Asian Values and the Asia Pacific Community: Shared Interests and Common Concerns

Politics amp Policy

Volume 35 No 1 (2007) 102-135 Published by Blackwell Publishing Inccopy The Policy Studies Organization All rights reserved

Asian Values and the Asia Pacific Community Shared Interests and Common Concerns

1

Stephen Levine

Victoria University of Wellington

This article is intended as a further contribution to discussionsconcerning the role if any of ldquoAsian Valuesrdquo in the political economicand security relationships of nation-states in the Asia Pacific regionMore specifically this article seeks to identify shared features of theserelationships the extent to which these can be characterized assufficiently significant as to constitute a form of ldquocommunityrdquo and theextent to which these relationships and such a community are influencedin any way by values distinctively ldquoAsianrdquo in character

A

ny group of states seeking to cooperate does so at least initiallyout of perceived common interests A view is formed that it will beadvantageous to work together for common purposes These may atthe outset be limited in scope and intensity But if the areas ofcooperation begin to broaden and deepen so that what might be calledldquohabits of cooperationrdquo begin to take hold then it can be said that anetwork of contact and collaboration begins to emerge Whether or notthere is any ldquoend staterdquo any goal established when processes ofcooperation begin to take hold we can say that a process of communitybuilding is at work

2

This in a sense summarizes the process of community-buildingmdashand ultimately nation-buildingmdashthat occurred when the separatecolonies freed through a revolutionary war of independence from theBritish emerged first as separate (and sovereign) states to becomeover time self-consciously part of a new entity the United States ofAmerica The process of community-building encompassed securityarrangements economic ties travel and communications networks andthe development of political institutions

3

All these elements provedcrucial to the process of community-building but perhaps none couldhave endured without the emergence of a shared set of values For thepurposes of brevity we generally describe these values and thecommitments and ideas they represent as ldquodemocracyrdquo

Blackwell Publishing LtdOxford UK and Malden USAPOLPPolitics amp Policy1555-56232007 by the Policy Studies Organization All rights reserved 2007351102135Original Articles

Asian

Values and the Asia Pacific CommunityLevine

Levine Asian Values and the Asia Pacific Community

103

A comparable process of community-building has of course beenevident in Europe since the Second World War

4

The promotion ofeconomic ties among a small group of European countriesmdashinitiallyFrance Italy West Germany Belgium The Netherlands andLuxembourgmdashhas continued to expand to encompass an ever-growingarray of economic financial legal judicial legislative and political tiesA common foreign policy and a commitment to collective defensearrangements are further expressions of both shared interests andcommon concerns

The attractiveness of the European experiment in community-building has brought new adherents to its institutions The originalgroup of six nations has grown in stages to 25 the most recentexpansion having come about as a result of the end of the Cold Warand the collapse of Soviet hegemony (and the Soviet Union itself) overthe nations of central and eastern Europe and over the Baltic states(Latvia Lithuania and Estonia) The deepening of European unity hasled to the very concept of transnational European cooperation beingsuccessively renamed from the ldquoCommon Marketrdquo to the EuropeanEconomic Community (EEC) was one step from the EEC to theEuropean Union (EU) was another Each change of name has haddeep symbolic significance reflecting greater success more ambitiouscommitments and a larger sense of shared purpose

Europersquos citizens now elect representatives to a EuropeanParliament There are EU passports documents emblematic of amaturing political community Moreover there is a common currencywith countries surrendering the very symbols of sovereignty thehistorical reminders of independent nationhood that were once sovisibly a part of their coinage and bank notes More recently andperhaps inevitably the EU partner states have committed themselvesto a constitutionmdashreplacing the succession of treaties that formerlybound them togethermdashsuggesting yet again that by whatever name anembryonic ldquoUnited States of Europerdquo has begun to be born

As with all such documents the debate over the EU constitutionhas had two elements the first structural or institutional with differentstates seeking arrangements (for voting rights and representation) theyconsider most useful for their own interests the second ideological withdifferent points of view being expressed concerning the sort of wordsto be used to describe this evolving union

104

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1

ldquoShared Interestsrdquo and ldquoShared Valuesrdquo

As in the United States so too in the European Union the successof arrangements designed to enhance ldquoshared interestsrdquo depends tosome degree on the extent to which the participants are able to identifyldquoshared valuesrdquo In US history the ldquoUnited Statesrdquo very nearly becamethe ldquountied statesrdquomdashthe union very nearly coming unravelledmdashas aresult of a failure to identify articulate and defend common values andpurposes In the end the union was preserved because one set of valueswas able to triumph over another but not before a terrible civil war hadbeen fought to determine which set of values was to prevail

In Europe in a sense the struggle over values was carried out priorto the initiation of the peaceful and democratic European experimentwith unity Having exhausted themselves with warfaremdashEurope itselfbecoming a setting for bloodshed and barbarism on an unprecedentedscalemdashthe Europeans (with outside encouragement) decided onanother approach Processes of unity were intended to deter futureconflict and thus far it has worked giving the nations of Europebelonging to the Union the longest period of peace the region has everknown

The values to which the European Union is committed are also notdifficult to discern They are unity over division peace over conflictdemocracy over fascism and tyranny The recent debate over aconstitution in the end focused not on these but rather on whether thevision of a multicultural and tolerant Europe ought to be compromisedby a founding document committing the nascent political communityor state to an exclusively Christian civilizational heritage Wisely thisretrograde step was resisted It would of course have denigrated thecontribution to Europe that has been made and may well be made inthe future by peoples of other faiths (Jews Muslims Hindus Buddhistsand others) as well as by those with no religious faith at all It wouldalso have sent a message to at least one prospective member countryTurkey that its own eventual membership and its place in Europe wasaltogether unwelcome

5

The political community established in North America that hassurvived now for over 200 years has at its roots certain valuecommitments individualism enterprise constitutionalism humanrights tolerance and freedom These values have not always been


105

respected by the US public or by its policy makers but they remaincentral to the US identity They represent elements of what might becalledmdashhas been calledmdashldquothe American dreamrdquo

The political community established in Europe has strengtheneditself with every passing year over more than five decades and hascommitted itself to comparable values Challenging a history ofcollective violence and seeking to overcome it the nations of Europehave dedicated themselves to humanist principles seeking to freethemselves and their peoples from cycles of hatred and aggression Herein our time we have a working ldquopeace processrdquo that seems to be movingmore and more nations forward in pursuit of an ever-growing agendaof shared objectives

The rejection by the European Union of a constitution that wouldhave enshrined ldquoChristian valuesrdquo as the basis for their twenty-firstcentury political experiment implies a rejection of the proposition thatthere are in fact distinctive political values peculiar to Europe Thiswas as indicated an appropriate response The values of politicalcooperation presently at work in Europe are not so different from thevalues that formed the United States or for that matter the values ofthe United Nations (UN) at its inception as set out in that organizationrsquosCharter (adopted in 1945)

6

Forms of Partnership and Cooperation in Asia

The example of Europe moving ever closer toward union and everfurther from hatred and intolerance fanaticism and war could not butbe appealing to nations elsewhere In Asia too the aftermath of theSecond World War could not but have brought unprecedented wreckageto belief systems as well as to buildings The postwar period brought anew constitution to Japan for instance enshrining a set of valuesdifferent from what had been in place until that time Elsewhere inAsia nationalist struggles for independence and revolutionary strugglesfor freedom also culminated in new political arrangements withcommitments to values at times very different from traditional(precolonial) as well as colonial pasts

The subsequent example of European economic and securitycooperation has also been a challenge to Asian political leaders Withindependence achieved and sovereignty regained Asian states have

106

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Vol 35 No 1

sought renewed opportunities for economic development and peacefulcooperation The result has been a succession of efforts to develop agreater sense of community and at the same time to introducearrangements for regional collaboration across national borders Theresult has been the formation in Asia of its own distinctive regionalarchitecture complete with regular meetings communiqueacutesagreements and all the usual manifestations associated withintermittent gatherings of sovereign heads of government

These efforts at ldquocommunity-buildingrdquo can be evaluated accordingto a variety of criteria For the purposes of this journalrsquos theme issuethe most important element to consider is whether there has been anyattempt to organize and develop communities that have as their basis adistinctive set of valuesmdashvalues that can moreover be identified asdistinctively ldquoAsianrdquo in character There have been several importantAsian regional organizations The contribution that each has made toregional community-building will be considered as will indicationsof a role being played by ldquoAsian valuesrdquo in the work of theseorganizations

7

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

The ASEAN was founded in Bangkok in 1967 with the aim ofpromoting economic social and cultural cooperation Clearly anattempt to promote peaceful relationships and to resist communistexpansion in the region was part of the motivation for the formationof ASEAN The founding countries were Thailand SingaporeMalaysia Indonesia and the Philippines Brunei joined in January1984 In due course as a result of changes in regional relationships andmore generally it was possible for Vietnam (1995) Laos (1997) andCambodia (1999) to become members of ASEAN as well Burma (orMyanmar) has also been admitted to membership of ASEAN havingjoined (with Laos) in July 1997 As with other regional organizations(such as the 16-nation Pacific Islands Forum) a broader network ofrelationships is also maintained by ASEAN which holds regularmeetings with officials from China Japan and South Korea

With the example of the European Union in the backgroundmdashanexample of and to some extent an invitation to ldquoglobalizationrdquomdashtheASEAN group has widened its membership deepened its activities(with some modifications to the principle of ldquononinterferencerdquo in the


107

affairs of member states a weakening of the concept of state sovereigntythat has of course gone much further in Europe) and expanded itsreach Under its auspices an ASEAN ldquofree trade areardquo (AFTA) has nowbeen established Set up in April 2002 and at least initially restricted tothe original six founding members AFTA seems to be a further step intransforming the regional cooperation initiated under ASEAN into amore meaningful network of economic exchange arrangements

As might be expected the links that could previously have beendeveloped separately between European and Asian states now often takeplace under the auspices of European and Asian regional communities

8

In January 2003 for instance the 14th meeting between EU andASEAN foreign ministers was held leading to a joint declarationon the fight against international terrorism Relations between theEuropean Union and ASEAN are based on a 1980 cooperationagreement covering trade economic relations and development The2003 meeting demonstrates that over time it becomes difficult to restrictcooperative arrangements to the more specific and limited purposes inthis case economic for which they were initially intended

The ASEAN group has also been able to play an important role indeveloping a distinctive body to extend cooperation on security mattersThe ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) includes the ASEAN memberstates ASEAN ldquodialogue partnersrdquo (Australia New Zealand theUnited States Canada the European Union itself China Japan SouthKorea India and Russia) and Papua New Guinea (an ASEANldquoobserverrdquo) Mongolia North Korea (from 2000) and Pakistan (from2004) The ARF was set up in 1994 to promote discussion of securityissues In addition to annual meetings at ministerial level there are othermeetings involving officials and advisers devoted to a range of topics(including cooperative steps to be taken against transnational crime andpiracy as well as measures to promote cooperation in disaster reliefactivities)

If ASEAN can be compared to the European Union (in its earlyyears) so can the ARF be likened to the Organization for Security andCooperation in Europe Of course regional cooperation in Asia as inEurope (and elsewhere) is unlikely to be restricted to only one or evena few such groupings Indeed a genuine sense of community existswhen regional collaboration (and organization building) is not limitedto measures initiated by political elites and member governments

9

108

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1

Cooperation among private groupsmdashsports and cultural bodies forinstance or professional organizationsmdashprovides even more tangibleevidence of a growth of community although such efforts may dependfor support encouragement and eventual success on the establishmentof an appropriate economic security and political climate by regionalgovernments

The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

A broader Asian regional organization the APEC was founded in1989 Its 21 states include members of ASEAN (Brunei IndonesiaMalaysia Singapore the Philippines Thailand and Vietnam) otherAsian states and political entities (China Hong Kong Japan SouthKorea and Taipei) and states bordering on or located in the Pacific(Australia Papua New Guinea Canada the United States MexicoPeru and Chile) APEC was set up to develop a wider free trade zone(much as efforts to develop a ldquofree trade areardquo in Europe developed inthe aftermath of early successful efforts by the six founding states ofthe ldquocommon marketrdquo)

Other Asian Regional Organizations

There are other less well-known Asian regional organizationsThese include for instance the South Asia Association for RegionalCooperation (SAARC) set up in 1985 Its members are BangladeshBhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan and Sri Lanka

10

Thisregional organization is like the others committed to economiccooperation including the removal of customs barriers and theestablishment of a free trade zone The organization also has social andcultural purposes as well (Chhibber 2004) The Shanghai CooperationOrganization includes China Russia Kazakhstan KyrgyzstanTajikistan and Uzbekistan Its purpose is to promote stability in centralAsia through ldquoconfidence building measuresrdquo and through joint actionagainst international terrorism

ldquoAsian Valuesrdquo and Asian Regional Cooperation

ASEAN

There have been numerous statements emanating from ASEANand from APEC announcing these groupsrsquo aims and purposes For


109

instance the 1967 ASEAN Declaration issued in Bangkok stated thatASEAN ldquorepresents the collective will of the nations of [ASEAN] tobind themselves together in friendship and cooperation and throughjoint efforts and sacrifices secure for their peoples and for posteritythe blessings of peace freedom and prosperityrdquo (ASEAN 1967) TheDeclaration gives the following as the grouprsquos broad aims andpurposes

1 to accelerate the economic growth social progress and culturaldevelopment in the region through joint endeavors in the spirit ofequality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for aprosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian nations and

2 to promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect forjustice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries in theregion and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter(1967)

Nearly 30 years later in 1995 the ASEAN Heads of States andGovernment affirmed that ldquo[c]ooperative peace and shared prosperityshall be the fundamental goals of ASEANrdquo (see ASEAN 1998)

The values of ASEAN were also set forth at the organizationrsquos 1976summit in Bali These included

1 Mutual respect for the independence sovereignty equality territorialintegrity and national identity of all nations

2 The right of every State to lead its national existence free from externalinterference subversion or coercion

3 Noninterference in the internal affairs of one another4 Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner5 Renunciation of the threat or use of force and6 Effective cooperation among themselves (ASEAN 1976a)

These principles are set down in the ldquoTreaty of Amity andCooperation in Southeast Asiardquo (ASEAN 1976a) in Article 2 in thesection or chapter entitled ldquoPurposes and Principlesrdquo The simplestatement of purpose given in Article 1 is also worth noting ldquoThepurpose of this Treaty is to promote perpetual peace everlasting amityand cooperation among their peoples which would contribute to theirstrength solidarity and closer relationship[]rdquo

110

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1

As in a constitution so too in a treaty the opening statement thepreamble is often the most value-laden This Treaty devoted tofriendship and cooperation declares at the outset that the countriesagreeing to its terms

CONSCIOUS

of the existing ties of history geography andculture which have bound their peoples together

ANXIOUS

to promote regional peace and stability throughabiding respect for justice and the rule of law and enhancingregional resilience in their relations

DESIRING

to enhance peace friendship and mutual cooperationon matters affecting Southeast Asia consistent with the spirit andprinciples of the Charter of the United Nations the Ten Principlesadopted by the Asian-African Conference in Bandung on April25 1955 the Declaration of the Association of Southeast AsianNations signed in Bangkok on August 8 1967 and theDeclaration signed in Kuala Lumpur on November 27 1971

CONVINCED

that the settlement of differences or disputesbetween their countries should be regulated by rational effectiveand sufficiently flexible procedures avoiding negative attitudeswhich might endanger or hinder cooperation

BELIEVING

in the need for cooperation with all peace-lovingnations both within and outside Southeast Asia in thefurtherance of world peace stability and harmony

SOLEMNLY AGREE

to enter into a Treaty of Amity andCooperation as follows (ASEAN 1976a)

The treatyrsquos second chapter ldquoAmityrdquo commits ldquothe HighContracting Partiesrdquo to ldquoendeavour to develop and strengthen thetraditional cultural and historical ties of friendship goodneighbourliness and cooperation which bind them togetherrdquo topromising to ldquofulfill in good faith [their] obligationsrdquo under the treatyand to ldquoencourage and facilitate contact and intercourse among theirpeoplesrdquo The third chapter ldquoCooperationrdquo speaks of promotingldquoactive cooperation in the economic social technical scientific andadministrative fieldsrdquomdashemphasizing practical benefitsmdashbut as wellcooperation ldquoin matters of common ideals and aspiration ofinternational peace and stability in the region and all other matters ofcommon interestrdquo (ASEAN 1976a)


111

Article 6 in the treaty pledges collaboration for the purposes ofldquoeconomic growth in the region in order to strengthen the foundationfor a prosperous and peaceful community of nations in SoutheastAsiardquo This includes ldquogreater utilization of their agriculture andindustries the expansion of their trade and the improvement of theireconomic infrastructure for the mutual benefit of their peoplesrdquo Article7 commits the member states signing the treaty to strive ldquoto achievesocial justice and to raise the standards of living of the peoples of theregionrdquo through ldquoeconomic cooperationrdquo and ldquoappropriate regionalstrategies for economic development and mutual assistancerdquo Article 9pledges to ldquoendeavour to foster cooperation in the furtherance of thecause of peace harmony and stability in the regionrdquo through ldquoregularcontacts and consultations with one another on international andregional matters with a view to coordinating their views actions andpoliciesrdquo As for Articles 10-12 these reiterate the principles set forth atthe outset of the treaty while the remaining provisions set forthprocedures for the ldquopacific settlement of disputesrdquo and the entry intoforce of the treaty (ASEAN 1976a)

A succession of such statements and declarations has been issuedby ASEAN leaders over the years They have covered a variety of topicsThe main purpose of ASEAN it is understood has been to promotegreater regional integration through peaceful means In this theparticipants have succeeded to some considerable degree with trade andtourism rising steadily and with economic cooperation expanding tocover a variety of areas

A perhaps deeper less exclusively materialistic expression of valueson the part of ASEAN members was expressed in a document theDeclaration of ASEAN Concord also issued in Bali in 1976 Departingfrom the more circumspect 1967 Bangkok Declaration the Declarationof ASEAN Concord (ASEAN 1976b) went on to state perhaps forthe first time that the member countries would expand politicalcooperation It also adopted principles for regional stability and aprogram of action for political cooperation

The program called for holding regular ASEAN summits amongthe heads of government signing the Treaty of Amity and Cooperationin Southeast Asia settling intraregional disputes ldquoby peaceful means assoon as possiblerdquo improving the ASEAN machinery to strengthenpolitical cooperation studying how to develop judicial cooperation

112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1

including the possibility of an ASEAN extradition treaty andstrengthening political solidarity by promoting the harmonization ofviews coordinating positions and where possible and desirable takingcommon action (ASEAN 1976b 2006a) More fully the Declaration(ASEAN 1976b) stated that the signatoriesmdashIndonesia MalaysiaSingapore the Philippines and Thailandmdashwere endeavoring ldquotopromote peace progress prosperity and the welfare of the peoples ofmember statesrdquo and accordingly undertook ldquoto consolidate theachievements of ASEAN and expand ASEAN cooperation in theeconomic social cultural and political fieldsrdquo Their means for doingso were through cooperation taking ldquointo accountrdquo a number ofldquoobjectives and principles in the pursuit of political stabilityrdquo Thus theoverarching principles for ASEAN (1976b) were that

1 The stability of each member state and of the ASEAN region is anessential contribution to international peace and security Eachmember state resolves to eliminate threats posed by subversion to itsstability thus strengthening national and ASEAN resilience

2 Member states individually and collectively shall take active steps forthe early establishment of the Zone of Peace Freedom and Neutrality

3 The elimination of poverty hunger disease and illiteracy is a primaryconcern of member states They shall therefore intensify cooperationin economic and social development with particular emphasis on thepromotion of social justice and on the improvement of the livingstandards of their peoples

4 Natural disasters and other major calamities can retard the pace ofdevelopment of member states They shall extend within theircapabilities assistance for relief of member states in distress

5 Member states shall take cooperative action in their national andregional development programs utilizing as far as possible theresources available in the ASEAN region to broaden thecomplementarity of their respective economies

6 Member states in the spirit of ASEAN solidarity shall rely exclusivelyon peaceful processes in the settlement of intra-regional differences

7 Member states shall strive individually and collectively to createconditions conducive to the promotion of peaceful cooperation amongthe nations of Southeast Asia on the basis of mutual respect andmutual benefit

8 Member states shall vigorously develop an awareness of regionalidentity and exert all efforts to create a strong ASEAN community


113

respected by all and respecting all nations on the basis of mutuallyadvantageous relationships and in accordance with the principles ofself-determination sovereign equality and noninterference in theinternal affairs of nations

The Declarationrsquos ldquoprogram of action as a framework for ASEANcooperationrdquo encompassed measures for increased political and judicialcooperation closer economic and trade relations ldquocooperation in thefield of social developmentrdquo security ties and finally cultural initiativesin Section D including

1 Introduction of the study of ASEAN its member states and theirnational languages as part of the curricula of schools and otherinstitutions of learning in the member states

2 Support of ASEAN scholars writers artists and mass mediarepresentatives to enable them to play an active role in fostering a senseof regional identity and fellowship

3 Promotion of Southeast Asian studies through closer collaborationamong national institutes (ASEAN 1976b)

There was also a commitment to a ldquoreview of the ASEANorganizational structurerdquo to improve its effectiveness as well supportfor a ldquostudy of the desirability of a new constitutional framework forASEANrdquo

As in Europe so too in Asia a deepening of integration and anexpansion of the number of countries associated with it are processesthat have been occurring more or less in tandem The admission ofCambodia to ASEAN in 1999 could be compared to the extension ofEU membership to former communist states in central and easternEurope As ASEAN itself has said the year 1999 through that actwould be ldquoremembered as the year when the vision of ASEANrsquosfounders to build an association comprising all the Southeast Asiancountries was fully realisedrdquo (ASEAN 2006b) The admission ofCambodia to ASEAN on April 30 1999 in Hanoi could be said to havecompleted the associationrsquos efforts toward developing a comprehensiveregional organization 32 years after the original five members beganthe task

Four years later again in Bali a second potentially far-reachingDeclaration of ASEAN Concord (ASEAN 2006a) was issued signedby the leaders of each of the member states It pledged the ten member

114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1

states ldquoto further consolidate and enhance the achievements of ASEANas a dynamic resilient and cohesive regional associationrdquo byldquoreaffirmingrdquo earlier declarations of principle

11

and by declaringamong other things ldquothat sustainable economic development requiresa secure political environment based on a strong foundation of mutualinterests generated by economic cooperation and political solidarityrdquoDescribing ASEAN (2003) as ldquoa concert of Southeast Asian nationsbonded together in partnership in dynamic development and in acommunity of caring societies committed to upholding culturaldiversity and social harmonyrdquo the Declaration affirmed that

1 An ASEAN Community shall be established comprising three pillarsnamely political and security cooperation economic cooperation andsociocultural cooperation that are closely intertwined and mutuallyreinforcing for the purpose of ensuring durable peace stability andshared prosperity in the region

2 ASEAN shall continue its efforts to ensure closer and mutuallybeneficial integration among its member states and among theirpeoples and to promote regional peace and stability securitydevelopment and prosperity with a view to realizing an ASEANCommunity that is open dynamic and resilient

3 ASEAN shall respond to the new dynamics within the respectiveASEAN Member Countries and shall urgently and effectively addressthe challenge of translating ASEAN cultural diversities and differenteconomic levels into equitable development opportunity andprosperity in an environment of solidarity regional resilience andharmony

4 ASEAN shall nurture common values such as habit of consultationto discuss political issues and the willingness to share information onmatters of common concern such as environmental degradationmaritime security cooperation the enhancement of defensecooperation among ASEAN countries develop a set of socio-politicalvalues and principles and resolve to settle long-standing disputesthrough peaceful means

5 The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia is the keycode of conduct governing relations between states and a diplomaticinstrument for the promotion of peace and stability in the region

6 The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) shall remain the primary forumin enhancing political and security cooperation in the Asia Pacificregion as well as the pivot in building peace and stability in the region


115

ASEAN shall enhance its role in further advancing the stages ofcooperation within the ARF to ensure the security of the Asia Pacificregion

7 ASEAN is committed to deepening and broadening its internaleconomic integration and linkages with the world economy to realizean ASEAN Economic Community through a bold pragmatic andunified strategy

8 ASEAN shall further build on the momentum already gained in theASEAN

+

3 process so as to further draw synergies through broaderand deeper cooperation in various areas

9 ASEAN shall build upon opportunities for mutually beneficialregional integration arising from its existing initiatives and those withpartners through enhanced trade and investment links as well asthrough [the Initiative for ASEAN Integration (IAI)] process We canchange ldquoand the RIArdquo to and [the Roadmap for the Integration ofASEAN (RIA)

10 ASEAN shall continue to foster a community of caring societies andpromote a common regional identity []

Following these affirmations the ten member states adopted aldquoframework to achieve a dynamic cohesive resilient and integratedASEAN Communityrdquo including measures for three interrelatedcommunities an ASEAN security community [ASC] an ASEANeconomic community [AEC] and an ASEAN sociocultural community[ASCC] These commitments were entered into in generous fashionThe first the ASC was

1 envisaged to bring ASEANrsquos political and security cooperation to ahigher plane to ensure that countries in the region live at peace withone another and with the world at large in a just democraticand harmonious environment The ASEAN Security Communitymembers shall rely exclusively on peaceful processes in the settlementof intra-regional differences and regard their security as fundamentallylinked to one another and bound by geographic location commonvision and objectives (ASEAN 2003a)

Further principles surrounding the ASC were delineated as follows

2 The ASEAN Security Community recognizing the sovereign right ofthe member countries to pursue their individual foreign policiesand defense arrangements and taking into account the stronginterconnections among political economic and social realities

116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1

subscribes to the principle of comprehensive security as having broadpolitical economic social and cultural aspects in consonance with theASEAN Vision 2020 rather than to a defense pact military allianceor a joint foreign policy

3 ASEAN shall continue to promote regional solidarity and cooperationMember Countries shall exercise their rights to lead their nationalexistence free from outside interference in their internal affairs

4 The ASEAN Security Community shall abide by the UN Charter andother principles of international law and uphold ASEANrsquos principlesof noninterference consensus-based decision making national andregional resilience respect for national sovereignty the renunciation ofthe threat or the use of force and peaceful settlement of differencesand disputes

5 Maritime issues and concerns are transboundary in nature andtherefore shall be addressed regionally in holistic integrated andcomprehensive manner Maritime cooperation between and amongASEAN member countries shall contribute to the evolution of theASEAN Security Community (ASEAN 2003)

The ARF was identified as ldquothe main forum for regional securitydialoguerdquo while the ASC was itself characterized as ldquoopen andoutward looking in respect of actively engaging ASEANrsquos friends andDialogue Partners to promote peace and stability in the regionrdquo withthe intention to ldquobuild on the ARF to facilitate consultation andcooperation between ASEAN and its friends and Partners on regionalsecurity mattersrdquo (ASEAN 2003) The common concerns facing theASC were identified as terrorism ldquodrug trafficking trafficking inpersons and other transnational crimesrdquo as well as the need ldquotoensure that the Southeast Asian Region remains free of all weapons ofmass destructionrdquo The AEC was equally visionary ldquothe realization ofthe end-goal of economic integrationrdquo The purpose was ldquoto create astable prosperous and highly competitive ASEAN economic region inwhich there is a free flow of goods services investment and a freerflow of capital equitable economic development and reduced povertyand socioeconomic disparities in year 2020rdquo This was possiblebecause the AEC ldquois based on a convergence of interests amongASEAN members to deepen and broaden economic integration effortsthrough existing and new initiatives with clear timelinesrdquo (ASEAN2003)


117

The ASCC comes the closest to identifying ASEAN with a set ofculturally distinctive values The ASCC was described at the outset inthe following terms

1 The ASEAN Sociocultural Community in consonance with the goalset by ASEAN Vision 2020 envisages a Southeast Asia bondedtogether in partnership as a community of caring societies

2 In line with the program of action set by the 1976 Declaration ofASEAN Concord the Community shall foster cooperation in socialdevelopment aimed at raising the standard of living of disadvantagedgroups and the rural population and shall seek the active involvementof all sectors of society in particular women youth and localcommunities

There was a broad human purpose community-wide in scope behindthese efforts as point five outlines ldquoThe Community shall nurture talentand promote interaction among ASEAN scholars writers artists andmedia practitioners to help preserve and promote ASEANrsquos diversecultural heritage while fostering regional identity as well as cultivatingpeoplersquos awareness of ASEANrdquo (ASEAN 2003)

Thus ASEAN aspires to being seen as a regional organization broadin outlook and wide-ranging in its interests For instance the Secretary-General of ASEAN Ong Keng Yong (2003) devoted himself to the Iraqcrisismdashitself an indication of ASEANrsquos inability to restrict itself tostrictly Southeast Asian regional affairs or to economic and tradequestionsmdashand noted that ASEAN members had different views on thematter

In ASEAN we have 10 sovereign countries participating as equalmembers Each member has every right to formulate its ownnational position based on its circumstances that will best serveits own national interest This is to be expected The differencesin their national positions on the crisis reflect more or less theexisting diversities in the ASEAN membership

ASEAN members clearly differ in many aspects such aspolitical ideologies and government systems levels of economicdevelopment sizes of population cultural affinities world viewsand external relations The ASEAN membership is never intended

118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1

to replace the national policy of each member government But itis the indispensable ldquogluerdquo binding these countries together inldquounity in diversitiesrdquo

We in ASEAN understand why we differ in our nationalpositions At the same time we agree that these differences will notprevent us from working together doing things that we know willbe necessary and beneficial to all of us like in exchangingintelligence to counter terrorism speeding up economiccooperation schemes to increase business confidence andpreparing to help those in need to cope with any oil shortagearising from the Iraq crisis (Keng Yong 2003)

But the Secretary-General also reviewed strides made toward anASEAN economic community and with respect to Iraq and broadersecurity issues emphasized what member states held in common

If you are looking specifically at this Iraq crisis you may be pleasedto know that as a matter of fact all ASEAN members do share manycommon views Here are some of them

1 We oppose the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD)2 Uphold the principles and purposes of the UN as enshrined in the

Charter of the United Nations3 Hope to see the UN continue to receive the respect of all its members

and to have a role in ending the Iraq crisis4 Resolve all international conflicts that threaten regional and global

security through diplomacy under the existing framework of the UNand international law

5 Cooperate with the UN and the international community in providinghumanitarian assistance (Keng Yong 2003)

ldquoThe immediate challenge to ASEANrdquo according to the Secretary-General was the necessity to ldquoguard against exploitation by someextremists who would take advantage of the situation to instigate anti-USUK feelings and radicalize the moderate Muslims in our region AllASEAN members know that this is not a war on Islamrdquo (Keng Yong2003) ASEAN itself was committed to bridging gaps among itsmembers ldquocreating [a] conducive economic and political climate for freemovement of creative and talented people resolving bilateral differencesand tensions in a predictable and systematic way to remove and prevent


119

misunderstanding and ill-feelings between neighbours in our regionrdquoand finally ldquointensifying the presence and voice of the moderate forcesespecially those with religious influence so that radical elements do notturn the multi-racial and multi-religious characteristics of ASEAN intoanti-establishment advantagerdquo (Keng Yong 2003)

Similarly the ASEAN (2002) summit held for the first time inCambodia focused on ldquoterrorist attacksrdquo and the situation in IraqOther issues identified included ldquotransnational issues such as diseaseand the trafficking of humans drugs and weaponsrdquo and in particularworking to check ldquothe spread of HIV-AIDSrdquo (ASEAN 2002) Both atthe 2004 meeting in Vientiane Laos and subsequently howeverASEAN was unable to avoid conflict over ldquovaluesrdquo altogetherRealization that the regime in Burma was to have the opportunity tohost the 2006 ASEAN summit led to calls for that privilege to bewithdrawn and even for Burmarsquos membership in ASEAN to besuspended if it did not release opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyiand demonstrate a serious intent to begin a transition to democracyIn the absence of either Burma ceded its right to become chairman ofASEAN and host the conference but criticism of the regimecontinued to be expressed from among other ASEAN countriesparticularly at the foreign ministers meeting in Kuala LumpurMalaysia in 2005

Other ldquovaluesrdquo concerns associated with ASEAN in 2004-2005 haveconcerned the organization of an East Asia summit The questionof Australian and New Zealand participationmdashsought by bothcountriesmdashproved problematic Were these countries ldquoAsianrdquogeographically demographically or culturally Ultimately the test ofmembership or attendance at any such gathering was a political onewould these countries agree to sign the Treaty of Amity andCooperation in Southeast Asia New Zealand promptly agreedAustralia hesitated characterizing the treaty as a relic of the Cold Warand wondering aloud whether its provisions might inhibit Australiafrom responding to terrorist threats from the region These hesitationswere counterproductive and in the end were put to one side Thus this1976 treaty described by the chairman of the 2005 summit as a code ofconduct governing inter-state relations in the region emerged in 2004-2005 as the decisive test for determining whether a country did or didnot belong as a part of the region

120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1

The 2005 ASEAN meeting was in Kuala Lumpur and Malaysiaproved noteworthy on several grounds The summit of ASEAN leadersrevolved around an official thememdashldquoOne Vision One Identity OneCommunityrdquomdashwith progress noted in relation to each of the ASEANcommunities previously agreed to (security economic andsociocultural) Accordingly heads of state committed themselves(ASEAN 2005a) to the establishment of ldquothe ASEAN Charterrdquo adocument intended ldquoas a legal and institutional frameworkrdquo forASEAN one that ldquowill codify all ASEAN norms rules and valuesrdquoconferring upon ASEAN ldquoa legal personalityrdquo This further integrativestep occurred two days before the meeting of the first East Asiasummit

12

which agreed that such summits have as their purposeldquodialogue on issues of common interest and concernrdquo Morebroadly the grouprsquos communiqueacute declared that the summit wasintended ldquoto promote community building in the regionrdquo through aforum that would be ldquooutward-lookingrdquo seeking ldquoto strengthen globalnorms and universally recognised valuesrdquo (ldquoKuala Lumpur Declarationon the East Asia Summitrdquo 2005) Such an outlook quite consciouslyeschews identification with a more narrow vision of ldquoAsian valuesrdquo inpreference for a perspective that is ldquoopenrdquo and ldquoinclusiverdquo

ARF

As the 2003 Declaration of ASEAN Concord reiterated the valueof the ARF in promoting security it is worth considering for a momentthe place of ldquovaluesrdquo in this regional security program Here forinstance are the objectives of the ARF as officially set out ldquoa) to fosterconstructive dialogue and consultation on political and security issuesof common interest and concern and b) to make significantcontributions to efforts toward confidence-building and preventivediplomacy in the Asia-Pacific regionrdquo (ASEAN 2005b)

The ARF participants approved in 1996 the principles that arecontained in Table 1 which appears on the ASEAN (2005b) Web siteThese could be described as the ldquoshared valuesrdquo on which the ARF nowrests According to the Australian governmentrsquos Department of ForeignAffairs and Trade ldquoThe ARF is characterised by consensus decisionmaking and minimal institutionalisationrdquo (Australian Department ofForeign Affairs and Trade 2006) We could if we wished perhaps saythat this approach to governance represents a value-laden choice but


121

that it is distinctively and exclusively Asian to prefer ldquoconsensusrdquoagreement and an avoidance of bureaucracy may be doubted

APEC

As for APEC its values and visionmdashits prioritiesmdashhave beenarticulated at various times For instance in the Leadersrsquo Declarationin 1994 issued in Bogor Indonesia APEC leaders committedthemselves to ldquostrengthening the open multilateral trading systemenhancing trade and investment liberalization in the Asia-Pacificand intensifying Asia-Pacific development cooperationrdquo (APEC 1994)APECrsquos regular meetings are concerned with a variety of topicsincluding education energy the environment and sustainabledevelopment issues regional technical cooperation businessenterprises telecommunications issues tourism trade transportationand womenrsquos affairs Declarations from its annual meetings set thegrouprsquos policy agenda The different declarations over time provide an

Table 1 Criteria for Participation in the Asian Regional Forum (ARF)

1 Commitment All new participants who will all be sovereign states must subscribe to and work cooperatively to help achieve the ARF key goals Prior to their admission all new participants should agree to abide by and respect fully the decisions and statements already made by the ARF All ASEAN members are automatically participants of ARF

2 Relevance A new participant should be admitted only if it can be demonstrated that it has an impact on the peace and security of the ldquogeographical footprint of key ARF activities (ie Northeast and Southeast Asia as well as Oceania)

3 Gradual expansion Efforts must be made to control the number of participants to a manageable level to ensure the effectiveness of the ARF

4 Consultations All applications for participation should be submitted to the Chairman of the ARF who will consult all the other ARF participants at the SOM and ascertain whether a consensus exists for the admission of the new participant Actual decisions on participation will be approved by the Ministers

ASEAN

=

Association of Southeast Asian Nations SOM

=

Senior Officials Meeting

122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1

indication of the extent to which distinctive ldquovaluesrdquo rather thancommon ldquointerestsrdquo structure the organizationrsquos work and outlook Forinstance the 2003 Bangkok communiqueacute entitled the ldquoBangkokDeclaration on Partnership for the Futurerdquo identified three main areasof concern ldquoPromoting Trade and Investment LiberalizationrdquoEnhancing Human Security and Using APEC to Help People andSocieties Benefit from Globalization (APEC 2003) The emphasisnevertheless has principally been with economic policy Four yearsearlier for instance the APEC (1999) Leadersrsquo Declaration issued inAuckland New Zealand noted that ldquothe Economic Leaders of APECcelebrate here in Auckland ten years of unprecedented cooperation inour region in pursuit of a vision of stability security and prosperity forour peoples We shall continue to exercise leadership to reach our goalsand to meet the challenge we have set ourselvesrdquo Following that broadopening however the statement went on to focus on economic matters

We welcome the improved performance and prospects of oureconomies since we last met and commend the actions taken toreform those economies affected by the crisis The cooperativegrowth strategy we adopted in Kuala Lumpur and soundmacroeconomic policies in key economies have supported therestoration of confidence and growth and have allowed us to sharegrowing confidence about our prospects

We are not complacent about the risks that might impederecovery and sustainable growth and we will sustain themomentum for reform Continued multilateral and bilateralsupport is still important We welcome and endorse the efforts ofMinisters through the year in pursuit of APECrsquos goals AsLeaders we accept responsibility for resisting protectionismopening markets further and addressing structural and regulatoryweaknesses that contributed to the economic downturn from1997 We will achieve this by strengthening our markets throughregulatory reform and enhanced competition and by improvingthe international framework governing trade and investmentflows To this end we commit to the launch of a new Round ofnegotiations in the World Trade Organisation

All people in our communities have a stake in the success ofAPEC We want to ensure they achieve their full potential forimproved economic and social well being We particularly


123

welcome the more active participation of women and business inAPECrsquos work this year (APEC 1999)

The 2004 APEC summit in Santiago Chile no less than otherAPEC meetings since the events of September 11 2001 saw leadersfocus on terrorism as well as on the more mundane but organizationallyformative matters of economic cooperation and trade The meetingissued a declaration entitled ldquoOne Community Our Futurerdquo affirmingthe values of economic development trade liberalization humansecurity and good governance

13

In 2005 the APEC summit in SouthKorea was distinguished by pledges of greater cooperation indeveloping a vaccine against bird flu a concern also emphasized at the2005 SAARC meeting in Dhaka Bangladesh which promised greatercooperation in the field of health and the establishment of a healthsurveillance center

The Asia Pacific Parliamentary Forum (APPF)

There are of course other organizational activities that provideevidence of community-building networks at work For instance thereis the existence of an APPF bringing together legislators (and others)from Asia the Pacific Islands and from countries bordering the Pacific(such as Canada the United States Mexico and Chile) Asian statesparticipating in the organization at its annual meetings include BruneiCambodia China Indonesia Japan South Korea Laos MalaysiaMongolia the Philippines Singapore Thailand and Vietnam (as wellas Papua New Guinea and a number of other Pacific Island states)

The APPF was founded in 1993 by former Japanese prime ministerNakasone Yasuhiro It was established through promulgation of theTokyo Declaration signed by 59 parliamentarians from 15 countries asan interparliamentary organization dedicated to the promotion ofldquoregional identification and cooperation through discussion of mattersof common concernrdquo (US Senate Concurrent Resolution 58 2001) Itcan be described as a legislative complement to APEC APEC bringstogether executive branch leadersmdashthat is the heads of governmentmdashwhile the APPF brings together the leaders of countriesrsquo nationallegislative assemblies Again a parallel with developments in Europeancommunity-building can also be discerned as the promotion of an

124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1

enhanced role for the European Parliament (including direct electionsby European citizens) was part of an effort to redress the ldquodemocraticdeficitrdquo associated with decision making being monopolized by expertsappointed officials and executive heads of government

The APPF has as its focus ldquoresolving political economicenvironmental security law and order human rights education andcultural issuesrdquo (US Senate Concurrent Resolution 58 2001)

14

Itsfounding document the Tokyo Declaration (APPF 1993) took note ofthe changing regional and international environment and of theevolving character of regional cooperation identifying an opportunityfor ldquonational parliamentariansrdquo to play a role as well

We parliamentarians assembled in Tokyo on January 14-15 1993to promote dialogue among parliamentarians of the Asia Pacificregion

RECOGNIZING

that the international community is in the midstof a historic change following the end of the Cold War and that avariety of significant developments are unfolding in the AsiaPacific region

CONSCIOUS

of the need for the Asia-Pacific region to respondaptly to the changing circumstances and to build upon a new orderof regional stability and prosperity

MINDFUL

that interdependence and regional cohesion aregrowing within this region and are providing a sound basisfor increased regional cooperation as a result of the regionrsquosrich diversity in socio-political systems stages of economicdevelopment and cultural heritage Aware that a number ofregional and subregional institutions are also working tostrengthen regional cooperation and

CONVINCED

that increased dialogue among parliamentarianswill add a new dimension to this framework of regionalcooperation by bringing together the unique perspectives andinsight of parliamentarians throughout the Asia Pacific regionand thereby contribute to the regionrsquos peace stability andprosperity

HAVE HEREBY AGREED

to establish a forum named the AsiaPacific Parliamentary Forum

The APPF (1993) was defined as ldquoa loosely structured andnonexclusive forum of national parliamentariansrdquo assembling for the

Levine Asian Values and the Asia Pacific Community 125

purpose of identifying and discussing ldquomatters of common concern andinterestrdquo principally for the purpose of encouraging and promotingldquoregional cooperation at all levels on matters of common concern tothe regionrdquo

Among its ldquoguiding principlesrdquo was a determination to act ldquotopromote greater regional identification and cooperationrdquo with aldquoparticular focusrdquo on cooperation for the following purposes ldquothefurther advancement of peace freedom democracy and prosperityopen and non-exclusive cooperation for the expansion of free trade andinvestment and sustainable development and sound environmentalpractices and non-military cooperation which gives due considerationto issues relating to regional peace and securityrdquo (APPF 1993)

Membership of the APPF was ldquoin principlerdquo open ldquoto all nationalparliamentarians in the Asia Pacific region in particular from ASEANthe APEC group and the South Pacific Forumrdquo indicating a broaderAsia-Pacific outlook rather than a more narrow concentration onAsian states and peoples so long as those parliamentarians ldquoaccept theobjectives and principles of the APPF as stated in this Declarationrdquo(APPF 1993)

This organizational effort among parliamentarians to promotean Asia-Pacific outlook and to develop routines of consultationcommunication and dialogue is not limited only to the APPF Thereare other such parliamentary groups each essentially dedicated todisseminating the values and practices of parliamentary governmentdemocratic choice and peaceful cooperation15 One such group forinstance the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Organization (AIPO) heldits 25th ldquogeneral assemblyrdquo in Cambodia in September 2004 Associatedwith yet slightly distinct from this group of lawmakers is anothergroup Women Parliamentarians of AIPO which also met that samemonth to discuss among other things ldquoefforts to enhance womenrsquoseconomic security and the role of parliaments in combating thetrafficking of women and children in Southeast Asiardquo (Daily ExpressNews 2004) It is clear therefore that parliamentarians no less thanothers are also able to look beyond matters of parochial concernmdashtopics peculiar to themselves or their party or their countrymdashtoconcentrate on larger issues and concerns applying their influence (suchas it is) to problems for which a regional rather than national responsemay be called for

126 Politics amp Policy Vol 35 No 1

Japan and the ldquoPacific Communityrdquo

It is worth noting that Japan has played an important role indeveloping the idea of a wider peaceful and cooperative Asia-Pacificcommunity Prime Minister Ohira Masayoshi for instance spokeduring his term in office concerning the development of a Pacificcommunity of nations So too did Prime Minister Nakasone in theearly 1980s when he put forward the idea of an ldquoAsia-PacificCommunityrdquo including with Asian states the island nations of thePacific Prime Minister Nakasonersquos efforts to introduce a new basis foreconomic and cultural cooperation did not immediately bear fruit butthey form part of the backdrop part of the historical context for thedevelopment of regional cooperation initiatives

The initiation of summits of Pacific Island nations held in Japanbeginning in 1997 (under the leadership of Prime Minister HashimotoRyutaro) and bringing together the leaders of Pacific Island states hasbeen a further expression of this idea This concept does not ofcourse rest on an idea concerning shared ldquoAsian valuesrdquo but ratheras former Fiji prime minister Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara put it itreflects a view of the Pacific Ocean as ldquoan ocean of boundlessopportunity not only as a highway of commerce but also as abridge through which to forge closer relationships among ourpeoplesrdquo (Rato Sir Kamisese Mara 1998)16

The idea of a Pacific community as a ldquodistinct communityrdquo ofnations ldquocollectively committed through friendship and cooperationto promoting peace progress and prosperityrdquo in the Pacific regionwould seem to be a good way of summing up the idealized values behindsuch communitiesmdashwhether they be in Europe or Asia of island statesor of the great land massesmdashand it is difficult at such a level ofabstraction to see any distinction that can reasonably be made betweenthese sorts of objectives in terms of Asian European or any otherculturally distinct sets of values It is true that states in the not so distantpastmdashand some peoples even todaymdashdo not appear to see much valuein ldquopeacerdquo or ldquoprosperityrdquo or even ldquofriendship and cooperationrdquo butin the postwar world and now in the post-Cold War world rogue statesand terrorists apart all of the new transnational communities emergingseem to have these basic values of humanity and human progress verymuch at the forefront of their thinking


We can if we are not careful exaggerate tendencies towardregional cooperation in Asia and indeed elsewhere Nationalism notregionalism remains a dominant force in policy making and inpeoplersquos hearts We see this in the emotional responses of citizens tosporting events to cultural displays to national symbols Yet thepromotion of national feeling and its expression at key moments isonly one feeling among many that an individual (or a group) mayhold There are also as we have seen sentiments that reach aboveand beyond loyalties to nations and to the policies of incumbentgovernments

These unifying viewsmdashproducts of greater awareness ofglobalization and the development of larger perspectivesmdashincludecommitments to democracy to human rights to cooperation tofriendship among nations and with neighbors with both polities andpeoples Common values are also to be seen in what people are unifiedagainst war exploitation racism injustice and indifference

These are the values that are bringing peoples and states closertogether not so much obliterating national borders as making themincreasingly irrelevant (as barriers to commerce communication orhuman contact) These values belong to no single group tribe nationor people They are part of the emerging common cultural inheritanceof humanity Along the way there is room for Asian and Pacific statesto emphasize their own cultural underpinningsmdashwhich provide scopefor greater cooperation and collective effort and a truly ldquocompassionateconservatismrdquo based on traditional Asian and Pacific valuesmdashandthese too form part of the values that make the prospects for genuinecommunity building in the Asia and Pacific region more promisingtoday than perhaps they have ever yet been

It can of course be said that there are values (as well as interests)underlying all these moves toward greater economic and politicalcollaboration Certainly those who protest against APEC as they doagainst the World Trade Organization see values associated with thisenterprise and they are values and outcomes of which they heartilyand indeed stridently disapprove But are these particularly ldquoAsianrdquovalues It would seem that the values to which the protesters object arethose of the West of the industrialized states the values and prioritiesof the profit motive with all that that may imply (for both good andill)


Conclusion

This overview of moves toward greater regional integration in Asiataking a variety of organizational forms draws attention to animpressive and growing array of contacts and interconnections amonga growing number of states As in North America and Europe the pacescope and complexity of regional cooperation has continued to expandAt the same time statements by Asian political leaders involved in thisprocess have increasingly aspired toward higher purposes identifyingmore and more ldquoshared interestsrdquo a wider body of ldquocommon concernsrdquoand at last a succession of themes and topics to which the wordldquocommunityrdquo has come to be attached

These moves all represent steps being taken on a journey toward anunknown and uncertain destination declarations treaties andcommuniqueacutes notwithstanding Peoples arrive at a shared location atthe end of a journey such as this when their habits of cooperation andcommunication become almost second nature to them A communityis developed through numerous contacts among all sorts of peopledoing all kinds of things Not by leaders alone but by groups andindividuals elites and the commonplace by tourists and businesspeople students and visitors through all these and many moreassociations and through a growing and seemingly irresistibleconglomeration of affinities new communities come to be built uponthe foundations of older attachments and arrangements

ldquoIntegrationrdquo and community building do not depend upon orresult from a single eventmdashalthough some will be special andsignificantmdashbut rather through a series of episodes and incidentsthrough a set of processes and a mix of signals to a wider populationthat the old barriers and divisions need to be overcome for the good ofall All this is not easily accomplished and nor is success inevitable

A cautionary note is sounded by the experience of Australia andNew Zealand with ldquocommunity buildingrdquo and political integrationHere are countries so ripe for association that New Zealand initiallyeven sent participants to nineteenth-century meetings leading up to theestablishment of Australia as one country a federation New Zealandremains mentioned in the Act establishing the Australian constitution(clause 6) as an entity able to join up if it wishes to do so There wouldbe few countries in the world whose constitutional document includes


a marriage proposal (thus far unanswered) to another country Yet NewZealand continues to remain apart

Even between Australia and New Zealand (two nations that couldhardly be closer culturally and socially and between whom there is sucha significant degree of political economic and security cooperation) agenuine and lasting sense of shared purpose has proved elusive Indeedwith these two neighbors separated only by sea the sense ofcommonalitymdashthe ANZAC spirit forged initially in warmdashhas beensteadily fading These two countries may represent a ldquocommunityrdquo inspite of themselves There is close economic cooperation neither needfear armed attack from the other and citizens of each country arewelcome to each otherrsquos shores But to admit to a common identity tosubmerge separate feelings into something altogether larger simply doesnot appeal17

In East Asia and in the principled statements that have surroundedthe growth of regional cooperation within ASEAN in particular butalso in other groups we can see several broad value commitmentsThese embrace three tendencies nationalism regionalism anduniversalism each ultimately competing with the other for supremacyNationalism remains the primary moving force motivating citizens andleaders alike as they seek to advance their own interests and those oftheir country At the same time as Asian nations seek to becomestronger and more prosperous there have also arisen new imperativesurging leaders to embrace regional partnership and cooperationReferences to global values including invocations to the UN Charteras well as to the values of trade economic competition and peacefulcooperation have also become more insistent

Perhaps all of these value concerns will be able to coexist togetherat least for a considerable time Which will triumph in the endmdashattachment to the nation to the region to the world at largemdashcanhardly be predicted with any degree of confidence Nothing isinevitable in politics It seems that the Asian region is willing to remainopen to new influences preferring the virtues of an ldquoopen regionrdquo overthose of a closed one The moral foundations to regional cooperationin Asia have been set forth in some cases eloquently in thedeclarations of purpose referred to earlier Yet in practice differentsets of values (different models of governance and the political order)are still to be found as we move from Singapore to Cambodia from


Malaysia to Brunei from Vietnam to the Philippines from Indonesiato Burma

With respect to the future development of communities in Asiawhether these be based on ASEAN or APEC or on some otherorganizational group structure or model Etzioni (1965 4) reminds usthat ldquonot every increase or strengthening of the bonds that relate socialunits to each other brings them to the point of development at whichthey constitute one communityrdquo ASEAN leaders have ambitiouslyoutlined three kinds of community hopefully identifying integrativebonds in the making Yet quoting from Ernst B Haas (1958 6) Etzionipoints out that ldquopolitical integrationrdquo refers to ldquothe process wherebypolitical actors in several distinct national settings are persuaded to shifttheir loyalties expectations and political activities towards a new centerwhose institutions possess or demand jurisdiction over the pre-existingnational statesrdquo (Etzioni 1965 6 fn 5) Judged by that definition bythose criteria Asian political integration and community-building hasa considerable distance yet to travel and it is by no means clear thatthat is a journey that Asian leaders want to takemdashnot for themselvesnot for their countrymen

It is thus not only because of my residence in New Zealand theland where the award-winning trilogy of movies The Lord of theRings was filmed that it seems appropriate here looking toward thefuture to acknowledge the wisdom of the storyrsquos author J R RTolkien

The Road goes ever on and onDown from the door where it beganNow far ahead the Road has goneAnd I must follow if I canPursuing it with eager feetUntil it joins some larger wayWhere many paths and errands meetAnd whither then I cannot say (Tolkien 1954 44)Still round the corner there may waitA new road or a secret gateAnd though I oft have passed them byA day will come at last when IShall take the hidden paths that runWest of the Moon East of the Sun (Tolkien 1955 308)


It is tempting to think of Tolkienrsquos road and to wonder indeed whatldquonew roadrdquo what ldquohidden pathsrdquo may yet await Asiarsquos peoples and theirleaders Certainly in these times of quickening globalization Asianstates like those in Europe have embarked along a road with ldquomanypaths and errandsrdquo choosing to ldquojoin some larger wayrdquo But can we yetsay whether this fellowship will endure or whether instead it may yetbreak up and dissolve as other experiments in comradeship andcooperation have done Guided by their appreciation of national needsregional interests and global opportunities the nations of East andSoutheast Asia have opted to move together at least some way along acommon highway For now it is as is often the case the journey thatis of interest rather than the outcome which the future will in due timereveal to us

Notes

1 This article was presented to the International Workshop on ldquoAsian Values and RegionalCommunity Building in the Globalizing Worldrdquo sponsored by the Asia-Pacific Research Center(Kobe Gakuin University) in November 2004

2 There is a substantial literature on communitiesmdashwhat they are and how they are formed Forsome examples that are theoretical and comparative (see Deutsch 1966 Jacob and Toscano 1964)A leading figure in the development of scholarly perspectives concerning community-buildingboth empirically and normatively is Amitai Etzioni See among his many publications Etzioni(1965 1993)

3 For an account of the process of community-building in the American colonies leading ultimatelyto the formation of a wider political identity and the development of national political institutionssee Merritt (1966)

4 There is a substantial literature concerning European integration and community-building withworks now focusing on various aspects of the processmdashthe role of the European Commission forinstance or the establishment of the European Parliamentmdashas well as on its overall characterdirection and purpose Among the journals publishing on European integration and on theactivities of the European Union may be included European Union Politics European Journal ofPolitical Research Journal of Common Market Studies and West European Politics Works offeringan overview of the European Union are numerous among them Bomberg and Stubb (2003) Cini(2003) Hix (2003) Nelsen and Stubb (1994) Nugent (2002) Richardson (1996) and Wallace(2000)

5 The subsequent rejection of the European constitution by voters in several European countriesproviding an at least temporary setback for the proponents of such a document in fact reflectedunease in some countries concerning possible Turkish membership as well as other factorsconcerning domestic politics and the content of the constitution itself


6 The draft treaty establishing a constitution for Europe issued in July 2003 opens with a quoteconcerning ldquoour Constitutionrdquo and ldquodemocracyrdquo from the classic Greek writer Thucydides beforegoing on to describe Europe as ldquoa continent that brought forth civilizationrdquo and to ascribe toEurope ldquothe values underlying humanism equality of persons freedom [and] respect for reasonrdquoalong with an openness ldquoto culture learning and social progressrdquo The European Union itself isdescribed in Article 1 as a union ldquoopen to all European States which respect its values and arecommitted to promoting them togetherrdquo with the European Unionrsquos foundation being described(in Article 2) as ldquothe values of respect for human dignity liberty democracy equality the ruleof law and respect for human rightsrdquomdashldquovalues common to the Member States in a societyof pluralism tolerance justice solidarity and non-discriminationrdquo See httpeuropean-conventioneuintdocsTreatycv00850en03pdf for the full text

7 The movement toward greater cooperation in Asia particularly East Asia has generated aliterature of its own which is deepening in tandem with increased moves toward regionalpartnership of one form or another Among recent works concentrating on ASEAN offering anoverview and a more specialized look at particular initiatives are Tan (2000) Emmers (2003)Acharya (2001) Narine (2002) and Solidum (2003) See also ASEAN-Japanese Cooperation(2004) Studies focusing on APEC include Mann and Rosen (2002) and Hellman and Pyle (1998)See also Funabashi (1995)

8 These Asia-Europe meetings include participants representing each EU member state as well asindividuals from the European Commission

9 There is for example another APECmdashthe Asian Pacific Endodontic Confederation establishedin Thailand in 1985 which has its own constitution stipulating as its objectives ldquoto promotedevelop and maintain high standards of endodontic research teaching and clinical practice inthe Asian Pacific Regionrdquo and ldquoto cultivate and foster closer professional relationships betweenEndodontic SocietiesAssociation endodontists dentists and other professional persons with anin interest in Endodontics within the Asian Pacific Regionrdquo Any organization ldquowithin the AsianPacific regionrdquo with ldquosimilar aims and activitiesrdquo is eligible to become a member See ldquoProfile ofAPECrdquo httpwwwadaorgauSocietiesAPEC_Profile_of_APECasp

10 ldquoAsian regional organisationsrdquo httpwwwpakboigovpkI_Agreementspakistan_south_asian_associahtml

11 Among them the 1967 ASEAN Declaration the 1976 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation inSoutheast Asia and the 1976 Declaration of ASEAN Concord

12 A gathering of 16 countries encompassing the ten ASEAN member states as well as AustraliaChina India Japan New Zealand and South Korea

13 The APEC leaders agreed to what they called the ldquoSantiago Initiativerdquo relating to the eliminationof barriers to regional trade but also announced several measures designed to guard member statesagainst various threats to security See APEC (2004)

14 ldquoConcurrent Resolution of the United States Congress January 3 2001rdquo httpthomaslocgovcgi-binqueryzc107SCONRES58ENR

15 An especially ambitious proposal was advanced in 2005 from six Asian leaders at the senioradvisory council of the Association of Asian Parliaments for Peace (AAPP) as they pledgedthemselves to the establishment of an Asian Parliament within five years The AAPP establishedin 1999 in Bangladesh with representatives from 26 countries has as its principal valuecommitments peace ldquothe establishment of a civil society based on democracy and justicerdquo and


good governance See the Association of Asian Parliaments for Peace (2001) for the organizationrsquoscharter and rules

16 See speech by Prime Minister Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara of the Republic of Fiji reprinted in httpwwwspforgspinfKAIGI-Esession1_ehtml

17 McLean (2003) draws attention to the difficulty of appreciating or developing a common identitybemoaning the absence of will and imagination necessary to sustain a commitment to a shareddestiny He notes how much easier it is to imagine and to magnify an irreducible and somewhatirritating distinctiveness one that he finds unhelpful and at odds with the rewards of closercooperation and collaborative policy making

References

Acharya Amitav 2001 Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia ASEAN and theProblem of Regional Order London Routledge

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 1994 ldquo1994 Leadersrsquo Declarationrdquo BogorIndonesia November 15 Accessed on November 26 2006 Available online at httpwwwapecsecorgsgapecleaders__declarations1994html

___ 1999 ldquo1999 Leadersrsquo Declarationrdquo Auckland New Zealand September 13 Accessed onNovember 8 2006 Available online at httpwwwapecsecorgsgapecleaders__declarations1999html

___ 2003 ldquo2003 Leadersrsquo Declaration (Bangkok Declaration on Partnership for the Future)rdquoBangkok October 21 Accessed on November 8 2006 Available online at httpwwwapecsecorgsgapecleaders__declarations2003html

___ 2004 ldquo2004 Leadersrsquo Declarationrdquo Santiago Chile Accessed on November 8 2006 Availableonline at httpwwwapecsecorgsgapecleaders__declarations2004html

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 1967 ldquoThe ASEAN Declaration (BangkokDeclaration)rdquo Bangkok August 8 Accessed on November 19 2006 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg1212htm

___ 1976a ldquoTreaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asiardquo Bali Indonesia February 24Accessed on November 19 2006 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg1217htm

___ 1976b ldquoDeclaration of ASEAN Concordrdquo Bali Indonesia February 24 Accessed onNovember 19 2006 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg1216htm and httpwwwaseansecorg3630htm

___ 1998 ldquoCooperative Peace in Southeast Asiardquo ASEAN-UNESCO Regional Symposium onCooperative Peace Jakarta September 11 Accessed on November 19 2006 Available online athttpwwwaseansecorg3288htm

___ 1999 ldquoStatement by the Secretary-General of ASEAN Welcoming the Kingdom of Cambodiaas the Tenth Member State of ASEANrdquo Cambodia April 30 Accessed on November 26 2006Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg3338htm

___ 2002 ldquoPress Statement by the Chairman of the 8th ASEAN Summit the 6th ASEAN+3Summit and the ASEAN-China Summitrdquo Phnom Penh Cambodia November 4 Accessed onOctober 15 2006 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg13188htm


___ 2003 ldquoDeclaration of ASEAN Concord II (Bali Concord II)rdquo Bali Indonesia October 7Accessed on October 12 2006 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg15160htm

___ 2005a ldquoKuala Lumpur Declaration on the Establishment of the ASEAN Charterrdquo KualaLumpur December 12 Accessed on November 15 2005 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg18030htm

___ 2005b ldquoThe Participants in the ASEAN Regional Forumrdquo Jakarta Indonesia July 23 1996Accessed November 26 2006 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg3536htm

___ 2006a ldquoOverview Association of Southeast Asian Nationsrdquo Accessed on November 192006 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg64htm

___ 2006b ldquoOverviewrdquo Accessed on November 19 2006 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg92htm

Asia Pacific Parliamentary Forum 1993 ldquoTokyo Declarationrdquo Accessed on November 26 2006Available online at httpwwwnagovvnappf13tokyohtm

Association of Asian Parliaments for Peace 2001 ldquoThe Charter and Rulesrdquo Vol 1 pt 3 Accessedon October 30 2006 Available online at httpwwwtbmmgovtrul_kombapbmailbelgecharterpdf

Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 2006 ldquoBackground to the ASEAN RegionalForumrdquo Canberra Australia Accessed on November 27 2006 Available online at httpwwwdfatgovauarfbackgroundhtml

Bomberg Elizabeth and Alexander Stubb 2003 The European Union How Does it Work OxfordOxford University Press

Chhibber Bharti 2004 Regional Security and Regional Cooperation A Comparative Study ofASEAN and SAARC New Delhi New Century

Cini Michelle ed 2003 European Union Politics Oxford Oxford University Press

Daily Express News 2004 ldquoTwo Waipo Resolutions on Womenrdquo September 20 Accessed onOctober 30 2006 Available online at httpwwwdailyexpresscommynewscfmNewsID=29476

Deutsch Karl W 1966 The Nerves of Government Models of Political Communication andControl New York The Free Press

Emmers Ralf 2003 Cooperative Security and the Balance of Power in ASEAN and ARF NewYork Routledge Curzon

Etzioni Amitai 1965 Political Unification A Comparative Study of Leaders and Forces New YorkHolt Rinehart and Winston

___ 1993 The Spirit of Community Rights Responsibilities and the Communitarian Agenda NewYork Crown Publishers

Ernst B Haas 1958 The Uniting of Europe Political Social and Economic Forces 1950ndash1957Stanford CA Stanford University Press

Funabashi Yoichi 1995 Asia Pacific Fusion Japanrsquos Role in APEC Washington DC Institutefor International Economics


Hellman Donald C and Kenneth B Pyle 1998 From APEC to Xanadu Creating a ViableCommunity in the Post-Cold War Pacific New York M E Sharpe

Hix Simon 2003 The Political System of the European Union Basingstoke UK PalgraveMacmillan

Jacob Philip E and James V Toscano eds 1964 The Integration of Political CommunitiesPhiladelphia and New York J B Lippincott Company

Japan Center for International Exchange 2004 ASEAN-Japan Cooperation A Foundation for EastAsian Community Washington DC The Brookings Institution

Keng Yong Ong 2003 ldquoThe Future of ASEANrdquo Singapore March 22 Accessed on October 12006 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg14689htm

ldquoKuala Lumpur Declaration on the East Asia Summitrdquo 2005 Kuala Lumpur December 14Accessed on November 1 2006 Available online at httpwwwaseansecorg18098htm

Mann Catherine L and Daniel H Rosen 2002 APEC and the New Economy Washington DCInstitute for International Economics

McLean Denis 2003 The Prickly Pair Making Nationalism in Australia and New ZealandDunedin University of Otago Press

Merritt Richard L 1966 Symbols of American Community 1735-1775 New Haven CT YaleUniversity Press

Narine Shaun 2002 Explaining ASEAN Regionalism in Southeast Asia Boulder CO LynneRienner

Nelsen Brent F and Alexander Stubb eds 1994 The European Union Readings on the Theoryand Practice of European Integration Boulder CO Lynne Rienner

Nugent Neill 2002 The Government and Politics of the European Union Durham Duke UniversityPress

US Senate Concurrent Resolution 58 2001 Accessed online at httpthomaslocgovcgi-binqueryzc107SCONRES58ENR Accessed on November 10 2004

Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara 1998 ldquoSession I Addresses of the Participating Membersrdquo Accessedon November 26 2006 Available online at httpwwwspforgspinfKAIGI_Esession1_ehtml

Richardson Jeremy J ed 1996 European Union Power and Policy-Making London Routledge

Solidum Estrella D 2003 The Politics of ASEAN An Introduction to Southeast AsianRegionalism Singapore Eastern Universities Press

Tan Gerald 2000 ASEAN Economic Development and Cooperation Singapore Times AcademicPress

Tolkien J R R 1954 The Fellowship of the Ring [Book 1 of the trilogy] London George Allenand Unwin

___ 1955 The Return of the King [Book 3 of the trilogy] London George Allen and Unwin

Wallace William 2000 Policy-Making in the European Union Oxford Oxford University Press


103

A comparable process of community-building has of course beenevident in Europe since the Second World War

4

The promotion ofeconomic ties among a small group of European countriesmdashinitiallyFrance Italy West Germany Belgium The Netherlands andLuxembourgmdashhas continued to expand to encompass an ever-growingarray of economic financial legal judicial legislative and political tiesA common foreign policy and a commitment to collective defensearrangements are further expressions of both shared interests andcommon concerns

The attractiveness of the European experiment in community-building has brought new adherents to its institutions The originalgroup of six nations has grown in stages to 25 the most recentexpansion having come about as a result of the end of the Cold Warand the collapse of Soviet hegemony (and the Soviet Union itself) overthe nations of central and eastern Europe and over the Baltic states(Latvia Lithuania and Estonia) The deepening of European unity hasled to the very concept of transnational European cooperation beingsuccessively renamed from the ldquoCommon Marketrdquo to the EuropeanEconomic Community (EEC) was one step from the EEC to theEuropean Union (EU) was another Each change of name has haddeep symbolic significance reflecting greater success more ambitiouscommitments and a larger sense of shared purpose

Europersquos citizens now elect representatives to a EuropeanParliament There are EU passports documents emblematic of amaturing political community Moreover there is a common currencywith countries surrendering the very symbols of sovereignty thehistorical reminders of independent nationhood that were once sovisibly a part of their coinage and bank notes More recently andperhaps inevitably the EU partner states have committed themselvesto a constitutionmdashreplacing the succession of treaties that formerlybound them togethermdashsuggesting yet again that by whatever name anembryonic ldquoUnited States of Europerdquo has begun to be born

As with all such documents the debate over the EU constitutionhas had two elements the first structural or institutional with differentstates seeking arrangements (for voting rights and representation) theyconsider most useful for their own interests the second ideological withdifferent points of view being expressed concerning the sort of wordsto be used to describe this evolving union

104

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1





5



105




6




106

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



7





107



8




9

108

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






10



ASEAN



109










110

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


CONSCIOUS


ANXIOUS


DESIRING


CONVINCED


BELIEVING


SOLEMNLY AGREE




111





112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1











113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































104

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1





5



105




6




106

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



7





107



8




9

108

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






10



ASEAN



109










110

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


CONSCIOUS


ANXIOUS


DESIRING


CONVINCED


BELIEVING


SOLEMNLY AGREE




111





112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1











113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































105




6




106

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



7





107



8




9

108

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






10



ASEAN



109










110

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


CONSCIOUS


ANXIOUS


DESIRING


CONVINCED


BELIEVING


SOLEMNLY AGREE




111





112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1











113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































106

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



7





107



8




9

108

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






10



ASEAN



109










110

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


CONSCIOUS


ANXIOUS


DESIRING


CONVINCED


BELIEVING


SOLEMNLY AGREE




111





112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1











113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































107



8




9

108

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






10



ASEAN



109










110

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


CONSCIOUS


ANXIOUS


DESIRING


CONVINCED


BELIEVING


SOLEMNLY AGREE




111





112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1











113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































108

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






10



ASEAN



109










110

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


CONSCIOUS


ANXIOUS


DESIRING


CONVINCED


BELIEVING


SOLEMNLY AGREE




111





112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1











113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































109










110

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


CONSCIOUS


ANXIOUS


DESIRING


CONVINCED


BELIEVING


SOLEMNLY AGREE




111





112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1











113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































110

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


CONSCIOUS


ANXIOUS


DESIRING


CONVINCED


BELIEVING


SOLEMNLY AGREE




111





112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1











113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































111





112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1











113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































112

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1











113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































113









114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































114

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


11









115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































115




+








116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































116

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1







117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































117








118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































118

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1












119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































119




120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































120

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1


12


ARF




121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































121


APEC







ASEAN

=


=


122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































122

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1






123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































123



13





124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




















































124

Politics amp Policy

Vol 35 No 1



14



RECOGNIZING


CONSCIOUS


MINDFUL


CONVINCED


HAVE HEREBY AGREED



















Conclusion

















Notes





















References




































































Conclusion

















Notes





















References































































Conclusion

















Notes





















References


























































Conclusion

















Notes





















References





















































Conclusion

















Notes





















References
































































Notes





















References



























































Notes





















References






















































Notes





















References



































































References
























































References

















































































































Documents

Asian Values and the Asia Pacific Community: Shared Interests and Common Concerns