Assignment 2. Suzy Walker-Toye - Student ID 510646 Contents:

● Four pages of notes (for three chapters in WHA) ● Two annotations of sculpture ● One 500 word analysis ● References for assignment 2

The reflection for this assignment is on the blog: https://westernarthistorybysuzy.wordpress.com/category/assignments/assignment-2/

Suzy Walker-Toye. Student ID 510646. A World History of Art notes 1 of 4

Chapter 4: The Greeks and their neighbours

1 Political, economic or social factors The Hellenic world ( Greeks called themselves Hellenes) was not just Greece, it was Italy, France, Aegean islands, Sicily and Spain, anyone who didn't speak Greek was a Barbarian. Games in Olympia (and elsewhere) were like religious festivals. Athletes were naked soldiers from the upper classes. In art (as in life), they loved male nudity but females always clothed (except pornography). In the 6th c BC Archaic cups and vases often had ‘love names’, nearly always male on them.

With the introduction of ‘the self governing state’, Polis, characteristically Greek art and politics began to flourish. Athens (the largest of the city states) was no more than ¼ of million people and only 1000 sq miles. Artists in search of patronage would travel from one to another so potentially could find more work than bigger empires such as Egypt where the social structure was less varied and a lot more hierarchical. However, the Egyptian patrons could afford to commission work on a much larger scale.

The Classical period is known as the time between the time of the Persian war (480 BC) & the temporary unification of Greece by Philip II of Macedon (338 BC). Athens in the Classical period, (5th c BC), had “the most extraordinary flowering of artistic and intellectual activities the world had ever seen”. Tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles & Euripides, comedies of Aristophanes (poetry) and teachings of Socrates (philosophy).

2 Changes to status or training of artists Archaic Athenian artists signed their vases during mid 6th to mid 5th century BC, no other civilizations were signing works until centuries later. In the Classical period individual architects names were recorded for the Parthenon. Phidias is said to have supervised all the sculptural work and created the colossal Chryselephantine (huge ivory & gold Athena inside).

3 Development of materials and processes By mid 7th c BC, they learned new Egyptian stone working processes which they adapted to marble. Marble “Kritios Boy” (c. 480 BC) marks a turning point in the naturalism of the kouroi.

Greek sculpture was painted with vivid colours and not bleached white with age as we see them today. Foreshortening first seen in carved relief c 500 bc. In architecture, Greek architects built ‘optical refinements’ into the Parthenon, Doric temples, especially when seen obliquely (as envisaged by the architect) appears to be perfectly rectilinear but this is an illusion. The lines are not straight, nor are the columns equally spaced.

4 Styles and movements Archaic Greece (late 7th-early 5th century BC) was defined by Proto-geometric vases, kouroi (life sized, slightly stiff, freestanding statues of athletic naked boys), korai (female kouroi, clothed and not striding forward). Orientalizing Style (7th Century BC) was seen especially in pottery made in Corinth. Daedalic sculpture is rudimentary, named after the famous ‘ founder of the art of sculpture’ Daedalus of Crete.

The Classical period is defined by naturism and idealism (starting 5th century BC). Not much survives of the visual arts but enough ruins & historical writings survive about them that we can assume that they were as amazing as the literary works of the time. The Parthenon characterises this period in Greek art. “Bold in outline, delicate in detail, majestically imposing, yet build to a scale of proportions so carefully regulated by the physical and mental capacities of humanity that it is not at all overpowering, the Parthenon is so designed that all the parts are intimately adjusted in scale and size to one another and to the whole”. p126 Useful diagram breakdown of Doric & Ionic orders on p131.

5 Inside and outside influences Archaic patterns sometimes contained Asian influences referred to as Orientalizing Style. In mid 7th c BC, a trading station with Egypt supplied exposure to monumental sculpture and architecture in stone. “Until later into the 6th century BC painters continued to render figures in the conceptual Egyptian manner.” The Greeks learned the technique of building with stone columns and entablatures, from Egypt, they turned the Egyptian temple inside out, placing more emphasis the exterior rather than the interior.

Suzy Walker-Toye. Student ID 510646. A World History of Art notes 2 of 4

6 Critics, thinkers and historians Romans believed that Greek ‘canonical’ works set the standard of excellence to which all art should aspire. Plato’s Academy stated “Let no one enter who is ignorant of geometry”. According to Homer : metalwork (especially shields) was the most highly regarded art in archaic Greece. Plutarch ascribed a timeless quality to the buildings on the Acropolis. Pausanias Greek traveller and antiquarian, described the gigantic statue of Athena inside the Parthenon which no longer survives.

Chapter 5: Hellenistic & Roman Art

1 Political, economic or social factors By the 2nd century BC Greek gods had lost much of their influence. The philosophy now reflected the inner life of the individual. In Hellenistic art, the first representations of allegory were seen. Luxury objects were in demand as a representation of wealth & taste. Copies of Greek & Hellenistic ‘old masters’ were produced for those who couldn’t afford originals changing attitudes to the work of artists by demeaning the “copy”. In 1st c BC Rome transformed into a monumental imperial capital. An extensive building program was carried out under Augustus. Utilitarian structures were seen as more economically justified, so temples were smaller.

2 Changes to status or training of artists Architects were highly regarded, painters & sculptors were not, despite the high prices of their work. Art collecting increased (private collectors appeared in the 1st century BC), as did the promotion of famous artists. Statues, paintings & temples came to be thought of as works of art, created by individual artists.

3 Development of materials and processes A system of perspective was devised & various pictorial styles were developed. By 79 AD all genres of painting were being practised. Romans copied Greek statues (often of bronze) & translated them into marble, (often at increased scale) adjusting the compositions to include necessary supports. Marble was also used extensively in Roman architecture as a symbol of magnificence. Architecture was revolutionised by the development of concrete & its use in conjunction with the arch & vault (not Roman inventions).

4 Styles and movements No longer was the young athlete seen as the ‘ideal’, it was a Hellenistic innovation for ruler portraits to idealize the body but represent a likeness in the head. The structure & movement of the figures beneath the clothing of sculpture were now very naturalistic & show a mastery of 3-dimensional form & technical workmanship. The portrait bust was popular with the Romans as a way of immortalising the person, creating very realistic likenesses (often unflattering) believing that the likeness preserves the spirit.

In architecture of the 1st c BC, private houses now decorated with painted walls & elaborate pebble-mosaic pavements, visually enlarging the space of the rooms. First still life paintings appear, and illusionistic paintings ( trompe l’oeil) of fake architectural features. Architects created new concept of architectural mass based on axial symmetry & the arch was an essential element. Romans excelled in urban design and are still famous for their roads, drainage, bridges, aqueducts, apartment blocks & public buildings.

5 Inside and outside influences Cities were built conforming to Greek orders of architecture & adorned with sculptures embodying the Greek ideal of the human form. The Roman upper class absorbed Hellenistic culture, which had heavy Greek overtones. Some Egyptian influence also felt.

Suzy Walker-Toye. Student ID 510646. A World History of Art notes 3 of 4

6 Critics, thinkers and historians Hellenistic writers first wrote about the ‘norm’ in art & also the ‘classical moment’ (late 4th century BC), after which art declined. Aristotle claimed that the form an object took depended on who made it, what it was made of & what its purpose was – emphasising the artist’s individuality. He wrote that imitation in itself is pleasurable. Plato however claimed all imitations are ‘false & harmful’. Socrates thought that artists should concentrate on representing the ‘good’ & ‘beautiful’. Philostratus the Younger wrote ‘deception in art is pleasurable’ of the trompe l’oeil being created in 300 AD. The Architect Vitruvius wrote a book on architecture & Roman painting in the age of Augustus.

Chapter 9 - Medieval Christendom

1 Political, economic or social factors The turbulent centuries following the death of Charlemagne in 814 created the right ingredients for the medieval civilisation to surface. In Germany & Northern Italy and Ottonian period started with Otto I crowned Holy Roman Emperor (HRE), 962 AD, followed by HRE Otto II & III. Otto III (983-1002) had the cross of Lothar made from Gems & gold. The Roman, gem encrusted side faced the emperor & the crucifix embossed side faced the clergy during ceremonies. In France, the Bayeux Tapestry made in 1073-83 to celebrate the 1066, Norman invasion of England.

Romanesque first appear 1095-99, the first Crusade. Pisa growing rich from shipping Crusaders to the Holy Land reflected this in building Baptistery, Cathedral & leaning tower. This outpouring of splendor prompted the founding of the 1098 Cistercian Order by St Bernard, stricter, vows of poverty & denunciation of fanciful Romanesque sculpture & artworks in manuscripts. Buildings had to be bigger to accommodate the sheer number of Pilgrims, it brought together clergy & laity, rich & poor, different regions & languages. Cathedral Santiago de Compostela (Spain) was a popular pilgrimage, symbolised by cockle-shell badge of St James (those wearing the cross had visited as far as Jerusalem). Funding huge churches was a problem leading to fundraising ‘happenings’ like the ‘cult of carts’ at Chartres, 1145, where 1000s of locals turned out with their carts to haul stone etc to help. The wealthy donated large one off items (eg attaching their names to specific stained glass windows). Life revolved around it once built. In England there was a new sense of national identity as English was first used officially.

St Francis of Assisi founded a new religious order, took a vow of poverty & got papal sanction to be a wandering, Fratri minori, (preacher not a priest) in 1211. St Clare was his first female disciple (who founded nuns order, which provided women with an alternative to arranged marriages). S Francesco, an Italian church had with non-allegorical frescos of Christianity (by popular demand). Cistercians tried to suppress Franciscans (Grey Friars) because they were outspoken about the wealthy clergy owning large estates. Meanwhile, in Spain, St Dominic started the Dominicans (Black Friars, later the spanish inquisition). These two orders (Black & Grey) had a direct effect on literature & visual arts of the 13th century with a demand for plain talking religious stories which would have widespread appeal amongst the masses. Priests now gave Mass with their backs to the congregation leading to the creation of altarpieces in the 13th century.

The Plague swept across Europe in 1348 wiping out 1/3 of the population & the feudal system collapsed through lack of manpower. Artistic activity in Italy was largely unimpacted & public building projects continued as though nothing had happened, eg the Doges’ Palace, a Venetian version of Gothic

2 Changes to status or training of artists In Pisa, Romanesque buildings had individual architects names inscribed on them, at a time when it was usual to state that a building had been made by the patron who commissioned it.

The Gothic architects names recorded but not much else about them. The masons handed down traditions & secrets of craftsmanship & design in lodges or workshops, where they produced a ‘masterpiece’ to become a master-mason or architect. They travelled widely, the only surviving architect's sketchbook from the period of High Gothic has inside it different building plans, structures & decorations from a wide area in France & Hungary.

“The influence of Giovanni Pisano was pervasive throughout the early 14th century in central italy.” p401 He & his father created a new vivid visual language for representing religion. However artists were still paid poorly & were soon forgotten once the work was up in the churches.

Suzy Walker-Toye. Student ID 510646. A World History of Art notes 4 of 4

3 Development of materials & processes Romanesque buildings made use of stone tunnel vault ceilings on churches (instead of flat

wooden ones). ‘Efforts were now being made to recover the ancient Roman art of large stone vault construction. Stone gave a nobler & more solemn effect & also provided better acoustics for the sonorous Gregorian chant”.’ p367 Tunnel vaults gave way to Transverse vaults, to Groin vaults, to Rib vaults. “Tracery was a Gothic invention & its development towards ever greater dissolution of the wall - from ‘plate tracery’ to ‘bar tracery’ - can be followed stage by stage from Chartres to Reims & from Reims to Amiens & beyond”. P385

Bayeux Tapestry is not a true tapestry but made from a long strip of embroidered linen. It had naturalistic effects attempted for example figures not sized & grouped by rank but all the same size with smaller boats in the background denoting distance. Mosaics were costly & slow to execute so painted murals were seen as a cheap alternative until the frescos of Scrovegni Chapel. True frescos are almost as durable as mosaics. Painted on fresh damp plaster with pigments that chemically unite as the plaster dries, it takes great skill to get it right as whole sections have to be done very quickly. Pigments which could not be absorbed into the plaster like this were mixed with adhesive & added as a secco to be applied on top of the dried plaster.

4 Styles & movements The main aim of western European artists in the Middle Ages was “to present events of the Gospel story so vividly that spectators might feel they were participants” p357 Ottonian art characterised by lack of classical rationalism and heroic nudity, ‘surface patterns of flowing lines’ & ‘rich bright colours with passionate emotionalism.’ p362 “The integration of Old Testament, New Testament & topical concerns is very characteristic of medieval art & thought” p372

Romanesque (‘debased Roman’) style architecture exemplified by qualities of ‘Solid, dignified, inflexibly self-assured’. Retained the column & round arch, before the adoption of the Gothic pointed arch. Gothic architecture was born in St Denis (Paris) completed 1144 AD. Here ‘figurative stained glass windows were first given the importance they were to retain for some four centuries in northern Europe. p388 The carved relief sculptural figures were more natural, individual & breaking free of the buildings. They ‘desire to visualise the scene in human terms [...] the allegorical significance is less boldly stressed than before’ (p391), differing from Romanesque. In England, the ‘decorated style’ (double-curving ogee arches, twists & turns of tracery) was used long before the ‘flamboyant style’ appeared in France. p391 but it was the English embroidery that was prized all over Europe (some in the V&A). International Gothic (p411), around 1400. More intricate surface patterns, detailed naturism (of animals, flowers & especially fashionable costumes). Example Wilton Diptych, after 1395, National Gallery. p411

Italian painting (distinct from late Roman & byzantine) began with the frescos at S Francesco. Direct images & stories. Monks with grey woolen habits & ropes with three knots in them (poverty, chastity & obedience). The first artists to enter the ‘canon’ emerged at this time & they remained influential in the early Renaissance period. Famously, Giotto Di Bondone was particularly noted (the 1st histories of Italian art were written by fellow Florentines though!

5 Inside & outside influences King Harold Bluetooth conquered all Denmark & Norway & “the Northern artistic traditions of intricate flat patterning were to contribute much to the creation of medieval art in Western Christendom.” p358

S Marco in Venice, built 1063-1094, is essentially Byzantine. Figures & architectural backgrounds of italian painting in the 13th century are according to byzantine conventions, called the ‘Greek Style’.

6 Critics, thinkers & historians In 1000 AD, monk Raoul Glaber wrote his famous Romanesque quote on ‘white garment of churches’. Dante Alighieri defined pilgrims to be ‘anyone outside his fatherland’ or ‘only the man who travels to or from the sanctuary of St James’ in La Vita Nuova (The New Life) c 1292. (p369) . Early theologians endowed stained glass windows with ‘Neoplatonic significance’ p381. St Thomas Aquinas was the greatest theologian if the Middle Ages, author of ‘summa theologica’ p388

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Suzy Walker-Toye - Student ID 510646

Assignment 2: analysis of Gothic Cathedral visit Southwark is a small cathedral on London's Southbank. Its plan is a traditional cross shape with western entrances and other adjacent buildings connected via a modern glass covered walkway. The interior is filled with a light airy feeling owing to the many windows, and very high vaulted ceiling, which is two stories up. It has lancet windows at the clerestory level and a blind arcade at gallery level. Vaulted ceilings in the Transepts are equally high, with large pointed arched windows (with stained glass and octofoil window in the north and plain glass but elaborate curvilinear tracery in the south). The Aisles have similar vaulted ceilings one level lower (supporting the gallery level gabled roof) and stained glass windows. Arches leading to the choir aisles differ slightly in shape on each side of the church, on the south a usual equilateral arch, on the north is a stilted arch, (one side has been flattened) to allow for the tower staircase. The Choir stalls are of ornately carved wood. There are also elaborate wooden screens, tombs and monuments across the five bays each side. The piers are alternately circular and octagonal leading up to triple vaulting shafts for the ceiling. The Altarpiece has gold leaf geometric patterns and religious sculptures which melt into a wall of statues on the Great Screen. The Crossing has four piers, flattened on the inner sides with a flat patterned ceiling and a large chandelier. Most of the clustered column capitals throughout were plain but a couple of columns at the back of the Nave looked to have a stiff-leaf capital. Outside, the retrochoir is seen as a symmetrical set of four chapels topped with gables and lancet windows. Behind them on the sanctuary tower above the main stained glass is a small rose window not visible from inside. The square central tower rises up, with four spiral pinnacles and a clock. In the South churchyard, you can see medieval pointed arch windows with geometric tracery (retrochoir) and further along, that newer curvilinear tracery in South Transept windows and the sweep of the flying buttresses as they support the upper level of the building. Quoins edge the buttresses and cornerstones of the building in a different brick which makes an attractive pattern. The facade at the west end of the cathedral shows equilateral arch stained glass windows with symmetrical blind tracery arches. Above, a strip of arabesque molding and two pointed religious medallion moldings. Higher up there are some more lancet windows with shutter blinds in them.

The church dates back to the early 12th century but was rebuilt in the Early Gothic style after a ‘disastrous’ fire in 1212 damaged the church, priory, and hospital. The oldest complete part of the building, the Choir and Retrochoir, still dates from 1212 making it the oldest gothic building in London. The Great Screen was built in 1520 and embellished with (‘New Jerusalem’ style) statues in 1905 when it was officially named a Cathedral. The North and South Transepts, filled with various 17th and 18th century monuments, were built in 1283 and 1310 respectively, however the current south transept is the result of another fire related rebuild in the 1390s. This time they took the opportunity to increase the height of the tower and restored the chapel. The tracery in the South Transept looks to be of Decorated style (equivalent to flamboyant style in Europe). The Nave has been replaced several times since then, currently dating from 1897 designed by Sir Arthur Blomfield as Gothic Revival.

The style of the church is a hodgepodge of styles but mostly Early Medieval Gothic and 19th Century Gothic Revival but overall ‘architecturally majestic’ . To evaluate how successful this is as a Gothic cathedral it's important to remember that this was only recognised as a Cathedral comparatively recently. The original function was more humble so it is not really fair to compare with the likes of Ste-Chapelle in Paris (p385, WHA). A culmination of the Gothic style’s drive for ‘divine light’, the interior has very little wall space at all, a giant space entirely enclosed by stained glass windows lacy tracery. Also, the Medieval English speciality was embroidery, the original of which would be in a museum although there was some embroidered material on the High Altar. So, we are not seeing this ‘church’ as originally it would have been in Medieval times. As Gothic Revival I think it is successful. Typical Gothic elements are present such as high vaulted ceilings, flying buttresses and use of symmetrical sets of pointed arched windows, some with conspicuous curvilinear tracery and some with religious stained glass scenes. Although I did not see any gargoyles, in some respects the lines are quite plain. St Bernard would have approved. Two Gothic era concepts, stained glass, and daily life revolving around the church, have been ‘revived’ and combined by the Victorian windows (designed by Charles Eamer Kempe) which feature famous Southwark inhabitants (such as Geoffrey Chaucer).

Suzy Walker-Toye - Student ID 510646

References: Beard, M. (2010) The Parthenon. Profile Books Beard, M. and Henderson J. (2001) Classical Art: from Greece to Rome. Oxford University Press Burnett Grossman, J. (2003) Looking at Greek and Roman Sculpture in stone. Getty D’Alleva. (2010) How to Write Art History. (2nd Ed), London, Laurence King Publishing Gersht, R.. (2001) Aquatic Figure Types from Caesarea-Maritima, Department of Art History, Tel Aviv University (available at: http://www5.tau.ac.il/arts/departments/image/stories/journals/arthistory/Assaph6/03gersht.pdf ) At: Google Cultural Institute. (2016a) Statue of crouching Aphrodite ('Lely's Venus') At: https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/asset-viewer/statue-of-crouching-aphrodite-lely-s-venus/EwH3FgUUteypiA?projectId=art-project (Accessed on 29 April 16) Google Cultural Institute. (2016b) Figures of three goddesses from the east pediment of the Parthenon At: https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/asset-viewer/figures-of-three-goddesses-from-the-east-pediment-of-the-parthenon/DgGSx_YXE8PADw (Accessed on 7 May 16) Google Cultural Institute. (2016c) At: https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/asset-viewer/figure-thought-to-be-of-dionysos-from-the-east-pediment-of-the-parthenon/XgE6C-9WfO4Dbw (Accessed on 7 May 16) Grout. (2015) Aphrodite of Cnidus At: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/greece/hetairai/aphrodite.htm (Accessed on 30 April 16) Honour, H & Fleming, J. (2009) A World History of Art. (7th Ed), London, Laurence King Publishing

Suzy Walker-Toye - Student ID 510646

Hopkins, O. (2012) Reading Architecture: A Visual Lexicon. (7th Ed), London, Laurence King Publishing Hughes. (2009) Timeline Of Southwark Cathedral - PDF At: http://cathedral.southwark.anglican.org/downloads/visit/timeline.pdf (Accessed on 30 April 16) Metropolitan Government of Nashville. (2016) The Parthenon At: http://www.nashville.gov/Parks-and-Recreation/Parthenon/Learn-and-explore.aspx (Accessed on 7 May 16) National Gallery of Art. (2016) Rubens, Peter Paul, Sir At: http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/Collection/artist-info.1847.html (Accessed on 30 April 16) Neils, J & Oakley J. (2003) Coming of Age in Ancient Greece: Images of Childhood from the Classical Past. Yale University Press Royal Collection Trust. (2016) Aphrodite or 'Crouching Venus' At: https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/near-you#/7/collection/69746/aphrodite-or-crouching-venus (Accessed on 30 April 16) Southwark Cathedral . (2009) Various links from the main visit menu At: http://cathedral.southwark.anglican.org/visit/ (Accessed on 30 April 16) Travelogues. (2016) Drawing of the eastern pediment of the Parthenon by Jacques Carrey, 1674. At: http://eng.travelogues.gr/item.php?view=32388 (Accessed on 7 May 16)