Art Curriculum Guidehistorywithmac.weebly.com/uploads/5/9/7/4/59744935/artcg.pdf · Major cities included Ha rappa, Ga nweriwala Thar, Kalibangan, and Mohenjo-daro, but over 1,000

ArtCurriculum Guide

2015-16: IndiaAuthor

Stephen Bergauer

1 | A r t C u r r i c u l u m G u i d e

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Traditional and Hindu Art 3 Colonial Art and Architecture 47

Bust of a man, possibly a priest 6 Coat (Wentke) 49

Shiva as the Lord of Dance 11 Rashtrapi Niwas (The Viceregal Lodge) 52

Mattancherry Palace wall painting 14 St. Andrew’s Church, Chennai 55

Buddhist Art in India 16 Englishman on Tiger Hunt 58

The Great Stupa 21 Studio Portrait of Ram Singh of Jaipur 61

Seated Buddha from Gandhara 27 Postcolonial Art 62

Indo-Islamic and Mughal Art 29 IITK Kelkar Library 66

Indo-Persian carpet with medallions 35 A Holy Man in the Forest (Shiva as theLord of Animals)

68

Base for a Water Pipe 37 The Tables Have Turned 70

The Emperor Shahjahan Riding, with the Aftabi orSunshade Held Over His Head

39 Rs. 1000 note, Mahatma Gandhi series 74

Taj Mahal 44 Table of Works 76

A r t C u r r i c u l u m G u i d e | 2

About the Author

Stephen Bergauer is a former three-year Decathlete from Hamilton HighSchool in Chandler, Arizona. He was the overall individual champion at the

2012 Arizona State competition, recording a top score of 9,051 points. Inaddition to co-founding Decademy, he is attending Arizona State University,

majoring in Economics, Mathematics, and Finance.


TRADITIONAL AND HINDU ARTPAGES 48-53, 60-67

Civilization in India dates back to at least 3000 BCE, and artistic traditions have existed for nearly as long. However,art that we consider truly “Indian” began during the Vedic period, when the foundational texts of Hinduism werebrought to the subcontinent. In this section, we’ll explore the earliest Hindu traditions as well as how artists interactedwith their faith and depicted Hindu gods across the centuries of ancient Indian civilization.

The most important things to know from this section are: How Hinduism differs from monotheistic Western concepts of religion The major features of Hindu depictions of gods, particularly Shiva

The Indus Valley CivilizationThe Big Idea: The Indus Valley civilization rivalled its counterparts in Egypt and Mesopotamia and settled one ofthe most fertile areas in the world. Their cities, particularly their peerless sanitation and water systems, heldthousands; however, few artifacts from the period survive.

Overview The first major urban society in India

formed around 3000 BCE, during theBronze Age, and is termed the IndusValley Civilization (also theHarappan Civilization) The Indus River flows through

modern-day Tibet, Pakistan, andIndia, down from the Himalayasinto the Indian Ocean

Like the Nile in Egypt and the Tigrisand Euphrates in Mesopotamia,the Indus River allowed agricultureto flourish, eventually leading tothe construction of cities

At its peak, the civilization actuallyspread further and was more populousthan its Egypt and Mesopotamiancounterparts, even though these twoare far more well known in the West Major cities included Harappa, Ganweriwala Thar, Kalibangan, and Mohenjo-daro, but over

1,000 settlements have been discovered Its peak population may have been as high as 5 million people

One major accomplishment of the Indus Civilization was its mastery of complex sanitation and watersystems; each home had its own well, and wastewater was channeled using a centralized system

Figure 1: Map of the Mature (High) Harappan Phase, which lasted untilabout 1900 BCE. The Indus River runs through the middle.

Credit Wikimedia Commons


In fact, these systems may have surpassed the poor sanitation that persists today in much of theregion

The Indus people also invented a system ofmeasurement and weights that allowed foraccurate and consistent production of bronzeand other metals

The city of Mohenjo-daro is the best preserved of allthe Indus River Valley sites; its complex brickarchitecture and sanitation system were veryadvanced for the time One major site in the city is the Great Bath (Work

1), a massive bath near the center of the city; itwas probably used for ritual purification

The city also featured multi-story buildings andlarge walls, which may have been useddefensively or to block floodwaters from entering the city

The city was abandoned around 1800 BCE, probably due to drought Since its discovery in 1922, Mohenjo-Daro has been the most excavated of the Indus River Valley

cities However, severe obstacles limit our knowledge of this civilization The Indus Valley script and the Harappan language (or languages) that people used remain

undeciphered1

o This means that we know almost nothing about Harappan religion and government; we don’tknow how society was structured, whether there was a distinct hierarchy, or other fundamentalcharacteristics

The climate means that many larger materials did not last through the centuries (unlike in Egypt)

1 Many examples of Indus script have been found (particularly on the soapstone stamps used to create repetitive imagesin clay, see Work 2), but no translation has been found. Linguists don’t even know whether this script was a true languageor whether it was merely symbolic/artistic, and no close similarities to other languages have been found.

Work 1: Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, c. 2000 BCE, brick

Work 2: Unicorn Indus Seal, from Mohenjo-daro, c. 2500-1500 BCE, soapstone


Finally, many parts of the civilization were not preserved; up until atleast 1900, people (both Indians and British) would take bricks fromthese ancient ruins and re-use them

The civilization began to decline around 1900 BCE due to climate andagricultural changes; the once-fertile valley began to dry up One of the major rivers of the region, the Sarasvati, completely

dried up2

By about 1700 BCE, many of the cities were deserted; the civilizationfinally ended around 1300 BCE

The Indo-Aryans, a nomadic group from further east, conquered muchof the area around 1800 BCE They brought Sanskrit, the basis for all Indo-European languages,

and the Vedas, the foundational works in Hindu scripture, withthem

Art of the Indus People The Indus people constructed many small artistic figurines, including

animals and people, for still-unknown purposes (Work 5) They could have served religious or ritualistic purposes, or they could

have simply been decoration Materials used varied greatly and included bronze, gold, silver, shells, terracotta, agate, and others

Some of the most famous Indus Valley works were soapstone seals, which contain both pictures andscript; their purpose remains unknown (Work 2)

A few larger works have been uncovered, including the selected work and Dancing Girl (Work 3) This second work highlights the metalworking skill present at Mohenjo-daro as well as the

importance of dance in Indus Valley culture

2 The Sarasvati is a major river in the oldest Hindu writings, but its exact location has never been determined. Mostscholars believe that the river is the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which you can see as a dotted line in Figure 1.

Work 3: Dancing Girl, found inMohenjo-daro, c. 2500-1500 BCE,

copper

Work 5: Miniature votive images or toy models, fromHarappa, c. 2500 BCE, terra-cotta

Work 4: Large well and bathing platforms from Harappa, c.2200-1900 BCE, mud-brick


Selected Work I: Bust of a man, possibly a priestArtist unknown, from Mohenjo-daro, soapstone, c. 2500-1800 BCE

Subject is unknown;his dignity and

decoration suggeststhat he was

important. We don’tknow enough about

Indus society toknow.

Pattern: trefoil (three-leaf), with some lonecircles. Drill holes in circle

Found in central buildingin Mohenjo-daro; alsosuggests importance

Eyes cut deep; arehalf-closed.

Originally had shellinlaid

Earholes suggestnecklace originally worn

Hair combed back andheld by headband;central circle echoespattern in robe

One exposedshoulder parallels

Gandharandepictions of Buddha

(later; see nextsection)

Beard carvings echohair’s

Missing armprobably wrapped

around body; createdclosed figure Red paste originally filled

much of the carvings

Alkali glaze would haveoriginally coated work,making it white


INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION, BUST OF A MAN QUIZ

1. What feature of Mohenjo-Daro stands out the MOST? (Hint: the Great Bath is an example)2. What group brought the Vedas to the Indus Valley area?3. What is the name for the element that dominates the Bust’s clothing?4. What are four elements that are missing from the Bust? (five possible)5. What element of the Bust echoes depictions of Buddha?

Hinduism OverviewThe Big Idea: Hinduism, generally regarded as the oldest faith tradition in the world, differs from other religions inits lack of a central leader. Instead, common epics, gods, and religious texts unify Hindus; these texts and thecomplex Hindu gods have inspired artists for centuries. The majority of modern-day Indians are Hindu, and theHindu artistic tradition persists in modern India.

Brief Overview – Hinduism as a “Religion” The most important thing to know about Hinduism is that it is not a “religion” in the unified, Western

sense of the word Unlike most other world religions, Hinduism was not founded by a charismatic/spiritual leader (like

Jesus, Siddhartha Gautama, or Muhammed)o Instead, Hinduism grew out of local Indian and South Asian traditions

In fact, the word “hindu” was originally “hindoo;” the Persians applied it to those who lived beyondthe Indus River, on the Indian subcontinent3

Later, it was used to apply to those Indians who lived in a particular region of the subcontinent, orto a particular caste

Although Hinduism does not have a central leader, it is united by a shared body of scripture; the oldestof these works are the Vedas The Vedas are considered sruti, or “what is heard” – meaning

that the texts are directly, divinely revealed instead of drawnfrom traditiono According to tradition (and as credited in another

central Hindu epic, the Mahabharata), the Vedas werewritten by Brahma (discussed more later)

The Vedas were originally composed in Vedic Sanskrit; they are some of the oldest extant works ofliterature and may date back as far as 2000 BCE; they were probably completely composed by 500BCEo They were transmitted almost entirely via oral tradition until after 100 CE, and, in many areas,

until 1000 CE4

3 It’s pretty easy to see how “Hindu” could be derived from “Indus.”4 In fact, the entire Vedic Sanskrit language has to be reconstructed from the various, splintered versions of the Vedas.

“It is better to live your own destinyimperfectly than to live an imitation ofsomebody else’s life with perfection.”

—Bhagavad Gita


o The fact that the Vedas existed only in the oral tradition certainly encouraged the splitting ofHinduism into many branches

There are four main Vedas, which are generally split into four maincategories: Samhitas (benedictions and mantras, the oldest),Aranyakas (rituals), Brahmanas (commentaries), andUpanishads (meditations and philosophy)o Of these, the Upanishads are most widely known (particularly

in the West); they form the spiritual core of Hinduism Some scholars use the acceptance of the Vedas as the defining

characteristic of Hinduism However, most Hindu traditions draw from many other texts,

including the Bhagavad Gita (the most-read part of theMahabharata in the West, it discusses war and the attainment ofmoksha) and the Brahmasutras (which systematize theUpanishads)

The Hindu Pantheon and Sculpture Hinduism has a complicated theology and pantheon of gods that vary

across various branches of the faith However, the three major gods (the Trimurti) in Hinduism are

Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the Preserver), and Shiva (theDestroyer and Restorer) As the creator, Brahma is considered the founder of the human race

through his son, Manu Although Vishnu and Shiva only play minor roles in the oldest Vedas,

they became more central to the faith over the centuries; Vishnu andShiva form a duality of life/deatho However, this duality is not like the Judeo-Christian God/Satan;

Shiva is the principal god for one of the major branches ofHinduism, and “the Destroyer” can also be translated as “theTransformer” (in the original Sanskrit, “Shiva” means “TheAuspicious One”)

The gods take on many different avatars or aspects (forms); thereare generally key features that identify each god across all his/heravatarso Brahma is traditionally depicted with four heads, four faces, and

four arms; he recites each of the four Vedas simultaneouslyo Other symbols of Brahma include prayer beads (used in

creation), a swan, a book (of the Vedas), and a scepter (Work6)

o Vishnu is generally a pale, waterlike blue and shown with fourarmso He holds four objects, one in each hand: a lotus flower (Padma), a mace (Kaumodaki gada),

a conch (Panchajanya shankha), and a discus weapon (Sudarshana Chakra) (Work 6)

Work 7: Traditional floweroffering to a lingam, Varanasi,

present day.

Work 6: Vishnu with Lakshmi, on theserpent Ananta Shesha, as Brahma

emerges from a lotus risen fromVishnu’s navel, date unknown, print


o Shiva can be depicted as an ascetic Yogi, as a householder with his wife Parvati, and as a warrior,slaying demonso He can usually be identified by a third eye, a snake around his neck, the Ganges River

flowing from his hair, a small drum (damaru), a trident, and a spear,among others

o However, he is also commonly worshipped aniconically as alingam (Work 7)56

The gods exist on two planes (levels): Paramashiva, where they cannot becomprehended by humans, and a lower level where they cano Shiva’s forms on this lower level include Nataraja, the Lord of Dance;

Tripurantaka7, the Victor of the Three Cities; and Chandrasekhara,the Moon-Crowned King (Work 9)

o Interestingly, Shiva is often depicted with a serpent earring (makara;male) and a gem-studded circular earring (female), suggesting heembodies qualities of both genderso This connects him to the genderless Brahman, the supreme spirit

that animates all life Sculptures of the many Hindu gods, including Shiva, were originally carved

from stone and intended for permanent installation in temples (Work 8) Worshippers would travel into the inner temple to receive the god’s

blessing For temples dedicated to Shiva, many iconic sculptures of the god would

be placed around the aniconic lingam However, around 500 CE, south Indian Hinduism developed the idea that the

gods, like kings, should “travel out” and “meet” their followers Obviously, this didn’t work well with heavy stone statues; as a result,

statues began to be made from wood and, eventually, bronze8

During the Chola (Choda) Dynasty, which ruled much of southern India and reached the height of itspower from 850-1200 CE, these bronze sculptures were greatly improved The Chola notably patronized Tamil literature and temples; although most of the wood and paper

creations have been lost, many bronzes remain Chola bronzes were created using the direct lost-wax casting technique, which was also used in

ancient Greece to make bronze statues (Figure 2)9

These bronzes would then be covered in decorations, including silks, jewelry, and flowers; theywould be carried around as part of ritualistic processions

5 Like early versions of Buddha, as discussed in the next section; “aniconically” means that Shiva was worshippedabstractly (here, the Lingam represents the Cosmic Egg). In the original Sanskrit, “linga” simply means “the male gender;”the lingam is therefore a phallic symbol and fits the predominantly male image of Shiva.6 Interestingly, the lingam was often combined with iconic sculptures; Work 8 is in a lingam form but also depicts Shivadirectly, as a column of fire.7 The official materials use an unusual transliteration, Tipuravijaya. This is the more common spelling.8 However, stone was still used, as can be seen in Work 8.9 Those of you who competed last year will remember that this process was used for the casting of the Artemision Bronze.However, the Indian process was slightly different. In Greece, details were worked into clay, and beeswax was placed overthe clay; in India, the opposite was true (because the clay in India is generally much softer).

Work 8: Stone statue of Shivaas Lingodbhava, Chola

dynasty, c. 900 CE, stone


KEY HINDU TERMS

Sruti “what is heard”; divinerevelation

Smriti “what is remembered”;historical tradition

Dharma Ethics, laws, duties; thecentral requirements ofall Hindus

Moksha(moksa)

Liberation/freedom; sameas Buddhism’s nirvana

Samsara Cycle of rebirthKarma Retributive action (differs

from the Buddhistinterpretation)

Trimurti Three major gods:Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva

Brahman Supreme Cosmic Spirit,genderless; not the sameas the god Brahma

makara Serpent; symbol of themale form

Basic form made in beeswax mixed with dammar, a tree resin• The form could be molded over an armature (or skeleton)• The beeswax form would be rapidly cooled in water• Basic details would be added to the beeswax with a sharp chisel

Several layers of clay would be added over this beeswax• The first layer of clay was very finely worked during the Chola period; this limited the need for further work

after casting• Modern bronze casters do not work as much detail into the clay; instead, they add details to the bronze

Sprues, or wax rods, and vents are placed along the surface• Metal pins and a funnel at the top are added• This allows the wax to exit the mold and keeps the entire structure stable during firing

A clay investment mold is placed over the outside

The entire object is kiln (clay oven) fired• The clay hardens while the wax melts and runs out of the funnel

Molten bronze is poured into the negative space that remains

Once the bronze cools, the investment mold is broken and removed• The inner core is removed if possible, but it can be left• This created a strong, lightweight sculpture• Because the mold is broken (hence lost-wax technique), each sculpture is unique

Work 9: (left) Tripurantaka, Chola dynasty, lost-wax bronze

Work 10: (right) Bronze figures of Shiva and Parvati, c. 1000 CE,bronze

Figure 2: Direct Lost-wax technique (Chola Dynasty)


Selected Work II: Shiva as the Lord of DanceArtist unknown, Chola dynasty, c. 950-1100 CE, copper alloy

Lotus pedestalsymbolizes creation

and primordialbeing

Points to raised foot,refuge of the soul

Opening in baseallowed statue to becarried in processions

Arched aureole[aura] of flames

symbolizesdestruction of

universe by fire;emphasizes Shiva’s

dual role indestruction and

creation Flame of destruction

Outstretched palm isgesture of

reassurance (for thefaithful)

Drum symbolizesprimordial sound of

creation

Water of the Gangessprings forth from hishair

Trampled demon(dwarf) Mushalagansymbolizes victoryover ignorance

Garment similar toHindu priests: baretorso, wrapped sarong


The Ramayana and Hindu Drawings and Murals Perhaps the most popular Hindu epic in India is the Ramayana, an epic poem about Rama, a prince of

Ayodhya and an avatar of Vishnu10

The epic tells of Rama’s efforts to save hiswife, Sita, from Ravana, the king of SriLanka; it also describes the meaning ofdharmao Its characters generally represent ideal

lovers, kings, and warriors that aremeant to provide a model

It is traditionally attributed to Valmiki, asage

Like other epics, it preserves cultural and religious stories in narrative form so the lessons can bepassed down

Episodes from the Ramayana have been depicted in sculptures, bronzes, and temple carvings (work xxx) In addition, the nine verses of the Gita Dhyanam [also Dhyana Slokas), which are appended to the

Bhagavad Gita, provide standard imagery and proportions for many of the gods However, some of the most famous depictions of the Ramayana are wall murals, particularly those from

Kerala (southwestern India) Many other wall paintings have been severely degraded or destroyed due to pollution, climate, or

cultural reasons; Kerala maintains some that date back to the 800s The Bhakti movement, which preached an egalitarian Hinduism, promoted wall paintings of Hindu

epics starting in the 1400so These works are notable for their dynamic forms, strong shading, and 3D perspectiveo Kerala paintings uniquely utilize Pancha-mala borders, which crowd the space around key

figures with five major images (Work 11)o Similarly, colors in Kerala works follow the Pancha-vama scheme of very intense red, yellow,

green, black, and white; these colors have symbolic significance Inspired by Greek and Roman influences, Kerala wall paintings were generally fresco secco, or

frescoes painted on dry plaster11

Some of the most famous Kerala wall paintings are in temples (Figure 3)12, but examples can befound in the early colonial period of the 1600s (see selected work)

However, wall paintings declined during the colonial rule of the 1700s; they have only recentlymade a resurgence following the accidental destruction of the Guruvayar Temple frescoes

10 The identification of Rama as an avatar of Vishnu was added later and is most prominent in the Vaishnava (Vishnu-worshipping) branch of Hinduism.11 See the Art Fundamentals Guide for more on this art form.12 Pictures are not allowed inside most temples, so examining pictures of them is difficult.

Ramayana, the MovieIf you’re tired of reading already, there’s an English,

movie-length animated version of the Ramayanaavailable on Youtube:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAM9x_GF9VY.Fair warning: there are songs.


o Modern wall paintings are completed on a variety of materials and are located in non-traditionalspaces, including Christian churches

VadakkunnathanTemple, Thrissur

Mahadeva Temple,Chemmanthatta

Mural atThodeekalam temple

Work 11: Gajendra Moksham Mural Painting, Krishnapuram Palace, Kerala, c. 1500

Figure 3: Three major sites for Kerala murals

Mruga-mala,elephants anddeer

Bhootha-mala,goblins and

dwarves

Pakshi-mala,birds/parrots

Vana-mala,flowers

Chithra-mala,abstractpatterns


Selected Work III: Detail of a wall painting, Mattancherry PalaceArtist unknown, Kerala style, c. 1663 CE, fresco secco

Palace more commonly known asDutch Palace; renovated by Dutchtraders in 1663, who replaced theoriginal Portuguese settlers in themid-1600s. The British eventually

pushed out the Dutch in the 1800s.

Originally built byPortuguese settlers in the1500s as a gift for the Rajafor Kochi. Shows growing

European influence.

Traditional building design:two stories, narrow hallway.Central courtyard dedicated

to Kochi royal familygoddess, Pazhayannur

Bhagavati

Mural located inking’s

bedchamber,along with 47

other paintingsillustrating the

entireRamayana

Painted duringDutchrestoration of1663

Depicts Rama andLakshmana, his brother,entering an alliance withthe monkey king Sugriva

Hanuman,Sugriva’s

attendant, alsoshown; elongated

nose, broad jaw

Rama clearlyidentifiableby green skin,calmexpression.Holds arrow

Sugriva: whiteskin, red-brownface, elongatednose, broad jaw

Lakshmana isblue-skinned,

with open eyes

Other objectsand figures

crowd scene andadd narrative

ambiguity

Elaboratecostumes,headdresses,colors typical ofKerala murals


HINDU ART, SHIVA AS LORD OF DANCE, MATTANCHERRY PALACE PAINTING QUIZ

1. According to myth, who wrote the Vedas?2. What are the four main categories of the Vedas?3. What gods are contained in the Trimurti?4. Name four emblems/symbols of Vishnu.5. What element in typical depictions of Shiva is traditionally female?6. What prompted sculptors to shift from stone to wood and bronze around 500 CE?7. In Shiva as the Lord of Dance, what do the following elements symbolize?

a. Lotus padb. Fire aureolec. Drumd. Outstretched palm

8. In the statue, what is Shiva’s right foot (at the bottom) doing?9. Who are the two main characters in the Ramayana?10. How did the Bhakti alter Hinduism?11. Name five key elements in Bhakti wall paintings of the 1500s and 1600s.12. In the Mattancherry wall painting, how is Rama identifiable?13. How are Hanuman and Sugriva depicted in the wall painting? Why?


BUDDHIST ART IN INDIAPAGES 45-48, 53-60

Although Hinduism dominates modern India, Buddhism forms an important minority and was founded in thesubcontinent. As a result, many of the oldest Buddhist relics are located in India, and the artistic traditions of the faithbegan there. In this section, we’ll explore the earliest Buddhist traditions and examine two major Buddhist works fromthis period.

The most important things to know from this section are: How the Great Stupa and the Seated Buddha from Gautama reflect their respective artistic traditions;

both are very symbolic of their time periods and locations How depictions of Buddha shifted from aniconic symbols to rigidly fixed, human depictions

Buddhism and Ashokan StupasThe Big Idea: Buddhism was founded around 400 BCE by Siddhartha Gautama, who wanted to create a “MiddleWay” between total suffering/ascetism and worldly desire/gluttony. His faith spread rapidly throughout India,Pakistan, and the Far East. Emperor Ashoka, who ruled much of India, converted to Buddhism and built thousands ofstupas, including the Great Stupa, the first stone building in India.

"’The hero who has renounced royalty, the son of Suddhodana, is now seated under the tree ofknowledge. He is concentrating his mind, he is making the supreme effort, and soon he will bring to allcreatures the help which they need. The road he will have taken, others will take. Once set free, he willset others free. Once he has found peace, he will bring peace to others. He will enter nirvana, and he willcause others to enter. He will find wisdom and happiness, and he will give them to others. Because ofhim, the city of the Gods will be crowded; because of him, the city of the Evil One will be deserted. Andyou, Mara [a devil], a commander without an army, a king without subjects, will not know where to takerefuge.’ Mara was filled with apprehension. He tried to sleep, but his slumber was disturbed by terribledreams. He awoke and summoned his servants and his soldiers. When they saw him, they becamealarmed, and Sarthavaha, one of his sons, said to him:"’Father, you look pale and unhappy; your heart beats fast and your limbs tremble. What have you heard?What have you seen? Speak.’"’Son,’ replied Mara, ‘the days of my pride are over. I heard a voice crying in the light, and it told me thatthe son of the Sakyas was seated under the tree of knowledge. And I had horrible dreams. A black cloudof dust settled over my palace. My gardens were bare of leaves, of flowers and of fruit. My ponds haddried up, and my swans and peacocks had their wings clipped. And I felt alone, amid this desolation. Youhad all deserted me. My queen was beating her breast and tearing her hair, as though haunted byremorse. My daughters were crying out in their anguish, and you, my son, were bowing before this manwho meditated under the tree of knowledge! I wanted to fight my enemy, but I could not draw my swordfrom the scabbard. All my subjects fled in horror. Impenetrable darkness closed in upon me, and I heardmy palace crashing to the ground.’”

—from the Life of Buddha [a collection of stories], by A. Ferdinand Herold, 1922


Foundation and Early History Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (often referred to simply as Buddha) sometime

between 500-300 BCE in Eastern India1314

Very few definite facts are known about Siddhartha and his society

Buddhism slowly developed over the centuries from oral traditions about the Buddha combined withlater writings; the religion centers on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path Buddhist practitioners attempt to transcend suffering by achieving nirvana They do so by learning and accepting the Four Noble Truths (Figure 6)

13 The traditional dates for Buddha’s life are 563-483 BCE, but some historians argue that he lived as late as 400 BCE.14 For a great overview of Buddha’s life, as well as an in-depth exploration of how he has been depicted throughouthistory, read this fantastic article from the Met: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/budd/hd_budd.htm.

Traditionally, it is believed that he was born in modern-day Nepal or in northeastern India (in UttarPradesh)

He was born into a noble family and sheltered from the suffering around him

At age 29, he went among his subjects and encountered sickness and death; he found an elderlyman, a sick man, a corpse, and a renunciate (monk) under a tree

He then renounced his heritage and became an ascetic, or someone who gives up most materialgoods; he became a beggar in the streets for six years

He then learned yoga and meditation from two teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta

He then founded a monastic order that practiced extreme ascetism, including food deprivation

However, he felt this wasn't working and so created the Middle Way/Middle Path, also called theNoble Eightfold Path

• He famously became enlightened while meditating under a pipal tree (Bodhi tree) for 49 days; this is one of the most enduringBuddhist artistic images

He then traveled for the next 45 years of his life, spreading his revelations and converting manydisciples; he was instructed to do so by the god Brahma

He finally died at age 80, of dysentery, from a meal served by a blacksmith (some thought he waspoisoned); he was cremated a week after his death and his ashes were spread across the country

Figure 4: Brief Overview of Siddhartha Gautama’s (Buddha’s) life


One major aspect of Buddhism is karma, or the spiritual energy that humans send into and receive fromthe universe,

Buddhists also believe in reincarnation, or the idea that thesoul lives on past the body; however, this differs from thepopular interpretation of being reborn as an animal Instead, Buddhists believe that the soul is on an upward

journey toward being a Buddha; the intermediate stepsmay transcend many lifetimes

Early Buddhist Art and Ashoka Buddha’s asceticism led him to reject most material possessions; however, after his death, Buddhism

developed a rich artistic culture centered around perfection and transcendence Unlike Christian art (particularly later Christian art), most Buddhist art is idealized and does not

attempt to depict reality Early Buddhist art depicted an aniconic Buddha: as an eight-spoked wheel, an empty throne, a tree,

or other emblems from Buddha’s life (see symbols in Work 13) instead of as a person Buddhist art first spread under the Emperor Ashoka (r. 269-232 BCE), one of the earliest rulers of the

Indian subcontinent; his empire covered nearly all of modern-day India except the far south After winning the Kalinga War, which saw some 250,000 casualties, Ashoka converted to Buddhism

and embraced its doctrines, including peacefulness

“All that we are is a result of what wehave thought, it is founded on ourthoughts and made up of ourthoughts.”

—Dhammapada (Buddhist epic)

Life issuffering

Desire causessuffering

Desire can beovercome

Follow theEightfold Path

RightUnderstanding Right Thought Right Speech Right Action

RightLivelihood Right Effort Right

MindfulnessRight

Concentration

Figure 6: The Four Noble Truths

Figure 5: The Eightfold Path


He also began constructing many monuments to the Buddha; these included pillars (modeled aftersimilar Persian ones) and stupas, or temples that held the Buddha’s asheso Originally, hundreds of pillars were constructed; however, they were often targeted by Muslim

iconoclasts, and so only nineteen remain today (and only six have the original capitals)15

Other Buddhist artifacts from this early period include votive figures, alms bowls, and reliquaries (forashes and other sacred objects)

15 Iconoclasts mean people who destroy icons, or artistic depictions of religious figures. Iconoclasm has been present inJewish, Muslim, and Christian faiths for thousands of years, following Moses’ destruction of the false idols in Exodus.

Work 14: Ashokan pillar at Vaishali(lion capital), artist unknown,

stone, c. 250 BCE

Work 15: Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, fig tree, photograph by KenWieland

According to myth, the Buddha achieved enlightenment under thistree’s ancestor.

Work 12: Lion capital ofAshoka, originally located atSarnath, stone, c. 250 BCE

The lion was Ashoka’s symbol;the four lions are a majorsymbol of India and are still onits flag

Work 13: Footprint ofBuddha with Dharmacakra

and Triratna, artistunknown c. 100 CE,

Gandahara (Pakistan)


Stupas Before the Buddha, ascetics were buried in a seated position inside tumuli, wood and dirt structures;

after Buddha’s parinirvana, these structures were repurposed into stupas Stupas were intended to be shrines for worship, commemoration, and pilgrimage; their design

symbolizes a mandala, or a diagram of a universe Originally, eight stupas were built to hold the Buddha’s ashes at key locations in his life Ashoka ordered the construction of some 84,000 stupas and spread the remains across all of them; they

were often combined with shrines to existing local deities and served as composite places of worship Stupas can be divided into five major categories, but there is significant overlap (Figure 7) As Buddhism spread east, the stupa was adopted to new cultures; the East Asian pagoda and Tibetan

chorten both derive from Indian stupas

Relic stupa (remains of Buddha or disciples)• Deorkothar (also Deur Kothar), in Madya Pradesh, India, attributed to Ashoka, brick• Contain the relics of several key Buddhist disciples

Object stupa (key objects from Buddha's life)• Jetavanaramaya, in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, c. 273-301 CE, brick• This building holds a setion of belt and a robe worn by the Buddha• At 400 feet tall, it was the tallest stupa in the ancient world

Commemorative stupa (markers of key events in Buddha's life)• Dhamek Stupa, constructed c. 250 BCE and rebuilt 500 CE, stone• The Dhamek stupa marks a deer park, where Buddha gave his first sermon• This structure was built in 500 CE and expanded on the original, commissioned by Ashoka; it

holds small pieces of bone from the Buddha and his disciples

Symbolic stupa (symbolizes some major aspect of Buddhism)• Borobudur, in Java, Indonesia, c. 800 CE, stone• The largest Buddhist temple in the world; it is constructed of many perforated (open) stupas

and has a central dome• Architecture reflects many Buddhist elements, including the three levels of Buddhist cosmology

and the spiritual stages of a bodhisattva; it serves as a major pilgrimage site

Votive stupa (constructed as an offering)• Phra Pathommachedi, in Nakhon Pathom, Thailand, construction began 193 BCE• Original purpose is unknown, but it may have been built as an offering to counter an astrological

prophecy

Figure 7: The five major categories of stupas, with examples of each


Selected Work IV: The Great Stupa [also Sanchi stupa]Construction overseen by Ashoka’s wife, Devi; stone, c. 200 BCE

Yasti pillar on topof anda;

symbolizes the axisof the universe and

connects thehuman and the

divine by piercingthe sky

Toranas (gateways)are at the four

cardinal directions;they were added to

the Great Stupalater, around 100

BCE.

Harmika fencingsurrounds the andaand the yasti; manyIndian temples are

surrounded by treesor fencing

Three chatras (disks) topthe yasti; they symbolize

the Three Jewels ofBuddhism – the Law, theBuddha, and the Sangha

(monks). The umbrella-likeformation is meant to

shield the relics containedin the stupa

Anda (central dome)forms the main shape; seton platform. Symbolizes

“world mountain.” 50 feettall

Walkway placedabove bottom

fence for worship

Carvings on the toranasand elsewhere tell

stories from Buddha’slife and educate the

viewer

Oldest stonestructure in India;inside is earth and

rubble

Location in MadyaPradesh, northern India;

once an economiccrossroads

Gen. Taylor firstdocumented for the West

in 1818; restorationstarted in 1881, and

excavations began in1912


BUDDHISM OVERVIEW, ASHOKA, AND THE GREAT STUPA

1. Where did Buddha become enlightened?2. Name the two major concepts Buddha preached (hint: they both have numbers)3. Who converted to Buddhism and began building monuments to Buddha around 300 BCE?4. What symbol from this period is still used as a symbol for India today?5. Name the five major types of stupa.6. What tops the Great Stupa? Why? What do they symbolize?7. What surrounds the Great Stupa?

The Great Stupa toranas feature three distinct parts.

Upper architraves (lintels) depict flowers, animals, andBuddhist symbols.

Central section features large capitals topped withelephants, lions, and dwarves. Dancing women placed inS-curves ease transition from horizontal upper to verticallower.

Lowest pillars support the gate and feature devotionalfigures from the Jataka tales (stories of Buddha’s previouslives).

Other parts of the complex feature pillars, like this one(one of the few unrestored remnants of Ashoka’s originalbuilding). Also present are other temples and viharas, orcells for monks.


Depictions of the BuddhaThe Big Idea: Early depictions of Buddha were aniconic, or non-human; however, centuries after his death, atradition of depicting Buddha in human form began in Gandhara. Influenced by Greco-Roman styles, Gandharanartists made many statues of Buddha, including the selected work. Over time, depictions of Buddha became morestandardized.

Early Depictions of Buddha Starting between 0-100 CE, artists in Gandhara

(modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan) beganto create representational images of Buddha asa man and important events in his life They were influenced by Greek and Roman

statues, particularly statues of youth; theHellenistic conquests of Alexander theGreat in 325 BCE and later trading broughtexamples to the region

Additionally, other Kushan artists inMathura (a city in Uttar Pradesh in north-central India) began depicting Buddha around the same periodo Although both traditions showed Buddha in a sanghati, or monks’ garment, Gandharan

sculptors left both shoulders covered, while Mathuran artists left the right shoulder bareo Mathuran Buddhas also had more energy and movement

The Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great (r. 127-151 CE) converted to Buddhism andcommissioned one of the earliest extant images of Buddha on coins (Work 17)o Note the similarities to Roman statuary and depictions of figures, particularly gods; the toga

folds are strikingly Roman16

16 Check the Art History guide for an overview of Greco-Roman statuary if you need a review.

ClarificationThe Kushan Empire did indeed control Gandharafrom about 50-500 CE, when Buddha depictions werefirst created; however, they were not solelyresponsible for the Greek influence on Gandharansculpture. Gandhara had been a cultural mixing potfor centuries as Hellenistic Greeks, Parthians [fromPersia], and other Indian groups ruled it at variouspoints.

Work 17: Gold coin ofKanishka, from the BritishMuseum, c. 127-151 CE.

Note the Greek lettering, clearlysignaling the influenced ofHellenistic culture on Kushan-era India.

Work 16: Standing BuddhaOffering Protection, Mathuran,

late 400s CE, red sandstone

The sinuous Buddha here istypical of Mathuran works.


Four major events were commonly depicted (Figure 8), while four more are less common but stillpopular (Figure 9)17

o During this early period, Buddha was depicted in a variety ofposes and from many different angles (see the examples inFigure 8 and Figure 9)

o He was also shown in various stages of life, including as aninfant, as a meditating sage, or as a cosmic ruler

Around 200 CE, Buddhism split into two major branches: Therevada,the traditional group, and Mahanaya, which preached a more divineBuddha Traditionally, Buddha had been seen as a transcendent human; the

Mahanaya, in contrast, saw him as a divine figure manifested ashuman

Their worship was thus more devotional and elaborate, as was theirart; Buddha was depicted more as a godlike figure

17 The third image in Figure 9 depicts Buddha being sheltered by a naga, or serpent king; in Nectar in a Sieve, Kali’sforeboding comments about Nathan killing the snake reference this myth.

Birth• Birth of the Buddha,

Kushan period [300BCE - 200 CE], stone

• Emerged from hismother's side; shehad a vision of whiteelephants

Enlightenment• Plaque with scenes

from the life ofBuddha, c. 1100 CE,India/Burma,mudstone

• Sitting under thebodhi tree; oftenshown with righthand on the earth,affirming its truthover thetemptations aroundhim

First Sermon atSarnath

• The Buddha's FirstSermon at Sarnath, c.100 CE, Gandhara,schist

• Taught five asceticsabout dharma, theFour Noble Truths,and the EightfoldWay

Death/Parinirvana• Death of the Buddha

(Parinirvana), c. 100-300 CE, fromGandhara, schist

• Death of earthlybody while recliningon his side; finalvictory

Figure 8: Four major events in Buddha’s life commonly depicted in art

Work 18: Head of the Buddha,Gandhara period, stone


After these early depictions, Buddha slowly adopted features of traditionalIndian art: he was depicted frontally, with a mask-like face Most importantly, the proportions and overall form of the Buddha were

fixed by about 400 AD; this allowed for consistent worship across thescattered Buddhist populationo The Buddha was always shown with a small waist and broad shoulders,

intended to give him a superhuman looko The proper proportions for his body were maintained using the

angula, or width of a finger; the artist would use a finger measure toconstruct Buddha’s form (Figure 10)

Other key features included those shown in Work 22, plus many more18,19,20

Buddhism also spread to Japan in the mid-500s (where Buddha became knownas Shakyamuni), sparking a revolution in Japanese sculpture

18 The Victoria and Albert Museum gives an excellent overview: http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/i/iconography-of-the-buddha/.19 Work 22 can be seen as a companion piece to the selected work; it is from the same region and dates to the same time.20 Neither of these statues shows webbed fingers, but you can clearly see them in the selected work. The urna is bestvisible in Work 18.

Leaving hisshelter

• The Great Departureand the Temptationof Buddha, c. 200-250 CE, India,limestone

• Buddha left on fourjourneys andencountered oldage, sickness, anddeath

Renunciation• Fasting Siddhartha,

c. 200 CE, Gandhara,schist

• Buddha left in themiddle of the nightand renounced allof heritage; hebecame an asceticfor six years andoften starvedhimself

Meditation• Buddha sheltered by

a naga, Angkorperios [1100 CE],Cambodia, bronze

• While meditating inthe forest, Buddhawas protected by anaga, or serpentking

Miracle atSravasti

• Bookcover withscenes from the lifeof Buddha [centralpanel], India/Nepal,c. 900-950 CE, inkand color on wood

• Miracle whereBuddha made hisbody into many,among others

Figure 9: Four other common subjects for depictions of Buddha

Work 19: Sakyamuni(Seiryo-ji), by Chinese

sculptors, c. 900


One major work, Sakyamuni (Seiryo-ji) (Work 19), a Chinese copy of the Udayana Buddha, wasbrought to Japan in 986 and has endured as a major Buddhist symbol

Stylized, curled hair

lakshanas, or symbolic markingsover his body

Halo (nimbus) around head

Lotus and wheel marks on solesof feet

urna, or mole on the forehead

Webbed fingers

an ushnisha, or lump on his head(to symbolize greater intelligence )

Work 22: Buddha Maitreya (Mile), NorthernWei dynasty, China, 486 CE, gilt bronze

Work 22: Standing Buddha fromGandhara, c. 300 CE, stone

Figure 10: (left) Diagram of typical Buddhameasurements. 12 angulas for the palm and face(with three sections of 4 making the face). Entirestanding figure is 108; a seated figure would be60.

Work 20: (top) Buddha woodcut, Shanxi, China, c.900 CE, ink on paper. One of the first uses ofwoodblock prints (a precursor to the printingpress) was to print repeated images of the Buddha


Selected Work V: Seated Buddha from GandharaArtist unknown, grey schist, Indo-Greek style, c. 200-300

Dhyana meditationpose: cross-legged,hands folded across lap

Draped fabric breakspedestal, connecting the

figure and base

Perfectly symmetricalfeatures

Ushnisha formed as ahairknot here, afterGreek statues of Apollo.Unique characteristic ofGandharan Buddhasfrom this period

Halo frames hair, face,and shoulders

Urna (mole) in center offorehead


DEPICTIONS OF BUDDHA, SEATED BUDDHA FROM GANDHARA QUIZ

1. What emperor began printing Buddhist coins around 150 CE?2. What four events from Buddha’s life were MOST commonly depicted in early Buddhism?3. Of the two branches of Buddhism, which is MORE mystic and believes in a divine Buddha?4. What is the name of the famed Japanese/Chinese Buddhist statue?5. What is a ushnisha? How is it depicted in the Seated Buddha? What influence does this reflect?6. What is the name for Buddha’s pose?7. Name two figures at the base of the Seated Buddha.

Buddha; similarpose and depiction

to main figureexcept for missing

halo

NoteThere are actually several known versions of the Seated Buddha from Gandhara; the one in Wikipedia(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seated_Buddha_from_Gandhara) is not the same statue, so be forewarned.

Bodhisattva (enlightenedone, just below a Buddha).Raised right hand holdingjewel; typical depiction for

bodhisattvas.

Four otherworshippers; smallersize indicates lesser

importance

Shallow (bas) reliefdrapery

Lions typical ofGandharan

sculptures; echoKushan influence


INDO-ISLAMIC AND MUGHAL ARTPAGES 69-86

The Mughal Empire, which ruled most of India in the period immediately before colonial rule, established a PersianSunni Islam regime. They imported many artists from Persia, dramatically altering existing Indian art. As a result, newart mediums and techniques – like carpets, miniatures, and metalware – became common in northern India, andIslamic architectural elements were adapted to this new home.

The most important things to know from this section is: For each selected work, which elements reflect Persian/Islamic influences and which ones represent

Indian traditions or independent Mughal developments

The Arrival of Islam and Mughal IndiaThe Big Idea: Although Islam first arrived in India in the 600s, it rose to prominence with the Mughal Empire, whichruled much of the subcontinent from 1500-1750 and was explicitly Sunni.21

Early Islam in India The Islamic faith arrived in India soon after it was

founded in the 600s in the Middle East; it spreadthrough Kerala (on the southwestern coast) Malik Deenar, a direct disciple of

Muhammed, legendarily constructed thefirst mosque in India, the Cheraman JumaMasjid, in 62922 (Work 23)

The faith spread through northwestern India(Pakistan and Afghanistan) during theGhaznavid Empire (977-1163) This Persian-speaking Muslim empire

reached its greatest extent under Mahmudof Ghazni, who repeatedly looted Hindutemples in northwestern India in the mid-1000s23

The Ghaznavid Empire was displaced by theGhurid Dynasty, which arose from Afghanistanand unified much of the Middle East Mu’izz ad-Din Muhammed conquered Delhi, the capital and second-most-populous city in India,

around 1200; Islam had a permanent presence in India afterward

21 Important note: in this section, I will refer repeatedly to modern-day locations like Pakistan and Afghanistan. It’simportant to note that these geopolitical divisions did not come about until centuries after these events.22 Note that Deenar [also transliterated Dinar] died in 649 CE, not 749 CE. Also, it is almost impossible to verify most of theinformation about Deenar’s life; all we know for sure is that the Cherman Juma Masjid mosque was constructed in 629and that Islam began to spread throughout Kerala at this time.23 Interestingly, Mahmud was the first man to be referred to as a “sultan.”

Work 23: Model of the Original Cherman Juma Masjid, 2009

The mosque was renovated around 1100 and still stands today;this is how the mosque originally looked. Note how, in this early

period of Islam, none of the distinctive elements thatcharacterize Islamic architecture had been developed.


The Qubbat-ul-Islam Mosque was built in 1198 in greater Delhi (Work 24)o This temple emphasized the triumph of Islam in northern India; it was built on an earlier Hindu

temple and featured a large iron pillar that was looted from another temple to Vishnuo The entire Qutb complex features traditional Islamic architecture (like the Qutab Minar, a free-

standing minaret) and Indian/Hindu elements (like simple arches and flat roofs)24

o Islamic art, particularly from this period, tended to be iconoclastic and abstract; the templewas thus decorated with abstract, calligraphic carvings that were influenced by the floral motifsof earlier Hindu works25

24 The Qutb Minar is actually the most-visited historical site in India, even outpacing the Taj Mahal.25 See, for example, the floral patterns in Work 11, which (although after this period) are symbolic of traditional Hindu walldecorations.

Work 24: The Qutb complex, foundation laid by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, temple built by Alauddin Khilji, c.1191-1220.Clockwise from top left: Qutab Minar, red sandstone and marble; Iron Pillar of Delhi, 1st millennium BCE, wrought iron;

Interior of Alai Darwaza, stone calligraphy; Decorated arches of Alai Darwaza; View of Minar and ruins.


Islam and the Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was the last major pre-colonial empire to rule India; it controlled much of India and

Pakistan from 1500 until the rise of colonialism in the mid-1700s The empire was founded by Babur, who invaded in 1526 and controlled Hindustan (northwest

India and Pakistan); his successors grew the empire over the next two centuries (Figure 11)

• Conquered much of Hindustan from an Afghan king• Focused on battle; unable to consolidate/control territories

Babar (Zahir ud-Din Mohammed (r. 1526-30)

• Tried to consolidate his father Babur's rule• Exiled to Persia in 1540

Humayun (r. 1530-40)

• Ethnic Pashtun (the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan), unlike the Persian Mughals• Founded the short-lived Sur Empire• Gifted administrator and ruler; reformed postal system and taxes and built roads.• Died 1545 in an accident

Sher Shah Suri (r. 1540-45)

• Second son of Sher Shah Suri; continued his father's reforms and consolidated rule

Islam Shah Suri (r. 1545-54)

• Returned triumphantly in 1555 with the help of the Safavid Persians and Shah Tasmash; thissolidified the Persian roots of the Mughal Empire

• Died in an accident shortly after returning

Humayun (r. 1555-56)

• Ushered in golden age for Mughal court and art• Expanded empire to cover nearly the entire subcontinent; brought in conquered areas

through marriage and diplomacy

Akbar the Great (r. 1556-1605)

• Originally considered a great emperor, but his rule devolved over time

Jahangir (Salim) (r. 1605-27)

• Reached height of Mughal architecture; built Taj Mahal and many other works

Shahjahan (Khurram) (r. 1628-58)

• Empire reached greatest extent during his rule• Overextended administration and capability to rule; empire faded quickly after his death

Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707)

Figure 11: Outline of key Mughal rulers, 1526-1707


Interestingly, despite being an absolute monarchy,the Mughals did not practice primogeniture (firstson inherits); instead, children and relatives wouldfight for the throne This policy became known as the (completely

awesome) ya takht ya takhta – “the throne or thecoffin”26

At the empire’s peak under Aurangzeb, the Mughals ruled over around 150 million people, or about25% of the world’s population However, at this point, the empire was already in decline; it steadily lost power due to internal

rebellions and European incursions until it effectively ended in 1739, when Delhi was sacked The empire finally ended in 1858, when the British East India Company imprisoned Bahadur Shah II

for supporting the failed 1857 Indian Rebellion Interestingly, despite controlling most of the Indian subcontinent for centuries, the Mughal court spoke

Persian; later, they began speaking Urdu (the most common language in Pakistan) The Mughals also remained resolutely Sunni Islam and ethnically Persian despite the fact that the

majority of their subjects were Hindu and of various Indian ethnicities

ISLAM IN INDIA, MUGHAL EMPIRE QUIZ

1. What was the first Muslim mosque in India?2. Name the two Islamic dynasties that controlled parts of northwestern India in the late first

millennia CE.3. What temple signifies the triumph of Islam in northern India?4. What elements in this temple are Islamic, and which are Hindu/Indian?5. Who founded the Mughal Empire?6. Who was the only Mughal emperor to rule twice?7. Which emperor is considered to have built the greatest architectural works of Mughal India?

26 “When you play the game of thrones, you win or you die.”

CorrectionAlthough Sher Shah Sur’s short-lived empirelasted 15 years, from 1540-55, he himself diedin 1545.


Indo-Islamic ArtThe Big Idea: Islamic art and architecture has a rich history; much of it wasdeveloped in the traditional Islamic cultural centers of Arabia, Persia, andAfghanistan. However, the Mughals imported Persian stylings to their Indiancourt; although they incorporated some Indian motifs, their works hew closelyto the Persian model. Each of the four selected works below illustrate keyaspects of particular Islamic materials and styles.

Weaving and Carpetmaking The oldest wool carpets date back to at least 500 BCE, from Central

Asia; they were used for warmth and decoration (Work 25)27

Carpets have a rich history in Islamic art; because Muslim practicesrequire kneeling, carpets protected the worshippers’ knees andmade mosques more comfortable Unlike contemporary Western art, these carpets were often

functional (they were used in everyday contexts); however, asthey became more complex, they were used for decoration

In mosques, carpets would often be inscribed at the top with amihrab niche, indicating the direction of prayer toward Mecca(Work 26)o This echoes the actual mihrab present in all mosques,

connecting the carpet to mosque architecture Most carpets are woven on a loom; the main thread (weft) is drawn

through the vertical strands (warp) that are tied to the loom (Figure13) Major materials include wool, silk, and (sometimes) cotton,

naturally dyed and woven into patterns Turkish carpets, which date back to at least 1200, add tufts, or

additional knots, to create intricate patterns Two examples are given below (Figure 12); these additional

knots would be pounded down to maintain the smooth carpetsurface

When placed throughout the carpet, these knots are known asthe pile; they add comfort and warmth and allow for moreintricate decorations

Carpet weavers train for years in order to achieve these intricatepatterns; simply making and dying the amount of wool neededis an intensive process

Decorations are typical of Islamic art: abstract geometric andfloral patterns dominate, and people/animals are often notshown

27 Work xxx, the Pazyryk carpet, was preserved so well because it was accidentally frozen in a block of ice in Siberia. It hasthe unique distinction of being the oldest-known and the best-preserved ancient carpet in the world.

Work 25: Pazyryk carpet (detail), woolwith Turkish knots, c. 400 BCE

Work 26: Ghiordes carpet, fromwestern Anatolia (Turkey), mid-1800s,

wool.

Note the central mihrab design and thearea to kneel.


Because of the hot climate, carpet weaving did not spread in India until the Mughal ruler Akbar theGreat brought Persian weavers to his court28

These carpets mimicked the Persian model closely; however, Mughal weavers incorporated morefloral and natural motifs and often feature central medallions29

o In particular, carpets made under Jahangir’s rule featured curving flowers after Jahangir’s trip tosee the flowers of Kashmir in 1620 (note the carpet/weaving imagery in the quote below)

Although they were used to support Islamic practice, Mughal court carpets were generally intendedas luxury, not functional, objectso This also served a propaganda purpose, advertising the wealth of the Mughal court

28 If you’re really feeling ambitious, the Met has an excellent (and long) overview of Mughal carpets:https://books.google.com/books?id=2ILPYtPB4x0C&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false.29 Interestingly, the medallion structure was often used in Chinese weaving as well; some art historians have proposedthat the design has a common heritage in the nomadic tribes of ancient Central Asia.

Figure 13: Diagram of basic weaving.Credit Wikimedia Commons

Figure 12: Two major types of additional knots in a pile. The left is aTurkish knot; the right is a Persian knot.

The garden-nymphs [the flowers] were brilliant,Their cheeks shone like lamps;There were fragrant buds on their stemsLike dark amulets on the arms of the beloved.The wakeful, ode-rehearsing nightingaleWhetted the desires of wine-drinkers;At each fountain the duck dipped his beakLike golden scissors cutting silk;There were flower-carpets and fresh rosebuds,The wind fanned the lamps of the roses,The violet braided her locks,The buds tied a knot in the heart.

—Emperor Jahangir, describing the flowers of Kashmir

Work 27: Carpet with niche-and-flower design, Northern India, c.

1630-40.


o

Selected Work VI: Indo-Persian Carpet with MedallionsArtist unknown, wool pile on cotton, c. 1680

Two smaller borders have small flowers

Central bluemedallion

Two matching goldmedallions

Four gold archforms frame central

blue medallionBlue fans in corners

Dark outer borderhas repeating floral

pattern

Key colors: burgundy, gold,blue/black. Secondary:

light blue, cream, green,brown

Size: 37’ x 12’Perfect symmetry, both

top/bottom and left/right

Staggeredmedallions fairly

unusual


Metalworking and Bidriware Another important class of functional Islamic art are metal objects: bowls, jugs, candleholders, globes,

boxes, and many others Importantly, metal objects were used by all people instead of reserved for the elite; however,

beautiful and ornate metal objects were still created as luxury items Islamic metal objects were made using standard processes, including casting (pouring hot metal

into a mold), hammering (shaping a piece of metal using force), turning (cutting metal using aspinning apparatus), and spinning (creating symmetrical metal shapes through high-speedspinning)

Key materials included copper, silver, and gold; these could also be added to less-valuable materials(like iron) for accent and color

Finally, many metal objects were inscribed with floral and calligraphic patterns, much like otherIslamic art

Tobacco¸ native to the Americas, was first brought in India by Portuguese sailors in the late 1500s; itflourished due to the suitable climate and ample land Rulers, like Jahangir, unsuccessfully attempted to ban tobacco; it remains a problem in modern-

India Notably, hookah, invented in Safavid Persia, became far more popular in India and the Middle East

than it did in Europe; this led to the creation of ornate metal water bowls and pipes for smoking The most interesting Mughal metal objects came from the city of Bidar, in south-central India; these

works became known as Bidriware (Work 29,Work 28) Large workshops in Bidar would produce metal works; although not much is known about them, it

is likely that artists worked together on metal objects, making individual parts Much like Mughal carpets, Bidriware objects emphasize floral engravings and some Quranic

engravings; architecture, animals, and people were very rare Bidriware was made from zinc inlaid with silver (or, less commonly, brass or gold); the object would

then be covered in a paste and polished, creating a durable, matte surface

Work 28: Bidriware cup with lid, c.1850, zinc alloy

Work 29: Bidriware base for a water pipe, c. 1750,zinc alloy


INDO-PERSIAN CARPET, BASE FOR A WATER PIPE QUIZ

1. How did Mughal carpets differ from Turkish ones?2. Name the two major threads in a carpet and the direction each goes.3. What motif is present in both small borders of the Indo-Persian carpet?4. Where was Bidriware first created? What elements distinguish it?5. What does the central scene in the Base for a Water Pipe depict?

Selected Work VII: Base for a water pipeArtist unknown, zinc alloy with silver and brass inlay, c. 1650-1700

Central scene: chinikhana (“Chinaroom”), a popularMughalarchitecturalelement. Nicheswere used todisplay prizedChinese porcelain

Highly unusual fordepictions ofarchitecture,

animals, and alandscape; most

bidriware examplesare like Work 28and depict onlyfloral elements

Use: filled withwater for filteringtobacco smoke

Silver dominatesdecorations; brass

highlights

Flared lip is wherepipe stem would beattached

Animals inunnatural pose to

emphasizeanatomy

Decorations exhibithorror vacui – nospace is left empty

Chini khana, posedanimal (a bird)

echoed again onflared lip


Miniatures Another major field of Islamic art is the miniature (also often called

Persian miniatures), or small, intricate paintings of people, animals, andlandscapes Unlike worshippers in other areas, Persian Muslims never explicitly

banned the human form – so the miniature flourished there Additionally, since the miniature was generally intended for private

use, the presence of iconographic figures was not viewed as harshlyas public depictions

The miniature first spread in 1200s Persia and peaked in the 1500sand 1600s, under Safavid ruleo They were painted on paper (which the Arabs made from rags),

unlike the European vellum, and used mineral-based paintso Subjects could vary and included royalty, scenes from epics,

landscapes, and plant/animal life Traditional miniatures are quite flat (there is little shading and almost

no depth) and view the subject from slightly above; although thedecorations were quite ornate, realism was not the goal

Most miniatures were bound into muraqqa books and albums These books would contain miniatures, carpet pages (miniatures

that depicted a repeating floral pattern, like contemporarycarpets; Work 30), and calligraphic inscriptions of Quranic text,epics, stories, poems, and even scientific writings30

Muraqqas could exceed 500 pages in length and often required afull workshop to produce; because of this, only royalty and thevery wealthy could commission themo As a result, many muraqqas would begin with royal seals and

inscriptions and contain depictions of the commissioningruler’s ancestors

Much like carpets, Indo-Islamic miniatures were strongly influenced byPersian traditions When he returned from exile, Humayan brought some Safavid Persian miniaturists to his court After European contact became more widespread in the 1500s, Indian miniatures began to

incorporate some Western techniques like atmospheric perspective and shadingo This is reflected most notably in the Gulshan Album, commissioned by Jahangir (Work 32)

During the Mughal Golden Age, Akbar sponsored many miniature books depicting Indian epics (likethe Mahabharata, which he translated to Persian) and his ancestors and their deeds (Work 31)31

Although miniatures became very popular in Mughal India, very few examples survive due to theunfavorable preservation climate Additionally, only one muraqqa from the 1500s and 1600s survives with all its original contents and

binding; this is more due to political instability and European purchases than climate

30 Carpet pages are not unique to Islam; medieval European Bibles also often featured them.31 Work 31 is a 1616 copy of the original, which unfortunately sits in a Jaipur museum, off-limits to any historian.

Work 30: Frontispiece of theCoran of Arghun Shah, fromEgypt, painting and gold on

paper, c. 1368-88

Aquamarine

Cinnabar

Yellow Ochre

Figure 14: The primary colors usedin Islamic miniatures


Selected Work VIII: The Emperor Shahjahan Riding…Artist unknown, watercolor and gilt on paper, 1600s

Muraqqa: Patna’sDrawings; composite of

works aboutShahjahan’s family and

life

Contains 37calligraphic

inscriptions, attributedto Mir Ali-alkatib

Also quotes fromJami’s (a Persian poet)

Tuhfat al-ahrar (The Giftof the Noble, 1481-82)

Composite muraqqa:not all works date to

Shahjahan’s rule

Equestrian ruler (onhorseback) typical ofmany cultures; symbolof power (thenation/people are thehorse)

Horse richly attired:jeweled bridle, carpetsaddle

Shahjahan wearselaborate clothing andjewels; he is equippedwith a spear and abow/arrow

Servant holds aftabi(sunshade); angle

allows viewer to seedetails but is obviously

inaccurate

Colors and decorationsof servant’s clothing

echo Shahjahan’s butare less opulent

Inner border of red,green, gold

Outer border of elaborate foliage; painted in grisaille (grey)

Sky simply suggested(note yellow paper)

Rainbow frames centralfigures

Hills viewed fromslightly above ground

Marsh scene with fourwhite birds; scale ismuch smaller thanaccurate, whichemphasizes Shahjahan


We yearn for this veiled face of Beauty’s bridal sense, hiddenYet seen with the longing heart’s imagination which presentsYou in all thought and all created clots of things that exist asSigns of your energy surrounding and entering us, all in all,

The all-inclusive pace of your presence which travels throughMultifarious “this” and “that,” the many naked things which floatIn Your creation, reflecting You and You and You nothing more to

Say or see than this, the bliss which accomplishes us to speak as suchAnd merge into the Beauty You define and state in us as ourselves

Repined from being as secondary fractions apart from you, flagrantWith You and I, departed from You who are all and everywhere;

Thus we remain perplexed, a spot on the face of your Beautiful formsUnless You let us join Your company as mist joins the cushioned air.

—excerpt from Salaman and Absel, by Jami, c. 1485, trans. Raficq Abdulla

Work 32: Page from the GulshanAlbum, by Farrukh Beg, ink andwatercolor on paper, compiled

1600-18

Work 31: Folio from 1616 copy ofthe Razmnama, copy of 1587

original, ink on paper

Work 33: Jahangar and PrinceKhurram (Shahjahan) After a Hunt,

from Patna’s Drawings, ink andwatercolor on paper, c. 1600s


Architecture and Muslim Tombs Like the previous mediums discussed, Mughal architecture was heavily influenced by Persian and

Islamic traditions Originally, Muslims followed Muhammed’s desire for a simple tomb and shunned elaborate

memorials However, human (and artistic) vanity prevailed, and many Muslims continued creating elaborate

tombs and monumentso Many artists circumvented this restriction by creating tombs that shared a foundation with a

mosque, sanctifying the tombo Even Muhammed’s tomb received an upgrade in the 700s, when the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi

(Prophet’s Mosque) was built over his resting spot (Work 34) In Turkic cultures, the tomb tower became the most popular burial monument around 1000; it was

a simple cylinder that reproduced monumental tents However, other tombs were modeled after Islamic garden pavilions, with a large, domed square

o Because of limitations in dome size, these tombs were fairly similar; architects would distinguishthem by adding double domes, minarets, and other features

o This style became far more popular in Mughal India, where the square base was modified intoan octagon, inspired by the “eight paradises” (hasht hihisht) of the Quran

Because Indian builders were not as familiar with arching forms; early Mughal architecture relied onthe post-and-lintel form and used white marble and red sandstone

Work 34: Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (at night), Medina, Saudi Arabia, originally 622 CE but continuallymodified since


Babur built many gardens and fountains in thePersian style, including the Rambagh in Agra(the only one that survives today, albeit inpoor condition; Work 35)

Humayun constructed a “floating palace”that (unfortunately) has not survived

Akbar sponsored many works that havesurvived, including his father Humayun’stomb (Work 38), the Fort at Agra (Work 39),and the Great Mosque at Fatehpur Sikri (Work37)

Jahangir sponsored more-complex works, like the Shalimar Gardens at Kashmir (Work 36) Shahjahan was a trained architect and ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture; key works

include the Wazir Khan Mosque (Work 42), the Red Fort at Delhi (Work 41), the Pearl Mosque at Agra(Work 40), and his crown jewel, the Taj Mahal complex

Work 35: Rambagh Gardens, Agra

Work 38: Humayun’s tomb in Delhi, des. MirakMirza Ghiyas, marble and red sandstone, 1565-72

The Charbagh garden layout, with four axial watercourses, is typical of Persian architecture and is also

present at the Taj Mahal. This is the first knownbuilding in India to feature this.

Work 39: Agra Fort Entrance Gate, red sandstone, c. 1568

The Mughal version built on previous structures dating backto 1000; this version features Islamic arches and carvings. The

walled city is located about 2.5km from the Taj Mahal.

Work 37: JamaMasjid, BuandGate, in Fatehpur,des. Sheikh SalimChishti, 1571-5

Work 36: ShalimarGardens, 1864

photograph bySamuel Bourne


Work 42: Wazir Khan Mosque (inside view), des. Hakim Shaikh Ilm-ud-din Ansari (Wazir Khan), 1635.

Right: Qashani faience mosaic tiles from inside the mosque, considered the greatest in the Mughal period

Work 41: Red Fort (of Delhi), des. Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, red sandstone, 1648

Right: Arches from the Diwan-i-Aam, the Public Audience Hall within the Fort

Work 40: Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) at Agra, sponsored Shahjahan, c. 1647-53

Right: painting of the mosque’s interior by Vasily Vereshchagin, 1800s

Note the namesake pearl domes, which were used to great effect in the Taj Mahal


Selected Work IX: Taj Mahal Complexdes. Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, white marble/red sandstone, 1632-53

Small minaretsplaced at eachcorner

Entire buildingplaced on lowplatform

Four large, exteriorminarets

Base constructedwith many arches

Stairway to top ofplatform hidden

Dado frieze hasrepeating floralpattern, echoed onsandstone buildings

Inscribed withQuranic verses

Name: “Crown ofPalaces”

Tomb for MuntazMahal, second wife

and love ofShahjahan

Double dome incenter

Four smaller domes

Octagonal drumbase (Islamic

pleasure pavilionstyle)

Exterior: cream-colored marbleveneer; allows

surface color tochange during day

Highly symmetrical:height = width, dome

height = platform height

Often attributed to Ustad AhmadLahauri, but also may have beendesigned by Mir Abdul Karim or

Mulla Murshid Shirazi

Located at end of garden, along Yamunariverbank; unusual location (typically incenter). Often viewed from other end of

garden to give full-length view

Inspiration: Throne ofGod on Judgment Day

This view from across the river emphasizes the other two red sandstone buildings; their domes echo the main oneon the central building


CorrectionNo evidence exists to support the story that the English planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction

off the marble. This is merely an urban legend.

FROM LEFT: Calligraphy on exterior of the main platform; flower engraved in marble in interior; interior arches

Construction of the Taj Mahal“After the death of his father, King Jahangir, in 1627, Shah Jahan emerged the victor of a bitter powerstruggle with his brothers, and crowned himself emperor at Agra in 1628. At his side was Arjumand BanuBegum, better known as Mumtaz Mahal (“Chosen One of the Palace”), whom he married in 1612 andcherished as the favorite of his three queens.“In 1631, Mumtaz Mahal died after giving birth to the couple’s 14th child. The grieving Shah Jahan,known for commissioning a number of impressive structures throughout his reign, ordered the buildingof a magnificent mausoleum across the Yamuna River from his own royal palace at Agra. Constructionbegan around 1632 and would continue for the next two decades. In all, more than 20,000 workers fromIndia, Persia, Europe and the Ottoman Empire, along with some 1,000 elephants, were brought in tobuild the mausoleum complex.“According to one gruesome (and most likely sensational) story, Shah Jahan had his minions cut off thehands of the Taj Mahal's architect and his workers after the structure was completed, ensuring theywould never build another of its kind.”

—History Channel


MINIATURES, SHAHJAHAN RIDING, ARCHITECTURE, TAJ MAHAL QUIZ

1. What is a muraqqa? What types of works would be contained inside one?2. Where is the Emperor Shahjahan miniature from?3. What does Shahjahan’s servant hold above his head?4. What is shown in the small scene at Shahjahan’s feet?5. What are the two main styles of Islamic tombs? Which of the two did the Mughals use more

often?6. Name four major Shahjahan-era buildings.7. What material is the main Taj Mahal building made from? What about the two side buildings?8. Why was the Taj Mahal built?9. What element is present on the frieze of the Taj Mahal?


COLONIAL ART AND ARCHITECTUREPAGES 87-105

The Mughals were in decline when Europeans began trading extensively with Indians in the mid-1600s. In order toprotect their investments, European nations began to exert political control over India; eventually, Britain proved themost powerful and added its “crown jewel” to the British Empire. To consolidate their rule, the British sponsoredmassive building projects and English/European education, leaving a complicated legacy.

The most important things to know from this section are: For the two architectural works, the particular European elements that each reflects How Indian artists began to incorporate Western materials and motifs into their own art

Early European ColonialismThe Big Idea: Along with tobacco and spices, the trade in cotton motivated generations of Europeans to travel andinteract with Indian cultures. Cotton became incorporated into European clothing and household items quickly,motivating more expansion; when the Mughal Empire steadily collapsed during the 1600s, Europeans began to assertpolitical and economic control over the subcontinent.

Indian Textile Production Cotton originates from the Indian subcontinent and has

been grown to make fabrics for millennia Woven cotton fabrics are mentioned repeatedly in the

Vedas Cave paintings in Ajanta depict people wearing floral-

patterned, tie-dye loincloths (Work 43) Indian weavers and dyers were the most skilled in the

world; only they could dye cotton fabric in rich colorsand patterns that would last Because cotton is a vegetable fiber, instead of the

animal-created fiber of silk and wool, dyes andmaterials do not adhere well to it (or sink into thefiber)

Indian masters pioneered the use of mordants, orcatalysts, that combine with dyes to bind the colorto the cotton fibers

Fiber could be dyed before the fabric was woven,but complex patterns could also be created duringweaving using pen work, where mordants and dyeswere applied directly using a bamboo peno An ink-and-mordant mixture would be

squeezed out of a small ball and down thebamboo

NoteSince the history of colonialism in India iswell-documented in this year’s SocialScience material, I am going to skip thehistorical background and focus solely onthe art of colonialism.

Work 43: Ajinta dancing girl; original left, moderncopy right, c. 400-650 CE


Finally, resists would be applied to the completed fabric, ensuring that the color would last even ifthe fabric was re-dyed later

Later (definitely by the 1500s, but possibly earlier), fabric makers began using block printing, or stamps,to create intricately patterned fabrics (Work 45) This has evolved over time from single-stamps to silkscreening, copper plate printings, and roller-

printing, all of which are still in use today These designs were often more elaborate because they could be carefully

fashioned in advance, when making the stamp; common images includefloral and geometric decorations

Block printing was most popular in Gujarat¸ in southwestern India;however, it spread throughout the Middle East along the Silk Road

Designs on Indian cotton garments were generally colorful and featuredtraditional floral and animal decorations, similar to the Indo-Persian carpet andwall paintings discussed in previous sections

Textiles’ Role in Colonialism Perhaps more than any other good, cotton launched the European drive to

expand trade and, eventually, political and social control in India Before cotton reached India in the 1500s, European clothing was made of

wool and linen and was dulled in earthen tones Once the Portuguese and, later, the Dutch began trading for cotton,

Europeans began using cotton fabrics to line existing clothing; later, theyused it for quilts, upholstery, and bedding

Europeans called these fabrics chintzes, from the Sanskrit root word chitta(spotted)

After the relatively freewheeling, Dutch-dominated trade of the 1600s, theBritish East India Company began to assert itself in the early 1700s The British government began to erect protectionist barriers to shield its domestic textile mills from

competition by superior Indian products In 1721, the British banned the importation of all finished Indian garments; after this, only raw

cotton could be imported into Britaino This became more constricting as the British exerted more control over India; raw cotton would

be shipped to England, where it was dyed and then shipped back to India for sale

Work 44: Dutch jacket andshawl in chintz, skirt in

glazed printed cotton, c.1770-1800

Work 45: Indian woodblock print, c. 1900

Work 46: Petticoat panel, mordant and resist dyed fabric,c. 1775


Selected Work X: Coat (Wentke)Artist unknown, mordant and resist dyed cotton, mid-1700s

Incorporates Indian and Europeanmotifs; main pattern is Indian, but

lace trim on border is European

Features diapering, or decorative motifson a plain-color background. This robehas red and blue ribbons and flowers

Mostly produced in India:drawn, painted, and dyed there

Wentke worn by Dutch women inHindeloopen, in the north

Used for formal occasions,which was very unusual

Retains originalcolor and some of

the resist gloss


INDIAN COTTON, WENTKE QUIZ

1. How did Indian dyemasters get colors to adhere to their cotton?2. What process allowed Indian clothmakers to produce intricate, consistent patterns?3. What was the European word for Indian cotton fabrics?4. What elements of the Wentke are Indian, and which are European?

British Company Rule and the Raj: ArchitectureThe Big Idea: After the 1757 Battle of Plassey, the British East India Company (and, later, the British Crown) exertedmore direct control over India. Motivated by many political, economic, and religious factors, as well as no smallamount of homesickness, the British brought a European style of architecture to the subcontinent.

Secular Power and Government Buildings As the British EIC dominated more of India in the 1700s, it found itself having to govern a vast land with

millions of people that it did not understand In order to project authority and power as well as manage the economy and government, the EIC began

constructing large, imposing buildings in trading hubs like Calcutta, Madras, and Delhi Many of these buildings were highly derivative of European and English government offices; they

were often built by engineers and amateur architects who had to rely on existing workso In particular, English Renaissance architecture inspired many Indian works (see next page)

However, later works (like the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai) incorporated localmaterials and European motifs masterfully (Work 47)

Government Houses, which housed the leadership of each territory, were some of the grandest worksof Company and early-Raj British India

Work 47: Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, des. Frederick William Stevens, redsandstone, 1878. Note the use of Italian/Gothic styles and Mughal red sandstone.


Work 48: Mysore Palace (also Ambavilas Palace), des. Henry Irwin, 1897-1912.Irwin constructed this to be the official residence of the Mysore Maharajas.

TOP: Longleat House, near Bath, England, des. Robert Smythson, late 1500s(Elizabethan)

BOTTOM: Crewe Hall, near Cheshire, England, des. Nikolaus Pevsner, 1615-36(Jacobean)

Both styles reflected new developments in Italian architecture during theRenaissance; however, Jacobean architecture was more unified and emphasized

classic orders (columns) and deemphasized medieval crenellations and somedecorations (note the relative lack of rooftop decoration at Crewe Hall).


Selected Work XI: Rashtrapati Niwas (The Viceregal Lodge)des. Henry Irwin, 1888

Architect: Henry Irwin

Began working in 1860s in Ceylon (SriLanka), then moved to India

Other key work: Mysore Palace (Work 48)

Built in Shimla as a “hill station” on thefoot of the Himalayas. Summer

headquarters for post-1868 British Raj.

Built for Lord Dufferin, Viceroy (leader)of British India from 1884-88; replaced

previous “pigsty” of a building

Currently housesIndian Institute ofAdvanced Study

Material: local limestoneand sandstone (Indian

elements)

Medieval elements: entrance tower,crenellation (battlement-like gaps

added atop roof), roof spire

Stacked arcades Roman-inspired; each houses a small

garden

Style: “Jacobethean,” reflectingboth Jacobean and ElizabethanEnglish architectural elements


Religious Life and Indian Church Architecture Although the primary motivation behind British control of India was economic, many settlers also

wanted to spread Christianity to India From a modern/postcolonial perspective, it can be difficult to understand this mindset; however,

“civilizing” was inextricably connected with conversion to Christianity to Europeans Edmund Burke and other philosophers argued for “enlightened imperialism” – essentially, that

Europeans had a duty to “lift up” the less-Westernized Indians32

o Part of colonial duty involved converting Indians to Christianityto help them along their moral evolution

The British East India Company actually banned missionaries fromworking in the parts of India it controlled because the companythought missionaries would be bad for business However, missionaries continued to work in Dutch-, French-, and Portuguese-controlled areas of

India, beginning in earnest in the 1700s British missionaries were finally allowed in 1813 and spread rapidly; they also began constructing

churches inspired by English and European models St. Martin-in-the-Fields, designed by James Gibbs and located in Trafalgar Square in the heart of

London33, inspired colonial church architecture around the world with its Neoclassical style (Work 49) It had a classic basilica structure (meaning a Latin cross, or a central nave with a perpendicular

transept forming a cross-like shape) Like most medieval churches, St. Martin’s had a large apse opposite the entrance (or narthex);

beneath the apse was the altar (formally located in the chancel)

32 Burke is actually quite interesting: he deplored the Company-run territories in India for their inhumane practices andoutright enslavement (in some areas) of Indians, and so he argued strongly for a British government takeover of the landon humanitarian grounds. That said, he certainly did not see Indians as equals.33 So, uh, not *quite* in the fields.

“Our Indian government is inits best state a grievance.”

—Edmund Burke

LEFT: Interior teak (wood) stairwell in the Rashtrapati Niwas; RIGHT: Main hallway.

Despite its beauty, the teak actually made the house uncomfortable to live in; it was too austere.


The exterior decorations, likewise, were conservative and classical: Corinthian pillars, austerestatuary, and grey-slate coloringo The front portico is particularly reminiscent of Roman buildings

The most notable element of the church is its central tower, which emerges from the intersectionof the nave and transept; in most churches, this is topped by a dome

Although the church’s beauty helped, the design spread largely because of its architect Gibbs’ Bookof Architecture, which became immensely popular with amateur colonial architectso The Neoclassical style also projects authority more than other architectural styles34

Many Indian churches were built by the Indian Army Corps of Engineers, who also built public works(like drainage systems) and battlements, bridges, and railroads During the 1800s, this group was led by Capt. James Caldwell and Maj. Thomas Fiott de

Havilland; they worked as both engineers and architects

34 Think of the great architecture of the American government – the White House, Congress, and other federal buildings.There’s a reason all of them have classically-inspired white pillars and traditional porticos/structures.

Work 49: St. Martin-in-the-Fields, London, des. James Gibbs, 1722-24. Top right shows a typical cruciform (cross-shaped) church; a basilica is a particular type of cruciform church where the apse is (typically) more rounded. St.

Martin-in-the-Fields differs from the typical cruciform church in that its crossing is topped by a tower instead of adome. Bottom right shows the interior of the church, which has been remodeled extensively.


Selected Work XII: St. Andrew’s Church, Chennaides. Maj. Thomas Fiott de Havilland, 1818-21

Central tower clearlyinspired by St.

Martin-in-the-Fields

One of threechurches to St.Andrew, the patronsaint of Scotland, inIndia; other two arein Mumbai andCalcutta

Church isambulatory (circular)

instead of acruciform basilica;

Gibbs outlined thismodification in his

book

Neoclassical portico:Ionic columns, wide

pediment

Ionic pillar facadeswrap aroundbuilding

Balustrade (stair-stick row) tops mostof the church

Made from brick andpottery, but paintedbrilliant white tomimic marble

Two views of the interior, which is in a Palladian style. Note the Corinthian columns and the circular pews. Theseats themselves are made from woven cane, and the dome is blue with golden stars.


BRITISH ARCHITECTURE, VICEREGAL LODGE, ST. ANDREWS QUIZ

1. What buildings housed the British leadership in each territory?2. What blended style does the Viceregal Lodge represent?3. What material is the Viceregal Lodge made from?4. Who designed the Viceregal Lodge?5. What Romanesque element is present in the Viceregal Lodge?6. What church inspired colonial churches around the world? What did this church look like, and

what made it different from other, contemporary churches?7. Why did this church become so popular?8. How does St. Andrew’s Church differ from this church?

Indian Art under the British RajThe Big Idea: Although the British often brought European artistic traditions to India, they used local materials andmotifs when designing artworks; likewise, Indian artists began to adopt some European traditions during thecenturies of colonial rule. The two works discussed here reflect Indian adaptations of Western artistic tradition.

Kalighat Art and Depictions of the West During the 1700s, Indian painting was limited to traditional

depictions of gods and rulers on scrolls which people carried withthem, as well as the Mughal Persian miniatures discussed previously

Once the British began to take control, they encouraged Indianartists to adopt Western styles and media; one of the resulting styles,Kalighat painting, spread from Calcutta (in Bengal) The style was named after the Kalighat Temple, where it was

first conceived It is generally considered to be the first Indian modernist style

Kalighat works were generally small watercolor works that depictedvariations traditional subjects boldly and without much perspective European influences can be seen in the use of watercolor but

also the changing depiction of the gods; they shifted fromtraditional, sacred imagery to more-secular images as heroinesor actors35

o Everyday people – both Indian and Western – were also acommon subject (Work 50)

Like Byzantine works, the figures in Kalighat paintings often“float” in an unpainted background

Both the shading and the brushstrokes were simple and bold,similar to Japanese and Chinese scrollwork; the colors were applied confidently and quickly

35 Compare, for example, work xxx to work xxx

Work 50: Calcutta “Man aboutTown” Smoking a Margela Pipe,black ink, color and silver paint,and graphite on paper, c. 1800s


They were generally made in a systematic, workshop style by highly trained patuas Generally, one central patua (typically a man) would draw an outline, and then other patuas

(typically women) would each fill in a few major features Colors were applied one at a time, as is typical of watercolors After the colors were applied, silver or white highlights would often be added to accentuate certain

areas This system allowed for great consistency and speed; a team of 4-5 women could produce 5 images

a minute However, this also makes it impossible to identify any individual artists; because the style was fairly

short-lived, dating images is also fairly difficult In the pre-photography 1800s, many British settlers and tourists collected Kalighat images as

inexpensive souvenirs; this Western audience shaped the style and subjects This means that Kalighat images are often quite positive in their depiction of the British; after all, the

artists needed to meet the demands of their audience Later, photography eliminated much of this demand Because Kalighat images were so systematic and consistent, they were replaced by lithographic

prints once this process became more widespread in the early 1900s

Work 52: Kartika, black ink, color and silverpaint, and graphite on paper, c. 1800s

Work 52: Kali, black ink, color and silver paint onpaper, c. 1800s


Selected Work XIII: Englishman on Tiger HuntArtist unknown, opaque watercolor on paper, c. 1830

Top-hat, cut-awaycoat typical of

1820s/1830s Englishattire

Gun held upsidedown: could be

mistake orconfusion, but

probably satirical

Figures placed atopeach other: tiger,

then elephant, thenEnglishman

Elephant appears tobe about to step on

tiger

Tiger’s mouth open;can see tongue,

teeth

Simple carpet saddle(compare toShahjahan’s ornateone)

Strong blackoutlines; color addedafter

Typical of Kalighatpaintings

In reality, elephantwould be driven bymahout (elephanttrainer) and thehunter would beprotected inside ahowdah, or smallcarriage

No background orsetting


The Maharaja and Portrait Photography Since the British knew little about the land they now ruled, they relied on existing elites to consolidate

their rule; these were led by the maharaja, or regional kings The British made them effective princes of the British Empire; although the maharaja benefited from

this position, they also were positioned precariously; too much independence and the British wouldreplace them

More importantly, the maharaja led the Westernization of Indian elites, replacing the MughalPersian influence of the preceding centurieso Almost all spoke English and wore Western-style clothing

Both British settlers and tourists were interested in pictures of India; although Kalighat imagessomewhat met this demand, people also wanted landscape scenes Books like Oriental Scenery (1795-1808) and A Picturesque Voyage to India, by Way of China

(1810) contained hundreds of lithographic aquatint prints (Work 53) Aquatint prints and other drawings were also used for official purposes like surveying

Photography spread throughout the Western world during the mid-1800s; it reached India by 1839and eventually supplanted traditional miniatures and, to a certain extent, Kalighat art Instead of buying hand-painted or aquatint souvenirs, British settlers and tourists could buy

photographs Similarly, photographs were perceived as more trustworthy and suited for documentation, so they

were quickly adopted for official uses36

36 The history of photography is rather interesting; for the first few decades (until about 1900), photographs were viewedas actual fact – i.e. a documentary, neutral depiction of how a place/person actually looked. This, of course, is not true;even then, it was possible to manipulate exposures and prints to show certain images, not to mention setting up scenesto advance a particular narrative.

Work 53: Remains of buildings at Firoze Shah Kotla, Delhi, by Thomas Daniell,from Oriental Scenery, aquatint, 1795


By the 1850s, photography societies were created in an attempt to shift the perception ofphotographs; these societies saw photography as art instead of fact-recording

Major photography studios were founded in India, including Bourne & Shepherd (est. 1863), which isactually still in operation today in Calcutta and is the oldest photography studio in the world It was founded by two Englishmen, Charles Shepherd and Samuel Bourne, who had both been

partners in previous firms and had worked in India for several yearso Little is known about Shepherd, who mostly ran the business, but Bourne became a

photography celebrity for his photos of the Tibetan Himalayas in the 1860s Bourne & Shepherd took many portrait-style photos of Indian royalty (Work 55)

Photographic portraits also became quite popular, particularly among the maharaja; they depictedthemselves in traditional Western settings and poses to show their fealty to the British Several key examples depict Raja Ramachandra Tondaiman, the maharaja of Pudukkotta (in Tamil

Nadu, southern India) from 1839-86 (Work 55)37

Many of these prints were brought back to the West; the British Library, in London, currently holdsa collection of over 100 images in a “Royal Photographic Album”o They were often presented as gifts at durbars, or court gatherings; under the Mughals, these

had been important meetings, but the British reduced them to pure ceremony

37 Although the depiction of Ramachandra Tondaiman in Work 55 looks “in-the-moment,” long exposure times meansthis image was actually carefully staged.

Work 55: Full-length studio portrait of the son ofH.H. Chunnasee Rejoonath Pant, by Bourne and

Shepherd, photographic print, late 1860s

Work 55: Ramachandra Tondaiman seated in histable at the Durbar Hall, by Linnaeus Tripe, 1858


KALIGHAT PAINTING/ENGLISHMAN HUNTING, PHOTOGRAPHIC PORTRAITS/RAM SINGH QUIZ

1. What painting style is considered the first Indian Modernist style?2. Who are patuas? Where did they work, and how did they create their works?3. What element of the Englishman Hunting is incorrect/not realistic?4. Who were the Indian elites that helped maintain order in British India?5. When did photography reach India?6. What pose is Ram Singh standing in? Why?

Selected Work XIV: Studio Portrait of Ram Singh of JaipurSamuel Bourne and Charles Shepherd, photographic print, c. 1877

Subject: Ram Singh,maharaja of Jaipur

1835-80

Indian robe andbelted skirt; Western

pants and shoes

Contrapposto poseEuropean-influenced; alsoallowed for steadypose during longexposure time

No distinct backdrop

Patterned carpetonly real

background element

Small piece ofdrapery

Chair, book oftenused in Europeanportraits

Simple jewelry

Carefully groomed

“Normal”photograph of

royalty; depicts himsame as everyday

people

From “RoyalPhotographicAlbum” compiled byStephen Wheeler

Bourne andShepherd signature


POSTCOLONIAL ARTPAGES 106-120

Postcolonialism is very difficult to generalize: in fact, the definition of postcolonialism is (unhelpfully) any work thatexamines societies that were impacted by colonialism. In general, though, postcolonial works attempt to give voiceto minorities who were shunned from the art world in the past and often challenge Western notions of what qualifiesas “art.”

The most important thing to know from this section is: How each of the following works allows a previously-unheard minority or artistic style to challenge the

West’s preconceived notions of “fine art”

Postcolonial India and ArtThe Big Idea: Along with tobacco and spices, the trade in cotton motivated generations of Europeans to travel andinteract with Indian cultures. Cotton became incorporated into European clothing and household items quickly,motivating more expansion; when the Mughal Empire steadily collapsed during the 1600s, Europeans began to assertpolitical and economic control over the subcontinent.

Postcolonial Theory in Art Although the term is incredibly broad, Postcolonialism

at its core tries to explore the power relationshipsinherent in colonialism and how unequal contact shapesboth former colonizers and the colonized Postcolonial art explores the intersection of the

“Occidental” West and the “Oriental” East and howthe East was “otherized,” or made to seem exotic compared to the Westo This characterization makes Western development seem “normal” or “natural” and inherently

makes the East seem different (and often lesser)o Furthermore, the “otherization” of the East lumps diverse cultures into one relatively

homogenous whole and takes Western political divisions as the starting point for examiningcultures

o Theorist Edward Said, among others, described this intersection in his writings Postcolonialism also explores identity issues and, as a result, gives voice to previously marginalized

groups: racial minorities, women, homosexuals, the gender nonconforming, and others

NoteLike the previous section, I’m going to leaveGandhi’s life story and postcolonial politicalmovements in India to the Social Scienceguide. This section will only coverpostcolonial artistic theories.

“It is quite common to hear high officials in Washington and elsewhere speak of changing the map ofthe Middle East, as if ancient societies and myriad peoples can be shaken up like so many peanuts in ajar.”“Every empire, however, tells itself and the world that it is unlike all other empires, that its mission isnot to plunder and control but to educate and liberate."

—Edward Said


Over the past few decades, these groups have beenrecognized for their artistic contributions and uniqueperspectives

In the arts, postcolonialism often involves mimicry(altering Western art styles by placing them in newcontexts or changing key elements) and hybridity(blending Western and non-Western art traditions) Yinka Shonibare’s statues are based on classic

Western paintings but replace the figures with ghostly,cloth-constructed, headless people (Work 57)o He uses “Africanized” cloths to critique the cotton

trade that dramatically transformed many colonies(both directly, in India, and in Africa via the slavetrade)

Do-Ho Suh, a Korean installation artist and sculptor,uses Western materials and traditions to exploreEastern concepts and the consequences of colonialism(Work 56)

Despite this, it can be very difficult to classify postcolonialartists: some try to revive traditional artistic styles whileothers adopt Western techniques and styles

Work 57: (left) The Swing, Jean-Honore Fragonard, oil on canvas, c. 1767; (right) The Swing (AfterFragonard), Yinka Shonibare, cloth statue, 2001

Work 56: Karma, by Do-Ho Suh, located inBuffalo, NY, bronze, 2011


Modernist Architecture in India After independence in 1947, Indian architects had to decide what the visual landscape of a new, modern

India would look like Two main schools developed: the Indo-Saracenic Revivalists, who advocated a return to Mughal and

Hindu architecture, and the Modernists, whowanted to adapt Western architecturalmodernism to an Indian context Revivalist architecture has a long history in

Europe; architects began using it in Indiaduring the colonial period (the churches andbuildings discussed in the previous sectionare all in various European revival styles)

Indian Revivalism actually began beforeindependence, in the early 1900s

Key government buildings, like theSecretariat Building in New Delhi, exhibitboth European and Indian elements (Work 58)

However, the Modernist style became morepopular; newly-professional Indian architectsstudied in the West and became exposed to theBauhaus International style Louis Kahn, an American Modernist architect who designed the Yale University Art Gallery (Work

60), travelled to India and designed the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad campus(Work 61)

Le Courbusier, a French-Swiss architect, was also highly influential; he designed the master planfor Chandigarh (Work 59)

Work 58: Secretariat Building, des. Herbert Baker, c. 1910

Note the Muslim-inspired reflecting pool; the columnsare also a unique “Delhi order.” The overall structure,

however, is quite European.

Work 60: Yale University Art Gallery (Louis Kahn Building), LouisKahn, 1953

Work 61: Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, by Louis Kahn, 1962

Work 59:ChandigarhStateAssembly,LeCorbusier,1960s


Brutalism, a subset of Modernism that advocated for little/no decoration and “raw” materials (likeexposed concrete), became very popular in India (Work 59Work 61)

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India, encouraged modern architecture andemployed it in public buildings He also strongly supported education and helped found the Indian Institute of Technology

Karpur (IITK) To support this school, the regional government granted it land and gave it funding for a new

campus, which was completed in 1963 in a Brutalist style

Work 63: Bauhaus school in Dessau, Germany, WalterGropius, 1925-26.

The Bauhaus school founded the International/Modern styleand advocated function over form. Gropius led the school in

Germany and its successor groups in America. He also trainedAchyut Kanvinde, who designed the IITK campus.

Work 62: Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (National Assembly of Bangladesh), by Louis Kahn, reinforced concrete andbrickwork, 1961-82. Exterior left, interior right.


Selected Work XV: IITK Kelkar LibraryDes. Achyut Kanvinde, reinforced concrete and brickwork, 1962

Architect: Achyur Kanvinde.Trained at Harvard under

Gropius, then established firmKanvinde, Rai, and Chowdhury

Concrete skeletonwith brick highlights

Reflects Bauhaus andBrutalist influences

Strong verticalelements, dominated

by concrete pillars

Third floor brickprojects frombuilding, past pillars

Original name:Central Library

Floors spread outward,shading the bottom and

creating a portico


POSTCOLONIAL BASICS, IITK KELKAR LIBRARY QUIZ

1. Name two postcolonial sculptors who explore national identity and international/cross-culturalelements in their works.

2. What style MOST influenced Indian architects studying in the West?3. Which two Western architects had the greatest impact on modern Indian architecture?4. Who was the first Prime Minister of India?5. What is the style of the IITK Kelkar Library? What materials does the architect use?

Folk Art Revivals Some postcolonial artists consciously reject the influences of the colonizing country and attempt to

recapture pre-colonial artistic traditions and media The Indian government encourages the preservation of traditional media and artistic styles through

several agencies, including the Office of the Development Commissioner One major style of painting that has been revived and supported in recent decades is the Mithila

painting tradition (also Madhubani painting), from Nepal and northeastern India In the pre-Vedic and Vedic period, Mithila women would paint pictures of Hindu deities on walls

with fingers, sticks, and other non-brush tools, using natural dyes and pigments Key features include geometric patterns, flat colors, and strong outlines Mithila women lived “closed,” domestic lives, and so this art form was completely unknown outside

the region until 1934, when a Nepal earthquake brought British officer William G. Archer into thedecorated homes

The Ethnic Arts Foundation currently supports Mithila artists by paying well-above-market prices;they house probably the world’s largest collection of over 1800 Mithila works

Work 65: Photographs of two on-site Mithila paintings, natural dyeson clay wall, c. 1960s

Work 65: Pashupati Seal (proto-Shiva?),from Mohenjo-daro, clay tablet, c. 2000

BCE


Selected Work XVI: A Holy Man in the Forest(Shiva as Lord of the Animals), Jogmaya Devi, ink on paper, 1981

Single eyelooking downvery common

Long,dreadlock hairtypical of Shiva

depictions

Prayer beads(recall Shiva asLord of Dance)

Horizontal, colorfulblocks dominateShiva’s clothing

Lion with polka-dot mane,eye-shaped markings,

distinct claws

Horizontalforehead

marker

Deer/antelope,similar depiction

to lion

Lion-likefigure, withlizard head

Small bird (?)

Humanmeditates above

elephant

Small, antleredanimal

Subject: Shiva as Pashupati,Lord of the Animals. Common

depiction of Shiva; perhapspresent as far back as Indus

Valley

Typical Mithilapainting

Could be Shiva orstrong Shiva

devotee (unclear)

Strong repetition ofcolors, design

motifs unify work

Horror vacuipresent


Feminism in Indian Art During the Raj, the British attempted to reform what they saw as widespread subjugation of women in

Indian society They encouraged female education, discouraged child marriages, and banned polygyny and sati,

where a widow would burn herself on her husband’s funeral pyreo While these are undoubtedly noble goals, they were less widespread than the British made

them out to be (particularly sati), and the British often used them as an excuse to imposecolonial rule

Indians also established their own pro-women’s-rights groups, including the Bharat StreeMahamandal (Large Circle of Indian Women), the Women’s Indian Association, the NationalCouncil of Women in India, and the All-India Women’s Conference

Women played a crucial role in independence, and Indira Gandhi (the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru)served as the fourth Prime Minister of India (from 1966-77)

However, India still struggles with feminism and women’s rights; police corruption and widespreadpoverty and illiteracy have contributed to these problems According to the National Crime Records Bureau,

93 women are raped every day in India, includingseveral high-profile (and brutally violent) recentcases38

Nalini Malani, an Indian artist, tackles the issues offeminism in independent India by referencinghistorical and mythological depictions of women aswell as modern-day feminist issues She generally does so through large installation

pieces, which are site-specific and oftentemporaryo Installation works subvert the permanent,

timeless, often context-less qualities of“classic” art by existing in a particular location

o They can also involve audience interaction (bymoving through a work) and interact with light and sound in interesting ways

o Often, artists will place several works in everyday locations, like street corners or store windows Malani’s first major installation was City of Desires (Work 66), which featured temporary drawings

38 In 2012, a 23-year-old woman was gang raped and killed aboard a bus in New Delhi, sparking international outrage. Inresponse, the government doubled prison terms for rape and criminalized stalking and trafficking of women. However,problems continue: see, for example, this story from March 2015: http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/03/14/392971612/nun-who-tried-to-prevent-robbery-gang-raped-in-india. Warning: this story is graphic.

Work 66: City of Desires, located at the GalleryChemould, Bombay, charcoal on wall, 1992.

Destroyed following the exhibition’s completion.

NoteSince the Pashupati Seal predates the Vedas by several centuries, referring to the figure as a proto-Shivais probably inaccurate. Although it does have some features in common with later depictions of Shiva,being surrounded by animals and having a horned headdress are common to many unrelated culturesand deities.


Selected Work XVII: The Tables Have TurnedNalini Malani, installation piece, 2008

32 Mylar (polyester film)cylinders on turntables that

spin 4 times a minute

Cylinders “reverse painted” with acrylic sothat, when a light is shined through them,

they project images; think of a slideprojector

20-minute looping soundtrack plays text from Cassandra: A Novel and Four Essays. Cassandra is alegendary Greek woman who was given the gift of prophecy but spurned Apollo; as a result, he cursed her

so that none of her prophecies would be believed. Her father, King Priam of Troy, does not believe herprophecy of a Greek invasion, and the city is destroyed. Calling someone a “Cassandra,” meaning they

foresaw the truth but were not believed, is still an idiom today.

Malani uses Cassandra to symbolize the powerlessness and voicelessness of many Indian women intoday’s society.

VideoI can’t seem to find any videos of The Tables Have Turned, but there is an online video of Malani’s 2012exhibition In Search of Vanished Blood, which also features spinning Mylar cylinders and readings aboutCassandra. Warning: the video is super creepy. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6uK9iRoPds8


Numismatics and Indian Currency Currency and coins are crucially important to understanding power dynamics in ancient cultures and

how rulers saw themselves A strong, consistent, unified currency is an excellent sign of a strong ruler, while a breakdown in

currency often coincides with political instability In pre-photography days – and particularly over large empires, like those

that ruled India over the centuries – images on currency would be the onlytime many subjects would see their rulero Currencies provided one of the few opportunities for propaganda that

the ruler knew would spread throughout a kingdom Since currencies were historically small, metallic, and valued, they also are

far more likely to survive than other objects The extent to which particular currencies spread also provides excellent

evidence of cross-cultural contact and trade routes39

This makes the field of numismatics, or the study of historical and modern-day currencies from a non-economic perspective, a vibrant subfield of history

India’s rupee has a long history and dates back to at least 500 BCE; only the Chinese wen and Lydian(Greek) stater date back to the same period The word “rupee” originally derives from the Sanskrit rupa, literally meaning “wrought silver”; some

of the oldest known coins are, not surprisingly, made of silver (Work 70) Later currencies include the gold coins of Emperor Kanishka (Work 17, p. 2) from around 150 CE and

rupiya issued by Sher Shah Suri (reflecting Islamic elements; Work 68) After the end of the Company period, the British issued new paper and metal currencies as both

rupees and annas (1/16 of a rupee) (Work 67,Work 69)40

39 After all, if a U.S. dollar ends up in Australia, we can be pretty sure that the two cultures are in contact40 In 1911, coins actually provoked a firestorm in India: a new rupee depicting King George V on top of an elephant wasdesigned, but a poor mold meant that it looked like he was atop a pig. Muslims, who view pork as taboo, were outraged.

Work 70: Mauryan coins, silver, c. 300 BCE Work 68: Rupiya issued by Sher Shah Suri, silver,1540-45. Varieties were used to the mid-1800s.

Work 69: Victorian rupee, silver, 1862

Work 67: “Pig rupee,”silver, 1911


After independence, India had to issue new currency and compete in a rapidly globalizing world; itseconomy, which had been both protected and retarded by the British, failed to meet this demand This meant that the Indian government had to repeatedly devalue its currency and issue new notes

The first currency issued in independent India, from 1949, featured the Lion Capital of Ashoka (Work72); later currencies featured Hindi text (Work 71)

Finally, in 1996, the Indian government implemented new security measures and issued the MahatmaGandhi Series, honoring the man who helped bring about independent India (Work 73)

Work 71: (top) Mid-1960s one-rupee note, with prominentHindu text (and the Lion Capital)

Work 72: (left) 1949 one-rupee note. Note the Lion Capitalon the front.


Work 73: Mahatma Gandhi rupee series, 1996-present. Photograph of Gandhi and Lord-Pethick Lawrence from1946; the image of Gandhi here formed the basis for the currency.


Selected Work XVIII: Rs. 1000 note, Mahatma Gandhi seriesReserve Bank of India, intaglio and ink print, 1996-present

Blank space has watermarkimage of Gandhi as security

feature

Standard image of Gandhi on obverse(front) as benevolent “father of thenation.” Reversed from photographdue to printing process (photograph

flipped to print)

Ashoka LionCapital

Reserve Bankof India seal

Rs. 1000 is approx. $15Reverse (back): India’s economy.

Oil drilling, factory, satellite,industrial agriculture, computer

Details created withfine-point, intaglio

engraving

Both Hindi andEnglish text


FOLK ART/HOLY MAN, FEMINISM/THE TABLES HAVE TURNED, RS. 1000 NOTE QUIZ

1. Where is the Mithila style originally from?2. How was the Mithila style discovered?3. What shape are the markings present in three of the four major animals in A Holy Man?4. What dominates Shiva’s clothing in A Holy Man?5. What is Installation Art? How does it challenge traditional Western art?6. In The Tables Have Turned, who does Malani quote? Why?7. What is the study of currency called?8. What are most of the oldest forms of rupees made out of?9. What was the main figure on the original post-independence Indian rupee?10. Who is with Gandhi in the photo that inspired the new rupee notes?11. Name four of the five objects on the back of the Rs. 1000 note


TABLE OF WORKSWork 1: Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, c. 2000 BCE, brick...............................................................................................................2Work 2: Unicorn Indus Seal, from Mohenjo-daro, c. 2500-1500 BCE, soapstone .................................................................2Work 3: Dancing Girl, found in Mohenjo-daro, c. 2500-1500 BCE, copper ............................................................................2Work 4: Large well and bathing platforms from Harappa, c. 2200-1900 BCE, mud-brick ..................................................2Work 5: Miniature votive images or toy models, from Harappa, c. 2500 BCE, terra-cotta ..................................................2Work 6: Vishnu with Lakshmi, on the serpent Ananta Shesha, as Brahma emerges from a lotus risen from Vishnu’snavel, date unknown, print ....................................................................................................................................................................2Work 7: Traditional flower offering to a lingam, Varanasi, present day. ................................................................................2Work 8: Stone statue of Shiva as Lingodbhava, Chola dynasty, c. 900 CE, stone ..................................................................2Work 9: (left) Tripurantaka, Chola dynasty, lost-wax bronze......................................................................................................2Work 10: (right) Bronze figures of Shiva and Parvati, c. 1000 CE, bronze.................................................................................2Work 11: Gajendra Moksham Mural Painting, Krishnapuram Palace, Kerala, c. 1500.......................................................2Work 12: Lion capital of Ashoka, originally located at Sarnath, stone, c. 250 BCE .............................................................2Work 13: Footprint of Buddha with Dharmacakra and Triratna, artist unknown c. 100 CE, Gandahara (Pakistan)2Work 14: Ashokan pillar at Vaishali (lion capital), artist unknown, stone, c. 250 BCE........................................................2Work 15: Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, fig tree, photograph by Ken Wieland............................................................................2Work 16: Standing Buddha Offering Protection, Mathuran, late 400s CE, red sandstone..................................................2Work 17: Gold coin of Kanishka, from the British Museum, c. 127-151 CE............................................................................2Work 18: Head of the Buddha, Gandhara period, stone................................................................................................................2Work 19: Sakyamuni (Seiryo-ji), by Chinese sculptors, c. 900 ....................................................................................................2Work 20: (top) Buddha woodcut, Shanxi, China, c. 900 CE, ink on paper. One of the first uses of woodblockprints (a precursor to the printing press) was to print repeated images of the Buddha.................................................2Work 22: Buddha Maitreya (Mile), Northern Wei dynasty, China, 486 CE, gilt bronze .......................................................2Work 22: Standing Buddha from Gandhara, c. 300 CE, stone......................................................................................................2Work 23: Model of the Original Cherman Juma Masjid, 2009 ...................................................................................................2Work 24: The Qutb complex, foundation laid by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, temple built by Alauddin Khilji, c.1191-1220. Clockwise from top left: Qutab Minar, red sandstone and marble; Iron Pillar of Delhi, 1st millennium BCE,wrought iron; Interior of Alai Darwaza, stone calligraphy; Decorated arches of Alai Darwaza; View of Minar andruins................................................................................................................................................................................................................2Work 25: Pazyryk carpet (detail), wool with Turkish knots, c. 400 BCE...................................................................................2Work 26: Ghiordes carpet, from western Anatolia (Turkey), mid-1800s, wool. ...................................................................2Work 27: Carpet with niche-and-flower design, Northern India, c. 1630-40........................................................................2Work 28: Bidriware cup with lid, c. 1850, zinc alloy.......................................................................................................................2Work 29: Bidriware base for a water pipe, c. 1750, zinc alloy.....................................................................................................2Work 30: Frontispiece of the Coran of Arghun Shah, from Egypt, painting and gold on paper, c. 1368-88 ............2Work 31: Folio from 1616 copy of the Razmnama, copy of 1587 original, ink on paper .................................................2Work 32: Page from the Gulshan Album, by Farrukh Beg, ink and watercolor on paper, compiled 1600-18 .........2Work 33: Jahangar and Prince Khurram (Shahjahan) After a Hunt, from Patna’s Drawings, ink and watercoloron paper, c. 1600s......................................................................................................................................................................................2Work 34: Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (at night), Medina, Saudi Arabia, originally 622 CE but continually modifiedsince................................................................................................................................................................................................................2Work 35: Rambagh Gardens, Agra.......................................................................................................................................................2


Work 36: Shalimar Gardens, 1864 photograph by Samuel Bourne.........................................................................................2Work 37: Jama Masjid, Buand Gate, in Fatehpur, des. Sheikh Salim Chishti, 1571-5.........................................................2Work 38: Humayun’s tomb in Delhi, des. Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, marble and red sandstone, 1565-72 ..........................2Work 39: Agra Fort Entrance Gate, red sandstone, c. 1568 ........................................................................................................2Work 40: Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) at Agra, sponsored Shahjahan, c. 1647-53 .............................................................2Work 41: Red Fort (of Delhi), des. Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, red sandstone, 1648..................................................................2Work 42: Wazir Khan Mosque (inside view), des. Hakim Shaikh Ilm-ud-din Ansari (Wazir Khan), 1635.....................2Work 43: Ajinta dancing girl; original left, modern copy right, c. 400-650 CE .....................................................................2Work 44: Dutch jacket and shawl in chintz, skirt in glazed printed cotton, c. 1770-1800 ...............................................2Work 45: Indian woodblock print, c. 1900 ........................................................................................................................................2Work 46: Petticoat panel, mordant and resist dyed fabric, c. 1775 .........................................................................................2Work 47: Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, des. Frederick William Stevens, red sandstone, 1878. Note the use ofItalian/Gothic styles and Mughal red sandstone. ..............................................................................................................................2Work 48: Mysore Palace (also Ambavilas Palace), des. Henry Irwin, 1897-1912. Irwin constructed this to be theofficial residence of the Mysore Maharajas. ........................................................................................................................................2Work 49: St. Martin-in-the-Fields, London, des. James Gibbs, 1722-24. Top right shows a typical cruciform(cross-shaped) church; a basilica is a particular type of cruciform church where the apse is (typically) morerounded. St. Martin-in-the-Fields differs from the typical cruciform church in that its crossing is topped by atower instead of a dome. Bottom right shows the interior of the church, which has been remodeledextensively. ..................................................................................................................................................................................................2Work 50: Calcutta “Man about Town” Smoking a Margela Pipe, black ink, color and silver paint, and graphiteon paper, c. 1800s......................................................................................................................................................................................2Work 52: Kartika, black ink, color and silver paint, and graphite on paper, c. 1800s.........................................................2Work 52: Kali, black ink, color and silver paint on paper, c. 1800s ...........................................................................................2Work 53: Remains of buildings at Firoze Shah Kotla, Delhi, by Thomas Daniell, from Oriental Scenery, aquatint,1795................................................................................................................................................................................................................2Work 55: Full-length studio portrait of the son of H.H. Chunnasee Rejoonath Pant, by Bourne and Shepherd,photographic print, late 1860s .............................................................................................................................................................2Work 55: Ramachandra Tondaiman seated in his table at the Durbar Hall, by Linnaeus Tripe, 1858 ........................2Work 56: Karma, by Do-Ho Suh, located in Buffalo, NY, bronze, 2011 ...................................................................................2Work 57: (left) The Swing, Jean-Honore Fragonard, oil on canvas, c. 1767; (right) The Swing (After Fragonard),Yinka Shonibare, cloth statue, 2001....................................................................................................................................................2Work 58: Secretariat Building, des. Herbert Baker, c. 1910 .........................................................................................................2Work 59: Chandigarh State Assembly, Le Corbusier, 1960s.......................................................................................................2Work 60: Yale University Art Gallery (Louis Kahn Building), Louis Kahn, 1953....................................................................2Work 61: Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, by Louis Kahn, 1962...................................................................2Work 62: Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (National Assembly of Bangladesh), by Louis Kahn, reinforced concrete andbrickwork, 1961-82. Exterior left, interior right...............................................................................................................................2Work 63: Bauhaus school in Dessau, Germany, Walter Gropius, 1925-26.............................................................................2Work 65: Photographs of two on-site Mithila paintings, natural dyes on clay wall, c. 1960s.........................................2Work 65: Pashupati Seal (proto-Shiva?), from Mohenjo-daro, clay tablet, c. 2000 BCE ...................................................2Work 66: City of Desires, located at the Gallery Chemould, Bombay, charcoal on wall, 1992. Destroyedfollowing the exhibition’s completion...............................................................................................................................................2Work 67: “Pig rupee,” silver, 1911 ........................................................................................................................................................2Work 68: Rupiya issued by Sher Shah Suri, silver, 1540-45. Varieties were used to the mid-1800s.............................2


Work 69: Victorian rupee, silver, 1862 ................................................................................................................................................2Work 70: Mauryan coins, silver, c. 300 BCE.......................................................................................................................................2Work 71: (top) Mid-1960s one-rupee note, with prominent Hindu text (and the Lion Capital) ...................................2Work 72: (left) 1949 one-rupee note. Note the Lion Capital on the front. ............................................................................2Work 73: Mahatma Gandhi rupee series, 1996-present. Photograph of Gandhi and Lord-Pethick Lawrence from1946; the image of Gandhi here formed the basis for the currency. ......................................................................................2

Documents

Art Curriculum Guidehistorywithmac.weebly.com/uploads/5/9/7/4/59744935/artcg.pdf · Major cities included Ha rappa, Ga nweriwala Thar, Kalibangan, and Mohenjo-daro, but over 1,000