down and rebuilt in a process called remodeling. This activity is coordinated by bone resorbing cells (osteoclasts) and bone forming cells (osteoblasts), and the remodeling process serves to provide just the right amount of bone mass to meet the mechanical demands of the skeleton (Feldman et al., 2007).

bIn a theory first proposed by Julius Wolff, bone in a healthy person will adapt to the loads under which it is placed during the remodeling process (Feldman et al., 2007). In a good standing alignment, the weight-bearing bones are aligned so that the body weight passes directly through them, providing the mechanical stimulus for the bones to stay strong (Lapin, 2015). If the bones are misaligned, the skeletal structure is held by ligaments and muscles and there is no proper loading through the weight-bearing bones, the bone mass will eventually decrease. In addition, if the bony structures are not properly aligned during movement, continual stress on the joint will wear the cartilage out and cause the body to deposit calcium as spurs on the nearby bones (Yamuna, 1997).

cWith age, remodeling tends to result in a negative bone balance, causing bones to become more fragile. Regular weight-bearing exercises load the bones which stimulates the osteoblasts to deposit more minerals to reinforce the bones, helping the bones maintain their density (Hornstein & Schwerin, 2013).

Q6: Life-Stage and Bone Physiology

Human growth hormone, estrogen and testosterone all stimulate the lengthening of bones and contribute to maintaining bone density (Hornstein & Schwerin, 2013).

During puberty, all these three hormones are produced in larger quantities, creating a rapid increase in bone length and mass.

During menopause, estrogen levels dip, hence slowing down osteoblast activity, resulting in rapid bone loss.

Q7: Definitions

ASupineLying on the back

BProneLying face down

CConcentric muscle contractionShortening of a muscle to create movement

DEccentric muscle contractionLengthening of the muscle

ETendonConnective tissue that holds muscles to bones

FBursaSmall sac filled with synovial fluid and lined by synovial membrane. Provides cushion between bones and tendons and/or muscles around a joint.

GMenisciConnective tissue that partly divides a joint cavity and serve to disperse the weight of the body and reduce friction during movement.

HLigamentConnective tissue that holds bone to bone.

IFasciaConnective tissue that form sheets or bands beneath the skin to attach, stabilize, enclose and separate muscles and other internal organs.

JFlexionBending, folding of a joint to reduce an angle.

KExtensionStraightening of a joint to straighten an angle.

PAdductionBringing a limb toward the midline.

LAbductionBringing a limb away from the midline.

MLordosisPosteriorly concave curve of the lumbar and cervical regions of the spine.

NKyphosisAnteriorly concave curve of the thoracic and sacral regions of the spine.

Q8: Synovial Joints

A joint is the site where two bones meet, and a synovial joint is a movable joint. The joint capsule covers the end of the bones where the two bones come together, and the synovial lining inside the capsule produces synovial fluid which keeps the joint lubricated.

Illustration from ManAnatomy.

The 3 main types of synovial joints and their examples are listed below:

UniaxialExample: elbow joint (which is a hinge joint)The two surfaces of the joint move around each other like a simple hinge.

BiaxialExample: metacarpo-phalangeal jointThere are two axes of movement, one for flexion and extension and one for adduction and abduction.

MultiaxialExample: hip joint (which is a ball and socket joint)Movement can occur in all directions: flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and rotation.

Q9: Proprioceptors

Proprioception is the sense and awareness of the position of our body parts in space. Proprioceptors are sensory receptors that sense and provide this information. They can be found in skeletal muscle, joint capsules and tendons.

LocationType of proprioceptorFunction

Skeletal muscleMuscle spindleDetects changes in muscle length.

Joint capsuleJoint kinesthetic receptorsDetects movement and position of the limb.

TendonGolgi tendon organDetect changes in muscle tension.

Q10: Systems involved in balance

Proprioception Vestibular system in the inner ear Vision

Q11: Global muscles movers and local muscles stabilisers

Global muscles moversThese are multi-joint muscles that contract to produce movement.

Local muscles stabilisersThese are deep segmental muscles muscles that hold a joint firm in order for other movement to occur.

Q12: Core Muscles and Function

The core muscles comprise of: Diaphragm Pelvic floor muscles Transversus abdominis Multifidi

Co-contraction of these deeper trunk muscles help to provide intra-abdominal pressure to stabilize the spine while performing respiratory functions (Aaberg, 2005). This is important because all major body and limb movement is initiated through spinal movement or preceded by spinal stabilization. The core operates as an integrated functional unit enabling the entire kinetic chain to work synergistically to reduce force load, dynamically stabilize, and generate force against abnormal forces (Karageanes, 2004).

Q13: Conditions that weaken the core muscles

Back injuryAn injury will weaken the muscle

Prolonged bad postureHabitual slouching means that the core muscles responsible for posture are rarely engaged. If they are rarely used, then they are more likely to be weak.

Recent labour/ Multiple pregnanciesRecent or repeated stretching of the abdominal muscles might result in their weakness.

Q13: Common faulty patterns in attempts at core activation

Gripping and excess tension in the larger trunk muscles, core activation is actually very subtle. They hold their breath as they attempt to activate the core, which prevents the core muscles from functioning properly. They bypass the preparation stage which involves aligning the body so that the muscles are organized to take the load properly.

Q14: Floppy, stiffy, flippy

The concept of floppies, stiffies and flippies was developed in 1995 by physiotherapist Anna-Louise Bouvier based on each individuals inherent level of flexibility, stability and strength. The essence of this concept is that flexibility varies between individuals and even between joints in the same person.

FloppyFloppies have loose ligaments and hypermobile joints.

Although floppies are very flexible and can assume many yoga asanas easily, they need to be reminded to not go to their end of range where they might hyperextend. Instead, they should work to use their muscles to help maintain optimal alignment. Thus their main focus would be on establishing postural awareness which is the foundation of all movement patterns, and building muscle strength for joint stability.

StiffyStiffies have tight ligaments and cannot stretch that easily.

Stiffies benefit from stretching regularly to improve their range of motion and maintain soft, healthy muscle tone. They may not be able to do body contorting yoga poses, but they will benefit from the gentle stretches in some yoga asanas. Their main focus would be on using the breath to help them go deeper into poses while keeping optimal alignment, hence stretching the muscles and keeping them supple.

FlippyFlippies are somewhere in-between: they are floppies with stiff bits. Their stiff bits could be due to scoliosis, improper alignment, or structural effects; which is compensated with hyper mobility in another part of the body.

Flippies need a combination of stabilizing and stretching, but first, they need to build awareness on the parts of their bodies which are stiff and the parts that are more flexible.

Q15: Posture, breathing, and core control

The core is required to assist with respiration while also providing spinal and pelvic stabilization. With proper posture and breathing, the mechanics and associated muscle actions of respiration will: assist with the control of intra-abdominal pressure increase tension in the long back fascia stabilize the sacro-iliac and spinal joints

However, these core muscles are very posture dependent and only function optimally with correct body alignment. The core muscles need to be engaged to sit up straight, and when the body slouches, the rib cage is compressed and this changes the breathing pattern; in addition, the core muscles are not optimally activated and lose their tone over time.

References

Feldman, D., Marcus, R., Nelson, D. & Rosen, C. J. (2007) Osteoporosis, 3rd Edition. Academic Press.

Hornstein, T. M. & Schwerin J. (2013). Biology of Women, 5th Edition. Delmar Cengage Learning.

Yamuna, Z. & Golden, S. (1997). Body Rolling: An Experiential Approach to Complete Muscle Release. Healing Arts Press.

Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Website. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/ retrieved on April 11, 2015.

ManAnatomy Website.http://www.mananatomy.com/basic-anatomy/synovial-joints retrieved on April 11, 2015.

Aaberg, E. (2005). Muscle Mechanics, 2nd Edition. Human Kinetics.

Karageanes, S. J. (2004). Principles of Manual Sports Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Bibliography

Kurtz, S. M.; Edidin, A. (2006) Spine Technology Handbook. Academic Press.

Proprioceptors Anatomy, MedicaLook Website.http://www.medicalook.com/human_anatomy/organs/Proprioceptors.html retrieved on April 11, 2015.

Proprioceptors, University of Washington Course Notes.http://courses.washington.edu/conj/bess/spindle/proprioceptors.html retrieved on April 11, 2015.

Cook, Gray. (2011). Movement: Functional Movement Systems: Screening, Assessment, Corrective Strategies. Lotus Publication.