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Stuart Hall: articulations of race,

class and identityJohn Solomos

Published online: 06 Aug 2014.

To cite this article:John Solomos (2014) Stuart Hall: articulations ofrace, class and identity, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 37:10, 1667-1675, DOI:

10.1080/01419870.2014.931997

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AN APPRECIATION

Stuart Hall: articulations of race, class and

identity

John Solomos

(Received 3 June 2014; accepted 3 June 2014)

The passing of Stuart Hall on 10 February 2014 came at a time when his

contribution to scholarly and wider social, cultural and political life was

being recognized in a number of ways. His death was marked by many

obituaries, statements and expressions of loss, both by his close friends

and by students and admirers of his work. He was seen as a key figure in

the development of cultural studies as a field of academic scholarship and

research a discipline that has grown in many ways out of the Centre for

Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at the University of Birminghamthat Hall directed for a period. More generally, he gained recognition

outside of academic circles for his work in helping to raise the profile of

black diasporic cultural institutions in Britain and beyond. Indeed, it is this

unique ability to cross the boundaries between academia and the wider

public spheres of politics, art and the cultural industries that helps situate

Hall as a public intellectual in the broadest sense of that term (Hall,

Morley, and Chen1996; Hall and Back 2009; Davis2004).

It is tempting in the aftermath of Hall

s death for commentators to bothoverplay and to oversimplify the extent and depth of his influence. Yet

there can be little doubt that Hall was a key figure in a number of

intellectual fields, including the study of race and ethnicity, and his loss

has been felt deeply. He was a public figure from the late 1950s onwards

through his role in the New Left, his critical political interventions in

magazines such as Marxism Today and Soundings, and his engagement

with black artists and intellectuals. As an academic he helped to shape the

CCCS at the University of Birmingham and the Faculty of Social Sciences

at the Open University. He also played a leading role in the developmentof cultural studies as a field of scholarship in both the UK and beyond.

The breadth of his intellectual contribution was recognized in a number of

books about his work as well as a Festschrift put together by a number of

2014 Taylor & Francis

Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2014

Vol. 37, No. 10, 16671675, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2014.931997

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his ex-students and colleagues (Davis 2004; Procter 2004; Rojek 2003;

Gilroy, Grossberg, and McRobbie 2000). During his long period of

retirement he remained a strong voice in a number of fields, supportive of

the work of others as well as engaging in his own research and writing.

This was in spite of long periods of ill health that became part of hiseveryday life.

What has been perhaps less recognized was the influence that his

theoretical perspective had on the field of race and ethnic studies. His

contributions to this field have been in general less well documented,

given the tendency to see his work through the lens of his broader

intellectual profile than his specific contributions to race and ethnic

studies. It is for this reason that this appreciation of his work will focus

less on his wider oeuvre and more on the ways that his contributions to

debates about race and racism have shaped important facets of researchagendas in this field, particularly in the period since the 1980s.

Situating Stuart Hall

Just before Halls death, I had been to see John Akomfrahs (2013)

documentary entitled The Stuart Hall Project. This was a reflective

documentary that relied heavily on Halls own recollections of his various

roles as activist, intellectual, educator and cultural commentator. I left the

screening thinking about Halls projectfrom a range of angles, includinghis contributions to cultural studies, the study of race and his political

engagements on both Thatcherism and New Labour. The film did not

present a simple celebratory account of Halls project, focusing instead

on presenting his work as multilayered and evolving at the same time. It

was perhaps this that resonated with my own experiences of engaging both

with Halls work over the years as well as meeting him in various contexts.

I first came across Halls work as a student in the late 1970s while

engaging with his jointly authored Policing the Crisis (Hall et al. 1978).

This was a study of the moral panics about the phenomenon of streetmugging in Birmingham and beyond. Hall and his colleagues sought to

explore both the public and political debates about the phenomenon of

mugging and the way that it was portrayed and amplified through media

coverage. The premise of this study was that the construction of black

communities as social problems was premised on the notion that street

mugging was a product of the social and cultural experiences of black

youth in deprived inner-city localities. This was a theme that Hall had

discussed earlier on in 1967 in a pamphlet on The Young Englanders,

where he drew on his own experiences as a teacher to reflect on the livedexperience of young blacks growing up in, but not necessarily being part

of, Britain (Hall1967).Policing the Crisis took this focus a step further by

exploring in detail how the moral panics about black youth and crime were

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closely tied to ideas about race, culture and identity. Hall and his

colleagues argued that the discussion of mugging through the lens of

race and the construction of inner-city areas as criminal areas gained a

clear racial dimension, which in turn was further accentuated by the wider

social and economic processes that confined black communities to inner-city localities and excluded them from equal participation in the labour

market and in society more generally.

The influence ofPolicing the Crisisin the period since it was published

in 1978 has ranged across a number of scholarly areas, including media

studies, cultural studies, criminology and cultural geography. Yet in some

ways it did not become an integral part of the field of race and ethnic

studies until somewhat later when its analysis of the period of the 1970s

became part of the scholarly debates about policing, urban policy and

youth policy. Yet it was to be the main book-length scholarly work thatHall was to produce during his long scholarly career.

Perhaps the main influence of Policing the Crisis on scholarly debates

about race and racism in the period of the late 1970s and 1980s can be

found in the work of the Race and Politics Group at the CCCS, leading to

the production of The Empire Strikes Back (Centre for Contemporary

Cultural Studies 1982). This book was written mostly by Halls doctoral

students and other researchers based at CCCS and it sought to produce a

critique of race relations research as well as to outline an alternative

conceptualization of race and racism in British society. The Race andPolitics Group drew to some extent on Halls work in writing The Empire

Strikes Back, a book that is now recognized as a key contribution to the

critical study of race and ethnicity in the period since the 1970s (see the

symposium on The Empire Strikes Backin this issue).

During the 1980s, however, there was much more interest in Halls

contributions to debates about Thatcherismhis political essays inMarxism

Today (Hall 1979, 1980a; Hall and Held 1990). During this time, he

continued to make important theoretical contributions to the study of race

and ethnicity through a number of largely theoretical essays that were to

form a point of reference among critical theorists of race (Solomos1986). It

is to these essays that we now turn.

Articulations of race, class and identity

Apart from the discussion about race in Policing the Crisis, the first stages

of Halls engagement with questions about race, ethnicity and racism

emerged in the form of essays that he wrote on Pluralism, Race and Class

in Caribbean Society and Race, Articulation and Societies Structured inDominance (Hall 1977, 1980b). These essays were followed by another

on Gramscis Relevance for the Study of Race and Ethnicity, which

sought to outline the relevance of Gramscis conceptual frame to the

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analysis of race (Hall 1986). Of these essays, the most influential on

discussions of race and racism was the 1980 essay on Race, Articulationand Societies Structured in Dominance, which became a point of

reference in subsequent discussions about neo-Marxist and post-structur-

alist theories of race and racism (Miles 1984, 1987; Essed and Goldberg2002). Halls reflections in this essay were very much focused on theory,

and were influenced by the analytical frame of neo-Marxist debates shaped

by the work of Louis Althusser among others. He saw himself as working

through the conceptual issue of how to make sense of what he defines as

economic and sociological approaches to race (Hall 1980b). In a reflectivepiece on this essay, he argued that in his theoretical work on race he had

wanted to explore the idea that[r]ace, in that sense, is a discursive system,

which has realsocial, economic and political conditions of existence and

real

symbolic and material effects

(Hall 2002, 453).In a sense this is a summary of the key narrative that was at the heart of

Halls various contributions to this field. Halls notion of race as a

discursive system was precisely based on the notion that race is never

purely ideological or cultural but situated in everyday social and economic

relations. This explains the detailed way in which Hall seeks to show both

that race cannot be reduced to other sets of social relations and at the same

cannot be fully understood outside of these very same relations. It also

signals his discomfort with reducing his writings on race to the culturalturn, to the idea that race is purely ideological or cultural (Hall 2002,

453). Although his work on race is often read through the lens of the

cultural turn (Kyriakides and Torres 2012), he continued throughout his

life to question such a reading of his theoretical frame.

This line of analysis is even more evident in Pluralism, Race and Class

in Caribbean Society. This was one of Halls first systematic attempts to

explore the complexities of racialized and class identities in Caribbean

societies, and he sought to provide both an overview of the history of this

question as well as to explain the relevance of this history to the

contemporary situation. Much of the emphasis of his account was placed

on his effort both to situate the specificity of the Caribbean experience ofrace as a result of centuries of slavery and the embeddedness of racialized

social relations and to explore how understandings of race and class can be

shaped in unique ways, in particular geopolitical environments. He was toreturn to the particularities of Caribbean social relations in some of his

later work, signalling both his continued engagement with Jamaica and his

interest in addressing questions about the complexities of diasporic

identities (Hall1995, 1999).

Taken together, these essays provide an important point of reference for

scholars interested in exploring the origins and evolution of Hallsengagement. Perhaps because he did not develop them into a singular

book-length account of his theoretical frame about race and class, they

have not exercised the degree of influence that one may have expected.

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But they provide an insight into the origins of his engagement with

theorizations of race that needs to be explored as we come to terms with

his key contributions.

New ethnicities, culture and difference

While it is difficult to estimate the influence of the essays discussed above,

Halls writings on race and ethnicity from the late 1980s onwards moved

towards an exploration of the shifting boundaries of racial and ethnic

identities in societies such as Britain (Hall1987,1988,1990,1991). Halls

explorations of what he saw as the changing boundaries of race and ethnicity

came to the fore when he began to investigate, particularly from the late 1980s

onwards, the shifting boundaries of black cultural politics and identities in

British society. Halls writings from this period were to become in some ways

much more influential in scholarly discourses during the 1980s and 1990s.

An example of this influence can be found in his exploration of how the

coining of the term black during the 1970s became a political construct

that was used to reference a common experience of racism and margin-

alization. He suggests that this moment of the construction of the political

identity around the category black, particularly during the 1970s and

1980s, was a product of a political challenge within the dominant regimes

of representation, which included both academic and media discourses. He

also argues that this definitional politics is best understood in terms of a

struggle that took place over the relations of representation in which a

counterposition of positive black imagery was offered to unsettle the

reified images of black culture (Hall 1988,1991).

Hall characterized this counterposition as the first phase in the

development of black cultural politics in Britain. He accepts that an

unintended consequence of this politics was a tendency to homogenize

cultural, class and sexual difference within blackness. This was to be a

strand of analysis that was developed, perhaps from rather different angles,

in the work of Paul Gilroy (1987,1990). Hall went on to argue, however,that from the 1980s onwards, there was a noticeable reframing of social

and political debates about race through the development of new forms of

racial and ethnic identity, leading to complex intersections with questions

of class, gender, sexuality and ethnicity as well as race. It was this new

ethnicities frame that came to exercise a strong influence on both

scholarly and activist debates about race and identity in British society.

A recurrent theme in Halls writing from this period is the notion of

racial identity as a fiction, but one that is necessary in order to make both

politics and identity possible. This aspect of Halls work involved anengagement with questions of the plurality of ethnic, racial and cultural

identities that he saw as emerging and increasingly shaping British society.

This interest seems to have grown to some extent from Halls own


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engagement with the expressive cultures of Britains black arts movement,

a feature of both his writing and activism in the last two decades of hislife. As The Stuart Hall Project vividly illustrates, it was in the various

practices and discourses of black cultural production that he saw some

evidence for a new conception of ethnicity, a new cultural politics thatengages rather than suppresses difference and that depends, in part, on the

cultural construction of new ethnic identities. This was a theme that he

reflected upon in a number of his latter writings (Hall 2006).

Living with difference, struggling for equality

In developing his approach to the emergent new ethnicities, Hall

expanded this conception of identity through difference and stressed the

importance of placing black and ethnic minority cultural production in thecontext of global networks. Thus, new ethnicities are produced in part

through a productive tension between global and local influences. Hall in

particular sought to articulate a critical framing of ethnicity in order to

avoid the tendency to define ethnicity in primordial ways and acknow-

ledge the simultaneously local and trans-local nature of these identities.

Hall wanted to show how new ethnicities not only challenged what it

meant to be black but also called into question the dominant coding of

what it means to be British. This opens a range of issues that are related to

the way that notions of authenticity and belonging are defined within racistand absolutist conceptions of culture.

Halls engagement with these issues simultaneously drew on feminism,

psychoanalysis and the work of Frantz Fanon, in order to shift the

emphasis away from focusing on unitary forms of identity to plural

processes of identification. The influence of Fanons(1986) classic studyBlack Skin, White Masksis particularly evident in Halls writings from this

period, particularly as he sought to think through and make sense of how

racialized identities are constructed and reconstructed through migration,

living with difference and forms of racial and ethnic absolutism.A clear statement of the conceptual frame of this body of his work can

be found in an essay that he published in 1993 on Culture, Community,

Nation(Hall1993). This can be seen as an effort by Hall to systematically

discuss themes that he had started discussing from the late 1980s onwards.

In particular, he sought to explore the changing meanings of what it meant

in a society such as Britain to live with difference. The following

particularly resonant passage encapsulates his key argument:

Since cultural diversity is, increasingly, the fate of the modern world, and

ethnic absolutism a regressive feature of late-modernity, the greatest danger

now arises from forms of national and cultural identity new or old which

attempt to secure their identity by adopting closed versions of culture or

community and by the refusal to engage with the difficult problems that

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arise from trying to live with difference. The capacity to live with difference

is, in my view, the coming question of the twenty-first century. (Hall

1993, 361)

More importantly, he sought in this article to explore the ways in whichclosed versions of culture were being adopted in different geopolitical

environments, leading to forms of ethnic absolutism both in the West and

the Global South. It was this theme in the article that led to an intense

debate with Saba Mahmood around the question of fundamentalism in

Muslim societies (Hall 1996; Mahmood 1996).

Halls writings on questions about the lived experiences of living with

difference led him to explore the question of multiculturalism, a theme that

became an important facet of his work at the beginning of the twenty-first

century (Hall 1999, 19992000, 2000). He also managed to engage with

the policy and political context of debates about multiculturalism through

his participation in the production of the report on The Future of Multi-

Ethnic Britain, which became known as the Parekh Report (Parekh2000;McLaughlin and Neal 2007).

Influence and critiques

The focus of this appreciation has been on those facets of Stuart Halls

oeuvre that can be seen as a contribution to the study of race, ethnicity andracism. In practice, of course, it is incredibly difficult to separate out these

facets of his work from other significant aspects of his scholarly output

and intellectual contribution. As The Stuart Hall Project so movingly

emphasized, Hall was a complex thinker, academic, activist and teacher

whose work could not be easily pigeonholed as belonging to a particular

school of thought. But in exploring the various stages of his contributionto race and ethnic studies, we hope that we have been able to highlight the

need for more detailed discussion of his contribution in this area. Indeed, it

is important for the fuller understanding of his work that we bring the

various aspects of his scholarship together rather than seeing them in

isolation. This means being able to explore the linkages between the

diverse contributions that he made as well as the specificity of particular

facets of his work. It is also important to note that Halls style was never to

argue that his work was a repository of a truth as such. He saw his work

as in some sense always in development, always unfinished. This level of

humility is all too rare in todays fevered academic environment, if not

absent. In saying farewell to Stuart, it is important that we remember his

sense of being part of wider communities of both scholars and activists.

What perhaps will be an enduring part of Halls legacy is the extent of hiswillingness to listen to a range of voices and perspectives. In the

immediate aftermath of his death, a number of commentators made a

point of talking about his inquisitiveness and his interest in listening to


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new ideas from younger generations of scholars and activists rather than

assuming that his project was complete.

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JOHN SOLOMOS is Professor of Sociology at the University of Warwick.

ADDRESS: Department of Sociology, University of Warwick, CoventryCV4 7AL, UK. Email:[email protected]


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Articulacion de Raza, Clase e Identidad_Stuart Hall