Science Reviewer (1st Term)

(by Julian Espino)

Lectures:Lecture 1 - BiologyLecture 2 Characteristics of Life

Lecture 3 Branches of Science

Lecture 4 Scientific Method

Lecture 5 Bio Breakthroughs

Lecture 6 - Microscope

Lecture 7 - Carbohydrates

Lecture 8 - Lipids

Lecture 9 - Proteins

Lecture 10 Biotechniques*

Lecture 11 Nucleic Acids

Lecture 12 Inorganic Compounds

Lecture 13 - Evolution

Lecture 14 Darwinism and Lamarckism

Lecture 15 Evidences of Evolution

Lecture 16 Geologic Timetable

Lecture 17 Human Evolution

Lecture 18 - Taxonomy

Lecture 19 Kingdom Monera & Kingdom Protista

Lecture 20 Kingdom Fungi

Lecture 21 Kingdom Plantae

Lecture 22 Kingdom Animalia

[Disclaimer: Some parts of this reviewer are summarized (this is mostly based on my Science notes); Just sayin]

LECTURE 1 BIOLOGY

Science

an organized body of knowledge

information derived from investigation & observation

a systematic inquiry

a process

Science Processes:

1.) Measuring

2.) Observing

3.) Classifying

4.) Inferring

5.) Hypothesizing

6.) Experimenting

7.) Analyzing

Bio/logy Bio(Life) and Logos(study of)

History of Biology

Primitive Period

Early people (No scientific explanation; SURVIVAL)

Ancient Period

-Early Greeks & Romans (No sci. explanation; natural phenomena = gods/goddesses)

2.) Greeks

- first known biologists

- critical thinkers of society

associate natural events w/ gods and goddesses

3.) Natural Philosophers

- cite the importance of investigation to a variety of questions about nature

4.) Aristotle (Greek)

- Father of Biology

- correlated the warming & cooling funcs. of heart and brain w/ human emotions

5.) Galen (Roman)

- cites the importance of hygiene & sanitation

- performed dissection of animals

6.) Andreas Vesalius

- basis of anatomy is on dissection of organisms

7.) Marcelo Malphigi

- discovered the Malphigian tubules part of urinary system

8.) Zacharias Jansen

- lens makers for the early microscope

9.) William Harvey

- discovered the systemic circulation of the body

10.) Anton van Leeuwenhoek

- invented the early microscope

11.) Marie Francois Bichat

- organs are composed of tissues

12.) Robert Hooke

- discovered cells

13.) Carolus Linnaeus

- taxonomy

14 15.) Lamarck and Darwin

evolution

16.) Mendel

- genetics

17 18.) Watson and Crick

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

Biological Organization

Atoms -> Element -> Molecules -> Compounds -> Organelle -> Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ system -> Organism -> Population -> Community -> Ecosystem -> Biosphere

LECTURE 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

1.) Unique Chem. Organization

organisms are made up H2O

2.) Cell Organization

number (unicellular & multicellular)

complexity (prokaryotic & eukaryotic)

3.) Constant Energy Requirement

4.) Capability to Grow

increase in size & volume

metabolism sum of the body processes [catabolism(breakdown) & anabolism(build up)]

5.) Definite Form and Size

6.) Reproduction (Sexual / Asexual)

7.) Life span & Development

8.) Response to Stimuli

Stimulate -> Response -> Tropism

9.) Adaptation

becoming suited in an environment for survival

10.) Movement

LECTURE 3 BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

Natural Sciences

Physical

Physics matter & energy

Chemistry structure, changes & properties of matter

Meteorology weather & climate

Astronomy heavenly bodies

Geology history of Earth

Oceanography ocean phenomena

Biological

Botany plants

Zoology animals

Ecology environment

Paleontology fossils

Genetics heredity

Taxonomy classification of organisms

Anatomy body parts

Physiology funcs. of body

Evolution origin and differentiation of organism

Microbiology microorganisms

Biogeography geographical distribution of organisms

Cryobiology effects of temperature

(+) More

Cytology cells

Histology tissues

Space Biology effects of outer space on organisms

Morphology structure of plants and animals

Entomology insects

Helminthology worms

Conchology shells

Ornithology birds

Ichthyology fish

Mammalogy mammals

Parasitology parasites

(+) Human Anatomy

Hemology blood

Neurology brain

Cardiology heart

Osteology bones

Gynecology genitals

(+) Microbio

bacteria bacteriology

viruses virology

protozoa protozoology

fungi mycology

LECTURE 4 SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Experimental Group grp. that receives the treatment

Controlled Group serves as study of comparison

Controlled Variables (Constants) kept the same and not allowed to change or vary

Dependant Variable (Responding Variable) the variable that responds and is measured

Independent Variable (Manipulated) the variable that is purposefully changed or manipulated

1.) Observe & Identify the Topic/Problem

involves : preliminary observation

helps in : choosing a problem (topic)

factors affecting

curiosity

prove or disprove a previous finding

follow-up for a previous research

wanting to improve old tech

wanting to create new tech

wanting to discover something new

2.) Hypothesize

to hypothesize is to predict the outcome of your research

can have more than 1

3.) Experimentation

a.) Experiment proper

b.) Data Gathering & Analysis (Also known as Methodology)

A. Experimentation involves ff:

Materials

Procedure

Record keeping

Purpose of gathering experimentation (gathering meaningful data)

B. Data & Analysis

- graphs, charts

- results of experimentation

- organized

- logbook

2 Ways of Analyzing Data:

a.) Qualitative Analysis word based description

b.) Quantitative Analysis numerical based desc.

4.) Conclusion

LECTURE 5 BIO BREAKTHROUGHS

Biotechnology application of scientific method to manipulate living cells or organisms for practical purposes

Plant Biotechnology Techniques

Gene Manipulation

identify a gene from another species which controls a trait of interest or modify an existing gene (create a new allele)

Gene units of heredity

Gene Introduction

Introduces that gene into an organism

Technique called transformation

Forms transgenic organisms

Agrobacterium a natural DNA delivery system

a plant pathogen found in nature

infects many species

DNA incorporates into plant chromosones

Benefits of Biotechnology

extends life expectancy

introduces new plant and animal species

improves livestock and poultry

provides new methods for making vaccines

produces materials that are more cost-effective

LECTURE 6 MICROSCOPE

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

creator of the microscope

Father of Microbio

Parts of the Microscope

2 Different Types of Parts: w/ lenses (Illuminating) and w/o lenses (Mechanical)

1.) Eyepiece (ocular) (illuminating)

the lens that you look through

2.) Body Tube (mechanical)

supports the eyepiece

3.) Revolving Nosepiece (mechanical)

rotating device that holds and changes the objectives (lenses)

4 7.) Objectives (illuminating)

Lower Power Objective 10x

High Power Objective 40x

Oil Immersion 100x

Scanner 4x

8.) Stage (mechanical)

holds specimen

9.) Diaphragm / Condenser (mechanical)

controls the amt. of light entering through the aperture of the obj.

10.) Fine Adjustment Knob (mechanical)

moves the body tube in small increments

11.) Coarse Adjustment Knob (mechanical)

moves the body tube in large increments

12.) Arm (mechanical)

attaches the eyepiece and the body tube to the base

13.) Base (mechanical)

supports the microscope

14.) Mirror (illuminating)

reflects (bends) the light

*Total Magnification ocular power x(times) objective lens; ocular power is generally 10x meaning it has magnification or power of 10x

LECTURE 7 CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates

consist of Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen

energy containing molecules

3 Classes

1.) Monosaccharides (simple sugars)

a. Glucose (blood / dextrose sugar)

b. Galactose (milk sugar)

c. Fructose (corn sugar / sweetest sugar)

2.) Disaccharides (double sugars)

a. Sucrose (table sugar / glucose + fructose)

b. Maltose (beer sugar / 2 glucose

c. Lactose (milk sugar / glucose + galactose)

3.) Polysaccharides

a. Starch stored carbo for plants

b. Glycogen stored carbo for animals

c. Cellulose insoluble stored carbo for plants

d. Chitin exoskeleton of animals (present for)

LECTURE 8 LIPIDS / FATS

I. Characteristics

have more energy per molecule than carbohydrates

insoluble in water

II. Functions

Energy

Part of Cell Membrane

Carriers for Vitamins A, D, E & K

Insulators

Protects and prevents water loss

III. Types

1.) Triglycerides

Glycerol + Fatty Acids

Long term energy storage

Ex. Fats and oils

2.) Phospholipids

- has C, H, O, PO4

- forms the plasma membrane of cells

- Ex. Lecithin (eggyolk), Cephalin (brain tissues)

3.) Steroids

- insoluble in water

- derived from cholesterol, a component of the plasma membrane

- Ex. Estrogen, Testosterone

4.) Waxes

- fatty acids + alcohol

- solid at normal temp.

- used as polisher, ointments

- Ex. Earwax, cuticle

5.) Terpenes

- no fatty acids

- Ex. Vitamin K, E and A, Cholesterol, Carotene, Chlorophyll

6.) Sphingolipids

- maintain shape & structure of internal organs

- signal transmission and cell recognition

*Fatty Acids Comparison

Saturdated

straight fatty acids

packed closely together

animal sources

single bonds

Unsaturated

fatty acids with kink (healthy fats)

liquid at room temp.

plant sources

double bonds

LECTURE 9 PROTEINS

20 amino acids in a body

Structure:

1.) monomer = amino acids

2.) polymer = polypeptide

Amindo Acids = bonds through peptides

Protein Structure & Function

- function depends on structure (twisted, folded, coiled into unique shape)

- all starts w/ the order of amino acids

Factors Affecting the Protein Structure

1.) Mechanical Action

whipping / beating an egg (coagulation)

Denaturation disruption or destruction of proteins

2.) Acids & Bases

3.) Heat

Types of Proteins

Communication Cell signaling

Defense Protection from infection

Structure Mechanical support

Storage Stores nutrients

Contractile Movement

Transport Carries other molecules

Hormones Chemical messengers

Enzymes Speed up chem. reactions

LECTURE 10 BIOTECHNIQUES*

1.) Mounting to prepare specimens & slides for study

2.) Fixation chem. process by which biological tissues are preserved from decay

3.) Staining artificial coloration of a substance

4.) Sectioning cutting or dividing to indicate sections

5.) Microdissection dissection of tissues under magnification, specialized needles used

6.) Centrifugation seperates immiscible liquids on solids

7.) Tissue Culture process of keeping tissue alive and growing in a culture medium

*Paramecium microorganism using a hay infusion culture.

LECTURE 11 NUCLEIC ACIDS

Importance

1.) genetic identification

2.) variation is a population

3.) control the cell activities

Friedrich MIescher discovered DNA

Watson & Crick made the DNA model

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Bases:

DNA ATCG

RNA AUCG

A (Adenine)

T (Thymine)

U (Uracil)

C (Cytosine)

G (Guanine)

DNA is made of 2 strands of polynucleotide

Purines: Adenine and Guanine

Pyrimidines: Thymine and Cytosine

*RNA Polymerase enzymes for DNA separation

2 Major Processes

Transcription (rewriting) produces RNA & DNA

Translation (nucleotides -> amino a) process of assembling protein molecules from the info encoded in mRNA

Types of RNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA) transmits genetic code from DNA and stores as pattern for assembly of amino acids

Transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers amino acids to ribosome

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) manufactures proteins

LECTURE 12 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

7 Properties of Water:

1.) Cohesion attraction between molecules of the same kind

2.) Adhesion attraction between molecules of diff. substances

3.) Capillary action water has the ability to climb structures

4.) Surface tension ability to support small obj.s

5.) High Boiling Point remains a liquid at such a large range of temperatures

6.) Universal Solvent dissolves other substances

7.) High Specific Heat more energy is needed to raise the temperature of water by 1 Celsius

Biological Importance of Water

provides hydrogen ions for acid-base reactions

acts as solvents

lubricates body tissues

makes up 60% body mass

makes up 90% blood plasma

aids in cleansing body tissues

triggers chem. reactions

regulates body heat

diffusion of materials on the cell membrane

Acids, Bases & Salts

*pH = power of Hydrogen

(0-6) acids (7) salts (8-14) bases

Acids (H) Hydrogen

reacts w/ metals to produce Hydrogen gas

sour taste

neutralizes a base

makes blue litmus -> red

Base (OH) Hydroxide

feels soapy

bitter taste

neutralizes an acid

makes red litmus -> blue

Salt (Na) Sodium

formed when acid reacts w/ base

varying tastes and solubilities

LECTURE 13 EVOLUTION

Evolution change over time in one or more inherited traits found in populations of individuals

Theories on Evolution:

1.) Creationism religious belief; life and universe are the creation of a supernatural being

2.) Biogenesis

3.) Abiogenesis (Spontaneous Generation) Miller & Urey performed the Primordial Soup Experiment (Origin: Oceans) (Input: Chemicals from atmosphere) (Output: Amino acids and proteins)

*Proteinoids single-celled organisms

Famous Evolutionists:

James Ussher

Age of Earth

Leonardo da Vinci

Discovered fossils in Italy

Robert Hooke

Discovered remnants of organisms

George Cuvier

Catastrophism Theory (Earth was formed through geological events)

George Buffon

Origins of Earth from the collision of comet

James Hutton

Theories on geologic timetable

LECTURE 14 DARWINISM AND LAMARCKISM

Lamarckian Theory

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck

Funcs. create organs and heredity determines the change in offspring

1.) Theory of Need

environment changes generate new needs

evo. or change w/in a species is driven by an innate, inner striving toward greater perfection

2.) Theory of Use and Disuse

such organs are developed / diminished

3.) Theory of Acquired Traits

adaptation have been developed as acquired traits passed on from parents to offspring

LAWS OF GENETICS

Darwinian Theory

natural selection as the basis of evo. and human origin

On the Origin of the Species

HMS Beagle Ship His Majestys Ship Darwin used to visit the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador)

1.) Variations on Individuals

individuals display differences

2.) Overproduction

organisms in nature produce more offspring than can survive

3.) Struggle for Existence

members of species must compete for limited resources

4.) Natural Selection

individuals better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully

SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST

Similarities:

both made many observations

both observed wide diversity of life

proposed that species evolve

agreed on the inheritance of traits

Summary of Darwins Theory

1.) Organisms differ; variation is inherited

2.) Organisms produce more offspring than survive

3.) Organisms compete for resources

4.) Organisms w/ advantages survive to pass those advantages to their children

5.) Species alive today are descended w/ modifications from common ancestors

Patterns of Evo.:

Divergent Evo. become less alike

Convergent Evo. diff. organism develop similar chars.

LECTURE 15 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

Evolution:

1.) Paleontology fossils

2.) Anatomy body parts

3.) Embryology dev. of embryo

4.) Biochem. chem. processes in organisms

Paleontology

fossils are preserved remains of once-living organisms

Anatomy

can have same functions with different looks (or vice-versa)

Vestigial Structures have no func. but resemble structures their ancestors possessed

Biochem

*Human Chimpanzee (1.2% away)

Embryology

LECTURE 16 GEOLOGIC TIMETABLE

Geologic Timetable provides a system of chronologic measurement to describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred during the history of the Earth

Endosymbiotic Theory cell ->(engulfs) bacteria -> unicellular organism -> multicellular

Geologic Time Scale

Pre-Cambrian (prokaryotes)

Paleozoic (amphibians)

Mesozoic (reptiles, dinosaurs)

Cenozoic (mammals, MAN)

LECTURE 17 HUMAN EVOLUTION

>Hominid Evo.

brain size

better bipedalism

hunting

fire

tools

built shelters

clothing

language

1st Homo habilis

first tool makers

prognathic face

probable meat-eater

possibly arboreal

no speech

discovered in 1960

2nd Homo erectus

called Pithecanthropus; dubbed Java Man

finds in China called Sinanthropus

bigger brain

Acheulean tool industry*

*Cro-Magnon Man

not a diff. species; old Homo sapiens

3rd Homo sapiens

Archaic: sometimes called Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens neanderthalensis

Modern: anatomically modern, sometimes called Homo sapiens sapiens

LECTURE 18 TAXONOMY

Naming of Organisms

- Bases:

A. Physiological and Physical Feats.

B. Location of Origin

C. Organisms Obvious Activity

Grouping of Organisms:

- Bases:

A. external and internal feats.

B. organisms activity

C. organisms habitat

D. evolutionary similarities

Carolus Linnaeus (Swedish Naturalist) Father of Modern Taxonomy (system of grouping organisms)

*Aristotles Classifications:

Plants herb, shrub and trees

Animals aerial, land and water

Classification: (Linnaeus)

Species -> Genus -> Family -> Order -> Class -> Phylum -> Kingdom

LECTURE 19 KINGDOM MONERA AND KINGDOM PROTISTA

Kingdom Monera (includes: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria)

Prokaryotes

Nutrition by absorption

Photosynthetic

Types of Bacteria (Shapes)

cocci (circular), bacilli (rod shaped), spirilla (spiral)

Thermophilis (hot temp.), Mesophiles(room temp.), Psychrophiles(cold temp.)

Kingdom Archaebacteria

Unicellular, prokaryotic

Live in extreme environment (no oxygen, no light)

*3 Types

Methanogens (Methane)

Thermophiles

Halophiles (Salt)

Kingdom Eubacteria

Unicellular, prokaryotic

Create energy by absorbing light or nutrients through their cells

Ex. Salmonella, Escherichia Oil

Factors Ideal for Bacterial Growth

1.) Moisture

2.) Temperature

3.) Food Supply

4.) Darkness

Importance of Bacteria

1.) Pest control

2.) Fermentation

3.) Decomposition

Harmful Effects

1.) Pathogens (Direct Contact, Indirect, Food/Water)

2.) Food Spoilage

7 Major Structures of a Bacteria Cell

Capsule

Cell Wall

Ribosomes

Nucleoid

Flagella

Pilli

Cytoplasm

Production of Bacteria

Binary Fission process of 1 organism dividing into 2 organisms

Benefits of Bacteria

Decomposition

Bacteria grow in the stomach to break down food

Antibiotics

Help make Insulin

Industrial Chemicals

Used to Treat Sewage

Food Making

Controlling Bacteria

Canning

Pasteurization

Dehydration

Use of disinfectant / antiseptic

Virus small infectious gent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms

acellular between living and non-living

4 Steps of Viral Invation

1.) Adsorption (of a Bacteriophage to the Cell Wall of the Bacterium)

2.) Penetration (of the Viral Genome into the Cytoplasm of the Bacterium)

3.) Viral Replication and Maturation

4.) Release (of the Bacteriophage by Lysis of the Bacterium)

Kingdom Protista

Unicellular or Colonial Eukaryotic

Nutrition by absorption

Photosynthetic

5 Classifications of Protista

1.) Sarcodines Pseudopods; false feet amoeba

2.) Ciliates Cilia Paramecium

3.) Flagellates Flagella - Trypanosoma

4.) Sporozoans no organs for locomotion Plasmodium

5.) Algae

*significance of protozoans

- Provide specimen for scientific researches

- Help achieve eco balance to the eco systems they belong to

- Some are Bio-indicators

LECTURE 20 KINGDOM FUNGI

Heterotrophic plantlike organisms = Cant produce own food

Parasitic

Eukaryotic

Spores reproductive structures intended for dispersal

can live, survive in extended period of time

Classification of Fungie:

1.) Phylum Lygomycota

2.) Phylum Ascomycota

3.) Phylum Basidiomycota

4.) Phylum Deuteromycota

5.) Phylum Mycophycota

Importance:

part of food chain

provide oxygen to aquatic organisms

use of yeast in bread making

production of cheese

fermentation of wine

source of antibiotics and fertilizers (Penicillin)

LECTURE 21 KINGDOM PLANTAE

Bryophytes primitive plants (liverworts, mosses)

Trachaeophytes adv. plants (seed plants; ferns, Gymnosperms, Anglosperms)

Plants conduct food & water through specialized structure

*Monocots 1 seed / leaf veins (parallel pattern) / 3; multiples of 3 (flower)

*Dicots 2 seed / leaf veins (net pattern) / 4 & 5; multiples of 4 & 5 (flower)

Mechanical Defenses

waxy cuticle

hairy or sticky leaves

spines, thorns & prickles

Chem. Defenses

thousands of diff. compounds are produced and used by plants

LECTURE 22 KINGDOM ANIMALIA (Invertebrates & Vertebrates)

Invertebrates

Phylums

1.) Porifera pore-bearing sponges, corals

2.) Coelentarata/Cnidarians hollow-bodied/nematocysts jellyfish

3.) Platyhelminthes flatworms slugs, turbellaria

4.) Aschelminthes unsegmented worms ascaris, hookworm

5.) Annelida segmented worms leech, earthworm

6.) Mollusca soft bodied organisms octopus, clams

7.) Echinodermata presence of spines sea urchin, starfish

8.) Arthropoda jointed legs insects, crustaceans

Vertebrates

presence of spinal cord

closed circulatory system

limbs in the form of wings, flippers or legs

body consisting of head and neck; in some, neck and tail region

with digestive tract

Vertebrata -> Phylum Chordata

Different Classes:

1.) Chondrichthyes

cartilaginous fish

2.) Osteichthyes

bony fishes

3.) Amphibia

cold-blooded -> ectotherms (dependant on surrounding temp.)

Metamorphosis

Oviparous = egg bearing

eggs are fertilized as soon as laid

Larval forms are herbivore; adults are carnivores

Respire w/ gills

Heart has 2 chambers

Four limbs for locomotion

Webbed feet

4.) Reptilia

cold-blooded

body covering; scales/dry skin

well-developed lungs for breathing

eggs are fertilized internally

limbs w/ claws on the toes (for climbing, digging, locomotion)

5.) Aves

warm-blooded

mouth : beak

light bones

developed wings from forelimbs

6.) Mammalia

warm-blooded

cerebrum & cerebellum are high developed

Heart; 4 chambers

Viviparous live-bearing

Copulation occurs & fertilization of egg is internal

2 pairs of limbs for locomotion

Nourish their young by the mammary glands

Mammalia:

1.) Monotremes egg laying

2.) Marsupials pouched

3.) Placentals live-bearing