Aspects of Black Muslim Theology - IlmGate

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Aspects of Black Muslim TheologyAuthor(s): Zafar Ishaq AnsariSource: Studia Islamica, No. 53 (1981), pp. 137-176Published by: Maisonneuve & LaroseStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1595544 .Accessed: 30/03/2011 20:16

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ASPECTS OF BLACK MUSLIM THEOLOGY*

The movement called the "Nation of Islam" (popularly designated as the Black Muslim movement), some aspects of whose theology we seek to study in the following pages, arose in the 1930's in the Black ghetto of Detroit. Like other major north American cities, Detroit was then teeming with poverty-ridden, unemployed Blackamericans, a great number of whom were migrants from the southern states, (') where

* The writer would wish to acknowledge the assistance and encouragement he received from several friends and colleagues, some of whom even kindly suggested improvements in the first draft of this paper. Of these the following deserve special mention: Dr. Fahd Dakhil, Dr. Ali Kettani, Dr. Jon Parssinen and Mr. Daud Mathews of the University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dharan; and my former teachers Dr. W. C. Smith and Dr. C. J. Adams. Emam W. D. Muhammad, the present head of the "World Community of Islam in the West" greatly encou- raged the writer by characterizing the first draft of this paper as the "most sincere work" on the subject. I owe thanks to them all.

(1) During the first three decades of the present century two and a quarter million Blackamericans left the farms and plantations of the South and migrated en masse to the North, causing phenomenal increase in the Black populations of the Northern metropoles such as New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit. For causes of this mass migration see C. Eric Lincoln, The Black Muslims of America, revised edition, Beacon Paperbacks, (Boston, Beacon Press, 1973, pp. xxIif.). For further reading on the migration to the North see Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy, 26th printing (New York, Evanston, and London, Harper and Row, 1962), chapter 8; Rayford W. Logan, The Negro in the United States, vol. 1 (New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970), pp. 78 ff.; and Daniel S. Davis, Struggle for Freedom: The History of Black Americans (New York, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972), chapter 13.

they had been brought in chains from Africa, and had lived in chains for over two hundred years. (1) The Blacks had supplied for long the manual labour needed for the cultivation of cotton, tobacco, rice, sugar-cane and indigo upon which the prosperity of the South rested. In 1861 slavery was abolished in the U.S.A., but that provided little relief to the Blacks. When they migrated in large numbers to the North, they had looked forward to a bright future since the North seemed to promise them not only material prosperity, but also freedom, equality, and justice, only to discover later that their lot in the North was not substantially different. The Great Depression around 1930 aggravated their problems by creating large-scale unemployment and thus causing them indescribable suffering and agony. (2)

It was during the Depression years that a silk-pedlar, whose complexion and facial features were closer to the Whites than to the Negroes, aroused the curiosity and interest of the Blacks in Detroit. Despite his lack of apparent resemblance with the Blacks, he completely identified with them and preached the doctrine of Black supremacy. His message to them was one of total separation from the White race-religiously,

(1) For the Black experience of slavery in America see Davis, op. cit.; A. Weinstein and F. Gatell, eds., American Negro Slavery: A Modern Reader, revised edition (New York, London and Toronto, Oxford University Press, 1968); Ulrich B. Phillips, American Negro Slavery, second paperback edition (Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University Press, 1969); E. F. Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition (New York, Macmillan, 1957); Louis Filler, Slavery in the United States of America (New York, Van Nostrand, 1972); Myrdal, op. cit., especially chapter 10 (with emphasis on the continuing effect of slavery on the problems facing the Blacks today); and Richard Wright, Twelve Million Black Voices (London, Lindsay Drummond, 1947) (illustrative of a sensitive Black- american's poignant feeling about the experience of slavery). A more recent and very powerful book is Alex Haley, Roots (New York, Doubleday, 1976). To catch a glimpse of the feelings of the Black slaves and their articulation in songs see Miles M. Fisher, Negro Slave Songs in the United States (New York, Russell and Russell, 1953).

(2) The Depression hit the Blackamericans even harder than the Whites. The Unemployment Census of January 1931 revealed that unemployment among Black workers in the cities was in some instances twice as high as among White workers. For the situation of the Blacks at that period see Logan, op. cit., pp. 84 f. See also Davis, op. cit., pp. 204 ff. and Myrdal, op. cit., pp. 754 f.

138 Z. I. ANSARI

ASPECTS OF BLACK MUSLIM THEOLOGY 139

socially, culturally and politically. He set out to achieve the goal of complete emancipation of the Blacks under the banner of Islam. This man was Wallace D. Fard.

Hardly anything can be said with certainty about the racial and geographical origins of Fard or about his life prior to his appearance in Detroit in 1930. A number of divergent opinions are expressed about him: that he was a Jamaican, a Palestinian, an Arab from Mecca belonging to the Quraish tribe, a Turk, an Indian, and even that he was a Jew. (1) A few things are certain in regard to the teachings of Fard, however. He called the group that he organized in Detroit the "Allah Temple of Islam". He designated his own religious doctrine as Islam and sought to convert the Blacks to that doctrine, claiming that it would liberate them from the White race. He denounced the Whites as "blue-eyed devils", "cave men", and "satan". As for himself, he seems to have claimed to be the Mahdi, (2) and probably he either made the claim himself, or was called by his followers a prophet. Whether he called himself God or an incarnation of God is not quite clear. (3)

(1) For an early account of Fard see E. D. Benyon i The Voodoo Cult Among Negro-Migrants in Detroit *, American Journal of Sociology, vol. 43 (July 1937- May 1938), pp. 894-907, passim; see also Lincoln, op. cit., p. 14; E. U. Essien-Udom, Black Nationalism: A Search for an Identity in America, 6th impression, Phoenix paperback (Chicago and London, University of Chicago, 1971), pp. 44 f. (Wallace Muhammad, as he hold this writer in 1977, believes Fard to be from the Indo- Pakistan subcontinent and of Qadiyani background. In his view, he is still living in U.S.A.). For divergent opinions about Fard's origins and nationality see Lincoln, p. 14; Udom, op. cit., p. 45. For the view that he was possibly a Jew, see Howard Brotz, The Black Jews of Harlem (New York, Shocken, 1970), pp. 11 f.

(2) For the belief about the "Mahdi" see Ahmad Amin, Al-Mahdi wa al-Mahada- wlyah fi al-Isldm (Cairo, 1951). See also art. "Al-Mahd'" in Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 3, pp. 111 ff.

(3) It has been suggested that the doctrine of the divinity of Fard developed after his disappearance in 1934. See, for instance, Malcolm X, - Some Questions America, 1972, p. 4. For the teachings of Fard see Lincoln, op. cit., pp. 12 ff. and 75; Udom, op. cit., pp. 43 if.; Benyon, op. cit., pp. 896 if. Several small Udom, op. cit., pp. 43 if., op. cit., Benyon, op. cit., pp. 896 ff. Several small mimeographed tracts ascribed to Fard are in circeulation among the Black Muslims of which this writer has been able to acquire many. The authenticity of these tracts, however, remains to be definitively determined. For a recent account of Fard's life and teachings based on a collection of oral reports, perhaps collected without much concern for thoroughness and accuracy, see Peter Goldman, The Death and Life of Malcolm X (New York, Harper and Row, 1973), pp. 35 ff.

According to his successor Elijah Muhammad, however, he was "Allah", "God-in-Person", who had come from Mecca to the wilderness of North America on July 4, 1930 in order to rescue the so-called Negroes and make them return to their own. (1) Fard's father, Alphonso, was a "Jet Black Man of the Tribe of Shabazz" but his mother was a Caucasian lady called "Baby Gee". Fard is said to have been born on February 26, 1877 and to have disappeared from America in 1934, and is believed to be living now in Mecca, and will continue to live for four hundred and forty years. (2)

It would have occurred to none in the 1930's, not even to the wildest visionary, that this man would one day be acknowledged by thousands of Blacks of America as their God "for whom praises are due for ever", that he would be considered the "Supreme Being", the lord of the heavens and the earth, the only object of worship. All that, however, has come about and is largely the work of his close disciple, Elijah Muhammad (originally Elijah Poole), a Blackamerican migrant to Detroit from Georgia.

Elijah Poole was born of a Baptist preacher in Sanderville, Georgia on October 7, 1897. He received little formal education, and in 1923, he moved along with his wife to Detroit. There Elijah Muhammad worked in factories until the Depres- sion when he was laid off and lived from 1929 to 1931 on relief, In 1931, Elijah Muhammad met Fard and instantly came under his spell. When Fard disappeared in 1934, Elijah Muhammad became the leader of the "Nation of Islam" and remained so until his death in February 1975. During this long period of his leadership, the "Nation of Islam" has grown into a major force in the life of Blackamericans. (3)

(1) W. D. Fard, Muhammad's Temple of Islam Lesson No. CI, (n.d.). See also Udom, op. cit., p. 125. The correspondence of the alleged date of Fard's arrival with the Independence Day of America is striking.

(2) Udom, op. cit., pp. 125 f. For an account of the parents of Fard in the writings of Elijah Muhammad see Saviour, op. cit., p. 183. It may be noted that February 26 is celebrated each year by Elijah Muhammad's followers as the Saviour's Day. (This was changed to Ethnic Survival Day by Wallace Muhammad).

(3) For Elijah Muhammad's life see Udom, op. cit., pp. 74 if., and Lincoln, op. cit., passim, especially pp. 197 ff. See also Bernard Cushmeer, This is the One:

140 Z. I. ANSARI

ASPECTS OF BLACK MUSLIM THEOLOGY

After these introductory remarks about the birth of this movement, we shall move on to a systematic study of the basic features of its theology during the years when the movement was led by Elijah Muhammad viz. from 1934 to 1974. The choice of the year 1974 has been dictated by the fact that ever since February 1975 when Elijah Muhammad died and was succeeded by one of his sons, Wallace Muhammad, the religious orientation of the movement has been constantly changing. The process of change has not yet run its full course, however, though its direction seems clear. It is tending towards an increasing identification, both on the doctrinal and existential planes, with the world community of Islam. A mature evaluation of the changed doctrinal position can only be made, however, after the lapse of another year or so by which time the doctrines of the movement might crystallize and assume a definitive shape.

In the following pages we are first attempting an analysis of the doctrines of the "Nation of Islam" regarding God, prophethood and Hereafter, and of a set of doctrines designated as the "hidden truth", which provides an invaluable key to understanding the kernel and the motivating spirit of the entire body of the Black Muslim ideology. Along with analyzing the doctrines of the Black Muslims, we have also compared them with the accepted fundamental doctrines of Islam, and have thus attempted to highlight the characteristic significance of the Nation's theology. This approach will hopefully enable us to appreciate better the crucial, formative phase in the history of the "Nation of Islam" and provide us a vantage-point for estimating the process and direction of the doctrinal change that has been particularly in operation during the last few years, a task to which we wish to address ourselves

Messenger Elijah Muhammad: We Need not Look for Another (Phoenix Arizona, Truth Publications, 1971) (largely eulogistic); and Malcolm X, The Autobiography of Malcolm X, paperback (New York, Grove Press, 1966), passim, especially chapters 10-14.

It needs to be pointed out that in this paper we have consistently used the words "Islam" and "Muslims" in the accepted meanings of these words, and have used the terms "Nation of Islam" and "Black Muslims" for the followers of Elijah Muhammad.

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sometime later. The paper also attempts to view these doctrines, and the "Nation of Islam" movement as such, in the context of the religious experience of the Blackamericans, especially the Black sects and cults which arose in the early decades of the present century in response to the problems and challenges in the American society. This should help us have some grasp of the historical and sociological significance of the "Nation of Islam", along with an appreciation of their religious ideology.

I

In embarking on this inquiry, we commence with the "Nation's" concept of God. This concept, not unlike their other religious concepts, is quite distinct, and indeed unique. Despite Islamic trappings, it is far too foreign for ordinary Muslims even to understand, let alone accept. The Black Muslims have been both conscious and proud of this distinctness, and have claimed that the truth about God was being revealed

through them for the first time in human history. (1) The distinguishing characteristic of this concept of God

is its unmistakable anthropomorphism. The Black Muslims have consistently emphasized that their God is man, and that he is black. Elijah Muhammad's writings are full of statements such as the following: "God is a man, a flesh and blood being ... a

being like ourselves". (2)

Elijah Muhammad vehemently condemns and ridicules the

concept of a non-material God, characterizing it as a deception

(1) The Saviour, e.g., chapter 12, op. cit., p. 29; Elijah Muhammad, Message to the Blackman in America, 2nd printing (Chicago, Muhammad's Temple No. 2, 1968), p. 9 and elsewhere; and Elijah Muhammad's statement in Muhammad

Speaks, November 24, 1972, reproduced below, p. 147.

(2) Elijah Muhammad in his famous speech at Atlanta in Louis Lomax, When the Word is Given (Cleveland and New York, World Publishing Company, 1962), p. 127. See also Message and Saviour, passim. It is beyond the scope of this

paper to elaborate the Islamic concept of God, which, in its essentiels is, in any case, quite well known. To put it succinctly, God is essentielly the Omnipotent Creator Who created this universe. He is beyond the ken of sens-perception and transcends the limitations of both time and space. He is One, and is indeed so unique that, in the words of the Qur'an: "There is nothing like Him" (11:42).

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to which people were led by the devils. (1) Since Elijah Muhammad postulates no species of existence higher than man, to conceive of God as anything other than human amounts, in his view, to rendering him inferior to what he is. (2) The existence of a "spirit God", a God without a form, a God "Who has his throne in the sky", makes no sense to Elijah Muhammad for spirit is not "self-independent". Without air, water and food, the spirit can have no life. (3) Such a God is even grammatically unacceptable for the pronoun used for God is "He" and that pronoun can be used only in connection with human beings of the male sex. (4) As for the God of the spirit, how can such a formless God, asks Elijah Muhammad, be interested in human affairs? (5) And what glory will such an immaterial God get out of the material world? (6)

As distinguished from this "spooky" God, the God of the "Nation of Islam" is so human that he would even die. (7)

The notion that God dies would seem closer to Christianity than to Islam. Not only that, Elijah Muhammad also employs the characteristically Christian expression "God-in- Person" in regard to Fard who is claimed to have come to North America for the redemption of his people, and who endured suffering and courted imprisonment, etc., in order to show his love to them. (8) All these are reminiscent of Christian concepts such as those of incarnation and redemption by suffering. Presumably these ideas were derived from the

(1) Message, op. cit., pp. 2, 6 and 9; Saviour, op. cit., pp. 26 f. and 61; and Elijah Muhammad, Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2 (Chicago, University of Islam, n. d.), p. 73. Cf. the following statement of Elijah Muhammad which apparently contradicts this: "The belief in a God other than man (a spirit) Allah has taught me goes into the millions of years - - - - long before Yakub (the father of the devils)... (Message, op. cit., p. 9). For Yakub, see section V of this paper below.

(2) Ibid., p. 6. (3) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., pp. 9 ff. The denial of the concept of

mystery or "spirit" God is scattered throughout the writings of Elijah Muhammad. See, for example, Saviour, op. cit., pp. 64 f.; Message, op. cit., pp. 1-10, etc.

(4) Ibid., p. 6. (5) Saviour, op. cit., p. 28. (6) Supreme Wisdom, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 9; Message, op. cit., p. 2. (7) Ibid., p. 9. (8) Ibid., p. 24, and often elsewhere in the writings of Elijah Muhammad.

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Z. I. ANSARI

Christian milieu of North America where the movement arose. The resemblance with Christianity is only partial and superficial for whereas the Christians believe that an essentially spiritual God became flesh, the "Nation of Islam" altogether denies the possibility of the existence of all non-material beings.

In the light of the above, what is meant by calling Fard God-in-Person? Whose incarnation is or was he?

This brings us indeed to another unique aspect in Elijah Muhammad's concept of God-its corporateness. "Allah", as conceived by him, to borrow the words of Lincoln, is not a godhead complete in himself. (1) In the Black Muslim concept "Allah" seems to be identical with the collective entity of the Original People, the Black Nation, the Righteous. "We are the nation of the Creators or the Creator ourselves", says Elijah Muhammad. (2) Out of all nations the Black Nation alone is self-created. The fathers of the Blacks are believed to have created the heavens and the earth, and life and mankind, including the White or Caucasian race (or devils). Thus the Quranic verse about God: "He is the first and the last" (Qur'an 57:3) has been interpreted by the "Nation of Islam" to mean that the Black Man is the first and the last, is the maker and owner of the universe. (3) The Black God who created the heavens and the earth, according to Elijah Muhammad, no longer exists. (4) He also concedes that the first Black God was not begotten. But it cannot be said,

(1) Lincoln, op. cit., p. 75. (2) Muhammad Speaks, October-November, 1961. See also Message, op. cit.,

pp. 42, 108, etc. Saviour, op. cii., passim; Elijah Muhammad, Muhammad Speaks, December 30, 1962, and his other writings. In one of his last works Elijah Muhammad elaborated on the theme of the self-created Black God, for which see Saviour, chapter 11, especially pp. 39 ff., where he argues that the first God who was born in total darkness, his colour "had to be Black as there was no light" (pp. 39 f.). See also ibid., p. 43.

(3) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, p. 14. According to the "Nation of Islam" the Quranic statement that God is "the first" means that the earth has been populated with the black nation ever since its creation, but the history of the white nation does not go beyond 6000 years. "Everywhere the white race has gone on our planet, they either found the Original Man or a sign that he had been there previously" (ibid., p. 15).

(4) Message, op. cit., p. 9.

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says Elijah Muhammad, that He did not beget others since His descendants do exist. (1) The Blacks are thus considered descendants-and descendants in a purely biological sense-of this God, and hence they are the Originals; they are righteous, and partake of divinity. All Blacks, in the Black Muslim view, are Gods (Allah), and one of them is the Supreme Being. (2)

Fom the God who originally created the heavens and the earth (and who does not exist today), (3) the person of God has continued in His people until today when a "Supreme One (God) has appeared among us with the same infinite wisdom to bring about a complete change". (4) What distinguishes, then, "Allah" from other inherently divine Black beings? Elijah Muhammad provides an answer to this in one of his speeches:

God is a man, a flesh and blood being, but He is a Divine Being. Why do we call God a Divine Being? Because He is a Being like we are but His wisdom, power and other capacities and attributes are Supreme...making him the Highest Power... He has the Divine Power to will whatever He wishes and to bring it into existence with His Divine Will. (6)

Knowledge and wisdom combined with power seem to be the chief attributes of the God conceived by the "Nation of Islam". But since the God of their concept is essentially human, it is not surprising that He appears to be conceived of, at least in part, as the most powerful Black scientist living in a particular age. In this connection the following statement of Elijah Muhammad is highly revealing:

(1) Bernard Cushmeer, op. cit., p. 143. Cf. the Quranic verses to which this statement alludes: "Say" He, Allah is one: Allah is self-sufficient; He did not beget, nor was He begotten" (112:1-3).

(2) Saviour, op. cit., p. 26. Elijah Muhammad supports this concept of corporate divinity of the Blacks by referring to the use of the first person plural ("We") for Allah. See ibid., pp. 64 f. For other references to this concept of corporate divinity of the Blacks, see the statement of Elijah Muhammad in a television interview by Louis Lomax cited by Lincoln, op. cit., p. 75. See also a typical preaching of this concept of God by Malcolm X in Lomax, op. cit., pp. 23-28, especially p. 26. See also Saviour, op. cit., pp. 56 and 96 f.

(3) Message, op. cit., p. 9. (4) Ibid., p. 10. Cf. the statement of Elijah Muhammad that this God has even

greater power than the first One. See Cushmeer, op. cit., pp. 142 f. (5) Elijah Muhammad in his famous speech at Atlanta, in Lomax, op. cit.,

pp. 126f.

10

145

We make history every 25,000 years. When such history is written, it is done by twenty-four of our scientists. One acts as judge or God for the others and twenty-three actually do the work of getting up the future of the nation... The original black nation used 23 scientists to write the future of that nation for the next 25,000 years, and the 24th is the judge or the one God, Allah. (1)

Alluding to the birth of Fard, Elijah Muhammad says that the scientists of the Black nation had predicted that after a new race had been born and had ruled over the black nation for 6000 years, the original black nation would give birth to one whose wisdom, knowledge and power would be infinite, who would be recognized as the greatest and mightiest God since the creation of the universe, and who would destroy Yakub's world and restore the original nation, or ancient

nation, into power to rule forever. "This mighty One", says Elijah Muhammad, "is known under many names ... the

Holy Qur'an refers to Him as Allah, the One God; besides

Him, there is no God ... Supreme Being, the mighty ... the

lifegiver; the Mahdi (this is He whom I have met and am missioned by)." (2)

Contradistinguished from the Islamic concept of God as the Creator of all human beings irrespective of their racial, geographical, linguistic or other affiliations, the God of the "Nation of Islam" is a black God, and is the God of the Blacks alone. (3)

The Blacks are biologically related to Him, being the descendants of the same first Black God. Moreover, the concerns and

sympathies of this God are also exclusively confined to the Blacks. (4) He had created this earth for none else but the

(1) Message, op. cit., pp. 108 f. (2) Ibid., p. 111. See also Cushmeer, op. cit., pp. 142 f. Where the author

mentions the teachings of Elijah Muhammad that Fard "has more power than the first One who had created the universe. He (i.e. Fard) can do away with the present universe and bring in a better one".

(3) It is strongly stressed by the "Nation of Islam" that the Blacks and Whites do not have the same God. See Message, op. cit., p. 94, and often elsewhere in the writings of Elijah Muhammad.

(4) This would presumably indicate an element of resemblance with the Jewish concept of Yahweh. It would be interesting to compare the religious doctrines of the "Nation of Islam", including their doctrine of God, with the doctrines of the so-called Black Jews. For the doctrines of the latter see Harold Brotz, op. cit., especially chapter 2. On certain points the resemblance is striking, especially the motivating obiectives appear to be markedly similar.

146 Z. I. ANSARI


black people, (1) and also came to the earth in the person of Fard to discover the lost sheep of the Blacks and help them "come back to their own". The treatment meted out to the Blacks by the Whites has angered God so much that He "will destroy the Nations of Earth to save them [i.e. the Blacks] and then die myself". (2) No wonder the appeal of Elijah Muhammad to the Blackamericans to accept Allah (i.e. Fard) as their God also has a manifestly parochial, racial basis. In his own words:

Every nation has a God looking like itself. But here in America poor, blind, deaf and dumb Originals, my own Brothers don't have a God looking like them. He (sic) doesn't have any God at all-only the white man. (a)

When all these various characteristics are pieced together in order to obtain an integrated view of the "Nation of Islam's" concept of God, the concept that emerges does not even remotely resemble the one to which the Muslims all over the world subscribe. Elijah Muhammad was quite conscious of this and chose to emphasize the distinctness of his concept and his rejection of the concept cherished by the "orthodox Muslims" in these words:

The ignorant belief of the Orthodox Muslims that Allah (God) is some formless something (sic) and yet He has An Interest (sic) in our affairs, can be condemned in no limit of time. I would not give two cents for that kind of God in which they believe. (4)

II

The second part of the Islamic confession of faith states: "Muhammad is the messenger of Allah". The members of the "Nation of Islam" have always enthusiastically affirmed and prominently displayed this statement in their rallies and

(1) Saviour, op. cit., p. 39. (2) Ibid., p. 36. See also Message, op. cit., p. 17, "...he would eat rattlesnakes

to free us if necessary...". (3) Saviour, op. cit., p. 36; see also p. 43. (4) Muhammad Speaks, November 24, 1972.

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publications. The signification of the statement would appear self-evident at the first sight, an affirmation of the status of Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him) as the message- bearer of God. (1) It is well-known, however, that during the period which concerns us (1934-1974), the Black Muslims understood "Muhammad" in this formula to mean Elijah Muhammad rather than Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him), though of course the prophethood of the latter is not necessarily negated.

The "Nation of Islam" shares with Muslims belief in the prophethood of the earlier prophets such as Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Solomon and Jonah. (2) They also consider Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him) to be one of the prophets, (3) and at times even invoke God's peace and blessings on him. (4) They also concede the obvious fact that the Qur'an was revealed to him over 1300 years ago. (5) It is striking, however, that references to the Holy Prophet in the writings of Elijah Muhammad are scarce, are couched in a highly matter-of-fact phraseology, and lack the love and devotion which characterize a Muslim's attitude towards him. (6) It is also significant that quite often when Elijah Muhammad or his spokesmen enumerate prophets and messengers the name Muhammad is either missing, (7) or he is not mentioned in

(1) The established Islamic doctrine is that he was the last messenger of God. (2) See, for instance, Message, op. cit., p. 68, and the writings of Elijah

Muhammad, passim. (3) See, for instance, Message, op. cil., p. 250; Saviour, op. cit., p. 71, etc. (4) See, for instance, Message, op. cit., p. 248. (5) Supreme Wisdom, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 76. (6) In Message, which is a work of fundamental importance in the writings of

Elijah Muhammad, one finds nothing more complimentary about the Holy Prophet (peace be on him) than the statement: "Muhammad took hold of the best, the belief in One God (Allah), and was successful" (p. 106). (It needs to be pointed out that since March 1975 the attitude of the "Nation" towards Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him) has greatly changed. True, Elijah Muhammad continues to be called the Messenger, and peace and blessings of Allah are still invoked for him. Nevertheless, there is an unmistakable and ever increasing warmth and devotion for the Holy Prophet).

(7) See, for example, ibid., pp. 68, 68, 69 and 74 and elsewhere.

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unmistakably clear terms. (1) Occasionally, when the word Muhammad is mentioned, it is Elijah Muhammad who is specified as the person referred to rather than the Holy Prophet. (2) During the sixties and seventies the coolness and apathy of the Black Muslims towards Muhiammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him) seemed to be on the increase; in fact they occasionally even showed lack of respect towards him. Elijah Muhammad, for instance, at times portrayed him as a simpleton and made him a laughing-stock. (3) In fact during the last years of his life he made certain statements which make one wonder if the "Nation of Islam" still adhered to the belief that Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him) was a genuine prophet. It even appeared that Elijah Muhammad was possibly preparing the ground to deny the

prophetic status of Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah. One highly significant statement occurs in Bernard Cushmeer's work This is the One:

The last genuine prophet (before Elijah Muhammad) God commis- sioned was Jesus. He was sent to the Jews, or white race in general. He (Jesus) came in the line or tradition or path that Abraham, Moses and David walked in. Messenger Elijah Muhammad appears at this time after an interval in the succession of the coming of such men. This interval of time, from Jesus to now, is 2000 years.(4)

Almost one year after the publication of Cushmeer's book, Elijah Muhammad mentioned Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah

(peace be on him) as a White man. (5) The significance of

(1) See, for instance, ibid., p. 59. The cause for the equivocation is that in the writings of Elijah Muhammad and his followers, the word "Muhammad"

generally signifies Elijah Muhammad. (2) "Islam is the religion of Adam, Noah, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad (the

last)" (ibid., p. 69). (3) Elijah Muhammad mentions, for instance, the Holy Prophet's alleged

keenness to reform the Whites and to convert them to Islam as an evidence of his naivetd. He adds: "The old scientists used to laugh at Muhammad for thinking that he could convert them (the devils) to Islam" (ibid., p. 116).

(4) Cushmeer, op. cit., p. 20. Italics are our own.

(5) Muhammad Speaks, June 16, 1972. For Elijah Muhammad's teachings about the White man, see section V below. Strangely enough, Elijah Muhammad had earlier declared the Holy Prophet to be a Black man. See Supreme Wisdom, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 75.

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such a statement can hardly be lost on those who are aware of his well-known doctrine that the White man is the devil.

What, then, was the standpoint of Elijah Muhammad regarding the status of Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him)? It is obvious that Elijah Muhammad, like the Qadiyanis, does not believe that Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him) was the last prophet or messenger of Allah. (1) Almost ever since the disappearance of Fard, Elijah Muhammad has consistently claimed that he was the messenger of Allah; and at least since 1960 that he was the last messenger of Allah. (2) Perhaps the official doctrine of the "Nation of Islam" relating to Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him) was adequately expressed by Elijah Muhammad when he said that the former was "a sign of the real Muhammad". (3) The doctrine would be consistent with the above-cited statement of Cushmeer which seems to deny the prophethood of Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him). (4) Taken together the two statements would suggest that the "Nation of Islam" held that the Holy Prophet was indeed not a prophet or messenger in his own right but that his prophethood was merely a reflection of the prophethood of the real Muhammad (i.e. Elijah Muhammad). (5)

On the other hand, the tendency among the members of the "Nation of Islam" to exalt Elijah Muhammad grew apace during the sixties and the seventies. This tendency is best illustrated by the work of Cushmeer, This is the One, to which

(1) For a brief historical and doctrinal survey of Qadiyanism see S. A. H. Nadawi, Qadiyanism: A Critical Study, tr. Z. I. Ansari (Lahore, Ashraf, 1967).

(2) See Elijah Muhammad's famous Atlanta speech in Lomax, op. cit., p. 129.

According to Lomax, this was the first time that such a claim was made by him

(ibid., p. 111). See also Message, op. cit., p. 306, and other recent writings of Elijah Muhammad, passim.

(3) Muhammad Speaks, July 16, 1972. In his own view the real Muhammad, of course, is Elijah Muhammad himself.

(4) See p. 149 above and nn. 5 and 6 therein. (5) Such a view assumes an amount of systematic consistency. We have

already noted, however, several cases which make it clear that Elijah Muhammad does not seem to be concerned with systematic consistency to the extent some of the students of his thought and movement are. For some examples of it, see nn. 1 (p. 143), 4 (p. 145), and n. 6 (p. 149) above, and n. 4 (p. 155) below.

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we have already referred. In this work Elijah Muhammad is described as "the second greatest person in the universe. The greatest-Allah-has given him the utmost knowledge of truth ... He has the keys to eternal life". (1) Even the statement that Elijah Muhammad is a prophet or messenger does not seem to fully satisfy the "Nation of Islam's" desire to glorify him. In the words of Cushmeer:

His message, work and character places (sic) him in the company of these illustrious men, the Prophets. But He (sic) is not actually a prophet. He is more than a prophet. To say that he comes in their tradition is true. But this is incomplete... (')

This tendency led the "Nation of Islam" again and again to compare Elijah Muhammad with the prophets, including Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him), and to claim that the former was incomparably superior to each of them. (3) His alleged superiority is claimed on several grounds. The knowledge of truth given to the prophets was inferior since it was a mixture of facts, imagination, etc., and the prophets' grasp of the truth was limited. (4) On the contrary, Elijah Muhammad's comprehension is considered far superior, and indeed perfect because of the former's direct contact with Allah (i.e. Fard) since Fard was Elijah Muhammad's teacher (let alone, his guest). No prophet, including Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him), had ever enjoyed that privilege.

Thus, no prophet, including the Holy Prophet Muhammad, was considered by the "Nation of Islam" during the time of Elijah Muhammad to be on the same level as the latter. The former, in their opinion, did not understand "the full reality

(1) Cushmeer, op. cit., p. 7. The whole book is full of this kind of extravagance. Elijah Muhammad has himself contribued greatly to this trend by indulging in self-adulation and making it clear that he enjoys being praised. For an example of this self-praise, seee Elijah Muhammad's statement that the Black Stone of Ka'bah represents him (Muhammad Speaks, June 16, 1972).

(2) Cushmeer, op. cit., pp. 21 f. (3) See ibid., passim, but especially pp. 40, 148 ff., etc. Typical also of this

trend is the series of articles by Margary Hassain, which appeared in 1973 under the title "Muhammad is not an Average Apostle". See Muhammad Speaks, November 30, 1973 (and the subsequent issues).

(4) Cushmeer, op. cit., p. 22.

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of God", and "the depths of the sum of the teachings of the Qur'an" and "had nowhere near the knowledge of such subjects as astronomy as Messenger Elijah Muhammad has". (1) The Holy Prophet, according to Elijah Muhammad, did not receive from Allah all the truth ... that Muhammad of Arabia never saw his teacher". (2)

The alleged contemporary visiting of "Allah" has rendered the present times uniquely significant and has placed on Elijah Muhammad a mission of momentous importance: "the awesome mission of making Himself known to the world and raising a dead nation to life... bridging the gap in an understanding of the Supreme Reality, self and other; this work of reconciling us to Him; this work of laying the foundation of an altogether new world". (3)

Elijah Muhammad and his followers have resorted to a strange strategem to relegate Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him) to the background of oblivion and insignifi- cance. In this connection Elijah Muhammad has taken full advantage of the change of his family name from Poole to Muhammad. Thanks to this, the verses in which the Qur'an addresses or refers to the "Messenger" are interpreted by Elijah Muhammad and his followers as addressed or referring to him and not to Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah (peace be on him)-the recipient of the Qur'an. In order to establish this, they resort to a highly laboured casuistry. (4) They claim, for instance, that the distinguished Messenger whose coming had been prayed for or foretold in the Scriptures, including the Qur'an, was none other than Elijah Muhammad. (5)

The relationship between "Allah" and Elijah Muhammad seems to be a fairly intricate and complex one. Elijah

(1) Ibid., p. 149. (2) Loc. cit. See also ibid., pp. 108 and 149. (3) Ibid., p. 58. (4) See Cushmeer, op. cit., passim, but especially pp. 19 f., 27 f., 60 f., 132 ff.

This is in accordance with Elijah Muhammad's doctrine that notwithstanding the revelation of the Qur'an to Muhammad ibn 'Abd-Allah, he was merely "a sign of the real Muhammad" (See above p. 150 and n. 3 therein).

(5) Muhammad Speaks, vol. 2, no 14, April 1, 1963, the article "Prayer Service in Islam". See also Cushmeer, op. cit., pp. 137 and 140.

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Muhammad always maintained that he was different and separate from "Allah". On the other hand, he held that "Allah" is nothing more than a man, and that all Originals are Gods. Were this to be combined with the concept of "God-in- Person", it would be relatively easy to bridge the gap between "Allah" and His Messenger whenever the latter might choose to do so. There are some indications that the possibility of the fusion of Elijah Muhammad and his master-"Allah"- (i.e. Fard) did exist in the mind of the former. In some of his statements during the last years of his life Elijah Muhammad seemed to hint at a process of fusion and merging with or in Him. He said, for instance: "The Apostle is considered one in Allah and Allah is one in the Apostle. So, when you look at one, you see both; when you hear one speak, you hear both for they are one in agreement for the right and against the disbeliever". (1) Subsequently, he indicated in clearer terms that such a process was already in operation: "Allah is making me into Himself". (2)

Functionally speaking, in the Islamic tradition propethood is the vehicle for the communication of God's guidance. Muslims believe that this guidance is embodied in the Qur'an and the Sunnah, the latter being the authoritative explanation, elaboration and exemplification of the Qur'an by the Holy Prophet. Laying claim to full-fledged prophethood, Elijah Muhammad invested himself with all the authority which, in the Islamic tradition, belongs only to a true messenger of God, and which was conferred finally by God on Muhammad (peace be on him) since with him prophethood came to an end.

As for Elijah Muhammad, a natural corollary of his claim to prophethood is the belief that his interpretations of the Scriptures are authoritative. (3) Among the Scriptures, Elijah

(1) Message, op. cit., p. 264. (2) Cited by Anna Karriem in "The Messenger of Allah", Muhammad Speaks,

March 8, 1974. (3) See, for instance, Message, op. cit., p. 88 where Elijah Muhammad says:

"The Bible means good if you can rightly understand it. My interpretation of it is given to me from the Lord of the Worlds".

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Muhammad assigns special position to the Qur'an and evinces for it a large measure of respect and consideration. (1) This attitude towards the Qur'an-which was revealed, after all, to someone other than Elijah Muhammad-would seem somewhat strange in the context of his claims about his own unique status as a prophet. This paradox is perhaps resolved if we keep in mind Elijah Muhammad's claim to be the only autoritative interpreter of all Scriptures including the Qur'an, to be the real Muhammad. (2) It is obviously on the basis of this authority that Elijah Muhammad changed the form of the ordained prayer and replaced the lunar month of Ramadan for fasting by the solar month of December. In fact, despite what the Qur'an has to say on this point, Elijah Muhammad remains unconvinced about the way fasting is traditionally observed by Muslims on the basis of Quranic prescription. (3) Likewise, Elijah Muhammad, who honoured the Islamic prohibitions regarding intoxicating beverages and flesh of swine, added to these prohibitions a number of food items which had not been declared unlawful in the Qur'an or the Hadith. (4) This is disconcerting for Muslims who recognize that none after the Holy Prophet (peace be on him) has the authority to extend the area of prohibitions. For the "Nation of Islam", however, the prohibitions ordained by Elijah Muhammad create no problems for they are fully consistent

(1) Ibid., pp. 86, 93 if., where he expresses his views about the importance of the Qur'an and why it is superior to other Scriptures which, in his opinion, had been tampered with.

(2) See above p. 150 and n. 3. (3) See Elijah Muhammad, How to Eat to Live: Book 2 (Chicago, Muhammad's

Temple of Islam No. 2, 1972), pp. 50 ff. For the relevant Qurantic verses on fasting see 2:183-187. (Wallace Muhammad, the new head of the "Nation of Islam", has adopted the Muslim form of prayer and has declared Ramadan to be the month of fasting).

(4) For these extra-Quranic prohibitions see How to Eat to Live, op. cit., p. 53, 96 f., etc. Udom has reproduced the official list of the things which the Black Muslims eat and which they do not eat. See Udom, op. cit., pp. 205 if. It would be pertinent to point out that the food items which have been prohibited are the popular Negro dishes (soul food, etc.), and are generally deemed as cheap and of low value. In this context their prohibition appears to be part of the over-all quest of the Blacks for respectability in the American society.

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with the view of his religious authority as the greatest and last of all prophets.

What we have said above is also reflected in the Black Muslim attitude to the Qur'an. Notwithstanding the respect shown to the Qur'an, Elijah Muhammad explicitly asserts that the validity of the Qur'an is time-bound. The Qur'an is of help as a guide "in this world" alone, and at best can guide man to the threshold of the judgment and the Hereafter, but not beyond. (1) In view of this and of the unique significance and authority of Elijah Muhammad, the Islam optomised in the Qur'an must give way to a new Islam that "Allah" will bring about. (2) Hence a new book, said Elijah Muhammad, was in process of being prepared-a book which will guide people into the Hereafter. (3) It is not without significance that the need for such a book is felt on the ground of an idea which runs through its entire religious ideology. Significantly enough, the "Nation's" rationale for this new book is that both the Bible and the Qur'an were basically meant for peoples other the "so-called Negroes":

If Moses' rod and book were given as a guide for Israel, and the gospel God gave to Jesus as a guide and warning to the Christians and the Holy Qur'an to Muhammad for the Arab World, will God give us (the so-called Negroes) a book as a guide for us? For those books were for other peoples and not for us. (4)

III

Belief in the Hereafter is one of the fundamentals of Islam. Stated succintly, Muslims believe that following the destruction of the present cosmic order at an appointed time in the future when all men will be resurrected and will be judged by the

(1) Message, op. cit., p. 25. For the expressions "this world", "Resurrection", and "Hereafter", etc., see section III below.

(2) Ibid., pp. 50 f. (3) See ibid., p. 97. (4) Ibid., p. 87. Cf. however, his statement on p. 91 of the same book, which

apparently contradicts this view: "It is the Book for the American so-called Negroes...".

Z. I. ANSARI

all-knowing, all-powerful, absolutely just and merciful God who will reward the righteous with eternal bliss and happiness in Heaven, and punish the unrighteous with suffering in Hell.

The "Nation of Islam" also affirms belief in the Hereafter. However, when one examines the actual content of their doctrine, it is vitally linked with the characteristic assumptions and concerns of the "Nation of Islam" as we have noted earlier, and is, therefore, quite distinct from the Islamic doctrine of the Hereafter.

In order to grasp the doctrine of the "Nation of Islam" concerning the Hereafter, one must keep in mind that the White man, who is also called the man of sin, devil, etc., is considered to have been "made" about 6000 years ago and to have been granted a term of 6000 years to rule over the world. (1) No wonder the period of White rule is characterized by the prevalence of evil and corruption. This period of history is termed by the "Nation of Islam" as "this world" or "this world of sin". By contrast, the "Hereafter" is the period which will follow the end of the dominance of the White man and the destruction of his "world of sin", a period that would inaugurate the never-ending rule of the Original or righteous man. Hence, explaining the meaning of the Hereafter Elijah Muhammad says: "It means: 'After the destruction of the present world, its power and authority to rule'. More specifically, it means, "After the present rule of the Man of the Sin". (2) Consistent with their denial of "spirit God", the next life or Hereafter is not conceived of by the "Nation of Islam" as a "life of the spirits up somewhere in the sky". (3) It will rather be life on this earth and people will continue to be flesh-and-blood beings. What will diffe- rentiate the "next life" or "next world" from the present one

(1) For a more detailed view of the "Nation of Islam's" doctrine concerning the Whites and the Blacks, see section IV below. For their belief regarding the Hereafter, it would be especially instructive to go through a recent collection of the articles of Elijah Muhammad, The Fall of America (Chicago, Muhammad's Temple No. 2, 1973), passim.

(2) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 40. See also Message, op. cit., p. 303. (3) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 40.

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is not its location but that it will be "a goverment of the righteous, after the destruction of unrighteousness". (1)

The "Hereafter" will be preceded by the judgment of "Allah". This judgment, too, will take place on the earth. The coming of "Allah" (Fard) which coincides with the lapse of the term of 6000 years granted to the White man to dominate the earth is seen to be the major event which will lead to the Hereafter. "Allah" in the person of Fard came in order to rescue His people-the Blackmen, to resurrect them from their death-like state, and to punish and destroy the White man. And since "Allah" controls all the forces of the universe and is terribly angry at the Whites who have oppressed His people He will spare nothing to destroy the devils and their religion. He will resort not only to such natural calamities as rain, hailstorms, earthquakes, etc., but will also make full use of "bombs, poison gas, and fire". (2) Because of the highly stern nature of God's judgment, namely the total destruction of the White man, the Hereafter will be preceded by the War of Armageddon or Holy War after the White man has been fully exposed. (3)

This judgment was due for 1914 but was postponed because the so-called Negroes of America had to be separated from the devils. (4) Hence, the message of the "Nation of Islam" to the Blacks essentially is: "Separate from the doomed White race before it is too late". Although the exact date of the judgment is known only to "Allah", it would definitely take place before the year 2000. (5) It would come about in two stages. The first of these is the spiritual sounding of the trumpet, which is what Elijah Muhammad was engaged in. The second stage is the Day of Apocalypse. (6)

(1) Message, op. cit., p. 303. (2) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 30. Cf. Fall of America, op. cit., pp. 52 f. (3) Message, op. cit., p. 303. This is an important aspect of the teachings of

the "Nation of Islam". Lomax, in particular, seems to consider this a major aspect of the movement which is evident from his choice of the title of his book When the Word is Given. See passim, especially pp. 31 and 70.

(4) Udom, op. cit., p. 138. (5) Loc. cit. (6) Ibid., pp. 138 ff.; see also Saviour, p. 88.

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Z. I. ANSARI

In order to grasp the "Nation of Islam's" concept of resurrection, it is necessary to recall that they conceive of no life beyond the grave. (1) According to the "Nation of Islam", the so-called Negroes of America are at present a dead people, and "resurrection" means nothing but the mental resurrection of those dead people, (2) their attaining consciousness that the time has come for them to get justice. (3)

Quite consistent with these ideas is the concept of Heaven and Hell. These signify conditions of earthly life rather than states of super-terrestrial, and post-terrestrial existence. (4)

Also in order to experience Heaven and Hell one need not wait until one's death. Heaven and Hell are the conditions which exist on this earth and which human beings experience during their lives. No wonder, then, that Heaven is described as "the condition the white man now has", and contrariwise, Hell is the condition to which the Negro is presently subjected. (5) The promise that is held out to the Blackman by the "Nation" is that were he to accept his God, acquire knowledge of the basic truths about himself, his nation, and his religion and history, he would experience resurrection and even enjoy Heaven here on this earth and right now. Heaven is described as consisting of "freedom, justice, equality, money, good houses, and friendships in all walks of life". (6) On other occasions, Heaven is described as enjoying peace of mind and contentment with the God of the righteous and the Nation of the righteous", (7)

(1) Muhammad Speaks, vol. 1, no. 12, August 15, 1962; and often elsewhere in his writngs.

(2) Message, op. cit., p. 97; Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 41; Saviour, op. cit., p. 198; Fall of America, op. cit., p. 17.

(3) Saviour, op. cit., pp. 116-117. See also Elijah Muhammad's speech in Washington D.C. on May 31, 1959 in Udom, op. cit., p. 137.

(4) See Muhammad Speaks, vol. 2, no. 3, October 31, 1962 and the writings of Elijah Muhammad, passim.

(5) Udom, op. cit., p. 137, quoting a lecture of Ministor Lucius at Chicago on October 24, 1958. One might also draw attention to the popular song of Minister Louis X (subsequently Louis Farrakhan): "White Man's Heaven is Black Man's Hell".

(6) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 77. This seems to be one of the favourite expressions of Elijah Muhammad and occurs several times in his writings.

(7) Saviour, op. cit., p. 2.

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as "enjoyment and unlimited progress in the new world of universal peace and happiness unlike anything seen, heard or imagined since the creation of the universe". (1) The full flowering of this Heaven will obviously take place after the end of the era of White dominance. In that state the righteous will enjoy the spirit of gladness and happiness forever in the presence of Allah. (2) It will be a condition of absolute peace and brotherhood which will exclude even the possibility of disagreement. (3) It will be a new life wherein even those who are a thousand years old will remain young and look like teenagers of sixteen. (4) It will be a life teeming with physical, mental and moral health so that there would be no sickness, no insane asylums, no cursing or swearing and no fear or grief or sorrow. (5) It will be a splendid life in which "you will be clothed in silk, interwoven with gold, and eat the best of food you desire", (6) an idyllic world in which peace, joy and happiness will have no end. (7) With the destruction of the world of the White devils, the nature of people will also change, making it impossible for them to sin. (8) This will mean a return to the original, righteous nature of the divine Blacks among whom, according to Elijah Muhammad, evil was never practiced before the making of the evil world by Yakub. (9) But even before the full-fledged advent of the Hereafter, the righteous may obtain a good portion of these wonderful things. As soon as they accept the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, they begin to enjoy-though partially-some of the fruits of the "Resurrection" and their health and material conditions improve. (10)

(1) Elijah Muhammad in Muhammad Speaks, vol. 2, no. 3, October 31, 1962. (2) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 41; Message, op. cit., p. 303. (3) Loc. cit. (4) Muhammad Speaks, vol. 2, no. 3, October 31, 1962. (5) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 41. (6) Ibid., p. 40. (7) Ibid., p. 41. (8) Saviour, op. cit., p. 81. (9) Ibid., p. 120. For Yakub see section IV below.

(10) Udom, op. cit., pp. 137-138.

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Looking at the "Nation of Islam's" doctrine of the Hereafter, one is also impressed that its rationale is quite different from the Islamic counterpart. In Islam, the Hereafter represents God's justice, which assumes the form of punishing the wicked and rewarding the good for their deeds. In the "Nation of Islam's" doctrine, the Hereafter seems mainly geared to purging the Blackman of the impurity that has contaminated him as a result of his mixing with the Whites, and to restoring him to his former position of exclusive dominance. Moreover, being preceded by the destruction of the White race-and this is the meaning of "judgment"-the Hereafter ensures purging the earth as well as the Original Man of evil since evil has come to dominate the earth, and has also crept into the nature of the Original Man because of his 6000 years of contact with the man of sin. (1) For even though the Blackman is good, says Elijah Muhammad, he is amenable to be influenced by evil guides. (2) But as soon as he is taken away from the evil guide and put under his own good guide, he will follow the latter because by nature he loves goodness. This is why the righteous must be separated from the unrighteous (i.e. Blacks and Whites). (3) "Judgment" is, therefore, a process of purging the "originals" of the contamination they have acquired as a result of their association with, and in fact dominance by the evil Whites, and thereby preparing them for their proper role in the Hereafter as the perpetual, righteous rulers of the earth.

Reverting to the Islamic doctrine of the Hereafter, it should be recalled that the idea of the Hereafter serves as a major motive force of morality. A Muslim is taught to be righteous in order to earn the good pleasure of his Creator and receive His reward mainly in the after-world. This is the predominant sanction for moral discipline in the life of Muslims. As far as moral conduct is concerned, the "Nation of Islam" has had,

(1) "Thus, it is felt that the black man needs rebirth in order to get rid of that wicked material in the very essence of the sperm of the Black Man". Saviour, op. cit., p. 81.

(2) Ibid., pp. 107 f. See also Fall of America, op. cit., p. 175. (3) Saviour, op. cit., pp. 107 f.

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on the whole, a creditable record. The lives of many habitual criminals, hustlers, alcoholics, and dope addicts have undergone tremendous change as a result of their joining that movement. (1) It is significant, however, that this morality has no other worldly foundation. One is taught to be good either because being good is advantageous and prudent from a personal point of view, or because it is part of the Blackman's nature which he ought to retrieve, or because it is conducive to the common good of the Black nation. (2) The restrictions against eating certain foods, for instance, are supported on the ground that they are slow deaths to those who eat them. (8) Likewise, the hog is considered "filthy", "a poison food", never intended to be eaten except by the White race. (4) In short, the axis around which the morality of the "Nation of Islam" revolves is the discovery of the Blackman's identity and community, and a concern for a good and wholesome earthly life consistent with the divine status of the Blackman, rather than any consideration of reward or punishment in after-life, which to them, after all, is nothing but a fantasy.

IV

It would be evident from the foregoing pages that the

polarization of the American society into Whites and Blacks, and the misery and indignity to which the latter have been

subjected are the main concerns of the "Nation of Islam", the raison d'8tre of their movement. This racecentredness is conspicuous, as we have seen, in all their religious concepts.

(1) This achievement of the "Nation of Islam" in this field is acknowledg6d by all observers. For an eloquent tribute for this achievement see James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time (New York, Dial, 1963), pp. 64 f. See also the perceptive remark of Eric Hoffer cited by Lincoln, op. cit., p. 85.

(2) Cf. Lincoln's observation (ibid., p. 83): "Since they do not look forward to an after life, this morality is not related to any doctrine of salvation. It is, quite simply, the style of living appropriate to a divine black man in his capacity as true ruler of the planet Earth".

(3) Ibid., p. 83. (4) Loc. cit., quoting a minister of the "Nation of Islam".

11

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Nowhere is this more conspicuous, however, than in the "hidden truth" () which Elijah Muhammad claims to have been taught by Fard and which he seeks to communicate to the Blackamericans. In the words of Elijah Muhammad, Fard taught him "... the knowledge of ourselves, of God, and the devil..., the history of the moon, the history of the two

nations, black and white... He gave the exact birth of the white race, the name of their God who made them and how ... '.(2) This "hidden truth" has been the basic myth of the "Nation of Islam" and the key to the understanding of its fundamental doctrines and of their inter-relationship. It seems to play no less significant a role in their doctrine than the doctrine of original sin in Christianity. (3) In the foregoing pages we have occasionally referred to certain aspects of it and would now like to elucidate it further.

The point of departure of the "Nation of Islam's" theology is the proposition that white and black humanities do not come from the same God. (4) Of these, the Black Nation is from the "God of Righteousness", a member of the family, and direct descendant of the Creator who made the Heavens and the Earth. (5) Being self-created, all members of the Black Nation are originals, (6) are divine and righteous by nature, (7)

and are the true owners of the earth. (8) The Blacks are the "first and the last", and have no beginning and no ending. (9) The record of the Black man, as far as it has been kept, is claimed to go back to 78 trillion years. (10) In the beginning the earth and the moon constituted one planet, and that planet was called moon. Then some 66 trillion years ago a great

(1) Allusion to the title of a chapter in Elijah Muhammad's recent book, Saviour, op. cit.

(2) Message, op. cit., pp. 16 f. (3) Cf. Lomax, op. cit., p. 63. (4) Saviour, op. cit., p. 78, and often elsewhere. See also pp. 155 ff. above. (5) Ibid., p. 101. (6) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 14. (7) Ibid., pp. 15 f., and often elsewhere. (8) Saviour, op. cit., p. 100; Message, op. cit., p. 77, etc. (9) Saviour, op. cit., p. 119, p. 35, etc.

(10) Ibid., p. 96.

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ASPECTS OF BLACK MUSLIM TIIEOLOGY

explosion took place and separated the earth from the moon. (1) This was done, according to Elijah Muhammad, "by one of our scientists, God, who wanted people to speak one language..." Being unable to bring this about, He decided to kill us by destroying our planet, but still He failed. We were lucky to be on this part, earth, which did not lose water in the mightly blasting away of the part called moon". (2) Along with this explosion, the "originals" came to the earth; and out of them, the members of the tribe of Shabazz discovered the best parts to live in viz. the Nile Valley of Egypt and the Holy City of Mecca. (3) Being divine and absolutely righteous, the Blackmen lived for a long time a life absolutely free from all evils. This Garden of Eden disappeared about 6000 years ago when an eccentric Black God-Scientist made an evil world. (4)

During this long period of their history, the "originals" created great civilizations and empires, and all this was long before the Whites lived in jungles, walked on all fours, and climbed the trees. (5) Long before the modern times, the Blacks had knowledge of earth's revolution, circulation of blood, and the existence of microbes, (6) and at least about seven thousand years ago, some Black scientsits were using microscopes to study the "human germs". (7)

The Whites, on the contrary, are not from the God of Righteousness, are not "originals", and have a very short history-6000 years as against 66 trillion years of the "originals" on the earth. They lack the power to create anything. (8) They neither had any part in creating the heavens and the earth, (9) nor did they even create themselves. (10) The creation

(1) Ibid., p. 56 and Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 15.

(2) Message, op. cit., p. 31. (3) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 15; Message, op. cit., p. 31.

(4) Saviour, op. cit., pp. 120, 181 and often elsewhere.

(5) Message, op. cit., p. 119. (6) Saviour, op. cit., p. 16.

(7) Message, op. cit., p.112. (8) Saviour, op. cit., p. 42. (9) Ibid., p. 104.

(10) Ibid., pp. 53 and 58; Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 25.

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of the White race is the work of a Black scientist-a Black god-called Mr. Yakub who rebelled against "Allah". He created a race of white man or devils with a view to destroy the righteous world of "Allah" and create a world of sin. (1)

The following is a paraphrased account of the genesis of the White race and the role of the so-called Mr. Yakub which has been culled out from authoritative writings of the "Nation of Islam". It is being presented at some length because of its important position in the theological structure of the "Nation of Islam" and because it faithfully mirrors its motivating spirit.

Elijah Muhammad states that Mr. Yakub, the father of the White race, was born approximately 6600 years ago some twenty miles away from Mecca and began going to school at the age of four. He had the head of an unusual size and hence was called "big-headed scientist". (2) When Mr. Yakub was playing with two pieces of steel, he noticed the magnetic power in steel and told his uncle that he would make a people who would rule them. (3) Later, while studying the germ of the Black man under microscope, he saw two people in him: one black, the other brown. He separated the two and grafted the brown germ into its last state, which would be white. With his wosdom he could make the white-which he discovered was the weaker of the black germ-to rule the black nation for a time until a greater one than Yakub was born. (4)

Mr. Yakub, according to Elijah Muhammad, won a large number of converts in order to begin grafting his new race of people. When the mischief of his converts became known to the people of Holy Mecca, Mr. Yakub and his followers were deported to an island in the Aegean Sea. In that island,

(1) See especially Message, op. cil., pp. 110 ff., aiid often elsewhere in the writings of Elijah Muhammad. A very good summary is found in Malcolm X, op. cit., chap. 10, especially pp. 164-183.

(2) Message, op. cit., p. 110. It is important to point that the name of Adam, according to Elijah Muhammad, was Yakub and he was the father of the White race-and of the White race alone. See The Fall of America, p. 47, and elsewhere in his writings.

(3) Message, op. cit., p. 112. (4) Loc. cit.

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Mr. Yakub enforced very strict birthcontrol regulations as a result of which, after 600 years, there came into being an all-pale white race of people, devils with really blue eyes. (1) These devils had been created for the purpose of ruling over the world of 6000 years (a term which, incidentally, expired in 1914), (2) and hence were taught every trick that would help them in ruling the Black nation. (3)

In the island, no good was taught to them. Rather, they were made liars and murderers by nature. (4) When they managed to go back to the Holy City, their mischief was detected, and the King ordered that they be driven out, with just an apron to hide their nakedness: "Send a caravan, armed with rifles, to keep the devils going westward-let them go into the hills of West Asia, the place they call Europe". (5)

In Europe they were without anything to start civilization and hence became savages. They walked on hands and feet like animals and learned to climb trees. Some of them tried to graft back into the black nation. A few were lucky enough to make a start, and got as far as gorilla. In fact, all of the monkey family are from this 2,000 year history of the White race in Europe. (6)

Thus, the Blacks and Whites are fundamentally different. Their ancestries are different, and so are their natures. (7) The former are inherently righteous and divine, whereas the latter are devils. For Elijah Muhammad no words seem strong enough to characterize the wicked nature of the white man: "the human beast-the serpent, the dragon, the devil, and satan-all mean one and the same; the people and race known as the White or Caucasian race, sometimes called the European race". (8) All this is because the father of the

(l) Ibid., p. 117. (2) Ibid., pp. 133-116. (3) Saviour, op. cit., p. 71. (4) Message, op. cit., p. 117. (5) Ibid., p. 117. (6) Ibid., p. 119. (7) Saviour, op. cit., pp. 119 f. 125, etc. (8) Elijah Muhammad in Pittsburg Courier, December 13, 1958 cited by Lincoln,

op. cit., p. 79.

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Whites, Mr. Yakub had perverted their nature and made them unrighteous in order that they might oppose the world of righteousness. (1) Hence, Elijah Muhammad does not even consider it necessary to grumble at the allegedly inherent and incurable unrighteousness of the White man, for the latter is not responsible for his own nature, nor can he change it. (2)

The only possible way to make righteous people out of the Whites, according to Elijah Muhammad, is to graft them back into the Black nation. (3) And since that is impossible, Elijah Muhammad has held the opinion that the Whites could never accept Islam. (4) In some of his later writings, Elijah Muhammad seems to have relented somewhat towards the Whites since occasionally he does acknowledge that a number of Whites were Muslims, and were even sincere in their faith. (5)

Having acknowledged that, Elijah Muhammad is quick to point out that the White Muslims were Muslims by faith alone, not by nature. (6) Referring to these White Muslims Elijah Muhammad says: "They believe in righteousness and have tried, and are still trying to practice the life of the righteous Muslims". (7) lie even assures them that they would be rewarded for whatever good they do, and even enter the Hereafter. This Hereafter, however, would not be the same Hereafter which has been promised to the Lost-Found Black People, who will take on a new birth and will live for ever. (8)

Since the White race is "not a created people, it is a made people"(9) having been made of the weak germ of the "originals" (10)-the Whites are inherently inferior to the original Blacks-spiritually, morally, and even physically. (11)

(1) Saviour, op. cit., p. 133, and often elsewhere. (2) Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 25; Saviour, op. cit., p. 58, etc. (3) Message, op. cit., p. 116; Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 50. (4) Loc. cit. (5) Saviour, op. cit., pp. 3 and 89 ff. Cf. Message, pp. 131 f. (6) Saviour, op. cit., p. 89. (7) Ibid., p. 89. (8) Loc. cit. (9) Saviour, op. cit., p. 89.

(10) Message, op. cit., pp. 112 ff., Supreme Wisdom, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 112, etc. (11) This is a common theme of the writings of the leaders of the "Nation of

Islam" and is scattered throughout their books and magazines. For a rather starting statment on this question see the statement of Minister Jame 3 X (cited

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If that is the case, why is it that the White man is dominant in the world today? The explanation is that the very purpose of the "making" of the White man was to let out the world to him for rule. It is for this reason that Mr. Yakub taught the White man all the tricks needed to dominate the world. (1) On the other hand, the Black men were put to sleep and the Black scientists were not allowed to interfere so that the White man should be able to fulfil his term of 6000 years of rule without any let or hindrance. (2) It was also determined that at the expiry of this term-and this took place in 1914- the mightiest Black god should appear and destroy the White man's world of unrighteousness, and thereby restore the Black man to his right position. This mighty god, in the view of the "Nation of Islam", is Fard and his appearance in North America means the onset of Resurrection.

In short, the "hidden truth" of the "Nation of Islam" assigns a cosmic significance to the racial bifurcation of mankind. It provides grounds for infusing the Blacks with self-esteem, and even a strong feeling of inherent superiority. It seeks to explain the existence and predominance of evil, and weaves a demonology around the White race. At the same time, it inspires the Blacks with robust optimism by assuring them that a stronger God than Mr. Yakub has already been born, and hence their millenium is just around the corner.

V

It is evident from the above that so far as the substance of the Black Muslim religious doctrines is concerned, hardly anything has been derived from Islam. Strange though it is, the Black Muslim theology seems to bear a greater degree of

by Udom, op. cit., p. 135), viz., that "the white man's mental power is less than that of the black man-he has only six ounces of brain and the Original Man has seven-and-a-half ounces... The white man's physical power is one-third less than that of the black man".

(1) Saviour, op. cit., p. 71. (2) Ibid., pp. 98 and 123.

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resemblance with both Judaism and Christianity (especially Christianity) than Islam. (1) This resemblance does not detract from the fact that the Black Muslims disavow both the religious traditions, and even display a strong hostility towards them. (2)

From an historical point of view, however, it would be futile to look to any of the major world religions-Judaism,Christianity and Islam-as possible sources of the Black Muslim doctrines. The reservoir on which the Black Muslims have drawn is the religious tradition of the Blacks, especially the ideas and attitudes prevalent among them during the first decades of this century. 'The Black cults and sects (especially the Moorish Science Temple of Noble Drew Ali and, to a lesser degree, the relatively secularly oriented movement of Marcus Garvey) which arose in the northern urban centres of America during the second and third decades of the present century were the direct forerunners of this movement. The social, economic and political problems facing the Blacks not only coloured the Black Muslim religious doctrines, but also lent them an existential relevance and immediacy.

Since the last quarter of the eighteenth century, the Black church has been a major factor in the communal life of Blackamericans. As an agent of social and political action, it has been, on the whole, conservative. Its main significance seems to lie in the fact that it was the only institution which provided the Blacks some opportunity for self-expression and an exclusively Black atmosphere where they could feel relatively free and at home. The functionaries of the church also played the important role of intermediaries between the White establish- ment and the Blacks. Around the first world war period, the traditional Black church seemed unable to satisfy the needs of an appreciable segment of Blackamericans in the urban

(1) See above p. 146 and n. 4 therein. (2) See Elijah Muhammad, Our Saviour Has Arrived, op. cit., pp. 2, 17 f., 47 f.,

49, 76, 166, 181, etc. For attitude to Judaism see Lincoln, op. cit., especially pp. 137 f., and 176 f. For attitude to Christianity see W. Marshall, "Education in the Nation of Islam during the Leadership of Elijah Muhammad 1935-1975", Ph. D. dissertation, Loyola University of Chicago, 1976, pp. 31-35.

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North. These were mainly migrants from a relatively settled, stable, stationary, and rural milieu of the South and were trying to rehabilitate themselves in the dynamic, chaotic, fast-moving, problem-ridden urban society of the Northern metropolitan cities. The dislocations caused by the migration, the anxieties and stresses, and the hopes and frustrations experienced by them in their quest for a new, wholesome life proved to be the breeding ground for a number of millenial- messianic Black cults, centering around their charismatic founders. (1)

We have seen that the Black Muslims believe that God is man, is black, and is incarnated in Fard. They also believe Elijah Muhammad to be the Messenger of Allah. We have also noted that the Black Muslim eschatology consists of a set of unfamiliar ideas such as the separation between the Whites and Blacks, the destruction of the former and the restoration of the latter to perpetual rule on the earth. They also have a peculiar demonology-the White man is inherently devil, and hence incorrigbly corrupt and evil; by contrast, the Black man is inherently righteous, Muslim, and divine.

Muslims who look at these religious doctrines from their religious perspective are prone to be scandalized by them, especially by statements claiming divinity for W. D. Fard and messengership for Elijah Muhammad. Were such statements to be seen in the context of the Black cults of the time, however, they would make some sense. For esoteric claims such as these had already become a well-established tradition among the Black cults. It would be illuminating to look at some of these doctrines in the context of the Black cults of the time to explore their possible sources. The belief that Fard was God's incarnation was, in any case, not as outlandish

(1) The best study on the subject is Arthur Huff Fauset, Black Gods of the

Metropolis: Negro Religious Cults in the Urban North, second paperback edition with a new foreword by John Swzed, (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975). See also A. Bontemps and J. Conroy, Any Place But Here, (New York, Hill and Wang, 1956). For a study devoted esclusively to one of these charismatic leaders see Sara Harris, Father Divine: The Holy Husband, (New York, Doubleday, 1953).

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in a Christian society as it is in a Muslim one. Moreover, around the same time, claims of divinity had been made and accepted. Two best known examples are those of Father Divine and Daddy Grace. (1) Likewise, the claim to be a prophet or messenger of God was also not unprecedented. In fact, the same spirit which was evident in the claims for divinity was implicit in the claims of prophethood. A little before the appearance of Fard, Noble Drew Ali had been accepted by his followers as a prophet. Another religious preacher named Cherry was also considered a prophet and claimed to have received his mantle directly from God. Like- wise, Bishop Ida Robinson claimed to have been ordained by God. (2)

The Black Muslim denial of after-life in the generally understood sense of the term also appears highly shocking to Muslims. In its historical context, it should be viewed in the background of the excessive other-worldliness of the Christian church, including the Negro church, in the twentieth century America. It was not uncommon to look upon this excessive emphasis on the after-world as a means to divert the attention of the Blacks from their sordid state of existence. The emphatic promise of a pie in the heaven implied that the Blacks should be satisfied with their raw, unbuttered bread on earth. (3) As for Black Muslim demonology, it was a very

(1) See Fauset, Black Gods of the Metropolis, op. cit., chapter 7. (2) Ibid. One possible source of the doctrine that Elijah Muhammad was

a prophet/messenger of Allah could be the Qadiyani sect which denied the finality of the prophethood of Muhammad (peace be on him). This sect had established itself in the U.S.A. during the second decade of the present century. See M. C. Holmes, "Islam in America", The Moslem World, vol. 16 (1926), pp. 262-266; and G. H. Bousquet, "Moslems in the United States", The Moslem World, vol. 25 (1935), pp. 40-41, see esp. pp. 41-43 The influence of the Qadiyfnis on Elijah Muhammad has so far not been studied carefully. There are several indications of such a relationship, however, which, if studied, might shed significant light on the history of the "Nation". See also the statement of Wallace Muhammad cited in n. 1, p. 139 above.

(3) See Myrdal, op. cit., pp. 861 f. and pp. 873 f., see especially this stgnificant quotations from Charles S. Johnson and Booker T. Washington on pp. 861 f. and 874 respectively. The Black Muslim writings are also replete with this idea. See, for instance, Message to the Blackman, op. cit., p. 304.

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transparent counter-offensive to the well-entrenched White racist doctrines. The assertions that the White man is devil and the Black man, divine should be viewed in the context of the common belief in White America that the Negro is biologically deficient, that he is a born savage, that he has no glorious past to boast of, and that as the descendant of Ham, he is under the unending curse of God. (1)

Whatever be the actual sources of the religious doctrines of the Black Muslims, the success of the movement seemed to lie in its capacity to satisfy some of the most deep-felt urges of a considerable segment of the Blackamericans of the urban North. These doctrines and their identification with Islam only shows that a good number of Blacks had then begun their quest for salvation beyond the confines of the formal Christian church and the accepted value structure of the American society. Paradoxically enough, there seem reasons to believe that the Black Muslims were initially able to attract many people because of the dual fact that their doctrines were derived from their immediate religio-cultural milieu rather than from Islam, and that those doctrines were designated as "Islam". The contents of the doctrines being not too foreign to the audience presumably weakened the resistance to their acceptance. On the other hand, identification with Islam was no minor an attraction. The latter conferred upon the converts a new, imposing identity which filled the vacuum created by the rejection of the White world and Christianty. It inspired the Black Muslims with the feeling that they were affiliated to a major world religion; were members of a major world community of faith; were co-sharers of a great cultural and civilizational tradition.

With the passage of time an increasing number of Blackameri- cans have tended to reject the American society in quite a

(1) For these White racist doctrines see Myrdal, op. cit., pp. 83 ff., Louis S. Snyder, The Idea of Racialism, Anvil Paperbacks, (New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold 1962) chapter 7, see especially pp. 70 f. See also John Griffin, Black Like Me, (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1961), and James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time, op. cit.; Go Tell it on th Mountain (New York, Alfred Knopf, 1965); Nobody Knows My Name (New York, Dial, 1961).

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radical way. This has naturally stimulated the Blacks to look for a new identity and a fresh meaning and purpose in their lives. Hence the call of the Black Muslims has found a resonant chord in the hearts of an increasing number of Blackmericans. The demonology of the Black Muslims might be crude, and their view of God unsophisticated, and on the whole, unconvincing. And yet those doctrines served a major purpose: they created a new sense of belonging and enabled the converts to look towards the future with serene self-confidence.

The paradox to which we have hinted above is evident from the diverse attitudes of Elijah Muhammad himself. He seemed to have been at once drawn towards two different poles. On the one hand, he stressed his identification with the Muslims and called upon his people to embrace Islam. He made it a point to publicize his relations with Muslim dignitaries abroad. The letters or cables sent to him by Muslim heads of states or distinguished religious leaders of the Muslim countries were greatly publicized. All this enhanced the position and prestige of Elijah Muhammad among the Blacks. At the same time, it also created among the Black Muslims a sense of belonging to the Muslim ummah (even though it was not as clear and strong as their sense of belonging to the "Nation" of Islam). On the other hand, Elijah Muhammad was exceedingly eager to retain the separate entity of his group, an entity separate even from the "Muslims of the East", as he called them. It is obvious that had his doctrines been exactly identical with Islam, it would have been impossible for him to retain this distinct entity. In order to ensure this distinctness, Elijah Muhammad stressed the unique position of the Blacks and also took great pains to keep his followers insulated from all extraneous influences, especially from the influence of the "Muslims of the East".

The ambivalence of Elijah Muhammad naturally landed him into a dilemma. The desire to identify with Muslims required some relaxation of restrictions, of allowing at least some members of the "Nation" to be exposed to Muslims. It was presumably this motive which made Elijah Muhammad send

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one of his sons to study Islam in Cairo. For the same reason he had also sent Malcolm X in 1960 as his envoy to a number of Muslim countries. Moreover, Elijah Muhammad himself had enjoyed the friendship of a number of Muslims and had availed himself of the services of several of them as teachers, journalists, physicians, etc., which meant that the insulation was not total. It was quite natural that as soon as his followers were exposed to Muslims, they would notice the difference between their own "Islam" and that of Muslims all over the world, including America itself. With the passage of time, in practice total insulation became increasingly difficult. The large influx of Muslims in America from the East and the emergence of active Islamic organizations among them rendered the objective of Elijah Muhammad growingly unfeasible. The conversion of two sons of Elijah Muhammad to "orthodox" Islam long before his death was symptomatic. The case of Malcolm X is a bit different, and yet instructive. Initially he broke away from the movement for a complex of reasons, and attraction to "orthodox" Islam was not one of them. After this dissociation, however, it was his exposure to Muslims during the Hajj of 1964 that made him embrace Islam and become its enthusiastic spokesman and preacher. The personal charisma and eloquence of Malcolm X had a major impact on Blackamericans and led in the sixties and subsequently to the popularity of the "Sunni Islam". (1) The assassination of Malcolm X in 1965 provided a temporary set-black, but could not for long avert the tide of "Sunni Islam". Among the active proponents of "Sunni Islam" are many former followers of Elijah Muhammad.

In the case of many, therefore, the "Nation of Islam" proved a stepping-stone to full identification with Islam. The ground for this had been thus prepared by Elijah Muhammad himself. For although his doctrines had hardly anything to do with

(1) The terms "Sunni Islam" and "Sunni Muslims" have been used by groups of Black converts to Islam during the sixties and seventies to distinguish themselves from the "Black Muslims", i.e., the followers of Elijah Muhammad. These terms, in the American context, were not used to distinguish them from the Shl'ah.

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Islam, Elijah Muhammad had insisted on their being Islamic, thereby implying the normativeness of Islam. It is not strange that the major argument with which Wallace Muhammad is today confronting his ideological opponents who seek a return to the doctrines of his father is that the latter had stressed identification with all Muslims. Any doctrine which is contrary to the beliefs of all Muslims, argues Wallace Muhammad, is therefore inauthentic and thus unacceptable. (1)

It would be interesting to attempt to examine how the "Nation of Islam" fits into the framework of Islamic heresiology. The doctrinal differences between Islam and the "Nation of Islam" (especially during the years 1934-1974) are well-known, and we too have hinted at them earlier. This problem, therefore, need not concern us here. We would rather glance at this phenomenon from an historical and sociological perspective. During its historical career, as is well-known, a large number of sects arose from the Islamic body-politic. Some of these sects deviated from the accepted doctrines of Islam in such a fundamental manner and adopted such a hostile posture that they ceased to have any relationship whatsoever with the main body of Islam (e.g. Baha'ism, Qadiyanism). There are other sects which remained on the fringe (e.g. certain extremist groups among the Shi'ah and the Khawarij). There are still other sects within the Muslim body politic (e.g. the moderate Shi'ah and Khawarij) and are considered an integral part of the ummah.

In this spectrum where ought one to place the "Nation of Islam"? The question is not an easy one to answer for indeed the "Nation of Islam" is, in many respects, quite unique and does not entirely fall into the ordinary categories of the sects mentioned above. What basically marks out this "heresy" from the others is that it arose in a non-Muslim rather than a Muslim milieu. Hence, its spread and expansion did not take place at the expense of Islam. Its converts came, instead, from the fold of Blackamerican Christianity.

(1) See "The Appeal of Eman Wallace D. Muhammad to Minister Louis Farrakhan", Bilalian News, April 28, 1978.

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On the other hand, although this group did not introduce the true Islamic doctrines, it was instrumental in popularizing the name of Islam, in fostering pride in Islamic identity, and also served, in the case of many Blacks, as a transitory stage in their journey to Islam. Not only that, since 1975 when Wallace D. Muhammad succeeded his father as the head of the movement, the doctrines of the "Nation of Islam" (which has been renamed as the World Community of Al-Islam in the West; abbreviated as W.C.I.W.) have been changing quite speedily. Despite the deference shown to Elijah Muhammad, the previous doctrines of the "Nation of Islam" on the questions discussed in this paper have gradually been discarded in favour of Islamic doctrines. (1) Since the days of Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad when this group committed itself to the name of Islam along with adopting certain patterns of Islamic behaviour (e.g., in dress, eating, etc.), it has come a long way towards identification with Islamic doctrines. That nominal commit- ment to Islam had an inexorable logic which had been missed by many an observer, and which, in combination with certain other factors, has pushed the group to its present doctrinal orientation.

It is obvious that the culmination of the process of change introduced by Wallace D. Muhammad will take time and will not be easy. It is bound to be, and indeed it has already been, challenged and opposed by many followers of Elijah Muhammad. Already quite a number of such persons have broken away from the W.C.I.W. since the doctrinal transition

(1) Despite the marked advance towards orthodox Islamic doctrines, the bona fides of the W.C.I.W. continue to be suspect in the eyes of some Muslims, mostly Blackamerican "Sunni" Muslims. This attitude is to be understood, to a large extent, in the context of the longstanding suspicion and hostility between the Blackamerican "Sunni Muslim" groups and the "Nation of Islam" which had led in the past of several ugly incidents of violence. The Blackamerican "Sunni" Muslims are critical of the symbolic and mystical aspects of the teachings of Wallace D. Muhammad and his occasional divergence from certain Islamic doctrines such as his denial of the immaculate birth of Jesus. They are also critical of his claim to be mujaddid. The number of these critics, however, seems to be on the decrease and their criticism is becoming less strident as the W.C.I.W. is declaring its break with its past in unmistakable terms.

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under the new leader-termed by him as the "Second Resurrection"-is too sharply in conflict with their conceptions. The most notable among such persons is Louis Farrakhan, for long the National Spokesman of Elijah Muhammad. He and a few others are becoming the rallying-points of opposition to Wallace Muhammad's doctrinal change. Despite this opposition a vast body of the former "Nation of Islam" has stayed with Wallace D. Muhammad and has greeted the new teachings with joy and enthusiasm, and many even with a feeling of liberation. Keeping in view the extent of doctrinal change that has been introduced, the opposition to Wallace D. Muhammad seems much less fierce than what one might have anticipated. In fact the observers of the movement have watched in wonder and excitement the skill and boldness with which the new leader has proceeded with the task of doctrinal re-orientation. Though his doctrines are quite different from those of Elijah Muhammad, they are not unmixed with mystical and symbolic trappings and, for an outsider at least, tantalizing paradoxes. In any case, the "Second Resurrection" of the "lost-found Muslims in America" has led, during the short span of four years, to the emergence of a body of ideas which constitutes a major factor in shaping the religious outlook of the members of the World Community of al-Islam in the West and also serves as the rationale of the change that Wallace D. Muhammad seeks to bring about. This new phase of the movement calls for a separate study which will form part of a larger work that we hope to complete shortly.

Zafar Ishaq ANSARI

(Dhahran, Saudi Arabia)

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Aspects of Black Muslim Theology - IlmGate