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Popes, Peasants, Monarchs, and Merchants:
Art of the Enlightenmentand Neoclassical ArtART ID 121 | Study of Western Arts
Slide concept by William V. Ganis, PhD NYIT Center for Teaching and Learning with Technology
With modifications by Arch. Edeliza V. Macalandag, UAP
The Age of Enlightenment
The Renaissance (14th-16th centuries) and the Enlightenment (1650-1800) name two distinctly
different periods of European history. They both heralded major changes in culture, art, philosophy,
science, and mathematics. The Renaissance is associated with
advances in literature, architecture, humanism, and a
world economy, while the Enlightenment is associated with
the scientific method, industrialization, rationality,
astronomy, and calculus.
The Age of Enlightenment
Age of Enlightenment (or simply the Enlightenment or Age of Reason) was a cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe, that sought to mobilize the power of reason, in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted science and intellectual interchange and opposed superstition,[1] intolerance and abuses in church and state. Originating about 1650 to 1700, it was sparked by philosophers Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), John Locke (1632–1704), Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), mathematician Isaac Newton (1643–1727), and historian Voltaire (1694–1778).
The Age of Enlightenment
From about 1650-1800, Europe and the New World experienced an Enlightenment that introduced new paradigms of morality.
This, too, was a period of discovery, but is generally limited to the realm of science, mathematics, and technology.
Logic and reason reigned as thinkers became convinced that society and the natural world were like a giant, united machine.
While it may be complicated, it could eventually be dismantled, studied, and mastered.
The scientific method, which relied on the notion of objective observation leading to verifiable conclusions, spurred developments in astronomy, philosophy, medicine and physiology, transportation, chemistry, and ethics.
The Enlightenment: Philosophy and Society
The Enlightenment expanded the boundaries of European knowledge. It offered a new way of thinking critically about the world and about humankind. The Enlightenment employed reason and empirical evidence, and promoted the scientific method.
The Doctrine of Empiricism
The Doctrine of Empiricism, promoted by John Locke, argued that the mind is a blank tablet upon which our experience of the material world, acquired through the senses, is imprinted. Ideas are formed on the basis of this experience. Locke also believed that the law of Nature grants people the natural rights of life, liberty, and property, and that the purpose of government is to protect these rights.
The Enlightenment: Philosophy and Society
The Doctrine of Progress
The philosophies in France identified individuals and societies-at-large as part of physical nature and argued that through the application of reason and common sense the problems of society could be remedied. They believed that knowledge was the basis of freedom and that through knowledge societies could be systematically improved.
A compendium of knowledge
The comprehensive compilation of articles and illustrations in the Encyclopédie provided access to all available knowledge. The Comte de Buffon's Natural History provided a kind of encyclopedia of the natural sciences.
The Enlightenment: Philosophy and Society
Revolutionary change
Advances in manufacturing technology, together with advances in heating, lighting, and transportation, produced the Industrial Revolution, which also led to an expansion in the growth of cities and of an urban working class. The increase in the demand for cheap labor and raw materials also promoted territorial expansion and colonial exploitation. The new state and direction of society gave rise to "modern" art, which, with a new awareness of history, responded to and addressed these changes.
The Enlightenment: Philosophy and Society
Enlightenment's champion
Houdon's marble bust shows Voltaire, whose writings and critical activism contributed to the conviction that fundamental changes were necessary in government in order for humankind to progress.
Scientific advances
Biomechanical and chemical studies of living nature advanced that field of human knowledge. In the field of life sciences, the study of the human body- its structures, function, and disorders- was at the center of scientific interest.
Industrial transformation
The discovery of steam power led to the invention of steam engines, which were used for industrial production and for transportation. Power was further harnessed using coal, oil, iron, steel, and electricity. Scientific and technological advances also led to the development of photography and to changes in architecture.
William Hunter
Child in Wombfrom Anatomy of the
Human Gravid Uterus
1774
drawing from dissection of a
woman who died in the ninth month of
pregnancy
Joseph Wright of Derby
A Philosopher Giving a Lecture at
the Orrery
ca. 1763-1765oil on canvas
4 ft. 10 in. x 6 ft. 8 in.
The wonders of the universe:
Joseph Wright of Derby's realistic
painting shows a demonstration of
an orrery, the mechanism of
which is scrupulously and
accurately rendered.
Joseph Wright of Derby
Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump
1768oil on canvas
6 x 8 ft.
The wonders of the universe:
Joseph Wright of Derby's realistic
painting shows a demonstration of
an orrery, the mechanism of
which is scrupulously and
accurately rendered.
Abraham Darby III and Thomas E.
Pritchard
Iron Bridge at Coalbrookdale
Coalbrookdale, England
1776-1779
Bridging the ages with iron:
Abraham Darby III and Thomas F.
Pritchard designed and built the first
cast-iron bridge. The bridge's exposed
cast-iron structure prefigures the
skeletal use of iron and steel in the
nineteenth century.
VOLTAIRE VERSUS ROUSSEAU: SCIENCE VERSUS THE TASTE FOR THE "NATURAL"
While Voltaire thought the salvation of humanity was in science's advancement and in society's rational improvement, Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that the arts, sciences, society, and civilization in general had corrupted "natural man" and that humanity's only salvation was to return to its original condition. The "Natural" Landscape
The eighteenth century developed a taste for depictions by artists of "natural" landscapes. Growing travel opportunities, including the "Grand Tour," also increased interest in the depiction of particular places and geographic settings.
The taste for the "natural" in France:
Rousseau placed feelings above reason as the most "natural" of human expressions and called for the cultivation of sincere, sympathetic, and tender emotions. Because of this belief, he exalted as a model for imitation the unsullied emotions and the simple, honest, uncorrupt "natural" life of the peasant.
Jean-Baptiste Greuze
The Village Bride
1761oil on canvas
3 ft. x 3 ft. 10 1/2 in.
The Sentimentality of Rural Romance: The expression of
sentiment is apparent in Jean-Baptiste Greuze's
much-admired painting of The
Village Bride, which shows a peasant family in a rustic
interior.
Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin
Grace at Table
1740oil on canvas
1 ft. 7 in. x 1 ft. 3 in.
The charm of the ordinary:
Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin's Grace at Table, which shows
an unpretentious urban, middle-class mother and two
daughters at table giving thanks to God before a meal, satisfied a taste for paintings
that taught moral lessons and upheld middle-class values.
Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin
The Soap Bubble
ca. 1739oil on canvas
61 x 63 cm
..
Élisabeth Louise Vigée-Lebrun
Self-Portrait
1790oil on canvas
8 ft. 4 in. x 6 ft. 9 in.
Portrait of a woman artist:
Élisabeth Louise Vigée-Lebrun's naturalistic Self-
Portrait shows the self-confident artist in a light-
hearted mood.
Adélaide Labille-Guiard
Self-Portrait with Two Pupils
1785oil on canvas
6 ft. 11 in. x 4 ft. 11 1/2 in.
The charm of the ordinary:
Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin's Grace at Table, which shows
an unpretentious urban, middle-class mother and two
daughters at table giving thanks to God before a meal, satisfied a taste for paintings
that taught moral lessons and upheld middle-class values.
William Hogarth
Breakfast Scene from Marriage à la Mode
ca. 1745oil on canvas
2 ft. 4 in. x 3 ft.
The taste for the "natural" in England:
Visualizing Morality through Satire: William Hogarth expresses the
taste of the newly prosperous and confident middle class in England in
his moralizing satires of contemporary life. In his
carefully detailed painting of the Breakfast Scene
from Marriage à la Mode, Hogarth comments on the social evil of the arranged
marriage.
Thomas Gainsborough
Mrs. Richard Brinsley Sheridan
1787oil on canvas
7 ft. 2 5/8 in. x 5 ft. 5/8 in.
Grand manner portraiture:
Thomas Gainsborough's portrait, painted in a soft-hued light and with feathery
brushwork, shows Mrs. Richard Brinsley Sheridan dressed informally and seated in
a rustic natural landscape of unspoiled beauty. Gainsborough's painting is also
an example of "Grand Manner portraiture," in which the sitter is elevated and the refinement and
elegance of her class is communicated through the large scale of the figure
relative to the canvas, the controlled pose, the "arcadian" landscape setting,
and the low horizon line.
Sir Joshua Reynolds
Lady Sarah Bunbury Sacrificing to the Graces
1765oil on canvas
7 ft. 10 in. x 5 ft.
…
Sir Joshua Reynolds
Lord Heathfield
1787oil on canvas
4 ft. 8 in. x 3 ft. 9 in.
Great people and noble deeds:
Honor, valor, courage, resolution, self-sacrifice, and
patriotism were included among the "natural" virtues that produced great people
and great deeds.
Defending Gibraltar:
Sir Joshua Reynolds's painting shows an honest English officer who was honored for his heroic
defense of Gibraltar with the title Baron Heathfield of
Gibraltar.
Charles Wilson Peale
George Washington
ca. 1779-81oil on canvas
95 x 61 3/4 in.
…
Benjamin West
The Death of General Wolfe
1771oil on canvas
approximately 5 x 7 ft.
General Wolfe's heroic death:
Benjamin West's The Death of General
Wolfe shows a contemporary
historical subject with realistic figures in
modern costume, but in a composition arranged in the
complex and theatrically ordered
manner of the grand tradition of history
painting, which West uses to transform the
heroic battlefield death into a
martyrdom charged with religious
emotions.
John Singleton Copley
Portrait of Paul Revere
ca. 1768-1770oil on canvas
2 ft. 11 1/8 in. x 2 ft. 4 in.
Paul Revere, Silversmith:
A sense of directness and faithfulness to visual fact is conveyed in John Singleton
Copley's Portrait of Paul Revere, which shows the figure
informally posed in a plain setting with clear lighting.
Antonio Canaletto
Basin of San Marco from San
Giorgio Maggiore
Venice, Italy
c.a. 1740
Oil on Canvas
…
Jean-Antoine Houdon
Voltaire
1781marble
approximately life-size
…
Jean-Antoine Houdon
Voltaire
1778marble
18 7/8 in. high
The charm of the ordinary:
Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin's Grace at Table, which shows
an unpretentious urban, middle-class mother and two
daughters at table giving thanks to God before a meal, satisfied a taste for paintings
that taught moral lessons and upheld middle-class values.
Jean-Antoine Houdon
George Washington
1788-92marble
6 ft. 2 in. high
…
THE REVIVAL OF INTEREST IN CLASSICISM
Models of Enlightenment: A defining characteristic of the late eighteenth century is a renewed interest in classical antiquity, which is manifested in painting, sculpture, and architecture, as well as in fashion and home decor. The geometric harmony of classical art and architecture embodied Enlightenment ideals, while classical cultures of the Greek and Roman republics, with their traditions of liberty, civic virtue, morality, and sacrifice, served as ideal models of enlightened political organization. The excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii also stirred public interest in the classical past. The ancient world also became the focus of scholarly attention, notably in the work of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, the first modern art historian, who characterized Greek sculpture as manifesting a "noble simplicity and quiet grandeur" and who drew attention to distinctions between Greek and Roman art.
Angelica Kauffmann
Mother of the Gracchi
ca. 1785oil on canvas
3 ft. 4 in. x 4 ft. 2 in.
Setting the Stage for Neoclassicism in Art
A Roman example of virtue:
Angelica Kauffmann contributed to the replacement
of "natural" pictures with simple figure types, homely
situations, and contemporary settings with subject matter of
an exemplary nature drawn from Greek and Roman history
and literature. Her Cornelia Presenting Her Children as Her Treasures treats the theme of
virtue with the example of Cornelia presenting her own
sons as her jewels.
Jacques-Louis David
Oath of the Horatii
1784oil on canvas
approximately 11 x 14 ft.
Neoclassicism in FrancePlanting the seeds of glory:
Jacques-Louis David, the Neoclassical painter-ideologist
of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic empire, favored
the classical and academic traditions. His painting of the Oath of the Horatii depicts a
heroic story of courageous and patriotic self-sacrifice set in pre-
Republican Rome, in which carefully modeled rigidly
statuesque male figures enact a virile drama in a shallow space
defined by a severely simple architectural framework. The
rectilinear forms and noble virtues displayed by the men
are contrasted with the curvilinear collapsing forms of
the women, whose weak female nature is shown overcome by
emotion and sorrow.
Jacques-Louis David
Death of Socrates
1787oil on canvas
51 x 77 1/4 in.
…
Jacques-Louis David
The Death of Marat
1793oil on canvas
approximately 5 ft. 3 in. x 4 ft. 1 in.
A martyred revolutionary:
In a spare Neoclassical composition, David painted the
assassinated revolutionary Jean-Paul Marat as a tragic
martyr who died in the service of the state.
Jacques-Louis David
The Coronation of Napoleon
1805-1808oil on canvas
20 ft. 4 1/2 in. x 32 ft. 1 3/4 in.
Napolean's ascendance:
In the large The Coronation of Napoleon,
David documented the pomp and pageantry of
Napoleon's coronation in December of 1804. The
action is presented as if on a theater stage, and
makes a complex statement about the changing politics in Napoleonic France.
Jacques-Louis David
Monsieur Lavoisier and His Wife
1788oil on canvas
8 ft. 8 1/4 in. x 7 ft. 4 1/8 in.
…
Étienne-Louis Boulée
Cenotaph for Isaac Newton (never built)
1784ink and wash drawings
each 15 1/2 x 25 1/2 in.
…
Jacques-Germain Soufflot
The Panthéon (Sainte-Geneviève)
Paris, France
1755-1792
Roman Grandeur in France:
Jacques-Germain Soufflot's grand design for the Neoclassical
portico of Sainte-Geneviève, now the Panthéon, in Paris, was
inspired by the Roman ruins at Baalbek in Syria.
Pierre Vignon
La Madeleine
Paris, France
1807-1842
A Napoleonic "Temple of Glory":
La Madeleine was intended to serve as a "temple of glory" for
Napoleon's armies and a monument to the newly won glories of France.
Pierre Vignon's grandiose design includes a high podium and broad
flight of stairs leading to a deep porch in the front, which recall
Roman imperial temples.
Pierre VignonLa MadeleineParis, France1807-1842
The emperor's sister as goddess:
Napoleon's favorite sculptor, Antonio Canova, carved a sharply detailed marble portrait of Napoleon's sister, Pauline Borghese, as Venus shown reclining in a sensuous pose on a divan.Antonio Canova
Paulene Borghese as Venus
1808 | marble | life-size
Antonio Canova
Paulene Borghese as Venus
1808marblelife-size
Antonio Canova
Paulene Borghese as Venus
1808marblelife-size
Antonio Canova
Perseus with the Head of Medusa
ca. 1800marblelife-size
…
Antonio Canova
Cupid and Psyche
1787-93marble
5 ft. 1 in. x 5 ft. 8 1/4 in.
…
Karl Gotthard Langhans
Brandenburg Gate
Berlin, Germany
1788-91
…
Richard Boyle and William Kent
Chiswick House
near London, England
begun 1725
Invoking Palladio:
Lord Burlington's Chiswick House is a free variation on the theme of Palladio's Villa Rotonda. Its simple symmetry, unadorned planes, right angles, and stiffly wrought proportions give it very classical and "rational" appearance. In contrast, the interior is ornamented in a Late Baroque style, while the informal gardens are irregularly laid out.
Richard Boyle and William Kent
Chiswick House
near London, England
begun 1725
John Wood the Younger
The Royal Crescent
Bath, England
1769-1775
Palladian splendor:
John Wood the Younger's plan for the Royal Crescent in Bath links thirty houses into rows behind a single, continuous, majestic Palladian façade in a great semiellipse.
James Stuart
Doric Portico
Hagley Park, Worcestershire, England
1758
A Greek portico in England:
In the volumes of Antiquities of Athens,
James Stuart distinguished Greek art from the
"derivative" Roman style. His design for the portico
at Hagley Park reconstructs a Doric
temple known as the Theseion.
Wedgwood and Co.
Vase with Bridal Preparation Scene
black basalt stoneware1769-177518 in. high
…
Robert Adam
Etruscan RoomOsterley Park House
Middlesex, England
begun 1761
Adapting Pompeian decor:
Robert Adam's delicate Pompeian design of the Etruscan
Room at Osterley Park House is symmetrical and rectilinear.
Decorative motifs, such as medallions, urns, vine scrolls, sphinxes, and tripods derived from Roman art are sparsely
arranged within broad, neutral spaces and slender margins.
NEOCLASSICISM IN THE UNITED STATES
Thomas JeffersonMonticelloCharlottesville, Virginia1770-1806
Jeffersonian idealism:Thomas Jefferson wanted to adopt a symbolic Neoclassicism as the national architecture of the United States. He re-designed his own home of Monticello to emulate Palladio's architecture, with a façade inspired by the work of Robert Adam. Pierre L'Enfant's plan for the city of Washington, D.C., is logically ordered. In his design for the Capitol, Benjamin H. Latrobe said he wanted to re-create "the glories of the Greece of Pericles in the woods of America."
Horatio Greenough
George Washington
1832-1841marble
approximately 11 ft. 4 in. high
…
Benjamin LatrobeCapitol BuildingWashington, DC1803-1807
Major L’EnfantPlan of WashingtonWashington, DC1791
Benjamin Latrobe
Tobacco Capital
Washington, DC
1809
Benjamin Latrobe
Corncob Capital
Washington, DC
1809
Edmonia Lewis
Forever Free
1867marble
3 ft. 5 1/4 in. x 11 in. x 7 in.
Free at last:
The Neoclassical style Jefferson championed so
successfully for the architecture of the new
democracy was invoked by American sculptors as
well. The following sculpture depicts freed
African American slaves.
Hiram Powers
The Greek Slave
1843marble
5 ft. 5 1/2 in. high
…
Hiram Powers
The Greek Slave
1843marble
5 ft. 5 1/2 in. high
…
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
Apotheosis of Homer
1827oil on canvas
12 ft. 8 in. x 16 ft. 10 3/4 in.
Summarizing Neoclassical principles:
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres adopted what he
believed to be a truer and purer Greek style than that
employed by David. His conservative Neoclassical
taste and strict adherence to the doctrine of ideal form is
seen in the Apotheosis of Homer, which is a catalogue of painters, sculptors, poets,
philosophers, writers, and playwrights who since
ancient times had remained loyal to classicism.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
Paganini
1819pencil drawing1 ft. x 8 1/2 in.
…
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
Grande Odalisque
1814oil on canvas2 ft. 11 in. x 5 ft. 4 in.
Sources
• http://websites.swlearning.com/cgi-wadsworth/course_products_wp.pl?fid=M20b&product_isbn_issn=0155050907&discipline_number=436
• Art Through the Ages, 12th/11th ed., Gardner