Assignment #1

Clinical psychology

Submitted to: Mam kehkashan

Submitted by: Madiha zainab

Zunaira Khalid

Ambreen Aslam

Taqdees Sana

Salina Akram

International Islamic university

Islamabad

Definition:

Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental

illness, abnormal behavior and psychiatric problems.

Clinical psychology is the single largest specialty area within psychology. This field is focused on the

assessment, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental disorders.

Clinical psychology is a broad field of practice and research within the discipline of

psychology, which applies psychological principles to the assessment, prevention,

amelioration, and rehabilitation of psychological distress, disability, dysfunctional

behaviour, and health-risk behaviour, and to the enhancement of psychological and

physical well-being.

The Birth of a Discipline: 1890-1910:

In the 1890s psychology was a young but rapidly growing science. The first psychology

laboratories had been established in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) at the University of

Leipzig in Germany and William James (1842-1910) at Harvard University in the United States.

G.stanley hall (1844-1924) established the second U.S laboratory in 1883 and James MC Keen

cattell opened the third in 1888. By 1900, however there were over forty psychology laboratories

in the united states (Benjamin,1996).Psychology was defining itself as a scientific discipline

devoted to understanding the human mind and behavior. However very early on there were those

who saw the applicability of the young science to alleviating human problems. Lightner witmer

(1867-1956) and Alfred Binet (1857-1911) were two of those pioneers.

Ancient Roots:

Lightner witmer founded the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania in 1896

and that is the year most scholars recognize as the birth of clinical psychology. But one can

identify predecessors to the field dating back many centuries. Unlike the roots of a tree it is

difficult to trace an unbroken connection from the ancient roots of clinical psychology to its

budding new developments. Nonetheless the striking similarity between the ideas of some

ancient scholars and contemporary psychological thought deserves mention. Similarly one can

recognize functions of clinical psychologists in the methods of ancient practitioners.

First a clinical psychology is a discipline involved in studying and treating mental disorder, it is

worth noting that awareness of mental illness as distinct from physical illness can be dated back

as far back as 2100 B.C. to the ancient Babylonians (Brems, Thevenin&Routh, 1991).in fact

most ancient cultures, including those in south and central America as well as the ancient

Hebrews recognized and attempted to treat mental disorder .Typically mental illness was viewed

from religious perspective and treatments such as prayer wearing of amulets or religious rituals

were used .it is interesting to note however that despite the religious lens through which

psychological disorders were viewed some ancient writings suggest recognition of

psychological factors and treatment . For example foreshadowing Freud ancient Hebrew scholars

viewed dreams as expressions of unacceptable wishes and recommended unrestrained

communication about ones worries and troubles (Brems et al.,1991).

Western cultures traditionally trace the roots of medicine and philosophy to the ancient Greeks.

A predecessor of contemporary thought about the biological bases of mental illness can be found

in the writings of Hippocrates (C.446-377 B.C.), who hypothesized that psychopathology

resulted from imbalances in one or more of the four bodily humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile

and phlegm. An excess of black bile, for example was considered to be the source of melancholy

(depression). The term melancholy means “black bile “in Greek (Routh , 1998). Hippocrates also

organized mental conditions into types some of which are still in use today. Phrenitis was also

used to describe the condition in which person had a high fever and talked nonsense. The

condition cleared when the fever subsided. Mania described the person who was acutely agitated

in the absence of fever. Hysteria was used to describe women who presented with vague or

difficult to understand bodily complaints .paranoia described the person whose thinking was

bizarre in the absence of fever.

The Greek philosophers were of course not the only ancient scholars to study and theorize about

mental illness. Mental disorders like all forms of illness result from an imbalance of the powers

of “YIN” and “YANG”, according to the Yellow Emperor’s Book of International Medicine,

which was published in china in the second century B.C. (Routh , 1998). This book includes

description of traditional Chinese medical treatments including some, such as acupuncture that

are still in use today.

In addition to writing and thinking about psychopathology the ancient Chinese also preceded

modern clinical psychology by using mental tests for assessing and categorizing individuals.

Examinations which included tests of mental abilities were used to recruit and select civil

servants for over 1000 years prior to the development of psychological tests in Europe and the

United States (Routh, 1998)

Paracelsus(1493-1541)and Johann weyer(1515-1588) both men were physicians who rejected

spiritual causes of psychological and emotional difficulties. Paracelsus introduced a completely

biological approach to mental illness. He practiced a form of medicine that was similar to what

we might call homeopathy today (Brems eta.,1991).weyer made a careful study of individuals

identified as sorcerers and witches and was successful at discerning physical causes for their

unusual behaviors. Through his observations weyer developed a sophisticated descriptive

classification system that included toxic psychoses, senile, psychosis, hysteria, delusions

paranoia, depression, and epilepsy. Weyer became an out spoken critic of witch hunts and the

brutality of faith-based treatment of the mentally ill. In 1583, he published De Praestigiis

Daemonum (“The Slight of Hand of Demons”), which disputed the Malleus Malificarum.

Weyer’s book was placed on the pope’s list of forbidden readings (Routh, 1998).

Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries:

Laying the Ground for Clinical psychology:

In the eighteenth and particularly the nineteenth century’s important social and scientific

developments set the stage for the birth of clinical psychology. Three areas that laid the

foundation for clinical psychology were improved understanding of mental disorders, scientific

approaches to the measurement of individual differences, the emergence of scientific psychiatry.

UNDERSTANDING OF MENTAL DISORDERS:

The gradual shift away from a religious and toward a medical model of mental illness took a few

hundred years to complete. By the eighteenth century, mental illness, or “madness’ was generally

accepted as falling under the purview of the medical profession. With the acceptance of the

medical model came the development of psychiatry as a specialty branch of medicine. The early

pioneers of psychiatry included Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) in the United States, Philipe Pinel

(1745-1826) in France, Vincenzo Chiarugi (1759-18200 in Italy. and Francis Willis (1718-1807)

in England.

Unfortunately for the mentally ill, the advent of psychiatry resulted in treatment that was, at best,

only slightly less horrific than what they endured under the witches hammer. The mentally ill

were housed in asylums, where they were often chained or otherwise restrained. In most asylums

beatings were common and patients were ridiculed and mistreated by their guardians. They were

fed the coarsest of slops. Visits by physicians were infrequent and “treatment” usually consisted

of some method of adjusting bodily fluids including purges, bloodletting by leeches or other

means and vomits. Benjamin Rush, for example, was given to bleeding his patients frequently

and likely hastened the death of many through his treatments.

In the late eighteenth century, significant efforts were made to reform the way in which the

mentally ill were treated. This shift in treatment philosophy has come to be known as the moral

treatment movement. This movement was initiated, nearly simultaneously, by phillipe pinel in

France and William Tuke (1732-1822) in England.

The moral treatment movement was instrumental in shifting society views of the mentally ill

from useless individuals who needed to be ostracized from society to a more humanistic view of

the mentally ill as human beings deserving of compassion despite their irrationality

(Berms et al. ,1991).

MEASUMENT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:

One of the important figures in the early history of psychological tasting was Sir Francis Galton

(1822-1911). Although the types of tests that Galton developed bear little resemblance to modern

Psychological tests, he was one of the first to advocate for, and practice a scientific approach to

the measurement of individual differences. Galton established a laboratory at the South

Kensington museum in 1885 and for the next six years measured various characteristics of over

9000 people. Unfortunately not much was learned about human intelligence as a result of all this

Testing. However Galton did improve upon statistical methods used for analyzing data on

Individual differences and inspired others to continue with this pursuit.

James Mc Keen Cattell (1860-1944) an American had received his doctorate in 1886 in the

laboratory of Wilhelm Wundt in Germany where his dissertation focused upon individual

differences in reaction times. He established a psychology laboratory at the University of

Pennsylvania where he studied tasks similar to those being used by Galton. In an article

published in 1890 cattell was the first to use the term “mental test”. In this article cattell laid

down some of the important principles of psychological testing.

EMERGENCE OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCHIATRY:

During the nineteenth century there was a growing faith in a science and the scientific method. It

was in the context that scientific psychiatry emerged as a legitimate discipline. The first order of

business for a scientific approach to psychiatry was the development of a system for classifying

psychiatric disorders. The nineteenth century saw the initial identification, naming, and detailed

description of several major psychiatric conditions. For example, J.Langdon down described a

syndrome involving mental retardation that continues to bear his name. general paresis was

identified as a syndrome caused by syphilis. Ewald hecker published a monograph on

hebephrenia, describing its symptoms and deteriorating course.

The emergence of the scientific psychiatry helped set the stage of clinical psychology in a variety

of ways. First, improved classification created a need for improved methods of making

differential diagnoses. Assessment, as we will see is one of the cornerstone activities of clinical

psychology. Diagnostic assessment was one of the first practical problems psychological tests

were developed to address. Second the differentiation of mental retardation from other

psychiatric conditions created a need for valid instruments for assessing intellectual functioning.

Third psychiatric classification systems most notably Kraepelins identified some psychiatric

conditions that may have non biological causes. The most important psychiatric syndrome for

which non biological causes were considered was hysteria.

ASSESSMENT:

By 1916 the first “world war” was in full swing and by 1917 the United States declared war on

Germany and threw itself into the war to end all wars. When the United States entered WWI

APA president Robert Yerkes (1876-1956) formed a committee to work with the army to

develop methods of classifying recruits according to their abilities. Among the more important

products of the groups work was the development of two group administered test of intelligence

called the Army Alpha and Army Beta. The Alpha test was a verbal scale for use with Eglish

speaking recruits. The Beta was a non verbal test of intelligence that was developed to assess

men whose primary language was not English.

During the war over 1700,000 men were tested in groups and another 80,000 plus were

examined individually. This was the first time that normative data on psychological tests were

gathered on such a large scale.

The period between the two world wars saw a huge amount of work in the area of intellectual

testing. In the tradition of the Army Alpha and Army Beta several group administered tests of

intelligence and mental abilities were developed in the 1920’s including the Otis classification

test (1923), the Institute of Educational Research Intelligence scale (1925), Miller Analogies test

(1926) and others individually administered tests of mental abilities were also developed. Lewis

Terman revised the Binet scale. The Binet scale was the most popular individually administered

tests of intelligence in the 1920’s and 1930’s. However other individually administered tests of

intelligence also developed and gained popularity during that period of time. For example the

Good enough Draw a Man test (1926) measured a child’s intelligence by scoring a drawing the

child produced in response to the instructions” Draw a Man”.

Along with the 1937 revision of the Stanford Binet the publication of the Wechsler-Bellvue scale

in 1939 was the most significant development in the area of intellectual testing during that era.

David Wechsler was chief psychologist at the Bellvue psychiatric Hospital in New York City

when he developed the test of intelligence. This test was one of the first individually

administered intelligence test developed for use with adults.

Advances in psychological testing were not limited to the arena of intellectual assessment in the

period between the world wars. Psychologists were also devoting their attention to developing

tests for measuring personality and diagnosing mental disorders. Once again the practical issues

Robert wood worth (1869-1962) created the first test for detecting mental disturbances called the

Psychoneurotic Inventory but labeled the personal Data sheet so that soldiers completing it

would not be alarmed the test sereved well as a screening instrument for identifying recruits

suffering with various mental conditions (Reisman, 1991).

In 1921 Herman Rorschach (1884-1922) published psychodiagnostik in which he described a

method of diagnosing patients and characterized features of their personality based upon their

responses to a set of ten ink blots.

Thematic test (TAT) is probably the best known projective test of personality it was also

published and popularized in the period between the world wars. Henry Murray (1893-1988)

developed the test at the Harvard psychological clinic and published it in 1938.

The other major test to appear on the scene in this period was the Minnesota Multiphasic

personality Inventory (MMPI) developed in late 1930,s by the psychologist and the neurologist

at the University of Minnosta Hospitals the MMPI was an empirically derived test designed for

the purpose of making differential diagnosis among psychiatric disorders.

It has been estimated that in 1944 alone over 60 million standardized tests were administered to

20 million people (Reisman , 1991). In addition to the use of testing for classification the use of

tests as part of an individualized diagnostic evaluation also grew during the war. The physical

and psychological trauma suffered by soldiers produced a need for idiographic clinical

assessment. The recently developed MMPI Wechsler-Bellevue and Rorschach were used

extensively during the war and the identification of clinical psychology with these tests grew

stronger.

DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY PAKISTAN:

The end of British rule in India led to the independence of Pakistan in August 1947. The present

geographical boundaries of the country date from December 1971, when East Pakistan became the

independent state of Bangladesh. At the time of independence only two colleges taught psychology: the

Government College, Lahore, where psychology, as was common practice until the 1960s was taught as

part of the philosophy syllabus, and Forman Christian College, Lahore. The first independent psychology

department was founded at Karachi University with Qazi Muhammad Aslam, whose academic

background was in philosophy, as chair. Psychology achieved independent status at the Government

College, Lahore (University of the Punjab) in 1962, with Dr. Muhammad Ajmal as its first chair. The

psychology department at the University of Sindh became independent in 1960, with Dr. Rafia Hasan as

chair. Syed Muliammad Hafeez Zaidi observed in Frontiers of Psychological Research in Pakistan

(Karachi, Pakistan, 1975) that the tradition was for philosophy teachers to become psychologists. This

resulted in the adoption of traditional indigenous psychology that was also oriented toward philosophy.

Hafeez Zaidi wrote two articles on the early days of Pakistani psychology (American Psychologist, 1959,

14, 532-536; Psychologia, 1958, I, 187-190) Today, Pakistan has five major departments of psychology,

two in Lahore (Punjab), two in Sindh (Karachi, Jamshoro), and one in Peshawar (NWFP).. There are also

two institutes, the Muhammad Ajmal National Institute of Psychology (Islamabad) and the Institute of

Clinical Psychology (Karachi). A total of 25 doctoral degrees have been given by these psychology

departments and institutes.

Muhammad Ajmal (1920-1994) earned a doctoral degree from London University, and taught psychology

as well as philosophy at the Government College, Lahore. Although trained in the Western intellectual

tradition and a great proponent of Jung's analytical psychology. Ajmal laid the foundations of an

indigenous psychotherapy. He developed a Sufi doctrine (divinely inspired humanism), as an indigenous

approach to healing along scientific lines (Muslim Contributions to Psychology and Other Essays,

Islamabad, 1986). The Sufic psychotherapy inspired his students and gave rise to a sub discipline of

Muslim psychology at the Government College, Lahore. One of his students. Syed Azhar Ali Rizvi, took

a leading role in the establishment of the Institute of Muslim Psychology, Lahore.

The Peshawar psychology department published a research journal, Pakistan Psychological Studies

beginning in 1969, with Moghni as editor. A doctoral degree program was established between 1973 and

1974. Under his leadership a number of doctoral degrees were awarded, and those psychologists are now

faculty members. Dr. Moghni's original research involved studying motives. He developed altitude scales

to differentiate the respondents on the strength of their achievement-oriented, power-oriented. and

affiliation-oriented attitudes. In March 1968. the first Pakistan Psychological Association conference was

held in Dacca, East Pakistan, where Dr. Moghni gave his presidential address on the role of achievement

motivation in national development. During 1980 and 1981 he worked with David McClelland at Harvard

University as a postdoctoral fellow. The second area of Moghni's research interest involved the de-

velopment of objective-type tests for secondary school examinations. Most of his studies were published

in Pakistan Psychological Studies. Later, Moghni became in-terested in the scientific study of the

development of millat, Muslim nationalism, not only as it affected Pakistani Muslims, but Muslims in

general. This was a move toward establishing an indigenous psychology in Pakistan.

Important Figures in clinical Psychology:

Farrukh Z. Ahmad, who earned his doctoral degree at Stanford University, joined the University of

Karachi in 1962 as a lecturer. She was the founder-director of the Institute of Clinical Psychology, where

post master's diploma/master's in philosophy/doctoral degree pro-grams were established. Ahmad's long

experience of teaching and practice in clinical psychology has led to two books (Dependency in

Psychotherapy, University of Karachi, 1988; Mental Health and Patterns of Child Rearing, University of

Karachi, 1993). Dr. Ahmad became editor of the Pakistan Journal of Psychology after Professor Zaidi

moved to Nigeria, and in 1990 became a founding editor of Pakistan Journal of Clinical Psychology,

remaining a regular contributor to both journals.

Other important researchers include Mah Nazir Riaz, chair of the department of psychology at the Uni-

versity of Peshawar, who has a doctoral degree from that university. Her major areas of research have

been in creativity and child rearing, most of her papers appearing in Pakistan Journal of Psychological

Research and Psychological Studies. The Urdu version of Child PARQ and Child PAQ were used in child

rearing research. Alay Ahmad has a doctoral degree from the University of Peshawar. His specialty is

mass media. His doctoral work was on the effects of television viewing on Pakistani children's reading of

printed pages activity levels and it was published in Japan (1980). Other contributions by Alay Ahmad

were published in Psychological Studies and Pakistan Journal o Psychology.

Najama Najm has a doctorate from an American university and is chair of the department of applied

psychology at the University of Punjab. Najm's main interests are in clinical psychology and social

variables. Najm is an editor of the Pakistan Journal of Behavioral Sciences which was founded in 1990.

Azhar All Rizvi, founder-director of the Institute of Muslim Psychology, formerly chair of the

psychology department, Lahore (University of the Punjab), is an editor of Zehan (Mind), the Urdu journal

of Muslim psychology. Rizvi's book, Muslim Traditions in Psychotherapy and Modern Trends (Lahore,

1994) results from intensive research on Sufi scholars of the Indo Pakistan subcon-tinent (particularly the

works of Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi and Shah Waliullah) which have bearing on mental health.

According to Rizvi, the concept of abnormality is synonymous with the distance one maintains from the

creator, and therapy is geared to reduce the distance through cognitive understanding and strengthening

faith in God.

The Muhammad Ajmal National Institute of Psychology:

Established in 1976, the National Institute of Psychol-ogy was given the status of a Center of Excellence

in Psychology, and eventually moved to Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. Since 1984 it has offered

M.Phil./Ph.D. degree programs. The institute regularly presents national seminars and workshops. Before

it founded a M.Sc. degree program. The institute was much involved in psychological research on educa-

tional programs, adaptation and development of foreign tests for use in Pakistan, and social-psychological

research, including crime and deviant behavior. The institute publishes monographs, books, and tests

along with a biannual journal, Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research (PJPR), which was founded in

1986 under the editorship of Z. A. Ansari. The journal has an international board of consulting editors.

The institute also publishes a quarterly NIP Newsletter. The institute library is quite rich, with hundreds

of reference works and back issues of journals. Z. A. Ansari was the major force behind the overall

development of the institute before moving to the International Islamic University of Malaysia in the

early 1990s. One of the most prominent names associated with the institute is that of Dr. Ansari, whose

main research interests have been in educational problems and the development and validation of

educational tests. He has published in national and international journals. Ashiq Ali Shah, who has a doc-

torate from Berlin University has focused on social psychology. Before joining the International Islamic

University of Malaysia, he published a number of articles on aspects of social psychology in the Pakistan

Journal of Psychological Research and international journals. A number of doctoral candidates completed

their doctorates under his guidance, including a dissertation on the development of an indigenous Salma-

Shah Depression scale in 1990.

Naeem Tariq has a doctorate from the National Institute of Psychology. He is an editor of the Pakistan

Journal of Psychological Research, where he has published a number of articles on crime and other

deviant behavior. Drs. Seema Pervez and Ghazala Rehman have focused on child development and

Rorschach technique, respectively. Dr. Ghazala has developed an indigenous measure of religiosity and

has also developed a cultural adaptation of the Pickford Projective Pictures.

Psychology Journals in Pakistan:

There are three journals today: the Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research (PJPR), the Pakistan

Journal of Psychology (PJP), and the Journal of Behavioral Sciences (JBS). Both Pakistan Psychological

Studies and Psychology Quarterly have ceased publication. In 1982, Z. A. Ansari analyzed a sample of

the articles published in Pakistan journals between 1965 and 1980. He found that 50% were of purely

theoretical nature, 7% were case studies, while 43% were empirical. The present author generated 1996 .

seven broad areas of research articles published in three Pakistan journals between 1986 and, the trend

has changed from a preference for theoretical articles. Clinical studies are now at the top of the list and

social-psychological research occupies second place. Psychological testing and industrial-organizational

studies have middle positions, and cross-cultural research occupies the lowest position. Between 1986 and

1996 there was major emphasis on clinical research, particularly in the Pakistan Journal of Psychology.

Indigenization of Psychology in Pakistan:

Ansari (1986), in an introductory editorial to the Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, viewed the

application of psychological knowledge to solve social problems as meaningful and relevant. Since then

the journal has published empirical research in educational and social psychology, and research also

related to psychological testing. Much work has been done on the adaptation of various tests originally

published in the West, their translation into Urdu, the national language of Pakistan, in order to make

them culturally relevant. The Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research has been particularly active in

this area, publishing material on development of a questionnaire for assessing school-children's study

problems; a cognitive development task battery for elementary schoolchildren; translation and adaptation

of vocational interest inventory; and a bore-dom proneness scale. The Anjum-Klialique Type-A scale was

published in the Journal of Behavioral Sciences in 1992. Earlier, a version of MMPOI adapted for use

with schizophrenics was published in the Pakistan Journal of Psychology. It should be noted, however,

that these tests, although they were developed to be appropriate to Pakistani culture, were based on tests

that were originally developed in the West.

This paper was originally published in Encyclopedia of Psychology Vol.

6, edited by Alan E. Kazdin, Oxford University Press (2000) (pp. 27-32) sponsored by American

Psychological Association. It is being placed on website of Council of Social Sciences with the

permission of the author Professor Abdul Haque.

Significance:

The practical application of this psychological knowledge began when those principles of animal and

human perception were first applied in the field of education by Lightner Witmer when he inaugurated

the first psychological clinic in 1896; as this initial practical application of psychology grew, it expanded

its clinical applications to the treatment of various mental health disorders. Clinical Psychology is

concerned with the work of treating “sick” patients. In the broader, contemporary sense, however, clinical

psychology involves teaching about, research about, or treatment of persons with any of the common

mental health disorders. The concept of counseling (in British English it is spelled counselling) has

actually been around for ages, and it reflects the need for one person to seek out help or advice from

another person. Counseling as a professional occupation, therefore, derives not from the clinic but from

more social settings. It focuses on helping persons resolve problems or role issues related to work or

school or family matters. In this setting, the counselor is a “problem solver” who through direct advice or

non-directive guidance helps the client make rational decisions. Coaching, like counseling, is meant to

help “healthy” clients, but instead of helping them solve problems, coaching focuses on helping persons

utilize their abilities more effectively than they have previously. Advertising jargon would call this

“achieving your full potential.”

Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of

understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to

promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are

psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in

research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and

administration. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients

with brain injury—this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical

psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic

approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually

an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices

are associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures intended to

form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new

ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic,

cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a

growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased

understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the

advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of

the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a

strong therapeutic alliance.Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now

adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation. Clinical psychologists work in a variety of settings,

including hospitals, clinics, and corporations, and in private practice. Some specialize in working

with mentally or physically handicapped persons, prison inmates, drug and alcohol abusers, or

geriatric patients. In some settings, a clinical psychologist works in tandem with a psychiatrist

and a social worker and is responsible for conducting the team’s research. Clinical psychologists

also serve the courts in assessing defendants or potential parolees, and others are employed by

the armed forces to evaluate or treat service personnel.

The training of clinical psychologists usually includes university-level study of general

psychology and some clinical experience. In the United States, New Mexico became the first

state to grant psychologists the right to prescribe medications for the treatment of mental

disorders. Most clinical psychologists who do not have medical degrees, however, are barred by

state laws from prescribing medications.

Clinical psychology aims to reduce psychological distress and to enhance and promote

psychological well-being. A wide range of psychological difficulties are dealt with, including

anxiety, depression, relationship problems, learning disabilities, child and family problems and

serious mental illness.

To assess a client, a clinical psychologist may undertake a clinical assessment using a variety of

methods including psychological tests, interviews and direct observation of behaviour.

Assessment may lead to therapy, counselling or advice. Clinical psychologists work largely in

health and social care settings including hospitals, health centres, community mental health

teams, child and adolescent mental health services and social services.They usually work as part

of a team with, for example, medical practitioners, social workers and other health professionals.

Most clinical psychologists work in the National Health Service, which has a clearly defined

career structure, but some work in private practice.

The work is often directly with people, either individually or in groups, assessing their needs and

providing therapies based on psychological theories and research.

Clinical psychology is a rapidly developing field and adding to the evidence base through

research is very important. Some clinical psychologists work as trainers, teachers and researchers

in universities.

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Ajmal M. (1986). Muslim Contributions to Psychotherapy and other essays. Islamabad: National Institute of Psychology, Centre of Excellence

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Ansari, Z. A. (1992).Quranic concepts of human psyche. Islamabad: International Institute Islamic Thought and Institute of Islamic Culture.

Haque. A. (1979). Cooperation and conflict between Pakistan and India as related to compassion-compulsion attitudes. Peace Research. II, 133-140.

Haque. A., & Lawson, E. (1980). Mirror image hypothesis in the context of Arab-Israeli conflict. International Journal of International Relations, 4, 107-112.

Khalique. N., & Haque. M. (1979). Conflicting communications: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Behavioral Development. 2, 207-209.

Rizvi. A. A. (1980). Reading therapy of Ashraf Ali Thanvi. Psychology Quarterly, 14,33-39.

Rizvi. A. A. (1994). Muslim traditions in psychotherapy and modern trends. Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture.

Sinha, D. (1997). Indigenizing psychology. In J. W. Berry, Y. H. Poortinga, & J. Pandey (Eds.). Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. I. Theory and method (pp. 131-169). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Thanvi A. A. (1971). Tarbiat-ulsalik. Lahore: Jamia Ashrafia. Zaidi. S. M. H. (1979). Applied cross-cultural psychology: Submissions of a

cross-cultural psychologist from the third world. In L. H. Eckenberger, W. Lonner, & Y. H. Poortinga (Eds.)m Cross-cultural Contributions to Psychology (pp. 216-243). Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger.

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