Article Sharma &Zebitz

8/13/2019 Article Sharma &Zebitz

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Farming Syste

Distribution in

Profes

Abstract

A study was conducted to assess t

among different farming practices i

as Lowland Sundargaon (LS) and

and each site composed of three ca

systems& "umber of identified arthrfauna of all the categori#ed farmin

(subsistence leel) farming system

*onnectance of food web for LS an

were '&,0 and &11 for M and

fre2uency was found to be highessignificant (p 3 4+&+) against spe

and damping off& 5eside few pestiand/or disease! which shows the tre

orientation& 6ater stress and con

deficiency) especially in commerci

affected to that e%tent& 7ffect ofinfestation& As per the leel of pest

susceptibility than local cultiars& *

lower pest/disease problems&

Key words Arthropods& Sampling&

!" INT#$D%&TI$N;ariation at plant species leel wi

organisms and their community stru

due to the role of poor farmers in mas an established enterprise ("epal

As compared to cereals and other ag

terms of multifariousness of prodsupplement and income generation

including "epal! peri ? urban eget

settled specially due to perishable

(Midmore < @ansen ++1)& "epales

most of the egetables including to

and releant in terms of anthromorp

proper land use system in sloppy/hil

Shrestha et al& ++)& But of comm

in spCring and summer rainy se

deelopment region! where the stu#ones that spread oer plane to alle

"atural control system in an ecosys

agricultural practices including c

deforestation (logging)! soil tillage

resulting in altered primary producti

arthropods (5russaard ,..0)& >ncre

practices generally enhances abun

Staphylinidae) and lycosid spiders

ecosystem may reduce insect pest i

species haing mutual benefits and

adopting integrated pest managem

,Department of Phytomedicine (ead of theAgri 5usiness and =rade Promotion Multip

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural

>SS" (paper) 0G1' >S

,,,

Impacts on Pest and other Art

Tomato Fields of Palpa Distric

or Dr& *laus P& 6& Hebit#!and Sharad Sharma

'

e intensity of pest/disease abundance and distributi

tomato (Lycopersicon esculentumMill) fields& =wo

adanpokhara ighland (M) are located in Palpa! a

tegori#ed farming system types$ mi%ed! integrated a

opods samples from LS and M sites were ' and ''systems& Diersity range of arthropod species wer

followed by integrated and commercial (monocul

d M sites were +&,- and +&+. respectiely and a

S sites respectiely& As per the statistical analysi

in commercial farms followed by integrated andific pest species$ Helicoverpa armigera! whiteflies

cides! most of them were not significant (P 3 I+&+d of higher application fre2uency for total control ra

ditions were responsible for nutrient deficiency

al monoculture farming types and small scale far

eleation and geography was not significant for s/disease abundance! hybrid and semi hybrid type8s c

ombination of resistant and susceptible cultiars in s

9arming systems& Application fre2uency& :esistance

thin egetable farming systems leads to increased

ctures& Such structures are aried with the nature of p

arginal enironments (Altieri ++)! holders of profes=hapa ++.)! and structural comple%ity of plants (

ricultural commodities! egetable cultiation has bee

cts within small land area! relatiely short periodf small to large scale farming communities& >n most

able production system with high input agricultural

ature of egetables and aailability of markets as w

e agricultural enironment is highly encouraging for

mato (Lycopersicon esculentumMill&) throughout th

hic efforts due to presence of higher degree of farmi

ly areas can raise the e%isting leel of production& (

ercially grown egetables! tomato is considered as a

sons in normal conditions& But of fie deelop

dy district is located in! coers many industrial toys and steep sloppy lands&

tem is to some e%tent disturbed by mankind actiitie

ltural to chemical means of crop management

and replacement of arious old cultiars by newer

on leel affecting guild and functional groups of soil

ased botanical diersity due to mi% or intercroppin

dance of ground predators! such as hunter beetle

(ongiao et& al& +,+! Medeiros et al& ++.)& Di

nfestation using the strategy of companion planting

less competition) and host plant resistance to insec

nts practices (Medeiros et& al& ++.! Altieri ,...!

department)! Eniersity of ohenheim! Stuttgart! Fermany

rpose *ooperatie (A5=:A*B)! "epal! (Fraduate ? Eni& ohenh

Sciences! ;ol&,+ +,1

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hropods

, Nepal

n of arthropod species

study sites! categori#ed

hilly district of "epal!

d commercial farming

respectiely! and werefound more in mi%ed

ture) farming systems&

erage links per species

! pesticide application

i%ed system and wasnd diseases$ blight! rot

) against specific pesther than specific target

roblem (e&g& calcium

ing systems were not

erity of pest diseaseultiars showed higher

all scale farms showed

diersity of interacting

roduction processes! as

sional farming systemsandlkofer et al& +,+)&

cogni#ed beneficial in

of time! micronutrientof the Asiatic countries

ractices has long been

ell as serices/supports

scattered production of

e agroecological #ones

g communities! where

idmore < Poudel ,..!

important crop grown

ent regions! western

agricultural production

s like intensification of

(6ardle et al& ,...)!

high yielding arieties

as well as aboeground

g and organic farming

(families$ *arabidae!

rsification of the agro

cultiation of different

ts can be increased by

igenbrode < =rumble

eim)&


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,..')& >n contrast to ecological fa

replacement of natural actiities l

diersity of the species! primarily d

,...)& igher leel of monoGcrop

consumption of chemical fertili#er

*omparatie analysis of intensityintegrated farming system can illu

predatory arthropod species& =he st

order to inter into such aspects& >n

nature and human health perspecti

aspect without use of synthetic ch

herbiore insects by predation and

more! where cultural and preentie

>ntensification of agricultural that

productiity as well as pest/disease

Ese of organochlorines has been de

are heaily in use (Shrestha et& al&

lindane! and other organochlorines!

of predatory beetles! wasps and sodi##iness! irritation and respirato

production system i&e& high input

insect susceptibility to the appliedegetable arieties including tomato

certain nutritional and abiotic str

distressed arthropod community a

*alcium and others minerals as wel

falsely diagnosed by rural farmers

essential mineral nutrients for plantshow delayed senescence! rate of

5lossom end rot (where secondary

result of calcium and other mineral

necrotic symptoms with potassiumPuos < Morard ,..-! ansen +

infestation due to altered plant defplant protection approaches&

;egetable farming that got a co

achieed higher popularity through

:ural subsistence leel production

practices in recent years& =he prodthe rate of area increment in recent

6orld =rade Brgani#ation (6=B) i

maintaining 2uality of the products

=rade Agreement (SA9=A)! whic

production/protection systems of

Perspectie Plan (APP)! a twenty yelast until +,! has prioriti#ed the a

enhancing natural plant protection

ma%imi#ing the cultiation of high

and pesticides in "epal is not balan

economic benefit rather than ecolog

ecological farming with reduced e%maintained biodiersity of organis

of pest and diseases are 2uite affect

other egetables! howeer there still

7%istence of seeral cultiable la

imalayas) and lower income leel

increased leel of economic de

Adustment in planting time! changimportant ways to build a plant heal



,,

rming systems! mechani#ed modern farming syste

ike species interaction! natural dispersion of seed

ue to manipulation of farming practices and technol

ping system for tomato and or other egetable c

s and pesticides by ,J within last 1 years of du

f chemicals use in commercial farms ersus mi%estrate the species diersity differentiation as well

dy has gone through both sample identification and d

sect and disease suppression with biological actiiti

es! howeer pest damage losses are out of coerag

mical pesticides (Letourneau < Foldstein ++,)&

etter abundance of arthropods are e%hibited in polyc

practices e%ist (Altieri ,..! Hehnder et. al. ++-)

appeared with increased use of production inputs

problem when compared to the situation prior 1+ to '

creased in recent years! howeer synthetic pyrethroid

+,+ Atreya ++0)& Pests getting resistant against

and reduced population of beneficials (less attraction

il insects) with to%ic field effects and health ha#ardy discomfort are serious side effects of intensif

onoculture system (Atreya ++0! Palikhe ++)& >

insecticides has long been noted and continues tes (7igenbrode < =rumble! ,..')& Bn the other han

sses is responsible for inappropriate rate of che

well as natural imbalance in terms of soil and

l as water stress cause seeral problems in egetabl

as pest attack and/or disease infestation& *alcium i

s! which is a maor constituent of middle lamellae arespiration and transpiration in tomato fruits (5hatt

fungi can inade ia rotted tissues)! chlorosis and

deficiencies! likewise! wilt like symptom with insu

eficiency are likely to be mimic with pest! disease in+.)& "utrient deficiency is directly linked with th

nce mechanisms and thus becomes a maor issue o

parable economic wellbeing among common agri

out the production #ones spread oer fie deelop

system has widely adopted small to commercial le

ctiity and the production leel of egetables showyears is nearly fie percent per annum (Pokhrel! +

n ++' has widen the opportunities of international t

under SPS (Sanitary and Phytosanitary) agreement

h in the long run! can be able to maintain sus

egetables including tomato (Shrestha ++! MB

ars strategic plan under Foernment of "epal! whichspects regarding integrated farming systems! promoti

and minimi#ing the use of synthetic chemicals in

alue crops and egetables& At present condition! us

ed due to lack of proper knowledge and farmers8 co

ical safety and human health perspecties& 9or future

osure to harmful to%ic effects of chemical residues! t s (e&g& plant! animal! insect and arthropods)& >n such

d by the intensity of cropping and used high yielding

lack sufficient records and literatures showing field l

ds within plain and hilly regions (e%cluding er

of the country and indiidual! "epal needs to grab t

elopment with intensification of high alue agr

ing of growing season and special care for natural sthier that may hae comparatie tolerant power to pe


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s are maor source of

materials and genetic

gical adoption (Altieri

ops has increased the

ration& (MBA* +,+)&

(subsistence leel) oras impact on pest and

ata analysis methods in

es remain in faour of

in terms of economic

igher mortality rate of

lture systems and een

has resulted in higher

+ years (MBA* ++0)&

and organophosphates

insecticides like DD=!

f pollinators! mortality

effects like headache!ication of agricultural

addition! ariation in

be found in e%isting! false identification of

icals application and

enironmental aspects&

farming which can be

s one of the important

d its deficiency mightarai < Fautam ++)&

burning effects are the

ficient phosphorus and

estations (Echida +++!leel of pest disease

f concern for effectual

cultural practices! has

ent regions of "epal&

l egetable cultiation

n increasing trend and,+)& "epal8s entry into

rade where there needs

and South Asian 9ree

tainability of national

* +,+)& Agricultural

was set up in ,.. andng resistance cultiars!

agriculture along with

of chemical fertili#ers

centration only toward

prospect of promoting

ere needs to hae wella way! abundance leel

cultiars of tomato and

el studies in "epal&

high mountains and

he higher possibility of

icultural commodities&

resses are further mostt and diseases& =omato


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production inside plastic greenhous

market access (Pandey et al& ++)&

biological enironments in relation

yield! pest/diseases and the natural c

'" (AT)#IA*S AND ()T+$D2.1 Study sites

Palpa district lies in the western de

middle range (++G,++ amsl) of h

haing an area of ,&1-1 kmK! is situ

=ansen area (ead station of the

minimum temperature of the area h

*& =he area has high humid type o

May& (adanpohara production

production in this region is comm

areas of Sundargaon! the differenc

mi%ed (small farming) system to i

system& Sundargaon production

comparatie lower eleation areasholds seeral subsistence leel far

characterises for prealence of rela

with comparatiely fragile productithat of M #one&

=o keep the farming systems as co

items& A categori#ation by details w

meaningful statistical analysis& Defi

were designed to facilitate study o

production system& 5oth the studyproportion of distribution& 9urther! t

grown crop species during the study

(i0ed farming system Mi%ed fa

where! crop liestock and humanfarming systems with more subsiste

defined area are considered as mi%well as egetables can take place

medium to large scale& 5oth M an

Integrated production system >

commercial farming system where

adoption of technologies! alteratiosalient features in the areas& 9arme

yielding arieties! e%tending egeta

(onoculture commercial system

production system! where tomato i

tunnels for temperature adustment!

amounts of chemicals and fertili#ecereals and follow more or less mo

cultiation& Madanpokhara site has

2.2 Sampling of arthropods

>n order to collect the species of

Sampling time was arranged in repe

were separated as per the field sitesystems& Arthropods were collected

and collection! and (c) =raps and

are difficult to trap with hand or by

collected with this procedure& 9or i

+&,1J allethrin and +&,J dichloro

method of insect sampling& and c

few nocturnal insects like mole crileaf and fruits& Light traps were eff



,,1

s during rainy season has become ery popular and p

9or these! there need broadly based on ? farm e%p

ith inputs used and cropping system types analysing

ontrol agents&

elopment region of "epal& >t is a hilly district haing

eight with seeral small alleys and foothill produc

ated at 0118 longitude and -018 latitude& Study

District)& >n warmer months (besides December! @

rdly goes below ,+o* and ma%imum temperature re

f climate especially during rainy season and drops d

-one .(+/, denoted by Madanpokhara ighland

rcial and monocropping type& oweer this conditi

s during analysis are carried out according to crop

ntegrated (medium scale) farming and mono croppi

-one .*S/ was coded as Lowland Sundargaon

nd few saddles& =he site! besides few intensie coing and cultiation of local cultiars in comparison

iely lesser intensification of tomato and other eg

on enironment in terms of socioeconomic and tec

parable as possible! categori#ation of farming syste

ould hae led to high number of farming systems whi

ned farming #ones are according to the study dimens

becties and analytical outputs rather than e%plaini

sites are composed of these categori#ed farming she study was targeted for maor obserations on tom

periods and categori#ations were merely based on ge

ming system in general comprises of being a typic

actiities are components of a complete system&nce type haing more or less combination of seeral

d farming in this study& Small illage leel selling oin this system howeer does not go through the c

LS areas consist of such production system&

ntegrated production system for this study! was

subsistence leel of production in integrated with

of cultiars! intermediate use of chemicals againss change their cropping pattern by replacing low yie

le growing areas instead of cereals&

*ategori#ation of commercial faming system in this s

s grown year round with special management for

alteration of arieties according to planting time& 9

rs for mass production& Such farmers produce moroculture system& Leader farmers and trained personal

igher influence with such production trend rather tha

rthropods in the study field sites! different sampli

ated manner whereas locations were randomi#ed with

characteristics where both L and M #ones conswithin the entire tomato field using the e2uipments$ (

and made aspirators& >nsect sweep nets are useful to

other means& 9lies! butterfly/moths and other flying i

mediate killing of trapped insects! an insecticide wi

methane was used& and collection method followed

llection method was 2uite easy and effectie for the

ket (Gryllotalpa orientalis5urmeister)! white grubsectie for nocturnal insect species which are hard to


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rofitable where there is

rimentations regarding

direct effects on plants!

most of the hills within

ion #ones& =he district

ites are located nearby

anuary and 9ebruary)!

mains around to 1o

ring March! April and

#one& Maor trend of

on also e%ists in some

ing type ranging from

ng (intensie farming)

s due to presence of

mercial farming areas!to MS #one& =he area

table production along

nological aspects than

s was done by general

ch would not allow any

ion and limitations that

ng oerall agricultural

stems though ary into along with mutually

eral trends&

l rural farming system

ased on such aspects!species of crops within

f liestock products asmmercial actiities in

categori#ed as a semi

commercial one& Slow

pest and diseases arelding cereals with high

tudy included intensie

%ample$ use of plastic

rmers are using higher

e egetable crops thans are being inoled in

in Sundargaon site&

g methods were used&

in field areas& Samples

sted aried productiona) >nsect sweep net! (b)

trap insect species that

nsects.were efficiently

th +&+J deltamethrin!

more or less a cultural

day time sampling and

and larae feeding oncatch during day time&


4/13

Similarly! water container and stick

species& =raps used by farmers wer

prepared locally was also used for ti

cork and fle%ible pipes&

Samplings were carried out durin

Differentiation in time of samplinginsect arthropods in the area as w

times represents the close days of p

area&

Table ! Sampling time a

Area 1ee

M ,

LS ,

M

LS

M 1

LS 1

M '

LS '

>nsects and nonGinsect arthropods!

different si#es& 9or larger si#ed arthlocation code were gien to each sa

handled for further identification to

Samples were ta%onomically identif

of identification was special traits

inoled professionals&

>dentification of pest population incommunity structure and guild com

further categori#ed to seeral paramrole in community structure& =he

formula$ *onnectance (&/ 2 *3S'&

the food web&

2.3 Field survey and statistical ana5esides collection! preseration an

study areas! where samplings were

trend of production! tomato culti

information on maor problems!

randomly from both the study areafarming system types from two stu

m)&

Data from 2uestionnaire were analy

abundance leel of pest species! m

location and tomato arieties& App

check the intensity of aried inpcompared among different scales o

interrelations between pest/disease

problems themseles& Si% tomato c

find out arietal performance agai

compared with specific and oerall

2uestionnaire were arranged in noBne way and two way analysis o

software& Different nonGparametric

Linear Model (FLM) and 6ilco%

different effects&



,,'

traps were efficient for collection and direct counti

e taken under obseration time to time and collected

ny insects like whiteflies! aphids etc& >t was made loc

the period of 'th

week of April to 1rd

week of

within two regions was due to arying leel of abunll as time of pesticide application by farmers& Low

esticides application and fewer numbers of aailable

d repetition in the study areas

Number of samplings

April (ay

+

+ ,

+ ,

+

+ ,

+ ,

,

,

after collection from field! were presered in micro

opods! sampling plastic tubes (aried in si#es) were uple and were presered in absolute 7thanol& Preser

the laboratory of department of phytomedicine! un

ied up to species leel during the period of August to

nd morphological features in reference with seeral

relation to their predators and other beneficial is 2position& All the identified species! besides ta%onomi

eters like feeding habit (herbiore to omniore)! hostconnectance within identified arthropods was calcu

here! L 3 number of trophic links and S 3 "umbe

ysisd identification of insects! 9ield leel sureys were

made& 9armers8 2uestionnaires were made in orde

rs grown! insecticide/ pesticide use pattern and ot

upport and serices! productiity etc& ', househ

for obtaining primary data& Surey procedure coey sites coering lower foot hills to high altitudes (ra

sed for different effects on depended ariables like p

aor problems! disease incidence leel and resistanc

lication fre2uency against farming system types w

t use against the specific pest/disease& Problem ff farming practices within categori#ed farming syste

occurrence and maor problems faced by farmers

ltiars were taken for analysis and orthogonal cont

st specific pest/disease& >n the same way! arietal

pest species and disease types& Different on farm an

inal as well as ordinal datasets in order to assess difariance (A"B;A) were used for statistical test

nd parametric testes were carried out with J leel o

on/NruskalG6allisG=ests were used to check leel


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g of the tiny arthropod

periodically& Aspirator

ally using a plastic tube!

@une +,, (=able ,)&

ance of insect and nonr number of sampling

arthropods in the field

4une

1

1

,

,

,

+

+

tubes with flip caps of

sed& >nsect number anded samples were safely

ersity of ohenheim&

"oember +,,& 5asis

literatures! guides and

uite ital to get into acal classification! were

preference and specificlated according to the

of trophic elements in

also carried out in the

to know the common

ers related farm leel

olds were interiewed

ed more or less all theging from '++ to ,+++

esticide use fre2uency!

against farming type!

s analy#ed in order to

aced by farmers werems in order to identify

! and een within the

ast tests were made to

resistant trait was also

off farm records from

ferent tests and effects&ith @MP -&+& (++-)

f significance& Feneral

of significance for the


5/13

5" #)S%*TS

3.1 Direct observation method

Sampling procedures carried out as

than '+ species per site& Since! t

disturbances fine sorting was made

and crop species grown! has found f

Table 'Distribution of maor spec

of occurrence! 3 mediu

Particulars

6hite flies

Helicoverpa armigera

Frasshoppers

AphidsLeaf feeding beetles

Spiders/ predatory insects

5light

6ilt=omato sole=omato mi%ed with egetables

Local cultiars

5"' &onnectance and trophic stru

5oth the study sites contained a c

Species also show reciprocal feedin

of ' sample species from Sun

communities! hence the connectancare the trophic links! therefore con

M and LS study sites respectiely&

Arthropods community structures o

(pollinators! decomposers and ot

*ockroaches and some flying insestructures& Among the collected spewere found in Sundargaon producti

site comprised seeral species of

commercial farming system was i

arthropods were 2uite aried withi

were more fre2uently distributed

Aphididae! 9ormicidae and 9orfic

respectiely! showing more trophic

families of different orders like

among the arthropod species as

relationship& More species interacti

on most of the sampled species (ei

legged fly! syrphid flies and robberof herbiore insects& Areas where t

interaction&



,,

described in study methodology! hae been able to c

iny insects were hard to collect in their real state

from the huge mass of mi%ed samples& Direct obser

ollowing leel of abundance density in both the study

es oer the study sites and farming systems& (Specific

m leel! , 3 lower leel and + 3 not obsered)

(+ *S(i0ed

farmin

1 +

1 ,

, 1

1 ,

1 1

1 ,

1 + 1

1

ture

mple% connectance patterns due to presence of se

g relations where species A can feed on species 5! 5

argaon (LS) study site! ' trophic links are f

will be +&,- and in Madanpokhara (M) site! outectance is +& +.& Similarly aerage links per specie

f the study areas showed a mi%ture of pest! predato

ers haing independent effect)& >nsects like ma

ts hae independent effect on trophic leel relationcies! dierse leels of arthropod orders containing len site (LS)! where the proportion of mi%ed farming

arthropods including tomato specific pest specie

n higher proportion& 9amilies within an order of

the locations/study sites& 6ithin! order *oleoptera!

oer M region together with herbiore insect fa

ulidae of orders Lepidoptera! omoptera! ymeno

relation of insect and plants& >n contrast! Sundarga

antodia! Diptera! =hysanura and Araneae which s

ell as scaenger and saprotrophic nutrition! besid

n in LS site was due to presence of more carniore

ther herbiore or omniores)& >n the same way! pre

flies can indicate a continuous trend of predation oehere is seerity of mi%ed farming systems hae sho


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llect and identify more

without morphological

ation of the arthropods

sites&

ations$ 1 3 higher leel

g

&ommercial

farming

1

1

1

,

1

1

+

eral omniore species&

on * and * on A& But

und within arthropod

of total '' species! ,0's are '&,0 and &11 for

s and other beneficials

fly Hexagenia spp!

ship in the communitys harmful tomato pestsystems was more& M

s! where monoculture

nsects and non insect

chrysomelidae families

milies like "octuidae!

ptera and Dermaptera

n study site contained

owed trophic relation

e e%isting plantGinsect

species which can feed

ence of flies like long

the diersified speciesn higher species leel


6/13

Figure ! =rophic community o

decomposers and inde

3.3 Statistical analysis of field dataAnalysis of pesticide use fre2uency

to assess the impact and efficiency

different tests&Figure '$

Application fre2uency of insecticid

according to analysis of ariance (9

+&+ leel)& >n this way! mono cropp

whereas integrated system uses med

Similarly! test on application fre2population! which range , to 1! whe

3 +&+1)& 6hitefly infestation cau

pests are found to be near to both l

pesticide application (oneGway A"

both for insecticides and all thesignificant label shows that there

fre2uency than rot and wilt&

Maor problem faced by farmers in

number ,(Problem O,) was ranked

data! water and disease problem we

and insect problems were seere inmanaged with irrigation system and

0

5

10

15

20

25

Herbivores O

Numberofspecies



,,

f pest and predator and other arthropods (othe

endent of predator prey relations)$

against farming system types! specific pests and dise

f application against target organisms& 9ollowing res

application fre2uency by cropping systems

es/pesticides were statistically significant different a

3 1&+1! df 3 ! 10 p 4 +&++,! followed by a =ukeyG

ing (commercial) farming system uses higher amoun

ium leel and mi%ed farming system has used minim

ency by pest number , (ranking of pest as a maore , is higher problematic) was significant& A"B;A

ed higher application fre2uency (A) and grasshoppe

els (A5)& =here is no significant effect of diseaseG

;A$ 9 3 &! df 3 '! 1 p 3 +&0-)& Since applica

esticides! the effect may not be crystal clear hois effect& ;iral! damping off and blight diseases s

he study sites were ranked as ,! and 1 according to

s higher leel of seerity in different farming syste

e found more in medium to small scale farming types

large scale farming systems& Large scale farming sysapplication rate is higher for disease control thus fi

minivores Carnivores Pollinators Oth

Trophic behaviour


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s include scaengers!

ases was done in order

lts were obsered with

ong cropping systems

ramer SD test at p 3

of chemical pesticides

l (9ig& )&

r problems among the(9 3 1&! df 3 '! 1 p

lesser (5) while other

ependent fre2uency of

tion fre2uency is taken

eer nearby statisticalow higher application

seerity leel& Problem

s& According to surey

whereas *aGdeficiency

tems normally are wellld information showed

rs

MH (44)

LS (42)


7/13

such phenomenon& Large scale s

micronutrients& Problem of water

supply with pipe water in the stres

more dry conditions than rainy seas

though they were resistant agains

aailability of micronutrients (eg&Disease problems were e2ually d

commercial farming systems agains

integrated or mi%ed farms carrying

=aking under consideration for the

among growers! selectie applicatiFeneral Linear Model (FLM) test!

against the problematic fields with

Table 5H. armigeraby in

Insecticides )s

*hlorpyrifos +!+

7ndosulfan +!,

&ypermethrin 6,7

Phorate +!

(i0ed 6,8

"eem +!+

Maor tomato diseases in the area

check efficiency and target specifiwith FLM procedure& Manco#eb

generally applied against fungal d

damping off is highly significant as

Table 8Diseases by fungicides$

Disease Fungicide

#ot manco-eb

:ot copper supha

Damping off carbenda-i

6hiteflies population leel! while

Madanpokhara study site (M) tha

cultiars (hybrid susceptible) and

factorial test! chiGs2uare appro%ima

was also found significant differenteleation on leel of resistance wer

testing with "ominalGlogistic model



,,-

stems lack internal nutrient cycles which may p

ere mostly found in east facing sloppy lands where

s condition& =he study period was during spring se

on planting& 9ruit set problem was obsered to be m

pest and diseases than other hybrids& 6ater stre

alcium deficiency) in soil and plant health (strengthistributed oer all the farming system types& ig

t pest and diseases might hae affected pest species

iseases (as ectors)&

Figure 5$ Problem O, by farming types

trend of random field application of pesticides due

n of insecticides against problematic insects was tcypermethrin and mi%ed insecticides were found si

. armigera.

secticides applied&

imator Std"=)rror t=>alue

-0-,' +!..''' +!

.1.,, +!,-0+ ,!,+

'896:' 6,'87868 ',95

1+0+. +!,.,- ,!,0

!'5;:< 6,!

6,86:89


8/13

leel against the eleation accordi

infestation were found more in M

farming system for tomato rather th

>n the surey areas! maor arietie

diseases& :esistance traits of cultia

and 1 3 resistant or not significant dManisha! Sriana! =hims ,! Siris

differences among cultiars in term

was used& Differences were found s

contrasting local cherry with Manis

differences were highly significant

local cherry were contrasted with

Manisha and Sirish were contrasted

Lapsigede)! and the difference

combinations of hybrid cultiars

*ombinations of hybrids with local

family use and/or for illage leel s

with different crop species and/or

abundance whereas growing comminfested&

5light resistance characters against

the one way analysis of ariancesignificant while tested with one wa

(mainly hybrid arieties A) were se

leel while resistant (local cultiars

as per the resistance leel of ari

special tomato pests were significa

systems& 5utterflies! grasshopperstomato and others were non pest sp

small fields& *ommercial productio

aphids etc& Statistical analysis has

than occasional pest species (=abletomato and other egetables& Abun

(crucifers)&

Table 9All insects abundance by i

InsectsDegree of

freedom

H. armigera '

1hiteflies '

?rasshopper '

Leaf beetles

Pierisspp&

Aphids

Specific tomato pest yzus persic

Sriana) in commercial systems&resistance leel of ariety! micro cli

were more for high yielding hybr

organisms might hae been deelop

8" DIS&%SSI$NS=he study! primarily based on the

inolement of few additional cro

analytical methods& Selection of st

hilly areas in "epal has future pote

as percentage of land aailability

inoled in building up agricultura

deelopment actiities! where slopi

proposed (Shrestha et al& ++)& =hmore prQcised analysis and e%tractio



,,0

g to the same model (*hi 3 '&110! df 3 p 3

location which may be due to presence of seeral

n effect of geography and eleation&

grown were statistically tested for their resistance

rs were categori#ed in a range of , to 1 (, 3 suscepti

amage with pest and diseases)& Maor tomato cultiar! Local cherry and Lapsigede (medium si#ed fruits)

s of occurrences of whiteflies infestation! adaptation

ignificant during oerall analysis (*hi 3 1&,! df

a! Sriana and combinations (Manisha Lapsigede)

(*hi 3 ,,&+.! df 3 ,! p 3 +&+++0-)& Likewise! *om

combination of hybrids where local cherry grow

with combination of (Manisha Sriana)! (Manisha

s were significant (p 3 +&++,)& 6hitelfly infesta

were not significant different as they all were s

cherry was found seere in subsistence leel farming

lling only when they get ade2uate yield& *ombinatio

resistant cultiars like local cherry has shown lo

ercial hybrid arieties (sole or combination of hybri

occurrence of disease was significant (9 3 1&-! df 3

test& H. armigera resistance traits of ariety and ly analysis of ariance (9 3 -&! df 3 ! 10 p 3 +&++

erely attacked and semi susceptible (combination e

5) were almost not infested& 6hile analysing all ins

ties with one way analysis of ariance and 6ilco

t while others were not found significant which ar

and leaf feeding beetles collected in the study areaecies which were found in tomato field due to mi%ed

fields were mainly affected with specific pests like

roen that the resistance ranks were significant aga

)& Pieris speciesare more specific pest for 5rassicdance of these species might hae been due to pres

nsect resistance traits of cultiars

Sum of s@uares (ean s@uares F

!!,766666 9,n order to analyse the

generali#ed linear model

,,! p 3 +&+,')& 6hile

nd (Sriana Lapsigede)

inations of hybrids with

together with Sriana!

Lapsigede) and (Sriana

tion differences among

sceptible to whiteflies&

where! farmers grow for

of susceptible cultiars

wer leel of whiteflies

ds) were found seerely

! 1- p 3 +&+1) as per

eel of infestation were)& Susceptible cultiars

ffects A5) with medium

ect infestation condition

on/NruskalG6allisGtests!

due to mi%ed cropping

s were seasonal pest ondiersified crops within

H. armigera! whiteflies!

inst specific pests rather

aceae family rather thanence of other egetables

alue Pr" B F

966 6,66''


9/13


10/13

*onnectance leel found for both st

were not that much identical& Acco

and increased leel of comple%ity

stability! which are more fle%ible in

the maor samplings were from spe

micro climatic species diersity duein their study stated that higher a

diersity was more in mulching

Fenerally! subsistence leel farmi

plantations of diersified species wi

LS study site reflects encouraging r

contained more coleopterans& ong

neutral (indifferent) species and h

species diersity affects egetation

and carniore arthropods (:andlko

discussion since they can cause se

aphids and whiteflies)& Such species

of pre harest loss causes seeral ec

Maority of the egetable productioremote areas (ESA>D! +,,)& *ulti

iews like supplements of micronu

showed higher yield leel of tomatoregions =able &

Table 7 ;egetable and tomato pro

Production region &ommo

Palpa egetab

6estern hills egetab

"epal egetab

Palpa tomat6estern hills tomat

"epal tomat

Data sources$ *5S +,+! ESA>D +

=aking under consideration for ina

there needs policies and approaches

+,+) and plant protection techni

undertake the comparatie adantfocussing on periGurban to rural pro

inestments (@ohnson et al& ++0)!

technologies in sloppy lands of nep

different regions of the country! the

harest losses for agricultural comm

>n comparison to other countries!++.)! howeer with increment of

rate is gradually increasing& Amon

+,+)& 6ithin pesticide use periphe

of application causing natural misb

:anabhat < F* ++)& 9ungicides

(9:A* ++0) are being used sincediseases causing loss of beneficial

(Michaud < Frant ++1)&

>nformation obtained through field

confined to the tomato fields of dif

ealuation of pest damage assessme

the farming system types& 9ield leagricultural production/protection s

:ural Appraisal (::A) oer Parti



,+

dy sites were at intermediate leel and difference bet

ding to 9owler (++.)! stable communities ary wit

and connectance can hae direct effects on reductio

smaller communities& =he study sites were distribut

ific tomato fields& Bnly mi%ed farms were more or l

to integration of seeral crop species in particular fielthropods were obtained with higher weed biomass!

nd stubble biomass and not significantly correlate

ng types in the study hold higher stubble biomas

thin small areas& igher abundance of Dipterans and

sult and in contrast! M site (where commercial far

iao et al& (+,+) found higher predatory arthropods

rbiores in cabbage field that intercropped with g

comple%ity (structural and chemical) which hae dir

er et al& +,+)& 9ew serious pests in tomato hae a

ere damage in faourable conditions and also can

management becomes problematic in large scale far

onomic misbalances&

n trend in "epal represents subsistence leel farmination of tomato can benefit growers and suppliers

trients! fresh selling! and processed products marke

and egetables in the study district than that of the co

uction pattern in "epal and the study district (++./,

ity Area .ha/

Production

.metric tons,

mt/

es ,.. .1

es ,!' +-!+

es 1!. !0+!-

,+ !+,!,+. ,0!-11

,.!-' 1,-!-

,,

e2uate supply of per capita egetable supply in "e

to disseminate knowledge! maintain scale and 2uality

ues (preentie and curatie)& Deelopment of agr

ge of egetables production through out the poteduction system undertaking e%plicit policy changes! i

here! there necessitate participatory identification o

l (Shrestha et al& ++)& =ogether with production ef

e needs simultaneous attempts for the protection app

odities still e%ist around + G 1J (MBA* +,+)&

per hectare consumption of pesticides in "epal isommerciali#ation of agriculture and area e%pansion

all the farmers of "epal! '0J of them were found

y! there are seeral misuses! residual effects on food

lances and monetary losses with lower production ef

haing high resistant risks like metala%yl! carbend

long time where mi%ing of such groups can deeloporganisms eg& *opper fungicides may disrupt fertilit

eel surey of ', households randomi#ed oer two

ferent cultiars& Aailable information were efficient

nt! impacts of pesticides use structure and effectiene

el sureys! in general should comply research obestem in terms of manpower! resource and technologi

cipatory :ural Appraisal (P:A) is that 2uerier/re


S" (online) 0G1'-

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ween two communities

the number of species

n and enhancement of

d oer a large area but

ss sufficient to e%press

d& 6ardle et al& (,...)!howeer *oleopteran

d with weed biomass&

s! manures and dense

redatory arthropods in

s were more in number)

(11&-,J) followed by

rlic and lettuce& Plant

ct effect on herbiores

ways been an issue of

transmit diseases (eg&

ing system where risk

g specially in the hillyrom different points of

ing& Statistical records

untry and western hilly

)&

Cield .mt3ha/

!5

.&

,&,'

!


11/13

prQcised information! but adoption

with P:A (Ling +,,)& Another

respondents where there is a comp

facilities! technologies and biophysi

focussed on collection of informati

faced in contrast of farmers8 practhousehold sureys made aailable

problem faced! production eniron

Pesticide application fre2uency tha

ery less in subsistence leel prod

production may depend on farmers8

Similarly! pestO, (ranked as most p

Helicoverpa armigeraand whiteflie

and grasshoppers& Such analytical o

fields where higher control measure

higher degree of insecticides follo

maor problem faced by farmers! ca

to continuous loss of micronutrient

face long drought condition during(ansen! ++.)& Leaf disorders du

browning! young leaf twisting! nec

fields were suffering form *a& defiareas with high moisture and poor s

Application of insecticides against

and mi%ed insecticides against H

according to 6orld ealth Brgan

armigera from cotton growing are

cypermethrin (Mc*affery ,..,)& Sthere needs alteration of chemical

approach which uses chemicals a

connections among stakeholders i

actiities (:aini et al& ++)& Bn teffect is greater than the sum of

(ol#man +++) along with integratSignificance leel of applied fungic

applied more against rot! dampin

carbenda#im is lesser than that of m

important factors to be undertaken

essential for "epalese food securitregistration and supply system! pes

++0)! regular monitoring and awar

was found with more seerity of w

large scale tomato fields were respo

more prone to whiteflies infestatio

insecticides against whiteflies& >n sreduce higher fre2uency and doses

side effects on arthropod natural e

predatory arthropods followed by

susceptibility were$ ymenoptera!

obserational records it was found t

site howeer in subsistence leel farheay use of pesticides and/or the

:esistance leel of local cultiars

resistance properties of cultiars

Helicoverpa armigera! whiteflies a

and Lasigede showed higher suscep

showed ery less susceptibility& >n t

pest and diseases& =hims , was ffound out seeral facts regarding pe



,,

f serices! technologies and other facilities by client

ost important aspect to be considered will be the c

le% of combination of differences in knowledge! pr

cal enironments (5handari ++1! 5raunschweig et a

on regarding arthropod community structure! pest in

ices of input use (type! amount and fre2uencies) afirst hand information as well as obserational outp

ents and mitigation strategies were effectie with par

has been found highest in commercial tomato farm

ction system& Multiple agricultural technologies for

self sufficiency! e%tension input and leel of farmers8

roblematic) was significance against pesticide applic

s infestation were getting more application fre2uenci

utcomes showed the seerity of tomato specific pest

s are applied& =omato crop is one of the high input cro

ed by fungicides and herbicides (Letourneau < F

lcium deficiency was seere in commercial tomato fi

and leel of water supply& 5lossom end rot occurs

the early stages of fruit deelopment! and also can octo calcium deficiency also prooke illusion of dis

osis and fruit rots (Echida +++)& *ommercial area

ciency problem howeer! similar problems were obn shine conditions&

specific pest species are not found significant only e

licoverpa armigera& *ypermethrin! though being

isation ranking (6B! ++)! past eident has sh

as of South Sulawesi! >ndonesia in ,.0- and early

ince resistance risk may happen upon continuous hcontrol agents as well as adoption of integrated p

s a final option& Participatory work in >PM can

oled in production! protection and support for

e other hand! mi%ed pesticides hae synergistic actitheir indiidual effects causing significant harm t

ed risk of pest resistance&ides against diseases shows that manco#eb! carbend

g off and blight respectiely& 6B ha#ardous le

etala%yl& oeeer! resistant risk and persistent natur

for the areas with incredible use trend of pesticides&

y system where more emphasis is needed for stanticide residue limits on food materials maintaining

eness programs and restricted use of highly to%ic pe

iteflies than LS site& *ultiation of high yielding c

nsible for this factor& Areas where application fre2ue

probably due to disturbance of natural control sys

uch condition! use of most efficient pesticide againof multiple pesticides& =heiling < *roft (,.00) in t

emies found out that susceptibility to pesticides w

arasitoids! where most common arthropod orders

oleoptera! emiptera! Diptera! Araneae and others&

hat there were ery less to none hymenopterans in co

ms within this site they were seerely spread& Loss oir moements towards safe places might be effecti

ere found significant different with hybrids (single o

ere also significant for harmfull pest species and

nd blight disease& Accoding to Lamichhane et al& (

tibility against bacterial speck disease while local c

is study such susceptible cultiars hae shown poor

und susceptible only against whiteflies& =he study ost/disease infestation! problem faced in different farmi


S" (online) 0G1'-

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will be more effectie

ommunity structure of

ctices! problem faced!

& ++,)& =he study was

festation and problems

d purposes& 9or these!uts and discussions on

icipatory approaches&

ing systems was found

2uality and 2uantity of

e%pertise (9loyd ++1)&

ation fre2uency! where

s than other butterflies

species in commercial

ps which also consume

oldstein ++,)& But of

lds! which may be due

fre2uently when plants

cur after heay rainfallease infestation due to

s with low moisture in

sered in the wet land

%cept for cypermethrin

moderately ha#ardous

own that elicoerpa

,.00 were resistant to

eay use of pesticides!st management (>PM)

stablish networks and

safer plant protection

on that their combinedhumans and wildlife

#im and metala%yl are

el for manco#eb and

in ecosystem are other

Such aspects are 2uite

ardi#ation of pesticideaiting periods (Lama!

sticides& M study site

ltiars and presence of

ncies were higher were

ems and less effect of

st specific species canheir study on pesticide

re obsered most with

s per the hierarchy of

ere in the study! with

mmercial farms of M

ymenopterans due toe reason behind this&

in combination)& Such

iseases of tomato like

+,+)! Manisha! Sriana

ltiars and =hims type

esistance against maor

utcomes hae worthilyng systems! commonly


12/13


13/13

Millar! >& M&! ;& M& Eys! and :& P&

manual for 7ntomology a

'.,''G-&

"epal! :&! and F& 5& =hapa&++.&

hinterland of a city in "ep

Palikhe! 5& :& ++& *hallenges anEmweltforschung 10! ,1+G

Pandey & :&! A& 5& Pun! and N&

under plastic house conditi

Philpott! S& M&! :& Freenberg! P& 5i

arthropods$ comparisons w

Pokhrel! D M& +,+& *omparison o

pockets in "epal& @& Agricu

Puos! A&! and P& Morard& ,..-& 7

early production stage& @&

:aini! :&! ;& offmann < *& P& 6&

study tomato

(http$//www&tropentag&de/

:anabhat! 5& and F*! & D& ++cabbage farming& >nterna

September ,G1&

:andlkofer! 5&! 7& Bbermaier! M&species diersity and pla

Applied 7cology ,,! 101G1

Shrestha! "& ++& "epal8s entry i

Proceedings! >ntegrated Pe

Protection Society "epal! .

Shrestha! P& N&! N& P& Aryal! 5& :&upland farmers improe th

Sustainable sloping lands

Prabang! Lao PD:&

Shrestha! P&! P& Noirala! and A&commercial egetable gr

7nironment ,,! .G,++&=heiling! N&M&! and 5&A& *roft& ,.0

@& Agriculture! 7cosystems

Echida! :& +++& 7ssential nutrient

=ropical Agriculture and

6ardle! D& A&! N& S& "icholson! N&soil G associated arthrop

ariability oer a seenGye

6en! *&! D& 7& Fuyer! and 6& Li&

@& 5iosystems engineering

Hehnder! F&! F& M& Furr! S& NVhne!

in organic crops& @& Annu&(*5S) *entral 5ureau of Statist

*ommission ("P*)! "epal&

(9:A*) 9ungicide :esistance Acti

(including 9:A* code nu

(MBA*) Ministry of agriculture an

program ("epali)& Plant Pr(:>*) :esource >nentory *ommit

components of 5ritish *ol

(ESA>D) Enited States Agency for

season egetable subGsecto

(6B) 6orld ealth Brgani#ation

guidelines to classification!



,1

& Erban (editors)& +++& *ollecting and presering in

d Arachnology)& A:* ? Plant Protection :esearch

Determinants of agricultural commerciali#ation an

l& @& Applied Feography! .! 1--G10.&

options of pesticide use$ >n the conte%t of "epal& L,',&

& Epadhyay& ++& Participatory arietal ealuation

n& @& "epal Agric& :es& @&! -! ,,G,&

hier! and >& Perfecto& ++'& >mpacts of maor predato

ithin and across ta%a& Becologia ,'+! ,'+G,'.&

f farm production and marketing cost and benefit a

lture and 7nironment +,+! ,+G&

fects of potassium deficiency on tomato growth and

lant and Soil ,0.$ ,0.?,.! Nluwer Academic Publis

Hebit#& ++& >ntegrated pest management (>PM) and

stakeholders8 practices

++/proceedings/node,'&html)

& 7ffect of Melia azedarach on aphid (Brevcorinaeional scientific conference on organic agriculture

ilker! and =& Meiners& +,+& ;egetation comple%ity t structures on plant chemical comple%ity and art

.&

6=B A challenge to fulfil the obligations in phy

st Management and Plant Protection Strategy Deel

G,+ May! ++! Nathmandu! isi Publications! Lalitp

:egmi! and 5& 5& =amang& ++& ow can researcheir farming systemsU 7%periences in participatory te

and watershed management conference! December

S& =amrakar& +,+& Nnowledge! practice and uswers of Dhading district! "epal& @& =he @ourn

0& Pesticide sideGeffects on arthropod natural enemie

and 7nironment! ,! ,.,G,0&

s for plant growth$ nutrient functions and deficiency R

uman :esources! Eniersity of awaii at Manoa! 1,G

>& 5onner! and F&6& eates& ,...& 7ffects of agricuod population dynamics! community structure! d

r period& @& Soil 5iology and 5iochemistry 1,! ,.,G,

++.& Local featureGbased identification and classificat

,+'! .. ? 1+-&

M& :& 6ade! S& D& 6ratten! and 7&6yss& ++-& Arth

e& 7ntomol! ! -G0+&ics& ++.! +,+& Statistical records on agricultu

&

n *ommittee& ++0& 9:A* code list$ 9ungicides so

bering)! updated ersion of ++-&

d *ooperatie& ++0! ++.! +,+& early progress re

tection Directorate! "epal&ee& ,..0& >nentory methods for terrestrial arthropo

mbiaWs biodiersity! no& '+! >S5" +G--G11G1&

>nternational Deelopment& +,,& ;alue chain / ma

in "epal& *ontract "o& A>DG1-G=BG,,G++++,&

& ++& =he 6B recommended classification of p

>S5" . ' ,'1 0


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sects and arachnids (A

nstitute! >S5" , G00G

mechani#ation in the

ndschaftsXkologie und

of rainy season tomato

s on tropical agroforest

ong selected egetable

mineral nutrition at the

hers&

information flow$ *ase

in Nenya&

brassicae) of organic! Adelaide! Australia!

=he influence of planthropods& @& 5asic and

osanitary measures& >n

pment in "epal& Plant

ur! "epal&

and deelopment helpchnology deelopment&

, G ,! ++! Luang

of pesticides amongl of Agriculture and

$ a database Summary&

symptomsR& *ollege of

&

tural intensification oniersity and temporal

-+&

ion for orchard insects&

opod pest management

re& "ational Planning

rted by mode of action

ort on plant protection

s& ,..0& Standards for

ket analysis of the offG

sticides by ha#ard and

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