Asaale Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ1) · Asaale Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ1) Geographical Features ¥ Asaale pastoral livelihood zone is located in the northern tip of Afar Regional

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Asaale Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ1)

Geographical Features

• Asaale pastoral livelihood zone is located in the northern tip of Afar Regional State, bordering Tigray to the east and Eritrea to the north and northeast.

• Generally lowland with altitude ranging from 116m below sea level to 700m above sea level. There are two lakes - Asaale and Afdera.

• The climate is generally dry with an annual average temperature in excess of 300C and total annual rainfall of less than 250mm.

• The zone is located in the northern part of the so-called Afar Triangle (part of the region covered by the Rift valley). This part of the rift valley is characterised by hot springs, active and dormant volcanoes and cinder cones.

• Seasonal streams flowing from both the western and eastern plateaux usually dry up on the sandy plains and in the lakes.

Population and Geographic Coverage

Admin Zone District Rural Population

LZ % of population Population no. in LZ

Zone 2 Abaala 33,743 59% 19,908

Dallol 57,075 49% 27,967

Berhale 43,226 85% 36,742

Koneba 45,185 82% 37,052

Total Population of Asaale Pastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 11 %) 121,669

Source: Population figures – July 2007 CSA (estimates based on 1994 census)

Livelihoods

Livelihoods: Pastoralism is the main livelihood with camel and shoats (sheep/goats) being the most dominant/important species. Camels are used for salt packing and trade. Salt mining is another major livelihood in the zone.

Land and water: Land is owned communally therefore access to pasture and water is free. Water is scarce as run-off water dries up in the sandy plains and lakes. During the dry season there is migration to neighbouring southern and eastern parts of Tigray region.

Food, income and expenditure: Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals such as maize and wheat in addition to livestock products such as meat and milk. The sale of livestock, salt mining and the renting out of pack animals are the main sources of income. For the poor additional income is derived from self-employment (salt mining) while for the middle and better-off it comes from the sale of livestock and salt trading. Staple food purchases comprise the biggest proportion of expenditure for all wealth groups; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs.

Vulnerabilities and responses: The main vulnerabilities are chronic water shortage, recurrent drought and animal and human diseases. Risk-minimising strategies include the extended duration of seasonal migration, migration to distant areas, and intra-household interdependence. Coping strategies

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include selling more livestock, increased salt mining, slaughtering livestock for household consumption, reducing/adjusting food consumption, wild food consumption, seeking support from relatives/sub-clan members, and seeking relief assistance.

Migration: Livestock migration follows a seasonal pattern. In normal dry periods migration is to the

eastern edges of the Tigrayan highlands (Enqot, Desea, Wajirat and Dergeagen) but during extreme dry seasons it is to distant areas such as Enderta (southern Tigray) and Womberta (eastern Tigray).

Markets: There are major markets within the zone at Berhale, Shiket and Afdera and outside the zone at Mekele, Mekoni and Adigudom (southern Tigray) and Atsbi, Edaga-hamus and Agulae (eastern Tigray). The markets outside the livelihood zone are especially important for livestock sales.

Social services: The availability of and access to schools and health services varies between the districts (woredas) in the zone. Abala, Koneba and Erebti have better services than Berhale, Dalol and Afdera districts. The limited number of schools and health centres that exist are under-equipped and under-staffed. The harsh climatic conditions mean that skilled government officers are reluctant to work in these areas.

Infrastructure: Most districts in the zone are accessible through Tigray region and connect to major towns in Tigray such as Mekelle, Wukro and Alamata. There are a number of seasonal roads; one from Agulae to Berhale and another from Abaale district to Kuha town (in Tigray).

Wealth Characteristics

Wealth is determined by number of livestock. The proportion of households in the poor and middle groups is the same. Camel ownership is important due to the harsh climatic conditions. The poor do not own camel.

Population Distribution of Wealth Groups

Poor

40%

Middle

40%

Better-off

20%

Poor Middle Better-off

Household size

6-7 8 – 10

11 – 13

Livestock holdings:

Shoats Cattle Camels Donkeys Pack Camel

10-15 1-3 0 0 0

55-60 6-8 6-8 0-2 1-2

100-140 14-16 14-16 2-4 2-4

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Food Sources

Sources of Income

Livestock product sales, livestock sales, self-employment and the salt trade are the sources of cash income. The most important sources of cash for both middle and better-off households are the sale of livestock and the salt trade. For poor households it is self-employment and the sale of livestock.

Salt mining is an important livelihood activity in the zone. The poor excavate the salt from the lakes whilst the middle and better-off households rent out camels for its transportation to Berahle, Wukro, Agulae and Mekele. The construction of the Agulae-Berahle road has reduced the importance of pack animals as a mode of transport and as such the amount of cash obtained from this activity has reduced significantly in the recent years. To mitigate against this the local government has prohibited the use of motor vehicles beyond Berahle trade centre so that communities can still receive an income from camel rental.

Expenditure Patterns

All wealth groups spend the bulk of their income on the purchase of staple foods; the remainder is spent on household items, clothes, social services and inputs.

Poor households spend 58% of their income on staple foods. Middle and better-off households spend a lower proportion of their income on staple foods (39% and 31% respectively) because as they own more livestock they consume more livestock products than poor households.

The middle and better-off wealth group have higher expenditure on household items, clothing and inputs.

All households are vulnerable to fluctuations in the price of livestock and staple foods/grains.

In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day.

Livestock products, cereal purchases, food aid and gifts are the main sources of food. In a typical year, better-off households obtain more than 50% their annual food needs from livestock products. The remainder is obtained from cereals purchased from markets. The middle and poor households purchase about 50% of their annual food requirement from markets. For the poor this means the expenditure of a substantial proportion of their annual cash income. Livestock products and food aid are the second most important food sources for middle and poor households. The poor are also reliant on gifts (zakaat). The combination of food aid and gifts accounts for about a quarter of their annual food needs.

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Seasonal Calendar

July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April May June

Seasons Karma Gilaal Deda Gilaal Sugum Hagai

Rainfall Main rainy season Dry/cold light rain No rain 2nd rain season Hot/dry

Pasture availability High quality Dry, poor quality Improved pasture Limited or no pasture

Livestock movement Return to original grazing areas Internal/external migration within the zone Migration to Tigray

Camel breeding High Low Low High Low

Camel milking High Low Medium High Low

Cattle breeding High Low Low Medium/high Low

Cattle milking High Low Low High Low

Shoat breeding High Low Low High Low

Goat milking High Low Medium High low

Hunger periods Low High Medium High

Livestock sales Low Medium High Medium/Low High

Cereal purchase Low demand High demand/high prices Medium demand High demand/high prices

Salt mining activities Low High Medium/low High

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities

• Drought • Lack of rainfall in neighbouring Tigray region • Decline in crop production in Tigray and Amhara regions • Chronic water shortage • Livestock diseases such as anthrax (geno), trypanosomosis (deta lekoma), calf diarrhoea (korbahi),

mange mite (agara) - common during the dry seasons of hagai and gilal. • Human diseases such as malaria and water-borne diseases • Conflicts over pasture/water resources • Livestock & grain price fluctuations

Asaale pastoral livelihoods depend on the narrow belt along the eastern escarpment of Eastern Tigray (eastern edges of Saesi-Tsaeda, Emba, Atsbi-Womberta, Didiba-Dergeagen and Hintalo-Wajirat) the northern most part of the belg rain recipient areas of Ethiopia. The absence of rain during March and April not only affects crop production in these areas but also affects the availability of water for humans and animals in the livelihood zone.

Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies

• Camel production instead of cattle • Slaughtering of young calves • Income diversification especially for the

poor households • Migration in search of casual labour • Seeking communal support and

assistance from relatives and neighbours • Engagement in opportunistic farming,

especially in high altitude areas

• Extension of the duration of seasonal migration • Migration to distant areas - Enqot, Desea, Wajirat and

Dergeagen in the Tigrayan highlands • Intra-household interdependence • Increased salt mining and trade • Increased livestock sales • Increased charcoal/firewood collection and sales • Wild food consumption - medera, hida, alay and garsa

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Normal and Reference Year Definitions

The reference year selected is July 2004 - June 2005

Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year 2004/05

Currency: Ethiopian Birr

Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages)

1 camel equivalent to 7 quintals of maize and 5 quintals of wheat flour;

1 cattle equivalent to 2.6 quintals of maize and 2 quintals of wheat flour;

2 shoats equivalent to 1 quintal of maize;

2 shoats equivalent to 82kgs of wheat flour. Prices (ETB): Livestock prices: Camel = 1,200; Cattle = 450; 1 Shoat = 95; Grain prices: Maize/100kgs = 170; Wheat/100kgs = 230

Indicators to Monitor

! Karma/Sugum/Deda rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and coverage

! Rainfall in Amhara/Tigray regions: Sufficiency, distribution & crop production

! Pasture and water situations: Quality, quantity, sufficiency, alternative pasture sites

! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices; also in neighbouring regions of Tigray and Amhara

! Disease: Human and livestock disease outbreaks

! Coping mechanisms: Degree of resorting to, and effectiveness

! Security situation: Clan conflicts – who, why and effect on food security; other conflicts and potential effects

! Livestock production; conceptions, births and herd size fluctuation

! Salt mining: price, quantity and flow

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations

! Rangeland improvements in the Kala valley (lowland flood plains): The Kala valley has 4000 hectares of flood plains where seasonally flooding rivers from Wajirat’adi, Gudeom and Acheza and others join together and form a large flood valley. The flood waters can be used for irrigation of food and fodder crops

! Develop the capacity of pastoral communities to harness and use the floodwaters from the Tigray escarpment for irrigation of food and fodder crops. Small scale irrigation development is possible in selected areas of the zone

! Improve and strengthen educational, health and livestock services in terms of access and quality

! Improve and invest in salt mining production activities in Lake Afdera and Lake Asaale

! Infrastructure improvements in roads connecting different districts (woredas)

! Develop and improve water sources such as shallow wells, etc.

! Promote flood and rain water harvesting to address chronic water shortages

! Promote and support the involvement of local groups in diversified livelihoods such as bee-keeping, poultry breeding and cereal banks

! Establish a community based tourism project at Hamedeilla village adjacent to Lake Asaale

Timeline

2006: [STUDY YEAR]

Karma/sugum: normal rains, livestock production normal, usual migrations;

2005: Karma: below normal rains; migration to Tigray and Amhara regions; purchase of crop residues; low livestock production. Sugum: Normal rains; low livestock production, food aid continued;

2004:

Karma: Below normal rains; no livestock conceptions/low milk yield; livestock migration to Tigray region. Sugum: below normal rains: livestock migration continued; food aid distribution; livestock mortality continued.

2003: Karma: Below normal rains; abnormal migration to Tigray region; food aid distribution; livestock mortality Sugum; below normal rains; low livestock conception; early livestock migration to usual migration areas within the zone.

2002 :

Karma: normal rains; normal livestock/crop production; no usual migration. Sugum: average rainfall; normal livestock production, ToT normal and usual migration.

2001: Karma/Sugum: Average rains; normal livestock production, pasture/water conditions normal; no unusual migration.

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Asaale Agro-Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ2)


• Soil: the highland escarpment is dominated by barren rocks whilst the lowland soils are predominately sandy. Fertile soil eroded from the highlands deposits in flood plains along riverbanks.

• Permanent rivers flowing from Tigray highlands are important water sources for crop production as well as livestock and human consumption. Seasonal rainfall, especially the karma rains, is important for pasture and browse (thick, thorny bush) growth and to replenish water sources - mainly ponds and springs in some high altitude areas.




Zone 2 Abaala 33,743 51% 17,209

Dallol 57,075 41% 23,401

Berhale 43,226 15% 6,484

Koneba 45,185 18% 8,133

Total Population of Asaale Agro-Pastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural Pop = 4.2%) 55,227


Livelihoods

Livelihoods: Agricultural crop production - mainly maize and sorghum - and livestock rearing - mainly cattle and shoats.

Land: Land is under both communal and private ownership. Cultivable land along river banks used for crop production is individually owned while the remainder is communally owned.

Migration: Nuclear settlements, with restricted movement of livestock during different seasons, is common. In a normal year livestock movements follow a regular seasonal pattern within this zone and adjacent areas of Tigray region. Milk-producing cows and oxen are usually left at home to feed on husks and crop residues and one or two household members migrate with the livestock. During a bad year, the pattern of movement changes depending on the type and severity of the hazards.

Food, income and expenditure: Own crop production constitutes more than 50% of annual food consumption for all wealth groups. Livestock products, purchased foods and food aid are also important sources of food. Livestock and livestock product sales, labour (employment) and self-employment are common sources of income. The purchase of staple foods is the main expenditure item and in poor households it accounts for the majority of their total expenditure.

• Located within the Asaale pastoral livelihood zone districts of Dalol, Koneba, Berhale and Abala.

• Comprised of areas along the escarpment and in the foothills of east-west Tigray highlands and areas in the arid and semi-arid lowlands.

• In lowland areas there is less vegetation than in the highland areas.

• Average annual rainfall is less than 250mm but crop production is based on flood waters harvested from the Tigray escarpment.

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Markets: There are markets within and outside the livelihood zone. Large markets selling large livestock (cattle and camels), significant numbers of shoats, basic household items, food and clothes in bulk can be found in district (woreda) capitals such as Abaala and Berhale and in areas in neighbouring Tigray region such as Mekelle, Edegahamus, Agula and Astbi. Important minor markets where small livestock (mainly shoats), basic household items, food items and non-food items are traded are found in Adequa, Kuneba and Baada. Access to markets is generally poor and most of the kebeles are poorly integrated with markets in the district capitals due to lack of road infrastructure. As a result the markets sphere of influence is hardly felt in the livelihood zone.

Employment: Poor and middle households obtain significant income from casual labour employment. The main casual income sources are agricultural activities during crop harvesting and activities related to salt mining and transportation. Self-employment, mostly in salt mining and trading, are important income sources for all wealth groups.

Social Support: There exists strong communal and social support across all wealth groups. In addition to the usual gifts (both in kind and cash), middle and better-off households allow poor households to use their oxen belonging to for cultivation. In exchange, poor households will usually give husks and crop residues (oxen fodder) to better-off households.

Vulnerabilities and responses: The major hazards include rainfall delay/failure, livestock diseases, crop pests & weeds and flooding. Planting fast growing and drought resistant as well as disease resistant crops, livestock migration, and construction of small dikes along farm lands are some of the risk minimising measures used while households employ different coping strategies depending on the type of hazard and magnitude of the problem as well as their wealth (assets): these may include; increased sale of livestock, increased cereal purchases, increasing the frequency and scale of casual labor and self-employment activities, abnormal livestock migration, and increased consumption of wild foods.

Infrastructure: generally poor infrastructure. There are only two all weather roads; Mekele-Abaala and Agulae-Berahle. Transportation to and from Konneba and most parts of Dalol in the livelihood zone is only possible during the dry season.

Social services: Social services are limited, with few education and health facilities. There is only one secondary school (in Abaala) in the whole administration area of Zone 2 which contains seven districts.


Wealth is determined by a combination of cultivable land and livestock ownership. The value placed on these two wealth-defining assets varies along with altitude; communities in higher altitudes give more value to land while those in lower altitudes place more value on livestock ownership.


Household size 6-8 9-10 10-15

Livestock holdings:

Shoats Cattle Camels Donkeys Oxen

7-18 0-2 0

0-1 0

13-27 3-7 0-4 1-2 1-2

33-63 5-15 5-10 2-3 2-4

Land holding

(hectares)

0-0.75 0.75-1.75 1-3.5

population distribution of Wealth Groups

Poor

37%

Middle

36%

Better-off

27%

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Households in all wealth groups receive food aid in a normal year which constitutes 28%, 23% and 18% for the poor, middle and better-off respectively. The poor also receive payment in kind.

Food Sources

Sources of Income

The sale of livestock and self-employment in activities related to salt mining and transportation are common sources of income across all wealth groups. Poor and middle households also rely on income from employment (agricultural work during crop harvesting and employment in salt mining and transportation) while the better-off obtain income from sale of livestock products.


The bulk of poor households’ expenditure goes on the purchase of staple foods. The proportion of total income that households spend on staple foods decreases with the increase in wealth. Expenditure on household items, social services, clothes, and other goods generally increases with income.


Own-food crop production, livestock production, market purchases, payment in kind and food aid are the major sources of food for all wealth groups, with the exception of payment in kind which is particular to poor households. The contribution of these different sources to a households annual consumption varies among wealth groups; own crop and livestock products are important sources of food for middle and better-off households, and cereal purchases and food aid are important sources for the poor.

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Seasonal Calendar

Key: ! increase " decrease


Key vulnerabilities

• Lack or failure of karma/sugum rains • Lack of rainfall in neighbouring Tigray region • Decline in crop production in Tigray and Amhara regions • Chronic water shortage • Livestock diseases • Human diseases such as malaria, water-borne diseases • Conflicts over pasture/water resources • Livestock and grain price fluctuations

Months Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Seasons Karma Gilaal Sugum Hagai

Climate Rainfall Karma rains Deda Sugum

Land Preparation A

Planting

Green Consumption

Agricultural Calendar

Harvesting

Heat

Birth

Milk ! ! ! ! ! !

Disease

Livestock sale ! ! ! !

Cattle Migration

Heat

Birth

Milk

Disease

Shoats

Livestock sale ! !

Food Purchase ! ! ! " " " " " "

Crop Sale ! !

Local labour Local labour

Pasture Avail. of feed ! ! ! ! ! " " " ! ! " "

Hunger Season Hunger Season

Malaria

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• Herd species diversification and splitting

• Planting disease and drought-resistant short cycle crops

• Migration • Constructing small dikes along farm

lands • Diversification of income sources • Managing resources

• Extra ordinary animal sales • Changes in food consumption and expenditure patterns • Increased wild food consumption • Increased labour and self-employment activities - in salt

mining and transportation • Increased scale of livestock migration - may involve

changes herd composition, distance, duration, destination

• Increased staple food purchase


The reference year was September 2005 to August 2006


Currency: Ethiopian Birr. Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) 1 cattle is equivalent to 4 quintals of maize or 3 quintals of wheat 1 goat is equivalent to 65kgs of maize or 50kgs of wheat 1 labour day is equivalent to 5kg Maize or 5.8kg wheat Prices (ETB): Livestock prices: Camel = 1,000; Cattle = 800; Goat (local) = 130 Grain prices: 1 quintal of maize = 200; 1 quintal of wheat = 260 Labour/day = 15



! Rainfall in Amhara/Tigray regions; Sufficiency, distribution & crop production


! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices; also in neighbouring regions of Tigray and Amhara






Timeline

2007 Karma/sugum: good rains; crop and livestock prodn normal; normal livestock migration; livestock disease in Dalul woreda.

2006 [REFERENCE YEAR] Karma: Good rains and conditions; sufficient flood water for crop production. Sugum: Good rains and normal conditions.

2005: Karma: Poor rains and conditions; insufficient floodwater for crop production; livestock disease. Sugum: Poor rains; insufficient flood water.

2004: Karma: Good rains; flooding problems and pests on farmlands. Sugum: Poor rains; pest infestation.

2003: Drought year Karma: Very poor rains and conditions; insufficient floodwater for crop production. Sugum: Very poor rains and conditions.

2002: Karma: Very poor rains and conditions. Sugum: Poor rains; livestock migration to Tigray region; food aid rationed.

2001: Karma: Good rains and conditions. Sugum: Poor rains; low crop/livestock production.

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! Improve livestock markets and livestock marketing; improve market infrastructure and support livestock and commodity trade

! Improve water access variability; increase number of permanent water sources

! Improve agricultural extension service provision (pesticides, improved seeds, fertilizers and trainings) and irrigation facilities (support the construction of small scale irrigation facilities like dams, ponds, diversion canals and dikes)

! Increase and sustain for the future the income and benefits households currently obtain from salt mining

! Improve social services and infrastructure – animal and human health, education, extension services, road networks, and communication infrastructure. This will expand production possibilities and strengthen coping strategies

! Provide soft loans for local pastoral associations or groups in order to benefit during the dry season when livestock prices are very low and sale at better/higher prices

! Improve management of natural resources, especially grazing and water sources. Strengthen efficiency of livestock movement and tracking through interventions that provide relevant, appropriate and timely information, enhance reciprocal grazing with neighbouring areas like the adjacent Tigray highlands and conflict resolution mechanisms

! Develop communities’ capacities to harness and use the floodwaters from Tigray escarpment for food and fodder production. Small scale irrigation development is possible using these flood waters

! Introduce fast-maturing and drought-resistant fodder seeds for the agro-pastoral communities which they can sell to Asaale pastoralists

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Teru Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ3)


Two agro-ecological areas: • The ‘highland’ areas of Yalo, Megale, &

Gulina which are adjacent to the Amhara and Tigray highlands. The altitude is over 800m above sea-level; rainfall ranges from 700-850mm per year.

• The lowland areas of Dubti, Aura, Ewa, Teru and parts of Chifra. Rainfall here is less than 500mm per year.

• Permanent rivers - Mille, Waama, Megale, Erebti, Awra and Ewa

• Seasonal rivers - Gollina, Genu, Allena, Fokissa and Deraytu - emerge from Amhara region and cut across the zone. Others - Wales, Debena, Rakrek, Gassore and Mesgid - emerge from the highlands of Tigray cross Yalo and flow into Teru woreda (district).

• There are three rainy seasons; Karma (July-Aug-Sept); Sugum (March-April) and Dedaa (December). The

karma is the main rainy season. • There is a small amount of seismic activity (volcanic eruptions and minor earthquakes) in the Teru

depression in Teru district.




Zone 1 Dubti 55,450 18% 9,981

Erebti 46,888 87% 40,793 Zone 2 Megale 23,870 100% 23,870

Yalo 24,953 100% 24,953

Teru 42,892 100% 42,892

Gulina 20,812 100% 20,812

Ewa 42,634 100% 42,634

Zone 4

Aura 22,442 100% 22,442

Total Population of Teru Pastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural Population = 20%) 228,377


Livelihoods

Livelihoods: Teru Pastoral Livelihood Zone is remote and livestock-dependent – mainly cattle, camels, goats and sheep. A traditional and extensive livestock rearing system is practiced. A small number of households along the permanent rivers practice agro-pastoralism.

Land and water: Land is divided by clans, communally owned but managed by clan elders. There are both permanent rivers (Mille, Waama, Megalle, Erebti, Awra and Ewa) and seasonal rivers which flow from Amhara and Tigray regions such as the Gollina, Genu, Allena, Fokissa, Deraytu, Wales, Debena, Rakrek, Gassore and Mesgid. In Teru district, there is no permanent river, hence chronic water shortages. The same problem exists in the northern kebeles of Dubti.

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Food, income and expenditure: The main sources of food are market purchases and livestock products (milk and meat). Tigray and Amhara regions supply the major cereals such as maize and teff. Various varieties of wild foods are also consumed, both in normal and bad years, during the dry months. The sale of livestock is the only source of cash income for middle and better-off households. Cash income in poor households is generated through livestock sales and supplemented by self-employment (casual labour) and zakaat (gifts).

Vulnerabilities and responses: The main hazard affecting livelihoods is drought, which results in reduced livestock production, reduced livestock prices due to poor body condition and increased food prices. Livestock is vulnerable to diseases such as trypanosomiasis, pasteurolosis, blackleg and anthrax. Human diseases such as malaria, respiratory infections and water-borne diseases are common. Since pastoralists are dependent on the neighbouring regions of Amhara and Tigray for the supply of food, they are vulnerable to rainfall failure in these areas, which results in food shortages, high food prices and lack of markets for livestock.

Migration: In normal years the movement of livestock starts in October and is generally to the closest grazing areas. In bad years there is migration to different grazing areas inside the zone and also movement to the neighbouring regions of Tigray and Amhara.

Markets: Access to markets is generally poor due to; lack of and poor quality roads; lack of transportation; lack of information about markets, and the long distances to major markets. As a result, the selling price of livestock tends to be low and the purchase price of goods tends to be high. The main market is located at Yalo, a woreda (district) town, and is a major livestock market. There are also important markets outside the zone such as in Chifra, as well as markets in neighbouring districts in Amhara and Tigray.

Infrastructure: Access to areas within the zone varies between district. Teru district is the least accessible due to its poor road network and that of the adjacent areas of Dubti, Uwa and Uwra. During the wet season, floods and seasonal rivers flowing from Amhara and Tigray disrupt transport services. Districts bordering Amhara and Tigray are easily accessed through these regions. The poor condition of road infrastructure combined with the absence of transport services often leads to extreme food shortages and seasonal price fluctuations.

Social services: Social services such as schools, health and veterinary services are limited. The more remote and least accessible districts - Ewa, Uwa, Teru and parts of Megale, Yallo, Gulina and Dubti - have the least number of social services. Areas closer to major towns, roads and bordering the neighbouring regions of Amhara and Tigray have better access to these services (as well as better access to markets).

Household wealth is determined by the number of livestock owned. Livestock are a source of food, income and status.


Population Distribution of Wealth Groups

poor

35%

middle

40%

better-off

25%



Livestock holdings:

Shoats Cattle Camels Donkeys

15-22 3-7 0-4 0

22-37 15-25 7-10 0-1

60-120 25-45 25-30 1-2

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Food Sources

Sources of Income

Households in all wealth groups obtain most of their cash income from the sale of livestock. This is the only source of income for the middle and better-off households. The poor may obtain income from other sources such as self-employment and zakaat (gifts) from better off households and close relatives. Supplementary income sources for the poor vary from salt mining in Teru and Megale districts to engagement in casual labour, herding and the sale of mats and Arabic gum in others. Livestock prices are low in this zone compared to other pastoral livelihood zones.


The poor spend proportionally more on staple food than other households. Inputs are limited to livestock drugs. Expenditure on social services relates to medicine and exercise books for school children.

The poor spend 50% or their total cash income on staple foods. This proportion decreases upwards through the wealth groups with middle and better-off households spending approximately 38% and 29% respectively.


Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals (maize, wheat, and sorghum) supplemented by milk, butter and meat from their own livestock. There is a proportional increase in the amount of livestock products a household, consumes with better-off households consuming the highest proportion.

Poor households depend on gifts that constitute between 10-20% of their minimum food energy needs. Income and food purchasing power are very low and the poor are unable to fully cover their minimum food energy needs in most years. All households received food aid. In poor households this contributed to a relatively higher proportion of their food consumption.

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Seasonal Calendar

July Aug Sept

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April May June


Rainfall Main rainy season Dry/cold Deda rains dry & cool 2nd rain season Hot/dry

Water availability High water levels Decreasing volume of water levels Improving Dry, no water


Livestock movement Grazing at home & close areas Internal/external migration within the zone Migration to Amhara

Camel conception High No camel breeding moderate No camel conception

Camel births & milking High Medium Low Medium High Low

Cattle breeding High Low Low Medium/high Low

Cattle milking High Low Low Medium/high Low

Shoat breeding High Low Low Medium/high Low

Goat milking High Low Medium Medium to high Low

Hunger periods Low High High

Livestock sales Low Medium High Medium/Low High

Cereal purchase Low High demand, high prices & low supply High demand/high prices

The amount of rain determines the availability of pasture and water. The karma rains (Jul-Sept) are the most important; Sugum rains (Mar-April) are usually less intense and have been poorly distributed in recent years. The sugum rains are very important for pasture regeneration and water availability after the long dry season. In some years dedaa rains/light showers occur in late December/early January. Apart from regenerating browse and improving the availability of water, the dedaa rains are particularly important for the conception of cattle. Cattle conceived during this time of the year give birth at the beginning or middle of the karma rains. Rainfall performance in the neighbouring regions of Amhara and Tigray is also important since it affects livelihoods in this zone.


Key vulnerabilities

• Recurrent droughts • Chronic water shortages • Livestock diseases such as trypanosomiasis, pasteurolosis, blackleg and anthrax • Human diseases such as malaria and water-borne diseases • Low livestock prices and high grain prices • Poor transport/communication infrastructure restricting access to markets • Seismic activity including earth tremors (especially in Teru district) • Food crop failure in the neighbouring Amhara and Tigray regions


• Livestock migration to highland areas • Increased livestock sales • Purchase of fodder for lactating breeds • Slaughtering of calves • Herd splitting • Increased gifts in the form of food and

cash • Traditional restocking mechanisms

referred to partially compensate for losses in bad years and cushion against drought risks

• Increased inter-household social support • Reducing non-essential expenditure on items such as

tobacco, coffee and clothes • Reducing food consumption and adjusting eating habits • Consumption of wild foods • Slaughtering of livestock for meat consumption • High expenditure on staple food purchases • In extreme cases, migration to towns in search of

social/economic support

30


The reference year selected July 2004 – June 2005



Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) 1 cattle equivalent to 3.5 quintal of Maize 2 goats equivalent to 1 quintal of maize 1 goat equivalent to 43-46kgs of sorghum 1 goat equivalent to 42-44kgs of wheat flour Prices (ETB): Livestock prices: Cattle = 500-550; Goat = 75-80; Sheep = 75-80; Camel = 750-1250; Grain prices: Maize/quintal = 150; Sorghum/quintal = 175; Wheat/quintal = 180



! Rainfall in Amhara/Tigray regions; Sufficiency, distribution & crop production



! Livestock migration; pattern/direction, composition of herds, usual or unusual

! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, sorghum, teff; seasonal versus normal prices; conditions in neighbouring Tigray and Amhara regions




! Seismic activity


! Develop/improve water sources such as shallow wells, springs, boreholes, etc. in areas of chronic water shortage

! Improve human health services especially in isolated and remote districts

! Improve access to livestock health facilities: government vets, private pharmacies; train and equip community animal health workers (CAHWs)

! Harness run-off surface water from the highlands to avert flooding

! Build a bridge at Gulina on the Kelwan - Kobo Road which is blocked during the rainy seasons by flooding

! Improve livestock marketing opportunities by connecting these areas to Amhara and Tigray regions

! Support community groups such as women/vulnerable to start cereal banks, petty trade

! Implement productive safety net for vulnerable groups/pastoral drop-outs where they can work on community projects such local road improvements, rangeland rehabilitation, etc.

Timeline

2006: [STUDY YEAR] Karma: normal rains; livestock production good; favourable terms of terms; no unusual livestock migration. Sugum: normal rains; livestock prodn normal; no usual migration; livestock prices improve but grain prices remain normal;

2005: [REFERENCE YEAR] Karma: below average rains; abnormal livestock migration to Amhara & Tigray regions; purchase residue as livestock feed; Sugum: Average rains; normal limited livestock births; reduced livestock production; normal seasonal migration;

2004: Below normal: 2/5 Karma: Below average rains; livestock production declined; livestock migration to Amhara & Tigray regions; Sugum: Below average rains; limited livestock conception; low milk yields; livestock prices decline; cereal price increases; ToT not favourable;

2003: Near Normal: 2.5/5 Karma: Average rainfall; normal livestock production, livestock/grain prices normal. Sugum: below average rainfall; low livestock production; internal livestock migration and stable livestock/grain prices.

2002: Normal: 3/5 Karma: average rainfall; localised; livestock production normal; localised diseases outbreak causing livestock mortality; livestock/grain prices normal; Sugum: average rains; normal pasture and water levels; livestock production normal; no serious migration.

2001: Above normal: 4/5 Karma/Sugum: good rains; livestock production normal; livestock and grain prices favourable; no abnormal livestock migration.

31

Eli-Daar Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ4)


• Eli-Daar pastoral livelihood zone is located in northeastern part of Afar Regional State, bordering Eritrea and Djibouti.

• Predominantly semi-arid lowland: low-lying altitude ranging from 80 metres below sea level to 250 metres above sea level. Lake Afdera and the faulted Danakil Depression are found in this livelihood zone.

• The climate is generally hot and dry. Annual rainfall is less than 100mm falling during two rainy seasons Karma (July to September) and Sugum (February to April).

• There are two dry seasons per year; hagai (May to June) and gilaal (October to December).

• The area is characterised by high temperatures reaching 50°C during hagai (May to June). • There are no any permanent rivers but there are seasonal rivers such as the Emino and Kelelu. The main sources of water are hand-dug wells (ellas), ponds, and surface water. • The vegetation is mainly drought resistant plants such as eebto (acacia tortilis), halito (balanitus rotondofolia) and oudayto (balanitus aegyptica).




Eli-Daar 61,757 100% 61,757

Afdera 19,391 35% 6,787

Afambo 19,263 27% 5,201

Zone 1

Assyaita 53,747 47% 25,261

Total Population of Eli-Daar Pastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 8.8 %) 99,006


Livelihoods

Livelihoods: Pastoralism: camel and shoats (sheep/goats) are the most important species. Camel for salt packing and trade are common. Due to the harsh climatic conditions, a limited number of households keep cattle. Wealth is determined by number of livestock owned, in particular the number of camels.

Land and water: Land is owned communally and so access to pasture and water is free. Water is mainly accessed through hand-dug wells, ponds and seasonal rivers such as the Emino and Kelelu. During the dry hot season, when water sources dry up there is migration to the banks of River Awash and then a return to original grazing areas during rainy seasons.

Food, income and expenditure: Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals such as maize, wheat and sorghum in addition to livestock products such as meat and milk. Livestock sales, salt mining and trade are the main sources of income. The poor derive additional income from self-employment in salt mining and selling firewood, local mats (dibora) and palm (onga). Poor households may also receive financial gifts from relatives. All wealth groups spend most of their income

32

on food; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs. Poor and middle households also have to buy water.

Vulnerabilities and responses: Main vulnerabilities are recurrent drought, chronic water shortages, general market shocks, animal and human diseases and poor transport and communication infrastructure. Risk-minimising strategies include livestock species diversification, water harvesting/conservation techniques, and livestock migration. Coping strategies include extra sales of livestock, increased salt mining, slaughtering livestock for household consumption, reducing/adjusting food consumption, wild food consumption, seeking support from relatives/sub-clan members, and seeking relief assistance.

Migration: Migration tends to be within the zone when there is water and pasture but during the dry gilaal period extends into neighbouring zones, often towards the banks of Awash River and Teru and Chiffra areas. In bad years, migration can be to as far as the Amhara highlands as well as to neighbouring areas in Djibouti.

Markets: The main local markets at Buree, Manda, Elidar, Galafi and Dichoto are where pastoralists sell small livestock and purchase staple foods. Camel and cattle are sold in major livestock markets such as Assaiyta, Yallo and Chiffra. Despite close proximity to Djibouti, there are minimal cross-border livestock sales.

Social services: Education and health services are limited. The few health centres and clinics that exist lack essential drugs and are poorly equipped and under-staffed. Schools are limited and lack both equipment and teaching staff. Most areas are difficult to access, with the exception of areas along the Assab (Eritrea) and the Djibouti-Ethiopia roads that pass through the zone.

Other issues: Before the Ethio-Eritrean war (1998-2000), the road to Assab/Eritrea port was highly frequented and represented an important outlet for the livestock, salt and palm trades. Since the war the border has remained closed and there is limited livelihood interaction/trade in this area. There is also minimal trade between pastoralists in the zone and those in the north-western pastoral zone of Djibouti.

Wealth is determined by number of livestock owned. Camel ownership is considered more important than cattle due to their resilience to the harsh climatic conditions.



Household size 5-7 7 – 9 10 – 12

Livestock holdings:

Shoats Cattle Camels Donkeys Pack camel

21-30 0

1-3 0

no data

26-45 5-7 5-9 0-2

no data

48-80 6-10 10-20 1-3

no data

Population Distribution of wealth Groups

Poor

35%

Middle

35%

Better-off

30%

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Food Sources

Sources of Income

Livestock sales and self-employment are the main income sources across all wealth groups. Livestock sales constitute the main share of household income for better off and middle wealth groups. The poor receive most of their income from self-employment in activities such as selling firewood, palm (onga), hand-made mats (dibora) and salt mining. Middle and better-off households also engage in salt mining and mat making. Better-off households obtain income from salt mining both through direct participation in salt mining activities and through renting camel for mining and transporting salt. Salt is sold in highland areas of Ethiopia and in some cases in neighbouring Djibouti.


All wealth groups spend the bulk of their income on staple food purchases; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs. Poor households spend a high proportion (46%) of their income on the purchase of staple foods. Middle and better-off households spend a lower proportion of their income on the purchase of staple foods (40% and 31% respectively) because as they have higher livestock holdings they consume more livestock products than poor households.


Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals (maize, wheat and sorghum) supplemented by their own livestock products such as milk and meat. The poor receive gifts from the middle and better-off groups. Camel milk constitutes the majority of livestock products because of the high proportion of camels in this zone. Food aid is important in this zone due to the recurrent droughts. All wealth groups receive food aid due to communal targeting practices where resources are shared equally.

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Seasonal Calendar

July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June


Rainfall

Hunger periods High High

Camel breeding High Low

Camel milking and all milk sales High Low Low High Low

Cattle breeding High High


Shoat breeding High High

Goat milking High High

Moving to dry season grazing areas

Livestock sales Low Medium High Medium Low High

Cereal purchase Low High Medium/low High

Salt mining activities Low High Medium/low High


Key vulnerabilities

• Recurrent droughts • Chronic water shortages • Border closure and restrictions • Livestock and grain market shocks • Animal and human diseases • Poor transport/communication infrastructure • Loss of income from salt mining and the sale of palm (onga) and local hand-made mats (dibora)


• Camel production instead of cattle • Separation of livestock herds • Livelihood diversification such as petty

trade • Saving money in good years

• Livestock migration • Increased inter-household social support • Household strategies such as switching consumption

from non-essential to staple foods • Reducing food consumption and adjusting eating habits • Increase in salt mining

35


The reference year selected July 2003-June 2004



Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) 1 cattle equivalent to 3.25 quintals of maize or wheat; 1 goat equivalent to 37.5 kgs of maize or wheat 3 goats equivalent to 113 kgs of maize or wheat Prices (ETB): Livestock prices: Cattle = 650; Goat = 75; sheep = 85 Grain prices: Maize/quintal = 200; Wheat/quintal = 200


! Karma/Sugum Rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and coverage


! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices;




! Herd size: Unusual fluctuations in numbers

! Camel milk sales: Unusual fluctuations in volume of sales



! Develop water sources such as birkads, shallow wells, etc. to reduce chronic water shortages

! Protect and manage dry season rangelands

! Improve human health and veterinary services

! Establish and support women groups and co-operatives with funds to engage in small business and trade - livestock products such as milk, meat, ghee, hides and skins and local mats (dibora)

! Improve transport and communication facilities in order to improve marketing and market information

! Establish contingency and response planning for effective interventions during crises

! Establish community groups managed cereal banks to stabilize cereal prices at all times

! Support and promote conflict resolution and peace-building mechanisms through religious and clan leaders.

Timeline

2005 – 2006 [STUDY YEAR] Karma and Sugum: Rainfall failure, massive livestock mortality; pasture and water shortages; massive livestock migration to Awash river area and Amhara region.

2003 – 2004 [REFERENCE YR] Karma: good rains; normal livestock production; Near normal livestock and grain prices. Sugum: Normal/good rains, normal livestock production and markets.

2002 – 2003 Karma: Normal rains, livestock prices; good pasture and livestock production. Sugum: normal rains, pasture, livestock production near normal.

2001 – 2002 Karma: drought year due to poor sugum rains followed by below normal karma rains; high livestock out-migration; poor livestock condition; high cattle mortality; Sugum: poor rains, pasture; livestock migration; food aid provision begins

2000 – 2001 Karma: Normal rains; good livestock market. Sugum; poor rains, poor pasture, livestock migration,

1999 – 2000 Karma/sugum: Drought. Rain failure; far out-migration (highlands and some to Djibouti). High livestock mortality.

1998 – 1999 Karma: poor rains, normal pasture. Sugum: poor rains, pasture, production; beginning of drought.

36

Awsa ke Gewane Agro-pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ5)


• Awsa ke Gewane livelihood zone is divided into two areas: Awsa areas (Afambo and Assaiyta) and Middle Awash basin (Gewane and Amibara).

• Awsa areas have an average altitude ranging between 330-350m while in Middle Awash areas the altitude ranges between 500-600m above sea level.

• Awsa areas have an average annual rainfall of 122m and Middle Awash basin 320mm.

• Two main rainy seasons; sugum rains (February-March) and karma rains (July-September). The Awash River is the main source of water and a means of producing irrigated crops.

• Vegetation is a mix of shrubs, bushes and pastureland. Invasive weeds, particularly prosopis julifora, are a major threat to rangeland. • There are both large-scale government state farms and investor farms. Tendaho and Middle Awash

Agriculture Development farm are the main state farms providing casual employment opportunities to the local community and immigrant workers.

• The Middle Awash areas (Gewane and Amibara) are surrounded by Namelefan ke Baadu pastoral livelihood zone.




Zone 1 Dubti 55,450 66% 36,597

Afambo` 19,263 73% 14,062

Assyaita 53,747 53% 28,486

Zone 3 Gewane 32,959 20% 6,592

Amibara 52,759 5% 2,638

Total Population of Awsa ke Gewane LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 6.7 %) 88,375


Livelihoods

Livelihoods: Irrigated and rain-fed crop production combined with livestock rearing - mainly cattle and shoats (sheep/goats) - are the major livelihood activities. Casual labour employment in the both state agricultural and private investor farms is an important source of income for some areas and wealth groups.

Land: In Awsa areas, irrigated crop farming is well established; land is individually owned and well demarked; land close to irrigation canals is highly valued as it has access to water from the Awash River and productivity is high. In the Middle Awash basin, particularly in Gewane district (woreda), crop production started very recently. Land here is communally owned and managed, and so access is unrestricted and communities can till any available land. In Gewane areas, clan leaders negotiate and rent land to farm investors on a cash per hectare basis. The returns from the rented land are communally shared.

Crop production: In Awsa areas, irrigated crop production is predominant while in Gewane district, both irrigated and rain-fed crops are produced. The number of households taking up crop production is

37

increasing considerably in Gewane and Amibara. Within the next few years a large number of households in these areas will be fully engaged in crop production (like the agro-pastoralists in Awsa area). Some of the crops produced are; maize, haricot beans, sesame, sorghum, and date palms in Awsa areas.

Contractual Agreement: In Awsa (Afambo, Assyaita and Dubti); the most common contractual agreement in relationship to crop production is Yekul (equal share cropping) in which the very poor and landless poor rent land from better-off households and share the production costs and harvests. In Gewane woreda there is a contractual agreement between land-owners and charcoal producers; the charcoal producers are allowed to clear prosopis trees to make charcoal for sale but after clearing the land, it is handed-over to the land owners for cultivation.

Water Sources: The Awash River and its tributaries (Mille, Logia and Borkena) are the most important sources of water. Water is mainly accessed through rivers, ponds and seasonal rivers. In comparison to other livelihood zones, this zone has fair access to water sources. The Awash River floods from July to September if the meher rains in the Ethiopian highlands are good. Lakes Afambo, Abe and Gamare are located in this livelihood zone.

Food, income and expenditure: Food consumption is mainly own crops supplemented by livestock products. Most of the households purchase additional cereals/grains from the markets. Food aid is important for all wealth groups. Very poor households receive food in kind from middle and better-off households. Very poor and poor households spend a large proportion of their income on the purchase of cereals/grains from markets.

Vulnerabilities and responses: Main vulnerabilities are over-flooding of the Awash River, lack of sufficient flood waters from Awash River, lack of sufficient karma/sugum rains, livestock and human diseases, conflicts and prosopis julifora. Risk-minimising strategies include construction of flood dikes using local materials, livestock migration to wet grazing areas of Teru and Araamis ke Adaar pastoral livelihood zones, planting early maturing crops and the clearing and burning of prosopis. In bad years, middle and better-off households can cover most of their food purchases through a combination of livestock sales (selling more livestock at cheaper prices) and a reduction in non-food purchases. Migration: During ‘normal’ periods, livestock tend to stay within the original grazing areas (near the homestead) but sometimes move to along the banks of the Awash River. When the Awash River starts flooding, livestock migrates to Araamis ke Adaar and Teru pastoral livelihood zones. This is usually in the months of July-September when the karma rains have started in these areas. Livestock is taken to these areas by young men or casually employed herders. The rest of the family members stay behind. The livestock return when the floods subside in October-November. For most of the year, migration tends to be within the livelihood zone especially along the banks of rivers. During bad seasons, migration tends to be outwards into two directions; those near Awsa areas migrate to Teru, Araamis ke Adaar and further into Amhara and Tigray regions or stay around the River Awash banks; those in Gewane areas migrate to Dalifage, Semurobi and into Amhara region or areas in Awash, Awash National Park, Metahara (Oromiya region) and into foothills of Amhara region through Argoba special district.

Markets: In comparison to other livelihood zones, Awsa ke Gewane is relatively accessible in terms of roads and has good access to markets. Assyaita is one of the largest market centres in the Afar region and is the most important weekly market for livestock, food and non-food items in the Awsa area. Pastoralists from other livelihood zones such as Eli-daar and Teru sell their livestock at Assyaita market which attracts people not only from the region but also from neighbouring highland areas of Wollo and Tigray. Due to the proximity to market, a number of households have started to grow vegetables for sale there, especially onions and tomatoes. Other near-by livestock markets are located at Chiffra, Bati and Melka Werer.

Social services: There are a number of schools, hospitals and livestock services that exist in this zone especially at the district headquarters. In rural areas, however, access to social services in limited, school enrolment is low and health centres lack adequate manpower and equipment.

Infrastructure: The Ethiopia-Djibouti road passes through this zone. Given the large volume of traffic using this road it is of significance to the region as a whole and this livelihood zone in particular. There are a number of urban towns dotted along the road and these provide meat for hotels/restaurants (frequented by truck drivers and passengers), casual employment and petty trade opportunities. The rural road network between district (woreda) towns to different kebeles is better than in other zones, especially during the dry season. This is a result of geographical proximity to main towns, large scale state farms and irrigation canals constructed by state farms. During the rains and at times of Awash river flooding some of the districts and kebeles are not accessible.

38

Other issues: Flooding is common, especially during the months of July-September when the level of water in the Awash River increases due to heavy rains in the highland areas. Those communities down stream use the floodwater for crop irrigation. Flooding in the plains aids the regeneration of pasture in grazing areas. The construction of a dam/irrigation scheme in Dubti and Asyaita (Awsa areas) is currently ongoing. The dam will control the river flooding and water will be used to grow sugarcane. This will reduce the volume of water reaching down-stream communities who depend on it for crop and pasture production.

Land and livestock ownership are the two key determinants of household wealth. Cattle and shoats are the main types of livestock. Camels are kept mainly as pack animals for transporting, maize, firewood, other agricultural products and used during migration to search for pasture and water. Camels are used to transport goods across the border with Djibouti which is a source of income for better-off households. Household size tends to increase with the increase in wealth; the very poor have few household members while the better-off households tend to have large family sizes.

Food Sources


V. Poor Poor Middle Better-

off

Household size 5-7 6-8 7-9 9-11

Land cultivated

(hectares)

0-0.5 0.5-1 1-2 2.5-3.5

Livestock holdings:

Shoats Cattle Pack Camels Oxen

5-8 2-4 0 0

10-20 4-6 0 0

15-30 10-20 0-1 1-2

30-50 20-30 1-3 2-4

Main food sources are; own crop production, livestock products, cereal/grain purchases, food aid and gifts. Own food crop consumption covers 30%, 42% 46% and 53% for the very poor, poor, middle and better-off households respectively. Middle and better-off households cover 16% and 21% of their food requirements from their own livestock products. The very poor and poor purchase most of their food needs from the market since they have limited land and livestock holdings. Food aid for the very poor and poor accounts for 8% and 7% respectively. The very poor receive gifts but during times of crisis, the better-off households may not be able to provide the same amount of gifts as in this reference year, which widens the food deficit of the very poor.

Population distribution of Wealth Groups

V.Poor

20%

Poor

25%Middle

30%

Better-off

25%


39

Sources of Income

Livestock sales, crop sales, and employment/self employment are the main sources of income for all wealth groups. In Awsa area, income from the sale of date palm is common and constitutes part of the average total income from crop sales. For the better-off and middle households date palm income accounts for 37% and 45% respectively of their total income from crop sales. Camel rent provides an important income for all households in Awsa areas. In Gewane area, substantial income is derived from casual employment in agricultural state farms. Another form of self-employment in this zone is making household items by hand such as dibora (mats), oloita (beds), mahrawara (hand-held fans) and gadeta (carpets).


The proportion of expenditure on staple food decreases with an increase in wealth. For instance the very poor spend 39% of their income on staple food purchases while the poor, the middle and the better-off households spend 28%, 19% and 9%, respectively. Expenditure on household items, social services, clothes and inputs increases as wealth increases. Other expenditure - festivals, chat, cigarettes and household items - increases proportionally with wealth. ‘Other’ expenditures includes chat which is readily available in major towns like Aysaita and Gewane, and particularly important to male members of the household.

40

Seasonal Calendar

Key: A: Awsa areas (Assyaita an Afambo) G: Gewane and Amibara areas of Middle Awash ! Represents increase " Represents decrease.


Key vulnerabilities

• Lack of rainfall or reduced meher rains in the highland areas affects irrigated crop production

• Lack of karma/sugum rains which are useful for crop and livestock production

• Excess over-flooding of Awash River destroying crops and infrastructure

• Invasive plant species such as prosopis julifora and partinum (hazardous weeds)

• Livestock diseases

• Human diseases

• Ethnic conflict between the Afar and Issa/Somali especially in Gewane areas

• State/governments and investor farms reducing volume of river waters reaching downstream thus affecting crop production and pasture generation.

• New irrigation scheme in Awsa area impacts on crop, livestock and settlements

• Increases in market price for cereal staple foods and decreases in livestock prices

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Season Karma Gilaal Sugum Hagai

Land Preparation A G G

Planting A A G

Green Consumption G A A

Harvesting G A A

Heat

Birth

Milk

Migration Climate Agricultural Calendar Livestock sales A G

Heat

Birth

Milk

Livestock disease

Livestock sale A A A G

Food Purchase G! G! G! A! A! A!

Crop Sale G" G" A" A" A"


Pasture Avail. of feed

Hunger Season Hunger Season G G G A A A

Human Disease

Malaria

Diarrhoea

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Season Karma Sugum

Land Preparation A G G

Planting A A G

Green Consumption G A A

Harvesting G A A

Heat

Birth

Milk

Migration Climate Agricultural Calendar Livestock sales A G

Heat

Birth

Milk

Livestock disease

Livestock sale A A A G

Food Purchase G! G! G! A! A! A!

Crop Sale G" G" A" A" A"


Pasture Avail. of feed

Hunger Season Hunger Season G G G A A A

Human Disease

Malaria

Diarrhoea

41


• Flood control measures such as dykes

• Livestock migration to wet grazing areas of Teru and Araamis ke Adaar pastoral livelihood zones;

• Livestock migration to Amhara and Oromoyia regions

• Planting early maturing crops,

• Prosopis clearing and burning;

• Herd splitting: milking and productive animals stay near the homesteads

• Purchase of livestock feed

• Selling of old animals

• Sale of more livestock at cheaper prices

• Reduction in purchase of non-food items and non-essentials

• Reduction in number of meals per day

• Seeking casual employment in towns/urban centres

• Increased sale of charcoal and firewood.

• Acacia nilotica and acacia tortillas trees are lopped and the pods fed to livestock

• As the volume of the Awash river declines, livestock migrate closer to the river beds - dig wells on the river bank,

• In extreme cases, pastoralists send their livestock to cotton plantations to feed


The reference year is April 2004-March, 2005



Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) 1 cattle equivalent to 4.5 quintals of wheat or 3 quintals of maize 1 goat equivalent to 56kgs of wheat or 38kgs of maize Prices (ETB): Livestock prices: Cattle = 675; Goat = 85; Grain prices: Wheat = 150 per quintal; Maize = 220 per quintal



! Meher rains performance in the Ethiopian highlands


! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices





! Camel milk sales: Unusual fluctuations in volume of sales ! Casual labour: availability, price, and places ! Livestock migration; direction, volume, composition of herds.

! Level of water in Awash river; time, volume, and deviation from normal season

Timeline

2006 [STUDY YEAR] Karma and Sugum: Good rainfall; normal crop/livestock production; livestock and cereal prices stable

2005 [REFERENCE YEAR] Karma: good rains; normal crop/livestock production; near normal livestock and grain prices. Sugum: Normal/good rains, normal livestock production and market.

2004: Normal; 3/5 Karma: Good rains; livestock production improves; crop prodn normal; no external migration; Sugum: Improved rains but still below normal; livestock return but no livestock production; localised livestock diseases.

2003: Poor; 1/3 Karma: poor rains; severe drought, long period of migration; high livestock mortality; high livestock sales; unfavourable terms of trade. Sugum: poor rains; decreased water for irrigation; unusual migration to Amhara region; pond digging along the Awash river.

2002 below normal; 2/5 Karma/Sugum: both rainy periods below normal; low livestock production; crop production near normal due to floods from Awash river.

2001: Below normal 2/5 Karma/Sugum: poor rains; low livestock production and high migration to Awash Park/Amhara region; unfavourable terms of trade; high livestock sales at low prices

42


! Parts of the zone have huge potential for agricultural production; small scale farmers and agro-pastoralists can be supported through (a) the provision of fertilizers and seeds at lower prices (b) technical support from agricultural extension officers on proper land management, crop pest control, etc. (c) provision of small loans to farmers and (d) improved grain storage facilities

! Planned expansion of large agricultural plantations should take into consideration the impact on local livelihoods

! Support local flood control measures along the Awash river without seriously affecting agro-pastoralists/pastoralists use of flood water for crop and pasture production

! Feasibility studies point out that Afambo and Assyaita districts have potential for date palm plantation and production

! Conflict and peace-building mechanisms between Afar and Issa communities; for example, establish permanent peace committee comprising of religious, clan elders and regional/district government officials

! Strengthen customary institutions in rangeland management

! Explore the potential of fodder production along the Awash river

! Support vulnerable/women’s groups to engage in cereal banks, livestock marketing and production and the sale of local handicrafts (mats, carpets, fans, etc.)

! Limit and control private enclosures especially in Gewane areas; these enclosures affect pastoral mobility

! Implement measures to control the spread of prosopis julifora and other invasive plants

! Improve and strengthen education, human health and livestock services especially in rural and inaccessible areas


43

Araamis ke Adaar Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ6)


• Located in the western and south-western part of the region and bordering Amhara region to the west. • Altitude ranges from 500-600 metres above sea level in the east to 600-1000 meters above sea level in the west. The climate is generally dry with an annual average temperature is in excess of 30°c and a total annual rainfall of 250-400 mm. • The landscape is diverse; undulating hills traversed by numerous seasonal and a few permanent streams, extensive low flat lands and depressions. • There are a number of permanent rivers and streams such as Logiya, Mille, Telalek, Borkena, Moferwuha, Ataye, Jara, Robi and Awadi

• This zone is located within the Awash Drainage System which is fed by streams draining from the south-eastern highlands of the Amhara region, extending from Gidan/Gubalafto in North Wollo to Tarma ber/Ankober in North Shewa. The aerial discharge of water in this system is the highest of all the livelihood zones.




Chiffra 88,998 100% 88,998 Zone 1 Mille 86,202 100% 86,202

Bure-Medaito 46,033 82% 37,747 Zone 3

Dulecha 18,362 100% 18,362

Dewe 69,562 100% 69,562

Daale-Fage 56,152 100% 56,152

Hadelela 77,361 100% 77,361

Telalak 79,509 100% 79,509

Zone 4

Semu-Robi, 60,136 100% 60,136

Total Population of Aaramis ke Adaar LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 51%) 574,029


Livelihoods

Livelihoods: Pastoralism is the main livelihood. Cattle, shoats (sheep/goats) and camels are the most important livestock species.

Land and water: Land is communally owned by clans. There are often inter-clan conflicts over resources such as access to pasture and water.

Food, income and expenditure: Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals such as maize, wheat and sorghum in addition to livestock products such as meat and milk. Income

44

is derived from the sale of livestock and self-employment. The poor engage in self-employment such as collecting and selling firewood. All wealth groups spend most of their income on food; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs.

Vulnerabilities and responses: Main vulnerabilities are drought, conflicts, general market shocks, animal and human diseases, poor transport and communication infrastructure. Risk-minimising strategies include herd splitting, using conflict resolution mechanisms, intra-household independence, and livestock migration. Coping strategies include extra sales of livestock, changing household food consumption patterns, increased social supports from relatives/sub-clan members and an increase in the production and sale of charcoal.

Migration: During the dry season and bad years migration is towards the Oromiya zone of Amhara region and also towards the banks of the Awash river. The seasonal variance in the availability of pastures compels pastoralists to regularly migrate on an annual basis to the eastern highlands of Amhara region. Migration within the zone and also to other livelihood zones within the Afar region is also apparent, particularly when the pattern of rainfall and availability of pasture in the Amhara Region deviates from the norm.

Markets: Major markets are located outside the zone but in the neighbouring region of Amhara. These markets are important for the purchase of food crops and the sale of livestock and livestock products. Such markets include: Hara-Gubalafto (for Chiffra), Bati and Bora-Artuma Jille (for Telalak), Bora and Kemissie (for Dewe and Dalifagi), Sembete (for Semi-Robi), Abay Atir-Mafud and Shewa Robi-Kewet (for Bure Medayti and Semu Robi), Aliyu Amba and Awash Seba (for Dulecha). There are also a number of livestock markets in areas such as Chiffra and Eli-wuha.

Social services: In comparison to other livelihood zones, this one is well equipped with social services such as schools, human health and livestock services. For example, Chiffra has 25 primary schools including six ABE schools; ten health posts, one health centre and one animal health clinic; while Dalifage has 14 schools including seven ABE schools; four health posts; one health centre and one animal health clinic. Infrastructure: Since the creation of the Afar Regional State and the subsequent establishment of new woredas (districts) a number of new roads have been constructed. However, road access from most of the districts to the regional capital of Semera is only possible through a long detour via Bati or Addis Ababa. This is not only economically expensive but also laborious and time-consuming. During rainy seasons, parts of Dalifage and Dulecha are totally inaccessible. Other issues: There are traditional zones of conflict specifically in areas adjacent to other ethnic groups. The conflicts usually result in the obstruction of the normal temporal and spatial pattern of migration as well as the loss of human life and assets.


Population distribution by wealth groups

Poor

35%

Middle

40%

Better-off

25%



Livestock holdings:


10-20 1-2 0-1 0

25-30 10-15 8-10 0-1

30-50 20-25 20-25 1-3

Wealth is determined by number of livestock especially cattle and camels. Poor households own few livestock.

45

Food Sources


Sources of Income

Livestock sales are the main source of cash income for all wealth groups, with better-off and middle households deriving all their income from this activity. Poor households engage in self- employment such as the collection and sale of firewood which contributes approximately 15% of their total cash income. They also receive zakaat (gifts) from middle and better-off households but this constitutes less than 10% of their annual cash income. All wealth groups have a single main cash income generating option in livestock which means that any disaster constraining livestock holding creates a wide income gap. Income from the sale of livestock is directly proportional to herd size.


All wealth groups spend the bulk of their income on staple food purchases; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs. Poor households spend a high proportion of their income on staple food purchases as they have a limited number of livestock from which to source food products. The poor spend 81% of their total cash income on staple food while the middle and better-off groups spend approximately 53% and 35% respectively.

Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals (maize, wheat, and sorghum) supplemented by livestock products such as milk and meat from their own livestock. Food aid in the form of emergency ration distribution and productive safety nets contributes to a significant proportion of household food needs.

Poor households purchase 53% of their annual food needs from the market. For middle households this figure is 47% and for the better-off it is 46%. Food aid constitutes 33% for poor households and 15% for middle households. The better-off households do not receive food aid.

46

Seasonal Calendar

July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April May June

Seasons Karma Gilaal Deda Gilaal Sugum Hagai

Rainfall Main rainy season Dry/cold Light rain No rain 2nd rain season Hot/dry


Livestock movement Return to original grazing areas

Internal/external migration depending on situation Distant migration

Camel breeding High Low Low High low

Camel milking and all milk sales

High Low Medium High low

Cattle breeding High Low Low Medium/high


Shoat breeding High Low Low High low

Goat milking High Low Med High Low

Hunger periods low High Medium High

Livestock sales Low Medium High Medium/low High

Cereal purchase Low demand High cereal prices Medium demand High cereal prices


Key vulnerabilities

• Chronic water shortages

• Recurrent droughts

• Livestock and grain price fluctuations

• Animal and human diseases

• Poor transport/communication infrastructure

• Ethnic conflicts


• Separation of herds

• Conflict resolution • Intra-household interdependence • Extension of the duration of seasonal

migration • Information sharing (daagu) on pasture,

water, conflicts, etc.

• Livestock migration to distant areas and river banks

• Increased inter-household social support

• Households switching consumption from non-essential to staple foods

• Reducing number of meals per day

• Consuming wild foods such as medera, hida, alay and garsa

• Increase in the collection and sale of firewood and charcoal-making and sale

47


The reference year to July 2005-June 2006


Currency: Ethiopian Birr.

Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) 2 goats = 1 quintal of maize; 2 goats = 1 quintal of wheat 1 cattle = 4.4 quintals of maize; 1 cattle= 4 quintals of wheat Prices (ETB): Livestock prices; Cattle = 700; 1 Goat = 90; Grain prices; Maize/quintal = 160; Wheat/quintal = 180




! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, sorghum, wheat; seasonal versus normal prices; market price monitoring in the neighbouring Amhara Region.




! Livestock production: births, conceptions, milk production

! Livestock migration; direction, volume, composition of herds.

! Level of water in the Awash River; time, volume, and deviation from normal


! Improvement of rangeland

! Protection and management of dry season rangelands

! Investment in conflict resolution and peace building mechanisms to resolve ethnic conflicts

! Establish and support local co-operatives to engage in micro-enterprise and trade


! Improve human health centres to combat human diseases

! Strengthen veterinary services both government, private pharmacies and Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWs)

! Develop and improve water sources such as hand-dug wells (ellas), shallow wells, etc. to reduce chronic water shortages

! Establish and support community/women’s group managed cereal banks to stabilise cereal prices

Timeline

2007: Average-2.5/5 Karma: normal rains but low livestock production; provision of livestock feed by NGOs between June-July 07. Sugum: below normal rains; early livestock migration to Cheffa valley & Teru areas. High cattle mortality in Chiffra district.

[REF/STUDY YEAR]

2006: Average 2.5/5 Karma: below normal rains; low livestock production; normal migration with the zones; normal terms of trade. Sugum: below normal rains; unknown camel diseases but livestock prod average due to the previous normal karma/sugum seasons; normal terms of trade.

2005: Normal: 3/5 Karma/Sugum: good rains; normal livestock production; normal migration and favourable terms of trade.

2004: Average 3/5 Karma: average rains; low livestock production but terms of trade still favourable Sugum: below normal rainfall; livestock migration to Awash banks and Cheffa valley; no livestock deaths.

2003: Average: 2.5/5 Karma: normal rains; livestock conception starts but low milk production; terms of trade normal. Sugum; improved rains but still below normal; no livestock production and no milk production.

2002: Below normal: 1/5 Karma: below normal rains; extended dry season; high livestock mortality; high cereal prices and low livestock demand; migration to Cheffa valley and increased conflicts. Sugum: below normal rains; early livestock migration; abnormal migration to Cheffa valley-Amhara.

2001: Normal: 3/5

Karma/Sugum: average rains; average livestock production; normal ToT; no usual livestock migration.

48

Namalefane Ke Baadu Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ7)


• The climate is generally semi-arid with erratic rainfall. Altitude ranges from 582m to 907m above sea level.

• Annual average rainfall ranges from 320mm-500mm. Annual temperature ranges from 15 to 42°C. The area is suitable for maize and cash crops such as cotton.

• Two main rainy seasons; sugum rains February-March) and karma rains (July-September).

• There are permanent rivers such as the Awash, Bulga and Kebena Rivers.

• Vegetation is a mix of shrubs, bushes and pastureland. Prosopis julifora (an invasive weed) is a major threat to rangeland.

• Some large-scale government state farms and investor farms. Middle Awash Agriculture Development

farm is one of the largest state farms providing casual employment opportunities to the local Afar community and immigrant workers.

• The Ethiopia-Djibouti road passes through the zone. A number of small towns are located on this road where truck drivers and passengers stop.




Zone 3 Gewane 32,959 80% 26,367

Amibara 52,759 95% 50,121

Awash Fentale 24,312 100% 24,312

Buremudaitu 46,033 18% 8,286

Total Population of Namelefan ke Baadu LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 9.6%) 109,086


Livelihoods

Livelihoods: Pastoralism is the main livelihood activity but agricultural labour employment is also significant. Camel, cattle and shoats (sheep/goats) are the most important species. A number of isolated kebeles practise agro-pastoralism (these are covered in the profile of the Awsa ke Gewane Agro-pastoral Livelihood Zone – LZ5).

Land and water: Land is communally owned by sub-clans. Pasture and grazing is communally owned but clan elders allocate land parcels for agro-pastoralists and private agriculture investors for a fee or a percentage of crop production. A number of permanent rivers flow through the zone with the Awash being the most prominent. Water is mainly accessed through rivers, hand-dug wells (ellas), ponds and seasonal rivers. In comparison to other livelihood zones, this zone has fair access to water sources. The Awash river floods from July-September due to heavy rains in the Ethiopian highlands.

Food, income and expenditure: All wealth groups spend most of their income on food; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs.

49

Vulnerabilities and responses: Main vulnerabilities are floods, drought, livestock and human diseases, conflicts and the invasive weed prosopis julifora. Risk-minimising strategies include migration to high grounds, the sale of livestock at low prices, changing household food consumption patterns, the sale of household items, spending more money on staple foods and less on other essential items, intensive gathering of wild foods, increased making and sale of charcoal, increased collection and sale of firewood, seeking support from relatives/sub-clan members, and seeking relief assistance.

Migration: Pastoralists and their livestock migrate to Araamis ke Adaar and Teru pastoral livelihood zones before the Awash river floods (July-September) and return when the floods subside in October-November. For most of the year, migration tends to be within the livelihood zone, especially along the banks of rivers. During bad seasons, migration tends to be towards Awash National Park and the neighbouring Somali region area of Shinile district.

Markets: Access to markets is better than in other livelihood zones. The two major livestock markets are Dalifage and Melka Werer where the sale and purchase of livestock occurs twice in a market and livestock traders come from outside the region. Other neighbouring markets are at Awash Sebat Kilo, Metehara and Nazareth. Along the Ethiopia-Djibouti road there are a number of towns (Gewane, Awash, Werer and Amibara) where pastoralists sell small livestock and purchase cereals.

Social services: The zone has four secondary schools and 46 primary schools with a total enrolment of 11,500 pupils. In terms of health services, there is one major hospital, 16 health posts, 13 clinics and four health centres spread across the three districts. All districts except Buremudaitu are connected with mobile and landline telecommunication facilities. The zone has one agricultural college (TEVIT), one water works college (LUCY) and an agricultural research centre. In terms of livestock health services, there are seven livestock clinics, numerous private pharmacies and well-trained Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWS).

Infrastructure: the main road from Addis Ababa to Djibouti passes through the zone and provides good access to all districts. There are ten dry weather roads that interconnect kebeles. During the dry season, there are no access related problems but when the Awash river floods between July and September access to most rural areas is limited.

Other issues: Conflict between the Afar and Issa communities impacts on pastoral livelihoods, increasing vulnerability to droughts. Access to potential grazing lands such as the Alledegahi plains is restricted due to conflict. This is a major problem as one coping mechanism used by pastoralists during stress periods is migration to and use of such dry season grazing lands.

Livestock ownership and cash income are key determinants of wealth. All wealth groups engage in casual employment so as to diversify their incomes. This is possible because of casual labour opportunities provided by the large state farms and private investors.


Population Distribution by Wealth Group

Poor

43%

Middle

33%

Better-off

24%



Livestock holdings:


10-16 0-3 0 0

30-40 10-12 8-10 0-1

60-70 25-30 15-20 1-2

50

Food Sources

Sources of Income

Livestock sales and employment are the main income sources across all wealth groups. Livestock sales make up a significant proportion of cash income for better-off and middle wealth groups due to their higher livestock holdings. These households also engage in employment activities in state and privately owned farms. Poor households receive most of their income from employment in these farms and 10% of income from self-employment activities such as the making and sale of mattresses (gadeta) and charcoal and the collection and sale of firewood.


All wealth groups spend the bulk of their income on staple food purchases; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs. Poor households spend 50% of their income on the purchase of staple foods. Middle and better-off families spend 32% and 20% respectively. This is because they have higher livestock holdings and so consume more livestock products than poor households. The middle and better-off wealth groups spend some of their income on medicines for livestock.

Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals (maize grain, wheat floor, sugar and pulses) in addition to livestock products such as milk and meat from own livestock. The poor receive gifts from middle and better-off households.

The poor purchase 71% of their food needs from markets while middle and better-off households purchase 39% and 29% respectively. The poor are more reliant on markets than the other groups due to their limited livestock holdings.

Food aid is provided in the form of emergency and productive safety nets. All wealth groups receive food aid due to communal targeting practices whereby resources are shared equally.


51

Seasonal Calendar

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June


Rainfall

Hunger periods High High

Camel breeding High Low

Camel milking and all milk sales High Low Low High Low

Cattle breeding High High


Shoat breeding High High

Goat milking High High

Livestock sales Low Medium High Medium Low High

Cereal purchase Low High Medium/low High

Casual agricultural opportunities Weeding Harvesting/storage No agric activities Clearing/land preparation

Flooding of Awash river High water volume

Decreasing Low volume water volume Low volume

Livestock migration Migration to Zone 4 Return to normal grazing areas Graze at Awash river banks

Human diseases Medium High malaria & water borne diseases

Medium Low


Key vulnerabilities

• Recurrent droughts • Invasive plant species such as prosopis julifora and partinum (hazardous weeds) • Livestock diseases • Human diseases • Flooding • Ethnic conflict • Private enclosures restricting pastoral mobility

Main risk-minimizing strategies Main coping strategies

• Livestock migration to high ground • Increased casual employment in

agricultural plantations • Engagement in opportunistic

agricultural activities • Slaughtering of calves to save the

mother • Fodder collection from distant places

to feed milking cows.

• Sale of large number of livestock on a lower price • Changing household food consumption patterns • Sale of household items • Switching of their non staple food and other

essential item expenditures • Intensive gathering of wild foods • Increased sale of charcoal and firewood • Acacia nilotica and acacia tortillas trees are lopped

and the pods fed to livestock • In extreme cases, pastoralists send their livestock

to cotton plantations to feed

52


The reference year July 2004 to June 2005



Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) 1 cattle = 3 quintals of maize; 2.5 quintals of wheat; 1 goat = 64kgs of maize; 55kgs of wheat 2 goats = 1.5 quintal of maize; 1 quintal of wheat Prices (ETB): Livestock prices; Camel = 650; Cattle = 500; 1 Goat = 110; 1 sheep = 85 Grain prices; Maize/quintal = 170; Wheat/quintal = 200




! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices;





! Camel milk sales: Unusual fluctuations in volume of sales ! Casual labour: availability, price, and where ! Livestock migration; direction, volume, composition of herds.

! Level of water in Awash River; time, volume, and deviation from normal


! Develop water sources such as birkads, shallow wells, etc. to reduce chronic water shortages

! Control invasive weeds (prosopis julifora)

! Provide clean potable water

! Rangeland rehabilitation and management

! Invest in human health facilities/services

! Promote livestock health initiatives such as veterinary services, private pharmacies and Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWs)

! Conflict resolution and peace-building initiatives to resolve longstanding conflict

! Invest in education programmes such as alternative basic education for pastoral areas

! Promote and support small micro-enterprises such as women’s groups and co-operatives to engage in cereal banks and livestock marketing

! Implement flood control measures along the banks of the Awash River

Timeline

2006 [STUDY YEAR] Karma and Sugum: Good rainfall; normal livestock production; livestock and cereal prices stable

2005 [REF YR]: Karma: good rains; normal livestock production; near normal livestock and grain prices. Sugum: Normal/good rains, normal livestock production and market.

2004: Good; 4/5 Karma: good rains; high livestock prodn; high milk yields; ToT good. .Sugum: normal rains; livestock production normal; ToT improve; no external livestock migration.

2003: Average; 3/5 Karma: normal rains; pasture regeneration but low livestock prodn; no milk; ToT improve. Sugum: below normal rains but better than previous sugum rains; low livestock prodn; livestock in bad body condition; food aid continued. 2002: below normal; 2.5/5 Karma/sugum; Third consecutive below normal season; sugum failed; karma was better; low livestock productions; livestock did not return from migration areas; food aid distribution continued. 2001: below normal; 2.5/5 Karma/sugum: both rains continued to below normal; sugum rains better than the karma; livestock mortality continued; high livestock sales at low prices; conflicts over pasture/water increased.

2000: Poor 1/5 Karma/Sugum: poor rains; high livestock mortality; low livestock production & high migration to Awash Park/Amhara region; unfavourable terms of trade;

53

Chenno Crops Livelihood Zone (LZ8)


• Located along a strip in the south west of the region, encompassing all of Argoba special woreda (district) and bordering Ankober district in East Shewa, Amhara region

• Situated between moist kola and wet weina dega with an altitude range from 1200m to 1800m above sea level

• Annual rainfall between 900mm and 1400mm

• Two rainy seasons; karma (July to September) and sugum (February to April)

• Two dry seasons; hagai (May to June) and gilaal (October to December)

• Vegetation is characterised by thick and dense woodland. Shrubs and grassland are common. • Permanent settlements practising sedentary farming. Main crops; sorghum, maize, teff and pulses. Livestock; cattle and shoats.




Special District Argoba 12,642

100%

12,642

Total Population of this LZ (as % of Regional Rural Population = 1.12%) 12,642


Livelihoods.

Livelihoods: The Argoba people are the main inhabitants in the area. They have their own language and identity and are completely different from the Afari people who constitute the majority in the region. The main livelihood activity is mixed farming agricultural production as the area is suitable for both agriculture and livestock production. Depending on the location of each individual settlement (kebele), the focus may be more toward agriculture or toward pastoralism. The communities in the lowlands closest to the Afar region tend to be pastoralists while those near the hills of Amhara region practice agriculture production. These variations are mainly due to altitude and socio-cultural interaction.

Agricultural Production: Common crops grown in the area are sorghum, maize, teff and pulses. The main livestock are cattle and shoats (sheep/goats). Camel is not common and those they do keep are mainly male camels purchased from the neighbouring Afari community. Common livestock diseases are black leg, anthrax, pasteurolosis, and parasites (internal and external). Common crop pests are sorghum chafer, shoot fly, African ball warm and stock borer. Conflict between Argoba and Afari communities is common, especially along the border areas.

Rainfall and Water Sources: The zone has two main rainy seasons: one short rain sugum from March to April, while the more extensive karma season from July to September. The zone is located within the Rift Valley Drainage System. Water here comes from no one fixed source but is fed by streams draining from both the western and eastern plateaux. The aerial discharge of water in this system is very small since the streams end in the sandy plains and inland lakes. Most of the streams are seasonal and only flow during the rainy seasons.

54

Markets: Trade is greater with the Amhara region than the Afar region, mainly due to access and proximity. Main markets in the zone are Gacheni and Lay Metekeleya. Regular livestock markets are located nearby at Berek, Minjar and Tegulte in north Shewa, Oromiya region. Larger livestock - camels and cattle - are taken to Alamata, Raya, Hara, North Wollo, Amhara and Chiffra markets in Afar region. During cereal shortages traders bring cereals from Debre Berhan, Jeru, Merabete, Efratana Gedem (in Amhara region) as well as from markets in Addis Ababa.

Vegetation: The forest vegetation covering this zone is characterised by an upper storey of small trees (6-12m tall) and dense woodland. Shrubs and grass cover is also common. Common species are Acacia bushes, Erytherina, cordial and ficus. There is much soil erosion caused by both surface water run-off and over grazing.

Infrastructure: There are two dry weather (RR10) roads which link the livelihood area to near-by areas One road passes through Debre Brehan to Ankober in Amhara region and connects to Gachenie (the main town in the Argoba Special District). The second road goes through Awash town but is difficult to access during the wet season and one is forced to access the regional capital via Amhara Region or through Addis Ababa. There are number of seasonal roads within the zone livelihood which connect different PA’s.

Social Services: Basic health and education services are limited. The few schools provide education from grades 1 to 8 only. Children travel long distances to attend schools, enrolment is low and it is usually only the better-off families who can afford to send their children to school. There is one health centre in the area and most people travel to neighbouring Amhara region to access health services.

Wealth is determined by the size of landholdings and number of livestock and their species. Camels are an important determinant of wealth and are only owned by middle and better-off households. The proportion of the poor and the middle groups is the same at 30% each.


Population distribution per Wealth Group

Very poor

20%

poor

25%middle

30%

better off

25%

V. poor


Household size 4 - 6 5 - 7 6 - 10 10 - 12

Livestock holdings:

Shoats Cattle Camels Oxen

4 - 6 0 0 0

5 - 15 4 - 8

0 1

30 - 35 15 - 20 0 - 3 2 - 4

30 - 40 30 - 40 4 - 6 4 - 6

Land holding

(hectares)

1.5 2 2.5 3.5

55

Food Sources

Households meet most their food needs through own crop production, the amount of which is determined by the amount of land holdings. The better-off produce the highest proportion of their own food needs while the very poor produce the least. Very poor and poor households purchase 26% and 21% of their food needs from the market. Livestock products contribute 14% and 18% of the middle and better-off households food needs. Livestock product consumption is low in very poor and poor households due to their limited number of their livestock. All wealth groups with the exception of the better-off receive food aid, contributing 8%, 9% and 7% for the very poor, poor and middle wealth groups respectively. Meat consumption is rare in all wealth groups except during religious holidays where the better-off and middle groups share livestock meat with the very poor and poor - locally known as ‘Kircha’.

Sources of Income

Main income sources are the sale of own crops, sale of livestock and livestock products, employment and self-employment. Middle and better-off households receive most of their income from livestock and livestock product sales and crop sales. Very poor and poor households receive most of their income from crop sales, employment (seasonal agricultural labour/livestock herding for middle and better-off households) and self-employment such as gathering and selling firewood.

During harvests, very poor and poor households sell some of their own food produce at lower prices to finance other household needs but as the year progresses, they purchase cereals from markets to meet their food needs.


Major expenditures are the purchase of staple and non-staple foods, social services, clothing, inputs and household items. The amount of money spent on these items varies from one wealth group to another. For example, the very poor and poor wealth groups spend 40 % and 19 % respectively of their annual income on purchasing staple foods. Middle and better-off households spend less money on staple food purchases because they have sufficient land, livestock and labour for own food production consumption of livestock products. However, these households have higher expenditure on household items, clothing, social services and others such as farm/livestock input - essential for crop and livestock production.

In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day

56

Seasonal Calendar

Food source/

Income activity Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Agricultural Sugum Karma Dada

Land Preparation

Planting

Weeding

Harvesting

Livestock

Breeding

Milk production

Livestock sale

Livestock Migration

Purchase

Local labour opportunity

Pasture Availability

Hunger Season

Health Problems

Malaria

Diarrhoea


Key vulnerabilities

• Rainfall failure especially karma rains in the area

• Rainfall failure in neighbouring Amhara Region

• Crop pest

• Recurrent droughts

• Livestock and grain market shocks

• Livestock diseases

• Poor transport/communication infrastructure

• Pasture and water shortages

• Conflict between Argobas and Afars communities


• Using traditional pest controlling practices

• Planting fast maturing food crops

• Livelihood diversification such as petty trade and firewood collection and sale

• Fodder storage

• Livestock migration within livelihood zone

• Livestock sales

• Increased inter-household social support

• Household strategies such as switching consumption from non-essential to staple foods

• Reducing food consumption and adjusting eating habits

• Consuming wild foods

57


The reference year selected September 2003 - August 2004


Currency: Ethiopian Birr.

Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages)

1 cattle equivalent to 3.8 quintal of maize or sorghum

1 goat equivalent to 1 bag of 50kgs of maize or sorghum

2 goats equivalent to 1 quintal of maize or sorghum

1 goat equivalent to 37.5kgs of pulses Prices (ETB): Livestock prices: Cattle = 580; 1 Goat = 75; 1 sheep = 80 Grain prices: Maize/50kgs = 75


! Karma/Sugum rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution, timeliness and coverage

! Meher/Belg rainfall in neighbouring Amhara region: performance

! Deda rainfall: performance, occurrence, timeliness and coverage

! Crop production: acreage planted/harvested, output/quantity,


! Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals such as maize, sorghum, and teff; seasonal versus normal prices both in the zone and neighbouring Amhara region.



! Livestock herd sizes: conception, births and mortality rates

! Crop pest problem and level of damage

! Livestock migration: Level of migration, areas and impacts

! Conflicts: degree of conflicts, causes and impacts


! Since the zone has high potential for agricultural production it can be supported by providing (a) fertilizers and seeds at lower prices (b) access to extension services that provide technical advice to farmers on land management, crop pest control, etc. (c) small loans to farmers (d) improved grain storage facilities

! Improve road networks and access especially from Argoba-Dulecha and Awash town to facilitate livestock and cereal trade

! Promote development of springs and shallow wells to reduce chronic water shortages

! Promote better livestock health services through private pharmacies and links with community animal health workers (CAHWs)


! Establish and support community/women’s group managed cereal/seed banks to solve seed/cereal shortages

! Support and promote conflict resolution and peace-building mechanisms between neighbouring communities

! Rural micro finance credit has to established for diversification of off farm activities

Timeline

2006 [STUDY YEAR]

Karma; above normal rains; high crop prod; high livestock prod; no livestock migration; favourable terms of trade; Sugum: above normal rains; normal crop and livestock production; common livestock/crop diseases and livelihood situation normal.

2005: Poor: 2/5 Karma: below normal rains; low crop/livestock prodn; livestock migration to Amhara region; high livestock sales and cereal purchases Sugum: Below normal rains; low crop/livestock prodn; livestock migration to near-by forests in search of fodder; increased livestock sales and food purchases.

2004: Normal 3/5 Karma: normal rains; crop/livestock prodn normal; normal migration within the zone; food aid continued. Sugum: normal rains livestock/crop production normal; internal migration; food aid distribution continued.

2003: Normal : 3/5

Karma: average rains; planting season started on time; crop/livestock production normal; livestock migration within the livelihood zone. Sugum: average rains; normal crop/livestock production; livestock migration within the zone.

2002: Poor: 1/5 Karma: much below normal rains; second bad rains; low crop production and livestock prodn; high livestock sales and cereal purchases; food aid distribution. Sugum: below normal rains; livestock migration to near-by forest areas; no planting of crops; livestock diseases. 2001: Normal : 3/5 Karma/sugum: both rains were normal; normal crop and livestock production; all livelihood indicators normal; no livestock migration.

Documents

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