AssessmentofGroundwaterQualityintheTalensiDistrict ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2020/8450860.pdf · ResearchArticle AssessmentofGroundwaterQualityintheTalensiDistrict, NorthernGhana

Research ArticleAssessment of Groundwater Quality in the Talensi DistrictNorthern Ghana

Larry Pax Chegbeleh 1 Bismark Awinbire Akurugu 12 and Sandow Mark Yidana 1

1Department of Earth Science University of Ghana Box LG 58 Legon Accra Ghana2Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Water Research Institute Box M 32 Accra Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Bismark Awinbire Akurugu bismarkakuruguyahoocom

Received 4 September 2019 Revised 29 February 2020 Accepted 9 March 2020 Published 10 April 2020

Academic Editor Piotr Minkiewicz

Copyright copy 2020 Larry Pax Chegbeleh et al is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work isproperly cited

A comprehensive chemical quality assessment of groundwater resources in the Talensi District has been conducted usingconventional graphical methods and multivariate statistical techniques e study sought to determine the main controls ofgroundwater chemistry and its suitability for domestic and irrigation purposes in the district Silicate and carbonate mineralweathering were identified as the main controls on groundwater chemistry in the district with reverse ion exchange also playing arole High nitrate and lead levels observed have been associated with agrochemicals and wastewater from farms and homes reemain flow regimes have been identified with Q-mode cluster analysis in which mixed cation water types have been revealedwhere areas designated as recharge zones are dominated by Na+ +K+ndashMg2+ndashHCO3

minus fresh water types characterised by lowmineralisation and pH which evolve intoMg2+ndash Na+ +K+ndash HCO3

minus fresh water type with corresponding increased mineralisationof the groundwater Based on the water quality index (WQI) technique modified for the district and an interpolation techniqueusing ordinary kriging developed from a well-fitted exponential semivariogram for the estimated WQIs the groundwater qualityhas been spatially classified as generally lsquogoodrsquo to lsquoexcellentrsquo for domestic purposes Generally the quality of groundwater fordomestic usage deteriorates as one moves towards the north of the district whereas waters in the east and west present the bestquality Classifications based on the United States Salinity Laboratory (USSL) Wilcox and Doneen diagrams suggest thatgroundwater from the unconfined aquifers of the district is of excellent quality for irrigation purposes

1 Introduction

An overview of rural and small-town water services reportedby the Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA)[1] suggests that groundwater remains the most importantsource of fresh water supply for mainly domestic agricul-tural and industrial purposes in the semiarid climates ofnorthern Ghana Talensi District is one of such places wherethe populace relies on groundwater through boreholes andopen wells for mainly their potable water and other domesticand agricultural related water needs e presumed resil-ience of groundwater to climate change and variabilityevaporative losses and protection from common sources ofpollution make the resource a preferred source of drinkingwater supply since in most cases little or no treatment is

required prior to consumption as compared to surface watersources [2] For the people of Talensi District and severalother districts in northern Ghana the reliance ongroundwater for various purposes is not a question of safetybut availability and convenience as the alternative isresorting to other sources of water such as rivers damsstreams ponds and many more some of which are deemedunwholesome for such purposes [3]

Several combinations of factors work together andor inisolation to determine the quality of groundwater in spaceand timeerefore groundwater is not always as safe as it isbelieved to be since its quality can be influenced negativelyby weathering of the rock matrix through which it travels[4ndash6] e degree of rock weathering which influencesgroundwater quality is also dependent on factors such as the

Hindawie Scientific World JournalVolume 2020 Article ID 8450860 24 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520208450860

residence time pH and ambient temperatures [7] Forinstance the dissolution of ldquohardrdquo rocks and associatedsilicate minerals is a very slow process aided by hightemperatures and low pH e influence of rock weatheringon groundwater quality has been extensively documented inGhana [6ndash12] Furthermore population growth unplanneddevelopments and other anthropogenic activities have alsobeen identified in the literature as sources of groundwaterdegradation [11 13ndash15] Trace elements nutrients andpesticides in rivers have been reported to seep into andcontaminate groundwater [16] Contamination of ground-water through anthropogenic activities is more likely tooccur in shallow unconfined aquifers as compared to deepconfined aquifers since the shallow unconfined aquifers aresuperficially situated relative to the ground surface and thussusceptible to attacks by surface to near-surface contami-nants of varied sources erefore in places wheregroundwater recharge zones and surface activities are notprotected and regulated respectively groundwater could beseverely contaminated and given its architecture cost afortune to remediate [7 17]

e problem with groundwater contamination is thatthere are other indirect pathways by which the contaminantscould end up in humans besides the direct consumption ofcontaminated groundwater For instance contaminatedgroundwater used for irrigation of crops or for animalconsumption could end up as a public health hazard whenthese farm products are consumed erefore it is imper-ative to holistically assess the parameters that affect thequality of groundwater as well as identify the sources of thesecontaminants as a means of sustainable management of theresource [18 19]

A combination of geostatistical and conventionalhydrochemical plots has been at the forefront to this endEneke et al [14] adopted geostatistical and conventionalhydrochemical techniques in an attempt to identify the mainfactors controlling groundwater chemistry in DoualaCameroon an area characterised by rapid urbanisation andindustrialisatione study revealed that groundwater in thearea is acidic (pH between 41 and 69) and the groundwaterquality was mainly controlled by anthropogenic activitiesAdopting a similar methodology Yidana et al [7] used afactor model to examine the main hydrochemical processesthat influence fluoride and other major ion variations inSavelugu northern Ghana Silicate mineral weatheringdissolutions of soluble salts oxidation reactions and dis-solutions of sulphate minerals were found to be the fourmain factors controlling the hydrochemistry of groundwaterresources in the area In an effort to characterise the suit-ability of groundwater resources of northern Ghana fordomestic and agricultural uses Anku et al [13] analysedgroundwater samples from the underlying fractured aqui-fers Results showed that pH values range from slightlyacidic to slightly basic with electrical conductivity (EC)total dissolved solids (TDSs) calcium magnesium andsodium values being below WHO [20] recommendedstandards for potable water Spatial distribution maps alsorevealed pollution with nitrate in the western portions of thestudy area which were attributable to anthropogenic

activities Hence the present study adopts similar techniquesto assess groundwater quality for domestic and irrigationpurposes and the main factors controlling the hydro-chemistry of groundwater in the Talensi District in northernGhana

2 Study Area

21 Location Topography and Climate e study wasconducted in the Talensi District in the Upper East RegionGhana e district lies within the boundaries of longitudes0deg31prime and 1deg05prime west and latitudes 10deg35prime and 10deg60prime north Itshares boundaries with Bolgatanga Municipal to the northwest and east Mamprusi Districts to the south Bawku WestDistrict to the east and Kassena-Nankana District to thewest (Figure 1) It has a total land area of about 838 km2 andpopulation size of 81194 people with a population density of988 persons per kilometre square [21] e majority of theinhabitants (about 90) in the district are peasant farmersSmall-scale mining artisanal stone crushing agro-processing charcoal burning firewood harvesting and ir-rigation farming constitute the other sources of income inthe district [3]

e topography of the district is generally flat withrelatively undulating lowlands with gentle slopes rangingbetween 1 and 5 Elevations range between 100m and200m with some isolated rock outcrops and uplands mainlyaround the district capital Tongo and Yinduri reaching400m high e district is drained by several rivers andtributaries during the rainy season but in the dry seasonmost of the tributaries dry out leaving only portions of theRed andWhite Volta Rivers flowing through the eastern andsouthern boundaries of the district e White Volta Rivermeanders in and out of the district until it flows downtowards the southwestern part of the district

e district lies in the Savannah zone characterised bysemiarid conditions with a single rainy season which runsfrom May to October e rest of the months of the year ischaracteristically dry with barely any rains Recent annualrainfall records (2008ndash2017) from the Ministry of Food andAgriculture (MOFA) suggest yearly rainfall ranges between503 and 997mm with an annual average of 837mm [22]e area is almost always relatively warm with temperaturesreaching 45degC inMarch and April and recording a minimumof 12degC in December [3] e prolonged dry season is ac-companied by very low relative humidity which reaches 10during harmattan (the dry and hazy northeast trade wind) inDecember and January and with the onset of the rains itrises gradually up to 65 maximum [23]

22GeologyandHydrogeology A large portion of the district(about 75) is underlain by crystalline Precambrian rocks ofthe Birimian supergroup which is intruded by granitoids ofthe Eburnean and Tamnean Plutonic Suites (Figure 2) eBirimian typically consists of gneiss phyllite schist mig-matite granite-gneiss and quartzite whereas the associatedintrusions are composed mainly of K-feldspar-rich-granit-oids such as granite and monzonite (Bongo type) [24] e

2 e Scientific World Journal

lower and eastern portions of the district are underlain bythe Voltaian supergroup (Kwahu-Bombouka group) whichis composed mainly of fine-grained micaceous sandstonesmedium-grained mudstones and shales and the Tarkwaianey overlie the Birimian and Tarkwaian in the district andare thought to be of late Precambrian to Paleozoic age eVoltaian supergroup is subdivided into three main strati-graphic units based on lithology and field relationshipsBasal sandstones OtiPendjari and Obosum supergroupse Basal sandstones comprise quartz sandstone formationof about 75m thick and commonly occur along the northernand western edges of the Voltaian supergroup e OtiPendjari on the other hand is much thicker(1500mndash4000m) and comprises argillaceous sandstones

arkose siltstones interbedded mudstone sandy shale andconglomerates [25] e Obosum formation of the Voltaiansupergroup consists of dirty-yellow fine-grained thinlybedded and micaceous feldspathic quartz sandstones withsubordinate argillite intercalations and whitish-yellowmassive fine- to medium-grained cross-bedded arkosicand quartzose sandstones

e district falls within three main hydrogeologicalprovinces the Voltaian Crystalline Basement GranitoidComplex and Birimian Provinces [26] (Figure 3) Generallythe Birimian rocks exhibit deeper weathering than thegranitoids Groundwater occurs mainly within the saprolitesaprock and fractured bedrock within the Birimian Prov-ince However the lower and upper parts of the saprolite and

sect Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

Arigu

Tongo

Kalbeo

Bisigu

Asonge

Shiega

Sekoti

Datoko

Balungu

Sherigu

Yinduri

Pelungu

Winkogo

Pwalugu

ZaleriguAirstrip

Zuarungu

Gambibigo

Ssnit flat

Bolgatanga

Tongo shrine

0deg40prime0PrimeW0deg50prime0PrimeW10

deg45prime

0PrimeN

10deg4

5prime0Prime

N

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N

10deg3

5prime0Prime

N

10deg3

5prime0Prime

N

Northern

VoltaBrong Ahafo

Western

Eastern

Upper West

Central

Upper East

Greater Accra

0 5 10 15km25

Talensi district

Gulf of Guinea

Cot

e drsquovo

ire

Map of ghana showing the study area Map of africa showing ghana

Ghana

TownRoadRiverTalensi district

Togo

N

S

EW

Figure 1 Map of Ghana showing the study area

e Scientific World Journal 3

saprock respectively are the most productive zones in termsof groundwater delivery and normally complement eachother in terms of permeability and groundwater storage [28]

ree main types of basement aquifers have beenidentified the weathered rock (fracture-related) quartze-vein and the unweathered fractured aquifers [29] Banoeng-Yakubo et al [27] further emphasize that the saprolitic zoneresults from a combination of the topsoil underlying lat-eritic soil and the variably weathered zone in the BirimianProvince Borehole depths arrange Birimian and the Tark-waian range between 35 and 55m with an average of 42m[30] Carrier et al [28] also recorded borehole depth in asimilar range of 35 and 55m with an average of 50m in thegranitoids Akurugu et al [2] indicate that the depth to thewater table at the time sampling data were collected for thisstudy ranges between 2 and 13m with an average of 8me highest elevations are in the eastern and southeasternsections of the district as such groundwater flow follows ageneral northeast-southwest pattern with a few local flowsystems which cannot be clearly defined [2] e aquiferhydraulic conductivity has been reported to be highly var-iable ranging between 0001md and 58396md [2] eproductive zones of the Birimian Province have also beenreported to range between 02m2d and 119m2d with anaverage of 74m2d [27]

e Kwahu-Morago of the Voltaian supergroup is agood aquifer zone composed mainly of the sandstone for-mation e Voltaian supergroup is characterised by little orno primary porosity as a result groundwater occurrence inthe area is controlled by secondary porosities from theweathering and fracturing of the rock which has enhancedthe storage and transmissive properties of the rocks to formgroundwater reservoirs [31 32]

23 Land UseLand Cover Distribution and Soil Typese vegetation of the district is a typical guinea Savannahwoodland comprising mainly of short widely spread plantsand shrubs (Figure 4) which usually shed foliage at the endof the growing season and trees and ground flora of grasswhich get burnt by fire or the scorching sun during the longdry season [3 33] Typical trees are dawadawa shea treesacacias and baobab ese conditions impact negatively onrainfall amount in the area thereby affecting the amount ofgroundwater As a predominantly agricultural economy theexcessive temperatures and long dry season periods compelindigents to seek alternative livelihoods elsewhere usuallysouthern Ghana in order to cater for the food gap duringthose periods which have a tendency of drawing the youngand energetic farm labour from the communities [3 33]

0deg58prime30PrimeW 0deg53prime0PrimeW 0deg47prime30PrimeW 0deg42prime0PrimeW 0deg36prime30PrimeW 0deg31prime0PrimeW

0deg58prime30PrimeW

10deg2

8prime0Prime

N10

deg33prime3

0PrimeN

10deg3

9prime0Prime

N10

deg44prime3

0PrimeN

10deg2

8prime0Prime

N10

deg33prime3

0PrimeN

10deg3

9prime0Prime

N10

deg44prime3

0PrimeN

0deg53prime0PrimeW 0deg47prime30PrimeW 0deg42prime0PrimeW 0deg36prime30PrimeW 0deg31prime0PrimeW

Sampling pointBoundary

GeologylsquoTamneanrsquo Plutonic SuiteBirimian supergroupEburnean Plutonic Suite

Tarkwaian groupVoltaian supergroup Kwahu-lsquoMoragorsquo group

Study area

0 6 12 183

Kilometers

N

S

EW

Figure 2 Geological map of the study area


Investigation of nature at which land is put to use byvarious anthropogenic activities is a key to understandingthe quality of groundwater in a given area [34 35] In thispresent study Land Cover satellite data for the year 2015 wasdownloaded from the Climate Change Initiative- (CCI-)Land Cover (LC) project which delivers global LC maps at aspatial resolution of 300m [36] e data was further pro-cessed in ArcGis 102 from which various Land UseLandCover (LULC) classes of interest that have a significantimpact on the general quality of groundwater in the areawere identified and delineated (Figure 5) Figure 5 provides aconfirmatory picture of LULC of the study area as cor-roborated by the assertion that the entire area is largely ruralcomprising rain-fed croplands mosaic trees and shrubspatches of bare land etc e LULC system in the districtand Ghana as a whole is usually intercalated with no well-defined pattern A few urban-like areas include TongoPwalugu andWinkogo located in the central northwesternand southwestern parts of the district (Figure 5)

Soil serves as the natural medium through which plantsgrow on land As such it is arguably one of the most

important natural resources of a nation Different types ofsoils with varying suitability for different purposes exist ebedrock relief drainage climate microorganism andseveral other factors determine the type of soil that exists in aparticular locality e district is dominated by lixisolsleptosols and luvisols (Figure 6) mainly due to these rea-sons Obeng [37] suggests that soils of the Savannah belts arecharacteristically low in organic matter and soil moisturewithin the surface horizonmainly as a result of the dominantgrass vegetation and low and variable rainfall patterns As aresult the soils are generally prone to erosion and decliningfertility when subjected to even the least negative land usepractice

3 Methodology

Groundwater samples within the study area were collectedthrough boreholes and hand-dug wells (ranging betweendepths of 35 and 84m) in the month of November 2017 inthe dry season when water resources in the region areexpected to run low [2] Samples were collected so as to

Tula

Shia

Ningo

Bingo

Tongo DatokoShiega

Yinduri

Pwalugu

Balungu

Winkogo

Tongo shrine

0deg40prime0PrimeW0deg50prime0PrimeW

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N10

deg30prime

0PrimeN

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N10

deg30prime

0PrimeN

Coastal sedimentary provinceVoltaian provincePan african provinceCrystalline basement granitoid complex provinceBirimian province

New hydrogeological map of ghana

Study area

N11deg

10deg

9deg

8deg

7deg

6deg

5deg

3deg 2deg 1deg 0deg 1deg

TownsVoltaian provinceCrystalline basement granitoid complex provinceBirimian province 0 55 11 165275

Kilometers

Ivor

y co

ast

Togo

N

S

EW

Figure 3 Hydrogeological map of the study area modified from the new hydrogeological map of Ghana [27]


represent the domain as evenly as possible by taking at leastone or two samples from communities with boreholes andor wells Prescribed standard protocols for water samplingand storage [38ndash40] for various purposes were adoptedthroughout the study A total of thirty-nine groundwatersamples were collected (26 boreholes and 13 hand-dugwells) and analysed for major ions and trace elementsBoreholes were first purged for about five to ten minutes torid them of stagnant waters (usually until when ECpH wasstable) before sampling was done Physical parameters suchas pH Electrical Conductivity (EC) Total Dissolved Solids(TDSs) and temperature were measured in situ usingHI98129 Low Range pHConductivityTDS Tester ewater samples were filtered through a 045 μm celluloseacetate membrane and collected in 250ml sterilized low-density polyethylene bottles in two sets a bottle containingnonacidified samples for major anions analysis and theother bottle containing samples for major cations and traceelement analysis acidified with concentrated nitric acid(HNO3) to a pH less than two to prevent precipitation ofthe metals oxidation reactions and absorption to con-tainer walls and to reduce microbial activity [41] All thesamples were clearly labelled and preserved in ice cheststhat had been conditioned to a temperature of about 4 degC byice until they were ready to be transported to the laboratoryfor analysis Water samples were analysed for physico-chemical parameters such as pH electrical conductivity(EC) calcium (Ca2⁺) magnesium (Mg2⁺) sodium (Na⁺)potassium (K⁺) sulphate (SO4

2minus ) chloride (Cl⁻)

bicarbonate (HCO3minus ) nitrate (NO3

minus ) phosphate (PO43minus)

fluoride (Fminus) salinity (SAL) and Total Dissolved Solids(TDSs) in the laboratories of the Chemistry Department ofNational Nuclear Research Institute (NNRI) of the GhanaAtomic Energy Commission (GAEC) Physical parameterssuch as pH EC TDS and salinity were measured using HI2550 pHORP amp ECTDSNaCl Meter Alkalinity Ca2⁺and total hardness (TH) were determined by titrimetricmethods Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) was usedto determine the major cations and trace elements Anionssuch as Clminus SO4

2minus NO3minus Fminus and PO4

3minus were analysedusing Dionex DX 120 ion chromatograph

e dataset was subjected to charge balance error (CBE)to test the accuracy of the analysis (equation (1)) A chargebalance error value of plusmn5 and below is generally acceptableand shows that the analysis of the parameters shows a goodbalance of the cations and anions [42]

CBE 1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 minus 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868

1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 + 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868times 100 (1)

where mc and ma and zc and zaare respectively molarconcentrations of major cations and anions and charges ofcations and anions

e datasets were equally subjected to normality testsince some of the statistical techniques such as clusteranalysis assume a normal distribution Datasets that werenot normally distributed were log-transformed andorstandardized to their z-score values (equation (2))

Closed cultivated savanna woodland (gt20 treesha)Closed savanna woodland (gt25 treesha)Open cultivated savanna woodland (11ndash20 treesha)Open savanna woodland (lt25 treesha)Riverine savanna vegetationWidely open cultivated savanna woodland ( 6ndash10 treesha)

0 6 12 18

N

3Kilometers

Figure 4 Vegetation cover map of Talensi District


z x minus μ

s (2)

where z x micro and s are z-score sample value mean andstandard deviation respectively

Q-mode and R-mode hierarchical cluster analyses(HCAs) were performed using the transformed datasetQ-mode and R-mode HCAs split samples and parametersrespectively into groupsclusters based on some similaritiesdissimilarities e Q-mode HCA is used to assess spatialassociations or evolution of groundwater in space andortime whereas R-mode HCA is used to determine and rankthe sources of variation in the hydrochemistry e squaredEuclidean distance and Wardrsquos agglomeration method were

employed in this study since a combination of these two hasbeen identified to yield optimal results in HCAs [43 44]although several similaritydissimilarity and agglomerativetechniques are available in HCAs Ternary diagrams andwater quality assessment and classification plots such asPiper [45] Wilcox [46] water quality index (WQI) andUnited States Salinity Laboratory [47] were used in con-junction with the geostatistical techniques to characteriseand classify groundwater quality in the district for domesticand irrigation purposes

Nevertheless water that is deemed fit for one purposemay be undesirable for another as such an integrated ap-proach which incorporates all the relevant chemical pa-rameters of interest usually guided by WHO [20] and local

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

Tongo

ShiegaDatoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

TownLand coveruse

Bare areas

Consolidated bare areas

Cropland irrigated or post flooding

Cropland rainfed

Grassland

Herbaceous cover

Mosaic cropand (gt50)natural vegetation(tree shrub herbaceous cover)

Mosaic herbaceous cover (gt50)tree and shrub (lt50)

Mosaic natural vegetation (tree shrub herbaceous cover) (gt50)cropland

Mosaic tree and shrub (gt50)herbaceous cover (lt50)

Shrub or herbaceous cover floodedfreshsalinebrakish water

Shrubland

Shrubland deciduous

Sparse herbaceous cover (lt15)

Sparse vegetation (tree shrub herbaceous cover) (lt15)

Tree cover broadleaved deciduous closed to open (gt15)

Tree cover broadleaved deciduous open (15ndash40)

Tree cover broadleaved evergreen closed to open (gt15)

Tree cover flooded saline water

Unconsolidated bare areas

Urban areas

Water bodies

0 6 12

N

183Kilometers

Figure 5 Land coveruse map of Talensi District


drinking water standards in a particular groundwater systemis relevant in characterising the suitability of water domesticfor purpose e water quality index (WQI) has beenadopted by many studies for such purposes [48ndash52] esame has been adopted in this study the weighted arithmeticindex approach modified after Brown et al [53] to assess thequality of groundwater for drinking purposes is methodinvolves assigning weights (wi) to water quality parametersbased on their health implications in potable water Pa-rameters such as Pb F- NO3

minus and pH which are believed tobe of critical health importance and significant impactors ofthe quality of groundwater were assigned the maximumvalue of 5 TDS TH Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ CIminus SO4

2minus PO43minus

and Fe were assigned values of 2 to 4 (Table 1) depending ontheir perceived significance relative to groundwater pota-bility and health implications is method also involves thecomputation of relative weights (Wi) (equation (8)) andquality rating scale (qi) (equations (4)) and determination ofthe subindex (SI) (equation (5)) and water quality index(WQI) (equation (6)) e computed WQIs were thenclassified according to Sahu and Sikdar [54] (Table 2)

Wi wi

1113936 wi (3)

qi Ci

Sitimes 100 (4)

where Ci and Si are parameter concentration and objectiveto be met respectively

SI Wi times qi (5)

WQI 1113944n

n1SI (6)

e assessments of groundwater quality for irrigationpurposes in this study are mainly sodium-basedrelatedtechniques which compare the concentration of Na+ toother ions in the groundwater system Relatively high levelsof Na+ as compared to other cations such as Mg2+ and Ca2+tend to reduce soil permeability which results in poor soilstructure for drainage [55 56] since through ion exchangeNa+ tends to get absorbed to surfaces of clay materials anddisplace Ca2+ and Mg2+ in solution ese conditions lead toa soil type that is unsuitable for optimal crop growth andproduction e sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is one ofsuch methods used for irrigation water quality assessment Itis an index that measures the relative content of sodium tothe sum of calcium and magnesium in water used for ir-rigation (equation (7)) whereas EC is used as a yardstick tomeasure the salinity of the water

SAR Na

(Ca + Ma2)

1113968 (7)

where concentrations of all ions are in meql

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0deg55prime0PrimeW 0deg48prime0PrimeW 0deg41prime0PrimeW 0deg34prime0PrimeW


10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

0 3 6 915Kilometers

TownSoil types

Fluvisols

Leptosols

Lixisols

Luvisols

N

S

EW

Figure 6 Map of soil types in the district


Similarly the Wilcox [46] diagram was also used toassess the quality of groundwater for irrigation purposes byplotting the percent of sodium in the water versus salinitye percent of sodium is calculated as a fraction of theconcentration of the total major cations in the water(equation (8)) e Wilcox diagram just like the USSL di-agram categorises irrigation water into various suitabilityranges based on sodium and salinity hazards

Na Na

Na + Ca + Mg + Ktimes 100 (8)


4 Results and Discussions

41 Statistical Summary of Hydrochemical Data e sta-tistical summaries of physicochemical parameters of 39groundwater samples from wells used in the study arepresented in Table 3 and Figure 7e distribution of most ofthe parameters in the district is highly variable suggestingthat diverse processes control these parameters in thedistrict

e values of temperature in groundwater of the studyarea range from 287degC to 344degC with a mean value of316 degC which fall within the ranges of natural water bodies(WHO) [20]

Groundwater pH has been known to influence thedissolution of minerals in a groundwater system as well asaffect the quality of water for various purposes pH in thedistrict does not display much variance it ranges between52 and 76 with an average of 68 pH units and a standarddeviation of 06 (Table 3) Most of the lowest pH values

appear to be outliers and extreme outliers (Figure 7) as suchthe pH of the groundwater system is almost neutral to closelyacidic and falls within the pH ranges for natural waters(45ndash85) [57 58] About 17 of the water samples fall belowthe recommended World Health Organisation (WHO) [20]standard (65ndash85) for domestic water use Most of these lowpH values occur around Tula and Datuku in the north-eastern portions of the district e recorded low pH valuesare mainly attributable to CO2-charged precipitation andnatural biogeochemical processes plant root respiration andleachates from organic acids from the decay of organicmatter [13]

EC and TDS on the other hand present the highestvariations in the district EC ranges from 30 μScm to1270 μScm with an average value of 40385 μScm (Ta-ble 3) which represents fresh groundwater type e ECvalues appear to be positively skewed (Figure 7) indicatingthat the tail is distributed towards the higher valuese ECvalues have corresponding TDS values ranging from43mgl to 584mgl with an average of 204mgl Generally

Table 1 Standards weights and relative weights used for WQI computation

Chemical parameter Objective to be met (Si) (mgl) Weight (wi) Relative weight (Wi)pH 75 5 0102TDS 500 4 00816TH 200 4 00816Ca2+ 200 2 00408Mg2+ 150 2 00408Na+ 200 2 00408K+ 30 2 00408CIminus 250 3 00612SO4

2minus 250 3 00612NO3

minus 50 5 0102PO4

3minus 07 4 00816Fminus 15 5 0102Pb 001 5 0102Fe 03 3 00612

Table 2 Water quality index (WQI) categorisation [54]

WQI Categorylt50 Excellent water50ndash100 Good water100ndash200 Poor water200ndash300 Very poor watergt300 Water unsuitable for drinking

Table 3 Summary statistics of major physicochemical parametersused for the study

Major parameter Minimum Maximum Mean Std deviationTemp (degC) 287 344 316 16EC (uScm) 30 1270 40385 22922pH 520 760 680 060TDS 43 584 204 10220Ca2+ 096 3036 1068 645Mg2+ 214 2123 1089 519Na+ 406 4215 20 934K+ 004 110 041 027TH 72 412 20495 8199HCO3

minus 20 250 12550 5824CIminus 302 3650 17 991SO4

2minus lt001 976 3 234NO3

minus lt001 298 046 070PO4

3minus lt001 859 037 136Pb lt001 004 002 0006Fminus lt001 147 037 040SAL lt001 050 010 009


EC and TDS values fall within the WHO [20] recom-mended standard of 2500 μScm and 1000mgl respec-tively for drinking water As water from precipitationinfiltrates the soil and travels through rock media down thesubsurface it dissolves minerals and carries the dissolvedparticles along its path As such TDS values are usuallylowest at points of infiltration designated as rechargezones usually with TDS values similar to those of theprecipitation in the area and highest at the points ofdischarge thus after it has travelled through the rock mediaand characteristically dissolved more materials along itspath of travels e dissolution of more minerals by watertherefore results in the availability of more electrolytesions in the groundwater systems and a corresponding highEC valuee high values and extreme outliers in EC valuesare attributable to the influence of the geology andorimpacts of anthropogenic activities which vary widely inspace [7] e highest EC values occur around Pwalugu andPusinamoo areas in the southwestern portions of the studyarea whilst the lowest values were recorded in the northernand eastern parts of the district

HCO3minus also displayed high variance with a minimum

value of 20mgl and a maximum of 250mgl giving anaverage of 12550mgl HCO3

minus showed a positive linearrelationship with pH as it increased with high pH values anddecreased with low pH In natural water systems bicar-bonate is the dominant anion within pH ranges of 45ndash9[57] as such the dominant anion in the groundwater systemwas bicarbonate in the given pH ranges Although otherparameters such as Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ CIminus SO4

2minus NO3minus and

PO43minus displayed high variations and deviation from the

mean the values fall within theWHO [59] permissible limitsfor domestic water use Most of the parameters appear to bepositively skewed and thus scaled towards the right tailexcept for Mg2+ K+ and PO4

3minus which appear negativelyskewed with outliers skewed to the right (Figure 7)

42 Main Controls on Groundwater Chemistry Pearsonrsquoscorrelation coefficients of various analysed parameters werecalculated as a basis for making certain inferences anddrawing relationships among parameters and to a largeextent predicting values of other parameters at placeswithout actually measuring them [60] Pearsonrsquos correlationcoefficient (r) ranges from minus1 to 1 where minus1 and 1 are perfectinverse correlations and perfect direct correlations re-spectively Table 4 provides a quick way to identify trendswithin the water quality parameters Parameters havingcorrelation coefficient (r) of 05 and above are considered tobe significantly correlated e dataset shows that the totalhardness (TH) exhibits a significant positive correlation withEC pH TDS Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ HCO3

minus CIminus and salinity(SAL) Calcium and magnesium appear to be the maincontributors to TH stemming from the dissolution oflimestone by carbon dioxide-charged precipitation How-ever the strong positive correlation of the other parameterswith TH suggests a possible contribution of these parametersto the total hardness of the groundwater in the district Hardwater is known to leave scaly deposits in pipes and reducethe cleaning ability of soap and detergents as well as de-teriorate fabrics [61] Extremely low values of TH are alsolikely to cause nutrient deficiencies especially of calcium andmagnesium hence WHO [59] recommends 500mgl as thehighest permissible limit for TH in drinking water SimilarlypH also showed a significant positive correlation with TDSCa2+ Mg2+ Na+ HCO3

minus and CIminus Among these pH andHCO3

minus showed the highest correlation (r 0939) withHCO3

minus increasing significantly with increasing pH epositive correlation with pH suggests the possible release ordissolution of these ions in solutions with changes in pHvalues Bicarbonate also relates strongly with EC TDS Ca2+Mg2+ and Na+ (r 0858 r 0939 r 0904 r 0881r 0885 and r 0668 respectively) e strong correlationwith these cations and HCO3

minus suggests a groundwater

10

8

6

4

2

0

pH K+

(mgl)PO4

3ndash

(mgl)SO4

2ndash

(mgl)NO3

ndash

(mgl)Fndash (mgl)

1250

1000

750

500

250

0

EC (microScm) TDS (mgl) TH (mgl) HCO3ndash (mgl)

50

40

30

20

10

0

Ca2+ (mgl) Mg2+ (mgl) Na+ (mgl) CIndash (mgl)

Figure 7 Box-and-Whisker plots for physicochemical parameters used for the study


system possibly dominated by a CandashMgndashNandashHCO3 freshwater type resulting from the possible dissolution of car-bonate minerals such as calcites dolomites and aragoniteand decomposition of silicate minerals Although the rela-tionship between Fminus and other parameters is not wellestablished it shows a weak positive correlation with ECTDS Ca2+ Mg2+ and HCO3

minus (r 0327 r 0322 r 0369r 0289 and r 0379 respectively) and a strong linearrelation with SO4

2minus (r 0588) (Table 4) is relation im-plies that Fminus increases with increasing EC in the districtwhich agrees with the findings of a research conducted byYidana et al [7] in Savelugu and its surroundings a domainunderlaid with geology similar to the current study area

421 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis and HydrochemicalFacies e groundwater samples across the district com-prising 39 samples and 14 variables were subjected to hi-erarchical cluster analysis (HCA) e hydrochemicalparameters showed three main cluster groups based on adendrogram using Ward`s method (Figure 8) with aphenon line drawn at a linkage distance of about 35 inR-mode cluster analysis Cluster analysis places variablessamples into groups based on distinguished similar char-acteristics and associations with each other such that themost similar variablessamples are placed in one cluster andconnected to a closely related cluster(s) and further fromclusters with less relation all of which are connected to formone big cluster in agglomerative schedule cluster analysisAlthough the definition of clusters based on the dendrogramis subjective it is however informed by the researcherrsquosunderstanding of the combining environmental factors suchas the geology hydrogeology and other human activitieswhich prevail in a place and are likely to affect the chemistryof groundwater in the study area [7] Notwithstanding thedistinction among the groups is clearly shown in the den-drograms (Figures 8 and 9)e variables are clustered into 3main groups e dendrogram shows close associationsbetween K+ Fminus NO3

minus PO43minus and SO4

2minus in Cluster I (CA-I)(Figure 8) which suggests the possible impacts of pollutionof infiltrating precipitation andor recharge probably from

agricultural input fertilizers and related anthropogenic ac-tivities Chemical fertilizers such as NKP fertilizer influencegroundwater phosphate potassium and nitrate contentsince these fertilizers are composed mainly of such chem-icals whereas the weathering of K-rich feldspars is associ-ated with the release of potassium and other related ions insolution Similarly sulphate could also result from the ox-idation of sulphide minerals especially in recharge areaswhere the bedrock of the aquifer is exposed to such con-ditions [62] e second group which forms Cluster II (CA-II) contains Na+ Clminus Ca2+ Mg2+ and pH and also repre-sents a groundwater system dominated by water-rock in-teraction [63] probably influenced by acidic groundwaterconditions is interaction is characterised mainly by sil-icate and carbonate mineral weathering which releases suchions in solution e third cluster (CA-III) shows thesimilarity between total hardness (TH) TDS HCO3

minus andEC is association suggests the domination of ground-water by precipitation and its associated interaction with

Table 4 Pearsonrsquos correlation matrix between water quality parameters

pH EC TDS SAL TH Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ HCO3minus Clminus SO4

2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus

pH 100EC 079 100TDS 082 096 100SAL 057 076 083 100TH 061 068 074 066 100Ca2+ 084 084 088 067 070 100Mg2+ 080 073 076 051 057 076 100Na+ 067 077 075 062 052 054 041 100K+ 009 009 016 008 025 012 033 000 100HCO3

minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4

2minus 036 040 036 026 minus003 041 029 029 minus026 037 007 100NO3

minus minus015 minus004 minus012 minus004 003 005 minus020 007 minus009 minus016 012 minus010 100PO4

3minus minus005 minus012 minus007 minus007 008 minus001 002 minus007 005 minus005 006 minus034 021 100Fminus 038 033 032 024 022 037 029 021 minus011 038 003 059 015 minus013 100

K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC

Rescaled distance cluster combine

8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25

Figure 8 Dendrogram for R-mode cluster analysis


atmospheric CO2 with total hardness contributing signifi-cantly to the EC

On the other hand Q-mode hierarchical cluster analysis(HCA) was employed to unveil the spatial relationships inthe groundwater parameters as well as define the flow re-gimes in various locations in the district and evolutionarysequences along groundwater flow paths as it moves from

recharge to discharge zonesree main spatial groundwaterrelations have been identified with this method as illustratedby the three clusters (Cluster 1 Cluster 2 and Cluster 3 (3aand 3b)) (Figure 9) e hydrochemical parameters of thethree clusters have been averaged and used to plot Schoellerand Stiff diagrams (Figures 10 and 11) for better visualisationof themain hydrochemical facies and the possible controls of

Rescaled distance cluster combine2520151050

WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1

Figure 9 Dendrogram for groundwater spatial associations from Q-mode cluster analysis


groundwater chemistry represented by these three clustersfor a better understanding of the groundwater flow regimeand chemistry in the district Cluster 1 (CA-1) presents aNa +KndashMgndashHCO3 fresh water type in the groundwater flowregime with a relatively low average pH of 577 e low pHis possibly traceable to the reaction of CO2 with precipitationwhich results in carbonic acid andor from the reaction ofthe same when cellular respiration of plants releases CO2into the groundwater system CA-1 is composed mainly ofsamples from Tula Datuku and Ningo areas which are

geographically close together and characterised by thegranites sandstones limestones and many more e firstgroup (Cluster 1) also presents a weakly mineralisedgroundwater characterised by relatively lower levels ofmajor ion concentration which is a characteristic of re-charge zones in the flow regime probably as a result of rapidpreferential recharge through macropores or as a result ofthe short residence time in the geologic material in which itis found e low pH conditions as illustrated by CA-1 alsocreate a conducive environment for rock mineral

Cluster 1Cluster 2Cluster 3

2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001

Ca++ Mg++ Na+ + K+ SO4ndashndash Clndash HCO3

ndash

meq

(kg)

Figure 10 Schoeller diagram made from average concentrations of major ions in the three clusters

3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3

Figure 11 Stiff diagrams made from average concentrations of major ions in the three clusters


weathering specifically the majority which are silicateminerals and the minority which are carbonate mineralswhich characterise the geology of the district which releasesions such as Na+ Ca2+ and Mg2+ in solution

Conversely subsequent clusters show relatively mod-erate to high mineralisation in Cluster 3 (CA-3) and Cluster2 (CA-2) respectively (Figure 11) suggesting a longerresidence time and a higher groundwaterndashrock interactionas the water travels from recharge areas to discharge zones[56 57] e total dissolved ion content seems to increase asthe groundwater apparently evolves from aNa+KndashMgndashHCO3 dominant fresh water type in Cluster 3identified as intermediary flow zones to MgndashNa+KndashHCO3fresh water type designated as discharge zones in this studyInasmuch as an evolutionary sequence has been observedthe groundwater flow regime does not particularly appear tofollow the evolutionary sequence as described by Chebotarev[64] which thus suggests a decrease and increase in theconcentrations of HCO3

minus and Clminus respectively in dischargezones therefore suggesting that there are variable sources ofHCO3

minus in the groundwater system in the study area besidesprecipitation CA-2 and CA-3 consist of samples mainlylocated around Winkogo Balungu and Pwalugu which arepredominately locations with relatively medium to low el-evations in the district and are therefore characterised ac-cordingly as discharge zones [57 64]

e hydrochemistry of the district is unveiled further byconstructing Piper [45] and Durov [65] diagrams althoughDurov [65] diagram is more advantageous than the Piperdiagram as it further reveals the hydrochemical processeswhich affect groundwater genesis [66] alongside the watertype Generally the groundwater is a fresh water typedominated by bicarbonate (HCO3

minus gt SO42minus +Clminus) How-

ever the Piper diagram suggests the presence of chloride andsulphate water types at very low levels From the Piperdiagram (Figure 11) it is apparent that most of thegroundwater samples (82) are dominated by Mg-Ca-HCO3 (field I) implying the dominance of alkaline earthover alkali (thus Ca2++Mg2+ gtNa++K+) e remaining 8of the water samples fall in field IV which represents Na +K-HCO3 water type also signifying the dominance of alkaliover alkaline earth hence none of the water samples fell infields II and III in the groundwater system which signifiesCa-Mg-Cl-SO4 and Na-K-Cl-SO4 respectively

From the Piper plot it is apparent that Cluster 2 samplesare more enriched in Mg and Ca than Clusters 1 and 3 andare the main contributors to the Mg-Ca-HCO3 water typeidentified in the groundwater system of the district Samplesfrom CA-1 and CA-3 on the other hand drift more closelyto a Na++K+ enrichment with CA-3 being evenmore so andcan therefore be thought of as the main contributor to theNa +K-HCO3 hydrochemical facies observed in the Pipertrilinear diagram (Figure 12) Durov [65] plot on the otherhand showed similar hydrochemical facies as the Piper plotwhere the cation field is a mixed cation type of water withCluster 2 being more skewed to Mg-Ca ion dominancewhilst Cluster 1 shows enrichment in Na++K+ ions (Fig-ure 13) e Durov plot also suggests that simple dissolutionand reverse ion exchange be the two main hydrochemical

processes affecting groundwater chemistry in the study areae dissolution of calcite and dolomite is most likely themain contributors of Ca2+-Mg2+ dominance as exhibited bythe cations in the groundwater system However the at-mospheric deposition of chloride is balanced by a corre-sponding increase in Na from the dissolution of albites andorthoclase which has resulted in the Na++K+ prevalence asexhibited mainly by Cluster 1 samples e reverse ionexchange is explained by the prevalence of Mg-Ca ions insolution which suggests the replacement of Na+ with eitherCa2+ or Mg2+ leading to a groundwater system dominatedby these alkaline-earth water types In a groundwater systemdominated by sodium ions reverse ion exchange couldoccur in the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+ where two sodiumions usually associated with clay can replace a calcium ormagnesium ion and in the process altering the compositionof the water is appears to be a significant process in thegroundwater system in the district (Figure 13) GenerallyCluster 1 samples are acidic followed by Cluster 3 andCluster 2 respectively Low pH values influence the disso-lution of minerals and therefore lead to an increase in TDSwith a corresponding pH rise Hence Cluster 1 samplesexhibit the lowest TDS values a characteristic of fresh waterof meteoric origin Clusters 3 and Cluster 2 are within theintermediate and discharge zones and therefore exhibitrelatively medium and high pH and TDS respectively

422 Predominant Sources of Variation in GroundwaterChemistry in the Study Area Principal component analysis(PCA) is a data reduction technique that scrutinises a set ofdata to unveil the significant principal components (PCs) inthe data to aid interpretation of a large series of data and tovisualise the correlations between the variables and factorsand hopefully be able to limit the number of factors causingvariations in the dataset PCA was performed using a cor-relation matrix which brings the measurements onto acommon scale and themain components extracted based oneigenvalues greater than or equal to 1 [67] with the principalcomponents (PCs) being sorted in a diminishing order ofvariance such that the most important principal compo-nents are listed first By nature the factors controlling thehydrochemistry of the groundwater in the district wouldhave some degree of correlation To ensure that the factorsdo not correlate with each other and that parameters do notcorrelate significantly with more than one factor varimaxrotation was used Varimax rotation produces orthogonalfactor rotation such that the resultant factors are uncor-related and easily interpretable [7] Based on the above-mentioned categorisation the final factor model producedthree factors that account for more than 72 of the totalvariance in groundwater hydrochemistry in the district(Tables 5 and 6) Usually parameters with high commu-nalities are the parameters that contribute significantly to thefactors hence the critical lower limit of 05 was set and theparameters with fewer communalities were excluded PO4

3minus

showed a nonsignificant communality it was howeverincluded in the final factor loadings due to its significantloading with one of the factors Similarly KMO and


Bartlett`s test of sphericity showed that the dataset containedsome statistically significant correlation in the correlationmatrix which is in line with the outcome of the Pearsoncorrelation results Also the results of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy which is used to assesswhether a dataset qualify to be subjected to PCA and has acritical lower limit of 04 gave a value of 0622 indicating thatthe data is adequate enough for PCA Table 5 summarises theresults of the three main principal component loadings forthe hydrochemistry of the district e extracted factorloadings (Table 5) show that Component 1 (PC1) accountsfor the highest variance of above 44 and has high factorloadings with EC HCO3

minus pH Ca2+ Na+ Mg2+ and Clminuse high component loading of HCO3

minus Ca2+ Na+ Mg2+and Clminus with PC1 suggests a combined set of factorsinfluencing the hydrochemistry such as intense chemicalweathering processes which include the dissolution of sili-cates and carbonate minerals and contributions from pre-cipitation in which the assertion corroborates the results ofthe cluster analysis Component 2 (PC2) on the other handrepresents about 16 of the total variation in the hydro-chemistry and loads significantly with SO4

2minus Fminus and PO43minus

which suggests the influence of domestic wastewater andagrochemicals from farm activities

Gibbs [68] diagram for the three main clusters from theHCA corroborates the main ions in the groundwater in thedistrict resulting mainly from the interaction of ground-water and rocksoil material as compared to other sourcessuch as precipitation and evaporation (Figure 14) Howeverwater samples in Cluster 1 from the HCA in the Gibbsdiagram show the predominance of precipitation influ-encing the hydrochemistry in these portions of the districtis reinforces the assertion that these areas are mainlyrecharge zones dominated by fresh water types of meteoricorigin Figure 14 does not necessarily imply the absence ofthe impacts of evaporation on groundwater chemistry ithowever suggests that evaporation does not significantlyinfluence most of the major ions in groundwater across thedistrict as compared to the other two factors based on theGibbs [68] diagram

To gain further understanding of the origin of thegroundwater biplots of the major ions which readily dis-solve or react with other ions in groundwater have beenplotted e major cations of any groundwater type are

Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C

lndash Ca ++ + Mg ++

20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters

Ca-richwaters Alkali-rich

water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters

Figure 12 Piper trilinear diagram showing major hydrochemical facies


usually dominated by Mg2+ Ca2+ and Na+ which arethought to be associated with the weathering and dissolutionof minerals such as silicate carbonate and sulphate mineralsand many more (equations (9)ndash(13)) [69 70]

CO2 + H2O H2CO3(carbonic acid) (9)

CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca2++ 2HCO3minus(calcite dissolution)

(10)

CaMg CO3( 11138572(dolomite) + 2H2CO3

Ca2++ Mg2+

+ 4HCO3minus(dolomite dissolution)

(11)

H2O + CaSO4 middot 2H2O

Ca2++ SO2minus

4 + 3H2O gypsumdissolution(12)

2NaAl2Si3O8(albite) + 2H2CO3 + 9H2O

Al2Si2O5(OH)4(Kaolinite)

+ 2Na++ 4H4SiO4 + 2HCO3minus (Silicate weathering)

(13)

A plot of Ca2++Mg2+ versus SO42minus +HCO3

minus gives moreinsight into the weathering processes that led to the releaseof these ions in solution (Figure 15(a)) Samples below theequiline might have resulted from the weathering of silicateminerals whereas samples above the equiline could be fromcarbonate mineral weathering of gypsum calcite andordolomite (Figure 15(a)) In such cases carbonic acid fromatmospheric reactions with water dissolves carbonateminerals which release Ca2+ andMg2+ in solution (equations9 to 11) e high concentration of Ca2++Mg2+ relative toSO4

2minus +HCO3minus is also attributable to reverse ion exchange

since the ratio is not exactly a 1 25 [71]


Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge

Figure 13 Durov diagram showing hydrochemical facies and processes adapted from Lloyd and Heathcoat [66]

Table 5 Final factor loadings for the water quality parameters

Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3

minus 0921 0165 0277pH 0886 0205 0177Ca2+ 0879 0179 012Na+ 0804 minus032Mg2+ 0796 0453Clminus 0737 minus019 minus041SO4

2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4

3minus minus0571K+ 0196 minus0456 0643NO3

minus minus0315 minus064


e origin of calcium and magnesium could also beunderstood by the plot of Ca2++Mg2+ versus HCO3

minus

(Figure 15(b)) A molar ratio value of (Ca2++Mg2+)HCO3minus

close to 05 suggests carbonatesilicate mineral weatheringas the main source of Mg2+ and Ca2+ in groundwaterinfluenced mainly by carbonic acid [72] Some sampleshowever fall above this 05 ratio which cannot be attributedto the depletion of HCO3

minus since HCO3minus increases in the

district from recharge areas to discharge zones with acorresponding rise in pH therefore suggesting ion exchangeas the controlling factor in these samplesrsquo hydrochemistry[73]

Figure 16(a) confirms that some levels of ion exchangebetween Ca2+ Na+ and Mg2+ as a contributory factor in thehydrochemistry as a plot of (Ca2++Mg2+)ndash(SO4

2minus +HCO3minus )

versus Na++K+ndashClminus have been used to assess this phe-nomenon [7] A plot of these two indices which yields a slopeof minus1 in which the samples were plotted away from theorigin suggests the likelihood of significant impacts of ion

exchange in the groundwater system (similar observationshave been made in northern Ghana and within the Voltaian[7 74]) whereas a slope which deviates significantly from minus1and clusters in the origin suggests otherwise e nature ofthe ion exchange is suggested to be dominated by reversecation exchange and probably the weathering of Na+-richmineral from the plot of Na+ versus Clminus (Figure 16(b)) isassertion corroborates that of the Durov plot (Figure 13) andis partly based on the fact that halite dissolution does notaccount for the Na+ ions in the groundwater and thedominance of Na+ ions over Clminus ions in the 1 1 plot echemical processes are further understood by the possibleweathering of gypsum (Figure 17(a)) and dolomite(Figure 17(b)) e dissolution of dolomite which releasesMg2+ and Ca2+ in solution (equation (11)) appears to be asignificant carbonate weathering process in the groundwatersystem whereas gypsum dissociation results in Ca2+ andSO4

2minus especially in recharge zones where the bedrock isexposed [62]

43 Chemical Groundwater Quality Assessment for DomesticPurposes Access to the quality water supply is a basichuman right and an important tool for socioeconomicdevelopment for many countries since it goes a long way toreduce adverse health impacts and health costs [59] Sincegroundwater in the district is mainly used for drinking andother domestic purposes some chemical parameters withcritical health implications from the analysis are being ex-amined further to ascertain the groundwater suitability forsuch domestic purposes pH distribution in the district ischaracteristically low and ranges from 520 to 760 elowest values occur in and around Tula Ningo and Bingu inthe southeastern portions of the district underlainmainly bythe Voltaian whereas the highest values occur in Tongo andDatuku areas in the central and northeastern parts of thedistrict

Low pH values in groundwater arise mainly from car-bonic acid from precipitation however the oxidation ofsulphur and nitrogen compounds dissociation of humusacids the hydrolysis and oxidation of ferrous iron andcation exchange are all factors which control pH variation ingroundwater [75] Acidic conditions in groundwater could

Table 6 Total variance explained

ComponentInitial eigenvalues Extraction sums of squared loadings Rotation sums of squared loadings

Total of variance Cumulative Total of variance Cumulative Total of variance Cumulative 1 5596 46634 46634 5596 46634 46634 5319 44324 443242 1736 14464 61098 1736 14464 61098 1967 16394 607183 1393 11611 72709 1393 11611 72709 1439 11991 727094 0967 8061 807695 0744 6204 869736 0557 4642 916157 0347 2891 945078 0318 2646 971529 0179 1496 9864810 0105 0876 9952411 0044 0367 9989112 0013 0109 100000

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance

Evaporationcrystallization

dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)

Figure 14 Gibbs diagram showing the main sources of variation ingroundwater chemistry in the district


also result from agrochemicals especially the use of am-monium sulphate as fertilizer Although pH has no directhealth impacts on consumers extreme values can affect thepalatability of water also cause corrosion of distributionsystems and enhance the solubility of most minerals andheavy metals in groundwater which might have adversehealth impacts Similarly total hardness (TH) (as CaCO3)showed high levels above recommended WHO [20] valuesfor portable and domestic water usage Generallygroundwater in the district is a hard water type with onlyabout 26 being soft water Although WHO [59] reports aninverse relationship between TH and cardiovascular diseases

in areas with hard water TH above 200mgl is likely to causescales deposition in water treatment systems storage sys-tems and pipes and excessive soap consumption since itdoes not lather easily and subsequent scum formation [59]

e water quality index approach [54] adopted in thisstudy suggests that groundwater in the district is of ac-ceptable quality as this classification method places allsamples within good to excellent water category except forone sample About 48 of the water samples each fell withinexcellent and good categories whereas the remaining 2which is just one sample fell within the poor category epoor water is a sample from Sheagar with high levels of Pb

05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05

ndash1y = ndash14858xR2 = 0617

ndash15

ndash2

ndash25Na+KndashCl (meql)

(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)

Silicate mineral weatheringion exchange

100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)

Figure 16 Biplot of (a) (Ca2++Mg2+)ndash(SO42minus +HCO3

minus ) versus Na++K+ndashClminus and (b) Na+ versus Clminus suggesting ion exchange and silicateweathering in the hydrochemistry of the study area

300 Reverse ion exchange

Carbonate weathering200

100

Silicate weathering000

000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3

ndash + SO42ndash (meql)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)

Figure 15 Biplots of (a) Ca2++Mg2+ versus SO42minus +HCO3

minus and (b) Ca2++Mg2+ versus HCO3minus showing the main sources of ions in

groundwater chemistry


and NO3minus which has resulted in its unwholesomeness is

is most likely a localised problem which might have resultedfrom the leaching of dissolved metals andor agrochemicalsinto this well since this particular well is a hand-dug welland shallow in depth Furthermore the WQIs were log-transformed and used in a GIS environment to generate aspatial prediction map for the water quality variations acrossthe district Prior to that a variogram based on ordinarykriging was performed to visualise the spatial autocorrela-tion of the dataset Various theoretical semivariogrammodels were tried on the dataset to attain the best fit with theaim of achieving the least root mean square residual error forthe chosen model An exponential model variogram with arange of 25106m a search direction of 12o a sill of 0033and a nugget of 003 (Figure 18(a)) was used to generate thespatial prediction map (Figure 18(b)) to show the WQIsacross the district for domestic purposes e nugget sug-gests variations in water quality at distances shorter than thelag distance of 2092m which could be as a result of localanthropogenic influences andor instrument and measure-ment errors

From the spatial prediction map (Figure 18(b)) it is clearthat groundwater resources are generally of great chemicalquality for domestic purposes Groundwater around thesoutheastern and southwestern portions of the districtproves to be of the best quality for domestic purposesCommunities around such areas include Ningo Tula BinguPwalugu Balungu and Shia Although the Tula Ningo andBingo areas are characterised by low pH values that seemsnot to affect the overall water quality for domestic usesHence the illegal small-scale gold mining activities aroundBingu and Tula areas seem also not to affect the quality ofgroundwater in the area TDSs seem to positively affect thequality of the water in the district since the best WQIs occuraround the discharge zones with high TDS values

Generally the quality of the groundwater for domesticusage deteriorates as one moves towards the extreme northof the district About 71 of the samples had Pb concen-trations between 002mgl and 003mgl which exceed theWHO [20] recommended standards of 001mgl fordrinking water ese samples are mainly from the centraland northern portions of the district and therefore con-tribute to the worsening quality of groundwater in such areas

(Figure 18(b)) A well from Sheagar recorded elevated levelsof nitrate and phosphate which suggest the leaching ofagrochemicals or organic manure from farms or domesticwastewater from homes that drain into the catchment of thewell which happens to be a shallow hand-dug well as wellthereby affecting its quality

44 Assessment of Groundwater Quality for Irrigatione groundwater is also being assessed to examine itssuitability for irrigated agriculture which could augment thepredominantly rain-fed agriculture this would go a long wayto improve the livelihood of indigents as well as provide all-year-round employment for the youth which would alsoreduce rural-urban migration that characterise the districtVarious crops have different tolerance levels for the differentchemical parameters in water Similarly the variouschemical parameters affect various crops differently at dif-ferent concentrations and conditions Some of the waterquality parameters are also known to affect soil structure andpermeability which goes a long way to affect its productivityand yield and by extension the quality and yield of crops Assuch an evaluation of groundwater quality for irrigationpurposes which estimates chemical parameters and indicesof chemicals which are likely to have detrimental impacts onthe soil and crops when found in water used for crop ir-rigation is vital for healthy and productive irrigatedagriculture

e United States Salinity Laboratory [47] diagramwhich plots SAR versus EC on a semilogarithmic scale hasbeen used in this study to assess irrigation water quality ediagram categorises irrigation water in the ranges of low tovery high sodicity on the SAR axis and low to very highsalinity hazard on the EC axis Based on this categorisationall the groundwater samples in the district fell in the lowsodicity category (S1) whereas 8 and 89 fell in low andmedium salinity (C1-C2) category respectively with a lonesample falling in the S1-C3 category (Figure 19) ereforeabout 97 of the water samples present excellent quality forirrigation purposes and may be used for such purposeswithout posing any hazard to the soil or cropsis assertionis however dependent on the initial soil conditions suchthat soils with excess sodium andor salinity must be treated

6

4

2

00 5

Ca2+ + SO42ndash (meql)

Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5

Ca2+ + Mg2+ (meql)10

Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)

Figure 17 Biplot suggesting (a) gypsum weathering and (b) dolomite weathering


Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736

0 0228 0456 0685 0913 1141 1369 1598 1826 2054 2282 2511Distance (meter) h ndash10ndash4

ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N

5 10 1525 Kilometers

WQITown

gt50 excellent water50ndash100 good water100ndash200 poor water

(b)

Figure 18 (a) Semivariogram model for WQIs and (b) spatial distribution of water quality indices


prior to irrigation with any water type e lone samplewhich is plotted in the S1-C3 category may also be used forirrigation but in a well-drained soil as a result of the highsalinity hazard associated with this water type to preventrestricted flow and subsequent accumulation of salts in theroot zone of crops which leads to salinity and permeabilityproblems [55 74]

eWilcox [46] diagram (Figure 20) on the other handpresents the categories of water types in the district forirrigation purposes depending on the correspondingcombination of sodium percent and salinity hazard Allgroundwater samples in the district were plotted in theexcellent to good category except for one sample which fellwithin good to permissible range Although the water ex-hibits relatively high sodium percent Cluster 1 samples plotthe lowest salinity values confirming their freshness in termsof flow regime Generally the plots (Figure 20) imply thatgroundwater across the district is of excellent quality andmay be used for irrigation without posing any threat to thesoil or crops in which assertions corroborate those made bythe USSL diagram

Irrigation has a long-term effect of affecting the per-meability of the soil Doneen [76] diagram has been used tofurther classify the water into three classes based on sodiumand bicarbonate hazard on irrigated soil Bicarbonate hazardarises from soils with deficient iron content and certainmicronutrients relevant for healthy plant growth and de-velopment As such the permeability index (PI) measures therelative concentrations of sodium and bicarbonate to cal-cium magnesium and sodium based on the followingformulation

PI Na +

HCO3

radic

Na + Ca + Mgtimes 100 (14)

where ion concentrations are all in meql

e Doneen diagram categorised groundwater in thedistrict as mainly Class II and Class I types (Figure 21) withnone falling within Class III where Class I and Class II arerespectively excellent and good permeability for irrigationpurposese Class II water type comprises about 50 of thewater samples and is mainly samples from Cluster 1 which

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood

Permissible todoubtful

Good topermissible

Doubtful tounsuitable

Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)

Figure 20 Groundwater quality assessment using Wilcox [46]diagram

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR

EC (microScm)C2 C3 C4

S1

S2

S3

S4

C1

Salinity hazardC1 lowC2 mediumC3 highC4 very high

SodicityS1 lowS2 mediumS3 highS4 very high


Figure 19 Groundwater quality classification in the district forirrigation [47]

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III

Figure 21 Doneen diagram for Talensi District


contains relatively high levels of sodium as compared to theother major cations and therefore suggests a comparativelyhigher sodium hazard

5 Conclusion

e results of this study provide insight into the maincontrols of groundwater chemistry in Talensi District and itssuitability for various uses Water quality indices (WQIs)calculated in this study to assess the suitability of ground-water for domestic purposes suggest that groundwater in thedistrict is of acceptable quality for such purposes as thisclassification method placed 96 of the samples within goodto excellent water category Generally the quality of thegroundwater for domestic usage deteriorates as one movestowards the extreme north of the district whereas waters inthe extreme east and west present the best quality

Multivariate statistical analysis and conventionalgraphical methods applied to groundwater samples suggestsilicate and carbonate mineral weathering as the maincontrol of groundwater chemistry in the district with re-verse ion exchange also playing a role High nitrate and leadlevels have been associated with agrochemicals and waste-water from farms and homes Furthermore Q-mode clusteranalysis identifies three zones of groundwater flow regimesin which the water evolves from a Na+KndashMgndashHCO3dominant fresh water type in Cluster 3 identified as in-termediary flow zones to MgndashNa+KndashHCO3 fresh watertype in Cluster 2 designated as discharge zones with cor-responding increasing mineralisation of the groundwaterAll three clusters present excellent quality for irrigationpurposes with Cluster 1 samples being even more so basedon the sodium-basedrelated assessments adopted in thisstudy

Data Availability

e hydrochemical data used to support the findings of thisstudy have been deposited in the Mendeley Data Repositoryby Chegbeleh et al [77]

Conflicts of Interest

e authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

e authors are grateful to all those who in diverse ways havecontributed to the success of this work Financial andtechnical supports during field work and analysis of data forthis work were provided by the DANIDA White VoltaProject (Project file number 14-P02-GHA)

References

[1] Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) FactSheet Rural and Small Towns Water Services CWSA AccraGhana 2015

[2] B A Akurugu L P Chegbeleh and S M Yidana ldquoChar-acterisation of groundwater flow and recharge in crystallinebasement rocks in the Talensi district Northern GhanardquoJournal of African Earth Sciences vol 161 pp 1ndash18 2019

[3] Talensi District Assembly ldquoDistrict medium term develop-ment plan under the ghana shared growth and development(Agenda)rdquo Draft Report Talensi District Assembly TongoGhana 2017

[4] B Ntanganedzeni V Elumalai and N Rajmohan ldquoCoastalaquifer contamination and geochemical processes evaluationin tugela catchment South Africa-geochemical and statisticalapproachesrdquo Water vol 10 no 6 pp 687ndash722 2018

[5] E D Sunkari and M Abu ldquoHydrochemistry with specialreference to fluoride contamination in groundwater of theBongo District Upper East Region Ghanardquo Journal Sus-tainable Water Resources Management vol 5 no 4pp 1803ndash1814 2019

[6] C K Tay ldquoHydrogeochemical framework and factor Analysisof fluoride contamination in groundwater within the save-lugu-nanton district northern Ghanardquo West African Journalof Applied Ecologyis vol 25 no 1 pp 33ndash55 2017

[7] S M Yidana D Ophori B Banoeng-Yakubo andA A Samed ldquoA factor model to explain the hydrochemistryand causes of fluoride enrichment in groundwater from themiddle voltaian sedimentary aquifers in the Northern Re-gionrdquo ARPN-JEAS vol 7 2012

[8] D Adomako A Gibrilla T T Akiti R Fianko andP Maloszewski ldquoHydrogeochemical evolution and ground-water flow in the densu river basin Ghanardquo Journal of WaterResource and Protection vol 3 no 7 pp 548ndash561 2011

[9] S Y Ganyaglo S Osae S B Dampare et al ldquoPreliminarygroundwater quality assessment in the central region ofGhanardquo Environmental Earth Sciences vol 66 no 2pp 573ndash587 2012

[10] Y S A Loh S M Yidana B Banoeng-Yakubo P A SakyiM O Addai and D K Asiedu ldquoDetermination of the mineralstability field of evolving groundwater in the Lake Bosumtwiimpact crater and surrounding areasrdquo Journal of AfricanEarth Sciences vol 121 pp 286ndash300 2016

[11] E D Sunkari M Abu P S Bayowobie and U E DokuzldquoHydrogeochemical appraisal of groundwater quality in theGa west municipality Ghana implication for domestic andirrigation purposesrdquo Groundwater for Sustainable Develop-ment vol 8 pp 501ndash511 2019

[12] S M Yidana P Bawoyobie P Sakyi and O F FynnldquoEvolutionary analysis of groundwater flow application ofmultivariate statistical analysis to hydrochemical data in theDensu Basin Ghanardquo Journal of African Earth Sciencesvol 138 pp 167ndash176 2018

[13] Y S Anku B Banoeng-Yakubo D K Asiedu andS M Yidana ldquoWater quality analysis of groundwater incrystalline basement rocks northern Ghanardquo EnvironmentalGeology vol 58 no 5 pp 989ndash997 2009

[14] G T Eneke ldquoControls on groundwater chemistry in a highlyurbanised coastal areardquo International Journal of Environ-mental Research vol 5 pp 475ndash490 2011

[15] S Selvakumar N Chandrasekar and G Kumar ldquoHydro-geochemical characteristics and groundwater contaminationin the rapid urban development areas of Coimbatore IndiardquoWater Resources and Industry vol 17 pp 26ndash33 2017

[16] e Daily Telegraph $5 Million and 10 Years to Clean upParramatta River e Daily Telegraph London UK 2014


[17] B Kloslashve ldquoClimate change impacts on groundwater and de-pendent ecosystemsrdquo Journal of Hydrology vol 518pp 250ndash266 2014

[18] K S Balkhair and M A Ashraf ldquoField accumulation risks ofheavy metals in soil and vegetable crop irrigated with sewagewater in western region of Saudi Arabiardquo Saudi Journal ofBiological Sciences vol 23 no 1 pp 32ndash44 2016

[19] I A Rather W Y P Koh W K Paek and J Lim ldquoesources of chemical contaminants in food and their healthimplicationsrdquo Frontiers in Pharmacology vol 8 p 830 2017

[20] WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality Fourth EditionIncorporating the First Addendum WHO Geneva Switzer-land 2017

[21] Ghana Statistical Service Summary Report of Final ResultsAccra Ghana 2010

[22] MOFA Total Annual Regional Rainfall Data MOFA RiyadhSaudi Arabia 2020 httpsdatagovghdatasetagricultural-production-estimates-1993-2017resource9fb4fafd-ab3d-4c4d-bbbb-179b33624ca4

[23] N Martin Development of a Water Balance for the AtankwidiCatchment West AfricandashA Case Study of Groundwater Re-charge in a Semi-arid Climate Cuvillier Verlag GottingenGermany 2006

[24] P Gyau-Boakye and J W Tumbulto ldquoComparison of rain- falland runoff in the humid south-western and the semiaridnorthern savannah zone inGhanardquoAJST vol 7 pp 64ndash72 2006

[25] J Carney C J Jordan and M omas ldquoA revised lithos-tratigraphy and geological map for the Volta Basin derivedfrom image interpretation and field mappingrdquo in Proceedingsof the Voltaian Basin Ghana Workshop and Excursionpp 19ndash24 Accra Ghana March 2008

[26] S Dapaah-Siakwan and P Gyau-Boakye ldquoHydrogeologicframework and borehole yields in Ghanardquo HydrogeologyJournal vol 8 no 4 pp 405ndash416 2000

[27] B Banoeng-Yakubu S M Yidana J O Ajayi Y Loh andD Aseidu ldquoHydrogeology and groundwater resources ofGhana a review of the hydrogeology and hydrochemistry ofGhanardquo in Potable Water and Sanitation J M McMann EdVol 142 Nova Science New York NY USA 2011

[28] M A Carrier R Lefebvre J Racicot and E B AsareldquoNorthern Ghana hydrogeological assessment projectrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd WEDC International ConferenceAccra Ghana 2008

[29] B Banoeng-Yakubo Occurrence of Groundwater in BasementComplex Rocks of the Upper Regions of Ghana Obefemi-Awolowo University Geology Department Lfe Nigeria1989

[30] W A Agyekum ldquoGroundwater resources of Ghana with thefocus on international shared aquifer boundariesrdquo in Pro-ceedings of the UNESCO-ISARM International Workshop-Managing Shared Aquifer Resources in Africa vol 8 p 600 BAppelgreen Tripoli Libya 2004

[31] P K Darko A P Mainoo and S Dapaah-Siakwan BoreholeInventory Numbering and Functionality Survey in Sawla-Tuna-Kalba District Final District Specific PreliminaryHydrogeological Report CWSA-NRAFD China 2006

[32] S M Yidana D Ophori B Banoeng-Yakubo andA A Samed ldquoA factor model to explain the hydrochemistryand causes of fluoride enrichment in groundwater from themiddle voltaian sedimentary aquifers in the Northern RegionGhanardquo Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences vol 7pp 50ndash68 2012

[33] Talensi District AssemblyDistrict Medium TermDevelopmentPlan under the Ghana Shared Growth and DevelopmentTalensi District Assembly Tongo Ghana 2014

[34] N D R Krishna A K Maji Y V N Krishna andB P S Rao ldquoRemote sensing and geographical informationsystem for canopy cover mappingrdquo Journal of the IndianSociety of Remote Sensing vol 29 no 3 pp 108ndash113 2001

[35] P Singh and I A Khan ldquoGround water quality assessment ofDhankawadi ward of Pune by using GISrdquo InternationalJournal of Geomatics and Geosciences vol 2 no 2 p 16 2011

[36] ESA ldquoLand cover CCI product user guide version 2rdquoTechnical Report ESA Auckland New Zealand 2017

[37] H Obeng ldquoSoil classification in Ghanardquo 2000[38] Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME)

Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines CCME Win-nipeg Canada 2011

[39] Petroleum Remediation Program ldquoGroundwater samplecollection and analysis proceduresrdquo 2018 httpswwwpcastatemnussitesdefaultfilesc-prp4-05pdf

[40] United States Geological Survey (USGS) National fieldmanual for the collection of water-quality data US GeologicalSurvey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations UnitedStates Geological Survey (USGS) Reston VA USA 2019

[41] D Chapman Water Quality AssessmentsmdashA Guide to Use ofBiota Sediments and Water in Environmental MonitoringWHO Geneva Switzerland 2nd edition 1996

[42] C A J Appelo and D Postman Geochemistry Groundwaterand Pollution August Aime Balkema Rotterdam Nether-lands 2nd edition 2005

[43] R Aljumily ldquoAgglomerative hierarchical clustering an in-troduction to essentials (1) proximity coefficients and crea-tion of a vector-distance matrix and (2) construction of thehierarchical tree and a selection ofmethodsrdquoGlobal Journal ofHuman-Social Science vol 16 no 3 pp 22ndash50 2016

[44] S M Yidana B Banoeng-Yakubo and T M AkabzaaldquoAnalysis of groundwater quality using multivariate andspatial analyses in the Keta basin Ghanardquo Journal of AfricanEarth Sciences vol 58 no 2 pp 220ndash234 2010

[45] A M Piper ldquoA graphic procedure in the geochemical in-terpretation of water-analysesrdquo Transactions AmericanGeophysical Union vol 25 no 6 pp 914ndash928 1944

[46] L V Wilcox Classification and use of Irrigation WatersVol 969 USDA Circular Washington DC USA 1955

[47] United States Salinity Laboratory (USSL) Diagnosis andImprovement of Saline and Alkaline Soils vol 60WashingtonDC USA 1954

[48] T Benvenuti M Kieling-Rubio C Klauck andM RodriguesldquoEvaluation of water quality at the source of streams of theSinos River Basin southern Brazilrdquo Brazilian Journal of Bi-ology vol 75 no 2 pp 98ndash104 2015

[49] E Fathi R Zamani-Ahmadmahmoodi and R Zare-BidakildquoWater quality evaluation using water quality index andmultivariate methods Beheshtabad River Iranrdquo AppliedWater Science vol 8 no 1ndash6 2018

[50] V S Kumar B Amarender R Dhakate S Sankaran andK R Kumar ldquoAssessment of groundwater quality fordrinking and irrigation use in shallow hard rock aquifer ofPudunagaram Palakkad District Keralardquo Applied WaterScience vol 6 no 2 pp 149ndash167 2014

[51] P Ravikumar R K Somashekar and K L Prakash ldquoAcomparative study on usage of Durov and Piper diagrams tointerpret hydrochemical processes in groundwater fromSRLIS river basin Karnataka Indiardquo Elixir InternationalJournal vol 80 pp 31073ndash31077 2015


[52] V B Samlafo and E O Ofoe ldquoWater quality analysis ofbobobo streamrdquo in World Environment vol 8 pp 15ndash19no 1 Scientific amp Academic Tarkwa Ghana 2018

[53] R M Brown N J McCleiland R A Deiniger andM F A OrsquoConnor ldquoWater quality indexmdashcrossing thephysical barrierrdquo Edited by S H Jenkis Ed in Proceedings ofthe International Conference on Water Pollution Researchvol 6 pp 787ndash797 Jerusalem Israel 1972

[54] P Sahu and P K Sikdar ldquoHydrochemical framework of theaquifer in and around East Kolkata Wetlands West BengalIndiardquo Environmental Geology vol 55 no 4 pp 823ndash8352008

[55] R A Tarsquoany A Al-syaheen and A Jiries ldquoCharacteristics ofthe aquifer systems in Wadi Kafrain catchment area JordanrdquoJournal of Environmental Hydrology vol 21 no 9 pp 1ndash162013

[56] S M Yidana B Banoeng-Yakubo T M Akabzaa andD Asiedu ldquoCharacterisation of groundwater flow regime andhydrochemistry of groundwater from the Buem formationEastern Ghanardquo Hydrol Process vol 25 pp 288ndash2301 2011

[57] R A Freeze and J A Cherry Groundwater Prentice-HallInc Englewood Cliffs NJ USA 1979

[58] D Langmuir Aqueous Environmental Geochemistry PrenticeHall Upper Saddle River NJ USA 1997

[59] World Health Organisation (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality WHO Geneva Switzerland 4th edition 2017

[60] P C Mishra K C Pradhan and R K Patel ldquoQuality of waterfor drinking and agriculture in and around amines in Keonhardistrict Orrisa Indianrdquo Indian Journal of EnvironmentalHealth vol 45 no 3 pp 213ndash220 2003

[61] B Nas ldquoGeostatistical approach to assessment of spatialdistribution of groundwater qualityrdquo Polish Journal of En-vironmental Studies vol 18 no 6 pp 1073ndash1082 2009

[62] Z Miao K C Carroll and M L Brusseau ldquoCharacterizationand quantification of groundwater sulfate sources at a miningsite in an arid climate the Monument Valley site in ArizonaUSArdquo Journal of Hydrology vol 504 pp 207ndash215 2013

[63] A M Subyani and M E Al Ahmadi ldquoMultivariate statisticalanalysis of groundwater quality in Wadi Ranyah SaudiArabiardquo Journal of King Abdulaziz University-Earth Sciencesvol 21 no 2 pp 29ndash46 2010

[64] I I Chebotarev ldquoMetamorphism of natural waters in thecrust of weathering-2rdquo Geochimica et Cosmochimica Actavol 8 no 3 pp 137ndash170 1955

[65] S A Durov ldquoClassification of natural waters and graphicalrepresentation of their compositionrdquo Doklady AkademiiNauk SSSR vol 59 no 1 pp 87ndash90 1948

[66] J A Lloyd and J A Heathcoat Natural inorganic Hydro-chemistry in Relation to Groundwater An introduction Ox-ford University Press Oxford UK 1985

[67] H F Kaiser ldquoe application of electronic computers tofactor analysisrdquo Educational and Psychological Measurementvol 20 no 1 pp 141ndash151 1960

[68] R J Gibbs ldquoMechanisms controlling world water chemistryrdquoScience vol 170 no 3962 pp 1088ndash1090 1970

[69] R M Garrels ldquoA survey of low temperature water mineralrelationsrdquo in Interpretation of Environmental isotope andHydrogeochemical Data in Groundwater Hydrologypp 65ndash84 International Atomic Energy Agency ViennaAustria 1976

[70] J Y Hwang S Park H-K Kim et al ldquoHydrochemistry forthe assessment of groundwater quality in Koreardquo Journal ofAgricultural Chemistry and Environment vol 6 no 1pp 1ndash29 2017

[71] N Rajmohan and L Elango ldquoIdentification and evolution ofhydrogeochemical processes in the environment in an area ofthe Palar and Cheyyar river basins Southern Indiardquo Envi-ronmental Geology vol 46 pp 47ndash61 2004

[72] K Sami ldquoRecharge mechanisms and geochemical processes ina semi-arid sedimentary basin Eastern Cape South AfricardquoJournal of Hydrology vol 139 no 1ndash4 pp 27ndash48 1992

[73] F K Zaidi Y Nazzal M K Jafri M Naeem and I AhmedldquoReverse ion exchange as a major process controlling thegroundwater chemistry in an arid environment a case studyfrom northwestern Saudi Arabiardquo Environmental Monitoringand Assessment vol 187 no 10 pp 1ndash18 2015

[74] S M Yidana D Ophori and B Banoeng-Yakubo ldquoHydro-chemical evaluation of the voltaian system-e Afram Plainsarea Ghanardquo Journal of Environmental Management vol 88no 4 pp 697ndash707 2008

[75] G Knutsson ldquoAcidification effects on groundwatermdashprog-nosis of the risks for the futurerdquo in Proceedings of the FutureGroundwater Resources at Risk p 222 Helsinki Finland June1994

[76] L D Doneen ldquoSalination of soil by salts in the irrigationwaterrdquo Transactions American Geophysical Union vol 35no 6 pp 943ndash950 1964

[77] L P Chegbeleh B A Akurugu and S M Yidana ldquoData forAssessment of groundwater quality in the Talensi DistrictNorthern Ghanardquo Mendeley Data vol 1 2020


residence time pH and ambient temperatures [7] Forinstance the dissolution of ldquohardrdquo rocks and associatedsilicate minerals is a very slow process aided by hightemperatures and low pH e influence of rock weatheringon groundwater quality has been extensively documented inGhana [6ndash12] Furthermore population growth unplanneddevelopments and other anthropogenic activities have alsobeen identified in the literature as sources of groundwaterdegradation [11 13ndash15] Trace elements nutrients andpesticides in rivers have been reported to seep into andcontaminate groundwater [16] Contamination of ground-water through anthropogenic activities is more likely tooccur in shallow unconfined aquifers as compared to deepconfined aquifers since the shallow unconfined aquifers aresuperficially situated relative to the ground surface and thussusceptible to attacks by surface to near-surface contami-nants of varied sources erefore in places wheregroundwater recharge zones and surface activities are notprotected and regulated respectively groundwater could beseverely contaminated and given its architecture cost afortune to remediate [7 17]

e problem with groundwater contamination is thatthere are other indirect pathways by which the contaminantscould end up in humans besides the direct consumption ofcontaminated groundwater For instance contaminatedgroundwater used for irrigation of crops or for animalconsumption could end up as a public health hazard whenthese farm products are consumed erefore it is imper-ative to holistically assess the parameters that affect thequality of groundwater as well as identify the sources of thesecontaminants as a means of sustainable management of theresource [18 19]

A combination of geostatistical and conventionalhydrochemical plots has been at the forefront to this endEneke et al [14] adopted geostatistical and conventionalhydrochemical techniques in an attempt to identify the mainfactors controlling groundwater chemistry in DoualaCameroon an area characterised by rapid urbanisation andindustrialisatione study revealed that groundwater in thearea is acidic (pH between 41 and 69) and the groundwaterquality was mainly controlled by anthropogenic activitiesAdopting a similar methodology Yidana et al [7] used afactor model to examine the main hydrochemical processesthat influence fluoride and other major ion variations inSavelugu northern Ghana Silicate mineral weatheringdissolutions of soluble salts oxidation reactions and dis-solutions of sulphate minerals were found to be the fourmain factors controlling the hydrochemistry of groundwaterresources in the area In an effort to characterise the suit-ability of groundwater resources of northern Ghana fordomestic and agricultural uses Anku et al [13] analysedgroundwater samples from the underlying fractured aqui-fers Results showed that pH values range from slightlyacidic to slightly basic with electrical conductivity (EC)total dissolved solids (TDSs) calcium magnesium andsodium values being below WHO [20] recommendedstandards for potable water Spatial distribution maps alsorevealed pollution with nitrate in the western portions of thestudy area which were attributable to anthropogenic

activities Hence the present study adopts similar techniquesto assess groundwater quality for domestic and irrigationpurposes and the main factors controlling the hydro-chemistry of groundwater in the Talensi District in northernGhana

2 Study Area

21 Location Topography and Climate e study wasconducted in the Talensi District in the Upper East RegionGhana e district lies within the boundaries of longitudes0deg31prime and 1deg05prime west and latitudes 10deg35prime and 10deg60prime north Itshares boundaries with Bolgatanga Municipal to the northwest and east Mamprusi Districts to the south Bawku WestDistrict to the east and Kassena-Nankana District to thewest (Figure 1) It has a total land area of about 838 km2 andpopulation size of 81194 people with a population density of988 persons per kilometre square [21] e majority of theinhabitants (about 90) in the district are peasant farmersSmall-scale mining artisanal stone crushing agro-processing charcoal burning firewood harvesting and ir-rigation farming constitute the other sources of income inthe district [3]

e topography of the district is generally flat withrelatively undulating lowlands with gentle slopes rangingbetween 1 and 5 Elevations range between 100m and200m with some isolated rock outcrops and uplands mainlyaround the district capital Tongo and Yinduri reaching400m high e district is drained by several rivers andtributaries during the rainy season but in the dry seasonmost of the tributaries dry out leaving only portions of theRed andWhite Volta Rivers flowing through the eastern andsouthern boundaries of the district e White Volta Rivermeanders in and out of the district until it flows downtowards the southwestern part of the district

e district lies in the Savannah zone characterised bysemiarid conditions with a single rainy season which runsfrom May to October e rest of the months of the year ischaracteristically dry with barely any rains Recent annualrainfall records (2008ndash2017) from the Ministry of Food andAgriculture (MOFA) suggest yearly rainfall ranges between503 and 997mm with an annual average of 837mm [22]e area is almost always relatively warm with temperaturesreaching 45degC inMarch and April and recording a minimumof 12degC in December [3] e prolonged dry season is ac-companied by very low relative humidity which reaches 10during harmattan (the dry and hazy northeast trade wind) inDecember and January and with the onset of the rains itrises gradually up to 65 maximum [23]

22GeologyandHydrogeology A large portion of the district(about 75) is underlain by crystalline Precambrian rocks ofthe Birimian supergroup which is intruded by granitoids ofthe Eburnean and Tamnean Plutonic Suites (Figure 2) eBirimian typically consists of gneiss phyllite schist mig-matite granite-gneiss and quartzite whereas the associatedintrusions are composed mainly of K-feldspar-rich-granit-oids such as granite and monzonite (Bongo type) [24] e





sect Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

Arigu

Tongo

Kalbeo

Bisigu

Asonge

Shiega

Sekoti

Datoko

Balungu

Sherigu

Yinduri

Pelungu

Winkogo

Pwalugu

ZaleriguAirstrip

Zuarungu

Gambibigo

Ssnit flat

Bolgatanga

Tongo shrine


deg45prime

0PrimeN

10deg4

5prime0Prime

N

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N

10deg3

5prime0Prime

N

10deg3

5prime0Prime

N

Northern

VoltaBrong Ahafo

Western

Eastern

Upper West

Central

Upper East

Greater Accra

0 5 10 15km25

Talensi district

Gulf of Guinea

Cot

e drsquovo

ire


Ghana


Togo

N

S

EW








0deg58prime30PrimeW

10deg2

8prime0Prime

N10

deg33prime3

0PrimeN

10deg3

9prime0Prime

N10

deg44prime3

0PrimeN

10deg2

8prime0Prime

N10

deg33prime3

0PrimeN

10deg3

9prime0Prime

N10

deg44prime3

0PrimeN





Study area

0 6 12 183

Kilometers

N

S

EW






3 Methodology


Tula

Shia

Ningo

Bingo

Tongo DatokoShiega

Yinduri

Pwalugu

Balungu

Winkogo

Tongo shrine


10deg4

0prime0Prime

N10

deg30prime

0PrimeN

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N10

deg30prime

0PrimeN



Study area

N11deg

10deg

9deg

8deg

7deg

6deg

5deg



Kilometers

Ivor

y co

ast

Togo

N

S

EW











CBE 1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 minus 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868

1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 + 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868times 100 (1)




0 6 12 18

N

3Kilometers



z x minus μ

s (2)





Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

Tongo

ShiegaDatoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

TownLand coveruse

Bare areas



Cropland rainfed

Grassland

Herbaceous cover






Shrubland

Shrubland deciduous








Urban areas

Water bodies

0 6 12

N

183Kilometers





2minus PO43minus


Wi wi

1113936 wi (3)

qi Ci

Sitimes 100 (4)


SI Wi times qi (5)

WQI 1113944n

n1SI (6)


SAR Na

(Ca + Ma2)

1113968 (7)


Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine



10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

0 3 6 915Kilometers

TownSoil types

Fluvisols

Leptosols

Lixisols

Luvisols

N

S

EW




Na Na











2minus 250 3 00612NO3

minus 50 5 0102PO4






minus 20 250 12550 5824CIminus 302 3650 17 991SO4

2minus lt001 976 3 234NO3

minus lt001 298 046 070PO4







2minus NO3minus and










10

8

6

4

2

0

pH K+

(mgl)PO4

3ndash

(mgl)SO4

2ndash

(mgl)NO3

ndash

(mgl)Fndash (mgl)

1250

1000

750

500

250

0


50

40

30

20

10

0














2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus


minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4




K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC


8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25







WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References




















































































sect Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

Arigu

Tongo

Kalbeo

Bisigu

Asonge

Shiega

Sekoti

Datoko

Balungu

Sherigu

Yinduri

Pelungu

Winkogo

Pwalugu

ZaleriguAirstrip

Zuarungu

Gambibigo

Ssnit flat

Bolgatanga

Tongo shrine


deg45prime

0PrimeN

10deg4

5prime0Prime

N

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N

10deg3

5prime0Prime

N

10deg3

5prime0Prime

N

Northern

VoltaBrong Ahafo

Western

Eastern

Upper West

Central

Upper East

Greater Accra

0 5 10 15km25

Talensi district

Gulf of Guinea

Cot

e drsquovo

ire


Ghana


Togo

N

S

EW








0deg58prime30PrimeW

10deg2

8prime0Prime

N10

deg33prime3

0PrimeN

10deg3

9prime0Prime

N10

deg44prime3

0PrimeN

10deg2

8prime0Prime

N10

deg33prime3

0PrimeN

10deg3

9prime0Prime

N10

deg44prime3

0PrimeN





Study area

0 6 12 183

Kilometers

N

S

EW






3 Methodology


Tula

Shia

Ningo

Bingo

Tongo DatokoShiega

Yinduri

Pwalugu

Balungu

Winkogo

Tongo shrine


10deg4

0prime0Prime

N10

deg30prime

0PrimeN

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N10

deg30prime

0PrimeN



Study area

N11deg

10deg

9deg

8deg

7deg

6deg

5deg



Kilometers

Ivor

y co

ast

Togo

N

S

EW











CBE 1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 minus 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868

1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 + 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868times 100 (1)




0 6 12 18

N

3Kilometers



z x minus μ

s (2)





Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

Tongo

ShiegaDatoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

TownLand coveruse

Bare areas



Cropland rainfed

Grassland

Herbaceous cover






Shrubland

Shrubland deciduous








Urban areas

Water bodies

0 6 12

N

183Kilometers





2minus PO43minus


Wi wi

1113936 wi (3)

qi Ci

Sitimes 100 (4)


SI Wi times qi (5)

WQI 1113944n

n1SI (6)


SAR Na

(Ca + Ma2)

1113968 (7)


Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine



10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

0 3 6 915Kilometers

TownSoil types

Fluvisols

Leptosols

Lixisols

Luvisols

N

S

EW




Na Na











2minus 250 3 00612NO3

minus 50 5 0102PO4






minus 20 250 12550 5824CIminus 302 3650 17 991SO4

2minus lt001 976 3 234NO3

minus lt001 298 046 070PO4







2minus NO3minus and










10

8

6

4

2

0

pH K+

(mgl)PO4

3ndash

(mgl)SO4

2ndash

(mgl)NO3

ndash

(mgl)Fndash (mgl)

1250

1000

750

500

250

0


50

40

30

20

10

0














2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus


minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4




K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC


8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25







WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References






















































































0deg58prime30PrimeW

10deg2

8prime0Prime

N10

deg33prime3

0PrimeN

10deg3

9prime0Prime

N10

deg44prime3

0PrimeN

10deg2

8prime0Prime

N10

deg33prime3

0PrimeN

10deg3

9prime0Prime

N10

deg44prime3

0PrimeN





Study area

0 6 12 183

Kilometers

N

S

EW






3 Methodology


Tula

Shia

Ningo

Bingo

Tongo DatokoShiega

Yinduri

Pwalugu

Balungu

Winkogo

Tongo shrine


10deg4

0prime0Prime

N10

deg30prime

0PrimeN

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N10

deg30prime

0PrimeN



Study area

N11deg

10deg

9deg

8deg

7deg

6deg

5deg



Kilometers

Ivor

y co

ast

Togo

N

S

EW











CBE 1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 minus 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868

1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 + 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868times 100 (1)




0 6 12 18

N

3Kilometers



z x minus μ

s (2)





Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

Tongo

ShiegaDatoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

TownLand coveruse

Bare areas



Cropland rainfed

Grassland

Herbaceous cover






Shrubland

Shrubland deciduous








Urban areas

Water bodies

0 6 12

N

183Kilometers





2minus PO43minus


Wi wi

1113936 wi (3)

qi Ci

Sitimes 100 (4)


SI Wi times qi (5)

WQI 1113944n

n1SI (6)


SAR Na

(Ca + Ma2)

1113968 (7)


Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine



10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

0 3 6 915Kilometers

TownSoil types

Fluvisols

Leptosols

Lixisols

Luvisols

N

S

EW




Na Na











2minus 250 3 00612NO3

minus 50 5 0102PO4






minus 20 250 12550 5824CIminus 302 3650 17 991SO4

2minus lt001 976 3 234NO3

minus lt001 298 046 070PO4







2minus NO3minus and










10

8

6

4

2

0

pH K+

(mgl)PO4

3ndash

(mgl)SO4

2ndash

(mgl)NO3

ndash

(mgl)Fndash (mgl)

1250

1000

750

500

250

0


50

40

30

20

10

0














2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus


minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4




K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC


8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25







WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References




















































































3 Methodology


Tula

Shia

Ningo

Bingo

Tongo DatokoShiega

Yinduri

Pwalugu

Balungu

Winkogo

Tongo shrine


10deg4

0prime0Prime

N10

deg30prime

0PrimeN

10deg4

0prime0Prime

N10

deg30prime

0PrimeN



Study area

N11deg

10deg

9deg

8deg

7deg

6deg

5deg



Kilometers

Ivor

y co

ast

Togo

N

S

EW











CBE 1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 minus 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868

1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 + 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868times 100 (1)




0 6 12 18

N

3Kilometers



z x minus μ

s (2)





Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

Tongo

ShiegaDatoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

TownLand coveruse

Bare areas



Cropland rainfed

Grassland

Herbaceous cover






Shrubland

Shrubland deciduous








Urban areas

Water bodies

0 6 12

N

183Kilometers





2minus PO43minus


Wi wi

1113936 wi (3)

qi Ci

Sitimes 100 (4)


SI Wi times qi (5)

WQI 1113944n

n1SI (6)


SAR Na

(Ca + Ma2)

1113968 (7)


Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine



10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

0 3 6 915Kilometers

TownSoil types

Fluvisols

Leptosols

Lixisols

Luvisols

N

S

EW




Na Na











2minus 250 3 00612NO3

minus 50 5 0102PO4






minus 20 250 12550 5824CIminus 302 3650 17 991SO4

2minus lt001 976 3 234NO3

minus lt001 298 046 070PO4







2minus NO3minus and










10

8

6

4

2

0

pH K+

(mgl)PO4

3ndash

(mgl)SO4

2ndash

(mgl)NO3

ndash

(mgl)Fndash (mgl)

1250

1000

750

500

250

0


50

40

30

20

10

0














2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus


minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4




K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC


8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25







WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References

























































































CBE 1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 minus 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868

1113936 mc zc

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868 + 1113936 ma za

11138681113868111386811138681113868111386811138681113868times 100 (1)




0 6 12 18

N

3Kilometers



z x minus μ

s (2)





Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

Tongo

ShiegaDatoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

TownLand coveruse

Bare areas



Cropland rainfed

Grassland

Herbaceous cover






Shrubland

Shrubland deciduous








Urban areas

Water bodies

0 6 12

N

183Kilometers





2minus PO43minus


Wi wi

1113936 wi (3)

qi Ci

Sitimes 100 (4)


SI Wi times qi (5)

WQI 1113944n

n1SI (6)


SAR Na

(Ca + Ma2)

1113968 (7)


Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine



10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

0 3 6 915Kilometers

TownSoil types

Fluvisols

Leptosols

Lixisols

Luvisols

N

S

EW




Na Na











2minus 250 3 00612NO3

minus 50 5 0102PO4






minus 20 250 12550 5824CIminus 302 3650 17 991SO4

2minus lt001 976 3 234NO3

minus lt001 298 046 070PO4







2minus NO3minus and










10

8

6

4

2

0

pH K+

(mgl)PO4

3ndash

(mgl)SO4

2ndash

(mgl)NO3

ndash

(mgl)Fndash (mgl)

1250

1000

750

500

250

0


50

40

30

20

10

0














2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus


minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4




K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC


8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25







WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References

















































































z x minus μ

s (2)





Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

Tongo

ShiegaDatoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

TownLand coveruse

Bare areas



Cropland rainfed

Grassland

Herbaceous cover






Shrubland

Shrubland deciduous








Urban areas

Water bodies

0 6 12

N

183Kilometers





2minus PO43minus


Wi wi

1113936 wi (3)

qi Ci

Sitimes 100 (4)


SI Wi times qi (5)

WQI 1113944n

n1SI (6)


SAR Na

(Ca + Ma2)

1113968 (7)


Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine



10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

0 3 6 915Kilometers

TownSoil types

Fluvisols

Leptosols

Lixisols

Luvisols

N

S

EW




Na Na











2minus 250 3 00612NO3

minus 50 5 0102PO4






minus 20 250 12550 5824CIminus 302 3650 17 991SO4

2minus lt001 976 3 234NO3

minus lt001 298 046 070PO4







2minus NO3minus and










10

8

6

4

2

0

pH K+

(mgl)PO4

3ndash

(mgl)SO4

2ndash

(mgl)NO3

ndash

(mgl)Fndash (mgl)

1250

1000

750

500

250

0


50

40

30

20

10

0














2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus


minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4




K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC


8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25







WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References



















































































2minus PO43minus


Wi wi

1113936 wi (3)

qi Ci

Sitimes 100 (4)


SI Wi times qi (5)

WQI 1113944n

n1SI (6)


SAR Na

(Ca + Ma2)

1113968 (7)


Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine



10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

10deg4

8prime0Prime

N10

deg41prime

0PrimeN

10deg3

4prime0Prime

N

0 3 6 915Kilometers

TownSoil types

Fluvisols

Leptosols

Lixisols

Luvisols

N

S

EW




Na Na











2minus 250 3 00612NO3

minus 50 5 0102PO4






minus 20 250 12550 5824CIminus 302 3650 17 991SO4

2minus lt001 976 3 234NO3

minus lt001 298 046 070PO4







2minus NO3minus and










10

8

6

4

2

0

pH K+

(mgl)PO4

3ndash

(mgl)SO4

2ndash

(mgl)NO3

ndash

(mgl)Fndash (mgl)

1250

1000

750

500

250

0


50

40

30

20

10

0














2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus


minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4




K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC


8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25







WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References


















































































Na Na











2minus 250 3 00612NO3

minus 50 5 0102PO4






minus 20 250 12550 5824CIminus 302 3650 17 991SO4

2minus lt001 976 3 234NO3

minus lt001 298 046 070PO4







2minus NO3minus and










10

8

6

4

2

0

pH K+

(mgl)PO4

3ndash

(mgl)SO4

2ndash

(mgl)NO3

ndash

(mgl)Fndash (mgl)

1250

1000

750

500

250

0


50

40

30

20

10

0














2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus


minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4




K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC


8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25







WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References





















































































2minus NO3minus and










10

8

6

4

2

0

pH K+

(mgl)PO4

3ndash

(mgl)SO4

2ndash

(mgl)NO3

ndash

(mgl)Fndash (mgl)

1250

1000

750

500

250

0


50

40

30

20

10

0














2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus


minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4




K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC


8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25







WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References



























































































2minus NO3minus PO4

3minus Fminus


minus 094 086 090 069 066 088 089 067 024 100Clminus 046 072 067 056 059 052 033 073 003 045 100SO4




K+

F

PO43ndash

NO3ndash

SO42ndash

Na+

Clndash

Ca2+

Mg2+

pH

THTDS

HCO3ndash

EC


8141213 Cl

uste

r ICl

uste

r II

Clus

ter I

II

Phen

on li

ne

117

10563149

12

0 5 10 15 20 25







WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References





















































































WK20

WK23

WK22

PW31

BG28

YD34

BG30

PW32

BG33

BO18

BO19

WK24

SG03

SG01

DK06

SG02

DK09

TU10

YD37

BG29

YD36

NG15

PU26

DK07

YD35

SH39

SH41

TG44

YD38

SH40

TG43

SH42

TU12

WK21

DK04

TU13

TU11

TU14

NG16 14

12

9

11

4

18

10

38

34

37

35

30

28

36

24

6

22

13

26

27

25

8

7

2

5

1

3

21

16

15

39

29

32

31

33

23

19

20

17

Phen

on li

neCl

uste

r 3

Clus

ter 3

a

Clus

ter 3

b

Clus

ter 2

Clus

ter 1






2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References




















































































2050

100

10

05125

0201

005002001

000500020001

000050000200001

000005000002000001


ndash

meq

(kg)


3 2 1 0

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

meq (kg)Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Na+ + K+

Ca++

Clndash

SO4ndashndash

HCO3ndashMg++

Cluster 1

Cluster 3

Cluster 2

meq (kg)

1 2 3

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

3 12 0 1 2 3













3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References



























































































3minus










Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References
























































































Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

meq (kg)

80

60

40

20

80

60

40

SO4

ndashndash + C


20

20

40

60

80

Ca++

80

80

60

60

40

40

Mg+

+

Na ++ + K +20

20 80604020

80

60

40

20

20

40

60HCO 3ndash +

CO 3

ndashndash

SO4 ndashndash

80

Clndash

(II)

(III)

(IV)

(I)

Mg-richwaters


water

SO4waters

Clwaters

HCO3waters






(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References




















































































(10)


Ca2++ Mg2+


(11)


Ca2++ SO2minus





(13)






Mg++

Na + + K +

SO4ndashndash

20

20

20

20

40

40

40

40

60

60Ca++

Clndash

HCO3 ndash + CO

3 ndashndash 60

60

80

80

80

80

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

60

70

80

90

TDS (mgkg)

pH

Simple

disso

lution

or m

ixing

Ion

exch

ange

Reve

rse i

on ex

chan

ge



Component1 2 3

EC 0940 0163HCO3


2minus 0296 0821Fminus 0277 0698PO4





minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References


















































































minus






2minus +HCO3minus )









1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

TDS

(mg

l)


02

Rock dominance


dominance

Rock dominance

04 06 08 1 120Na+ (Na+ + Ca2+)






05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References




















































































05

0ndash02 03 08 13 18

ndash05


ndash15

ndash2


(Ca +

Mg)

ndash (S

O4 +

HCO

3)

(a)


100050 150 200000Na (meql)

000

050

100Hali

te diss

olution

150

200

Cl (m

eql)

(b)





100


000 100 200 300 400 500HCO3


Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(a)

400

000

000 200 400 600HCO3

ndash (mmoll)

Ca2+

+ M

g2+ (m

eql)

(b)












6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References
























































































6

4

2

00 5


Ca2+

(meq

l)

(a)

4

3

2

1

00 5


Mg2+

(meq

l)

(b)



Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References

















































































Y ndash1

018092

7356

6621

5885

5149

4414

3678

2943

2207

1471

0736


ModelBinnedAveraged

(a)

Tula

Shia

Bingo

Ningo

TongoShiega

Datoko

BalunguYinduri

Winkogo

Pwalugu

Tongo shrine

0

N


WQITown


(b)






PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References




















































































PI Na +

HCO3

radic




0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Na


Excellent togood


Good topermissible


Unsuitable

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 40000EC (microScm)


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

100 1000 10000

SAR


S1

S2

S3

S4

C1





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

020406080100120140

Tota

l ion

s (m

eql)

Permeability index


Class II

Class I

Class III




5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References


















































































5 Conclusion



Data Availability




Acknowledgments


References











































































































































































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AssessmentofGroundwaterQualityintheTalensiDistrict ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2020/8450860.pdf · ResearchArticle AssessmentofGroundwaterQualityintheTalensiDistrict, NorthernGhana