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HELnQUASTERS DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Washington. DC. 30 September 1993
ARMY WATER TRANSPORT OPERATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................ vi
CHAPTER 1 . COUNTERING THE THREAT Introduction ................................................................................................... 1-1 Threats to Watercraft ........................................................................... 1-1 Air Threat ...................................................................................................... I- 1 Water Threat .................................................................................................. 1-1 Land Forces Threat ....................................................................................... 1-1 Electronic Warfare Threat ............................................................................. 1-1 Pn.lrrtnA+rrr tkn T **at uuuIub1 u I 6 ulr 1 hl wu ................................................................................... 1-2
..................................................................... Defense Against the Air Threat 1-2 Defense Against the Water Threat .............................................................. 1-2 Defense Against the Land Threat .................................................................. 1-2 Defense Against Electronic Warfare Threat ................................................ 1-3
CHAPTER 2 . ORGANIZATIONS AND EQUIPMENT Introduction .................................................................................................. 2-1 Types of Watercraft ....................................................................................... 2-1 - m uesign lypes ................................................................................................. 2-1 Use Types ...................................................................................................... 2-1 Command Relationships ................................................................................ 2-2 Mobility Requirements .................................................................................. 2-2 Army Water Transport Units ......................................................................... 2-2 Transportation Medium Boat Company (TOE 55-128) ................................ 2-2 m _ _ .._ ..LA: -- TJ ..... - .. 0 - . n c I n\ 1 Tansy01 tailun n 3 a v y Buar w n q ~ a n y I 1 UL J J-127) ................................... 2-6
................ Transportation Medium Lighter Company (ACV) (TOE 55-137) 2-8 Watercraft Teams .................................... .... .................................................. 2-11 Army Watercraft Crewing ..................... .. ................................................... 2-16
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited . -
*This publication supersedes FM 55.50. 7 June 1985 .
CHAPTER 3 . LOGISTICS OVER-THE-SHORE OPERATIONS Introduction .................................................................................................. 3-1 Beach Site ..................................................................................................... 3-3 Beach Characteristics .................................................................................... 3-3
..................................................................................... Operational Planning 3-3 T ..___ -.._ A A*-. c. P
r urrlaru u11u lime ....................................................................................... 5-3 Lighter Requirements .................................................................................... 3-5 Daily Tonnage Capabilities ........................................................................... 3-5 Control System ............................................................................................. 3-6 Shipside Procedure ..................................................................................... 3-6 Use of Jumpers ............................................................................................ 3-7 Salvage Operations ....................................................................................... 3-7 Antibroaching Measures ............................................................................... 3-7 Documentation .............................................................................................. 3-8 Beach Area Security .................................................................................. 3-8 Bivouacs ........................................................................................................ 3-9
CHAPTER 4 . INLAND WATERWAY OPERATIONS .................................................................................................. Introduction 4-1
Q p e s of Inland Waterway Floating Equipment ............................................ 4-1 Organization of an Inland Waterway Service ................................................ 4-1 The Inland Waterway System ....................................................................... 4-1 Transportation Planning ........................................................................ 4-1
CHAPTER 5 .AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS Introduction ............................................................................................... 5-1 Planning Phase ............................................................................................. 5-1
........................................................................................ Embarkation Phase 5-1 ............................................................................................ Rehearsal Phase 5-2
5-3 Movenenf Phase ........................................................................................... d--
Assault Phase .............................................................................................. 5-3 Beach Markers .............................................................................................. 5-4
................................................................................ Hydrographic Markings 5-4 .............................................................................................. Range Markers 5-5
............................................... Communications for Amphibious Operations 5-6 .................................................................................... Maintenance Support . . 5-6
CHAPTER 6 . SHORE-TO-SHORE OPERATIONS Introduction ......................... .... ............................................................ 6-1
............................................................................................... Control Points 6-1 ............................................................................................. Assembly Areas 6-1 ............................................................................................. River Crossings 6-1
Page
River Bottoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
River Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 River Obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
CHAPTER 7 . RIVERINE OPERATIONS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
Riverine Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 Organization and Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Responsibilities 7-1
Concept of Riverine Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 Planning for Waterborne Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
Conduct of Waterborne Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waterborne Withdrawal 7-3
CHAPTER 8 . CONVOY OPERATIONS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction 8-1
Track Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 Approach Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plans and Orders 8-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boat Control 8-2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Embarkation 8-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Convoy Organization 8-2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Formation 8-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Command Control 8-3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Convoy Control 8-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Navigational Chart 8-3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Navigational Methods 8-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security 8-4
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approach to Landing Area 8-5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boat Control 8-5
CHAPTER 9 . MAINTENANCE SUPPORT
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction 9-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Army Watercraft Maintenance Concepts 9-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Categories of Watercraft Maintenance 9-2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recovery and Evacuation of Watercraft 9-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transportation Company (Watercraft Maintenance) (GS) 9-4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transportation Floating Craft Maintenance Detachment 9-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Staff Supervision 9-5
Maintenance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equipment Records and Reports 9-6
iii
Page
CHAPTER 10 . WATERCRAFT ACCIDENT REPORTING AND INVESTIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction .1 0.1
Watercraft Accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0.1 n ...... A - T ..... A. .. L. .. f n .... c A ..?.I.. A. i n I Keasuns iu mvesiigaic: anu nt;purL fiw1ut;nrs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . , , . . . . .L u.1
What to Investigate and Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0.2 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0.2 Accident Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0.2 Collateral Investigation Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0.3
CHAPTER 11 . BEACH AND WEATHER CHARACTERISTICS3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction SI-I
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beach Composition .1 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beach Gradient .1 1.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sea Bottom .1 1.2 Sandbars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -11-2
Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3 Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seaweed . l 1.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Currents .1 1.4
Surf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5 Tide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wind 11-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather Information -11-11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather Forecasts . 1 1.11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction .1 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lessons Learned .1 2.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Towing Missions .1 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Towing Responsibilities .1 2.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seaworthiness .I 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Towing Ships .1 2.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Routine and Rescue Towing .I 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manned Tows .1 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unmanned Tows .I 2.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inspectinn of Tows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,, .1 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Categories of Risk .1 2.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Administration .I 2.4 Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
Page
CHAPTER 13 .
CHAPTER 14 .
CHAPTER 16 .
APPENDIX A.
APPENDIX B . APPENDIX C . APPENDIX D . APPENDIX E . APPENDIX F .
BATI'LE/CREW DRILLS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction .1 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Training .l 3.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Format 13-1
COMMUNICATIONS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction 14-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tactical Communications 14.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marine Communications 14-2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AAN.fl-3R C.8C)(V1) Radiotelephone .1 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DSC-500 (Digital Selective Calling) .1 4.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . High-Frequency Radio Systems . I 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International Maritime Satellite Systems (INMARSAT) .1 4.2
WATERCRAFT OPERATIONS IN OTHER OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction .1 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low-Intensity Conflict -15-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition 15.1 ... 4 Z 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . US ~ r m y ~ i s s ions .I 3.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Watercraft Operation Support .1 5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corps Contingency Operations .1 5.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Force Buildup .1 5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Employment .1 5.2
RISK MANAGEMENT
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction .1 6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk Management Process .1 6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk Assessment Elements .1 6.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Decision Level .1 6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Risk Control Alternatives .1 6.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supervision .1 6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Payoffs 16.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . WATERCRAFT OPERATIONS IN THE NBC ENVIRONMENT A-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CAUSEWAY SYSTEMS B-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BEACH RECONNAISSANCE C-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION (EEI) D-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FORMAT OF GEOGRAPHICAL ANNEX E-1
EXTRACT OF QSTAG 592: FORECAST MOVEMENT REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RAIL, ROAD AND INLAND WATERWAYS F-1
Page
GLOSSARY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Section I BBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS Glossary-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Section I1 DEFINITIONS Glossary-2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REFERENCES References-1
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I n d e x-1
PREFACE
In a theater of operations, all modes of transport - air, motor, rail, and water - move cargo from the water's edge in the communications zone (COMMZ) through the corps and into the division areas. This manual describes the transportation doctrine and organizational structures required for Army water transport opera- tions in a generic theater.
During a protracted contingency operation, strategic sealift transports 90 percent of the supplies and equipment required by operating military forces. Strategic sealift consists of government-owned and/or -controlled vessels and commercial merchant vesseis. Tiis group bcludes military-specific designed ships such as auxiliary crane ships and common merchant designs such as roll-odroll-off (RO/RO) ships, containerships, and large tankers. These ships transport supplies and equipment to a conflict area and discharge either at ports with fried facilities or at &proved beach locations. The Transportation Corps is the primary operator of these contingency water terminals. It must plan and conduct discharge operations and identlfy the watercraft resources required to accomplish assigned missions.
In a theater of operations, Army water transport units (companies, teams, and detachments) provide watercraft to support port, inland waterway, logistics-over-the-shore (LOTS), and intratheater movement operations.
This manual is primarily for unit and vessel masters, key personnel, higher headquarters staffs, theater planners, c~maanders of operatiend dhed usits. I t covers roles, ~issions, and concepts of tXip!~jiiitXit fm iiidi-~idiid
craft, entire units, and groups of units.
This publication implements the following international agreement:
QSTAG 592, Forecast Movement Requirements - Rail, Road, and Inland Waterways, 1979.
The proponent of this publication is Headquarters, Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC). Send comments and recommendations on DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) directly to Commandant, US Army Transportation School, ATT'N: ATSP-TD, Fort Eust is, %rginia 23604-5399.
Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.
Change 1 HEADQUARTERS DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Washington, DC, 22 March 1995
ARMY WATER TRANSPORT OPERATIONS
This change adds procedures for Army watercraft crewlng to the basic publication.
1. Change FM 55-50.30 September 1993. as follows:
I and if 2-15
i and ii 2- 1 5 through 2-24
2. A star (*) marks new or changed material.
3. File this transmittal page In front of the basic publication.
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for publk release: distrlbutlon is unlimtted,
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
Official:
Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Amy
07814
DISTRIBUTION:
GORDON R. SULLWAN General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Actlve Army, USAR, ARNG: To be distributed In accordance wlth DA Form 12-1 1 E, requirements for FM 5550, Army Water Transport Operations (Qty rqr block no. 0394).
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 1
COUNTERING THE THREAT
INTRODUCTIONTotal involvement of all participants charac-
terizes modem warfare; rear areas are no longersecure. Army watercraft units must perform theiroperational mission regardless of the levels of threatin the theater. Commanders and leaders must recog-nize the threat and know each unit’s vulnerability toit. The threat force concept of operation is based onthe expectation that future warfare will be highlymobile. All means of inflicting casualties on theenemy will be used.
Because watercraft units must be prepared tooperate anywhere, it is impossible to describespecific threat forces, equipment, or doctrine. Thischapter focuses on types of threats common to allwatercraft units and ways to defeat them. If thethreat is based on the Soviet model, FMs 100-2-1,100-2-2, and 100-2-3 are used. Remember,watercraft units may face weapons systems from allover the world, including the United States (US).THREATS TO WATERCRAFT
Threats can generally be classified as comingfrom air, water, or land forces; the electronic warfare(EW) environment; or the nuclear, biological, andchemical (NBC) environment. Watercraft units areparticularly at risk because ports and terminals areprime targets for threat forces. Appendix A coversNBC threat.Air Threat
The air threat consists of –Fixed- or rotary-wing aircraft. Both fixed-and rotary-wing aircraft can operate at nightand use a variety of cannon, guns, bombs, andmissiles to attack targets. Precision-guidedmunitions let aircraft selectively attack in-dividual boats.Remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs). RPVsare used for reconnaissance and targetingplatforms. They use a variety of photo, in-frared (IR), thermal, and electronic devicesto locate potential targets.
• Long- or medium-range missiles. Missilescan deliver conventional or special ordnanceover a very large area. Missile systems todaycan impact within 200 meters of the intendedtarget.
Water ThreatThe water threat consists primarily of–•
•
•
•
Other surface craft. Surface craft includeevery craft from rubber boats to battleships.Of primary concern are fast patrol boatswhich can operate close to the shore and onrivers.
Subsurface craft. Army watercraft are notlikely targets for submarines, but it is pos-sible, especially for the logistics supportvessels (LSVs).Mines. Many types of mines including freedand free-floating mines are available to threatforces. A variety of means including physicalcontact, magnetic fields, or sound detonatethese mines. They often include some type ofanti-handling device.Swimmers. Special operations forces
•
threaten Army watercraft by swimming orotherwise infiltrating an area and performingreconnaissance or sabotage.
Land Forces ThreatLand forces present a spectrum of threats rang-
ing from individual saboteurs to large conventionalforces. The greatest threat from a large land forcemight occur during the early stages of an amphibiousoperation before the beachhead is secure. A morerealistic scenario is that small teams of saboteurs orterrorists would try to disrupt operations. The threatfrom artillery and short-range missile fire directedagainst watercraft operations is significant.Electronic Warfare Threat
Electronic warfare threatens watercraft opera-tions because of our reliance on electronic com-munications equipment. Threat forces can intercept
•
1-1
FM 55-50
or jam communications and can target transmittersusing direction-finding equipment linked to indirectfire delivery systems.
COUNTERING THE THREATThe first priority in countering the threat is to
identify it. Since watercraft units rarely operate ontheir own, usually a higher command will assist them.The S2, G2, or J2 should provide a detailed analysisof the types of threat forces available, theircapabilities, and probable courses of action. Specificcountermeasures can then be effected. Sections ofwatercraft units that are on the beach or shore shouldcounter all threats according to doctrine for landforces.Defense Against the Air Threat
Defending against the air threat involves passiveand active measures.
Passive Measures. Passive measures includeusing maximum cover and concealment, dispersing,and reducing heat and electronic signatures. When-ever possible, watercraft units should use nets ortarps to cover the boat or its cargo. The threat mayprioritize targets by cargo importance. Units shouldseek cover in coves, inlets, or small harbors that aredifficult to attack from the air. All vessels should behardened using sandbags or metal plate to protectcrew quarters and/or crew stations. Any hardeningadds to the weight of the vessel and must be con-sidered. Watercraft units should disperse wheneverpossible to reduce the risk of multiple hits or sym-pathetic explosions from a single aircraft pass. Lightdiscipline should be strictly enforced.
Active Measures. Active measures include usingall available weapons against attacking aircraft. Thewatercraft unit commander must know the airdefense plan for the area of operations. Air attackwarnings, weapons status, and self-defense proce-dures must be thoroughly understood and integrated.Because a watercraft unit cannot defeat an inboundmissile by itself the best defense lies in the measuresof dispersing and hardening. Boat crews maydeceive the enemy by burning diesel fuel and scrapsin a fireproof container. The smoke may fool threatforces into believing the vessel has been hit. If thesituation allows and forces are available, air defenseteams can ride on vessels to provide short-rangedefense.
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Defense Against the Water ThreatDefending against a water threat is much more
difficult than against air threat. Although the USNavy and the US Coast Guard (USCG) are respon-sible for offshore security, watercraft units must con-stantly guard against attack from the water. Thesame passive measures described above apply towater threat.
Active Measures. Active measures include –•
•
•
•
•
Using evasive action to outrun or out-maneuver the attacker. US Army watercraftare not particularly fast or agile, so it will bedifficult to adopt this in open water.Using all organic weapons to defeat the threat.Again, the light armament aboard watercraftrenders this option fairly ineffective. Escorts,both vessel and aircraft, can provide securityand firepower. All options to increasefirepower on board the vessel such as addingMK 19 grenade lanchers, should be explored.Options are limited only by what can be carriedon board, weapons available, and whether thesituation will allow forces to support thewatercraft units.Trying to run the attacking vessel aground byrunning for shallow water. Use the deceptionmethod described above.
Constantly watching for mines. When travel-ing independently, vessels must reducespeed, and crews must watch for mines. Thecrew must put on life jackets and preparesurvival gear in case they must abandon ship.Units must report the location of mines im-mediately and request operations cease untilmines are cleared.
Using underwater barriers, counter-swimmers,concussion grenades, and searchlights to defeatunderwater swimmers. These measures mustbe part of an integrated plan so that they do notviolate the overall defensive scheme.
Defense Against the Land ThreatLand forces significantly threaten watercraft
units. During amphibious offensive or retrogradeoperations, land forces may directly fire onwatercraft units. The mission dictates whether the
FM 55-50
watercraft can leave the area or must continue tooperate. If they must continue, all weapons and sup-porting unit weapons must be used. Smoke could beused to screen operations.
Land forces could be far enough away that waterunits are only within indirect fire range. Again, themission dictates whether the unit must remain in thearea. The same passive measures discussed aboveapply. In addition, sections that are ashore need toprotect themselves with bunkers or other types ofshelters.
A more probable threat comes from specialoperations forces, saboteurs, and terrorists.Counterterrorist measures outlined in FM 100-37provide an effective defense against all Level 1threats.Defense Against Electronic Warfare Threat
FM 24-1 best describes how to counterelectronic warfare. These measures fully apply towatercraft units.
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CHAPTER 2
ORGANIZATIONS AND EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTIONNormally, Army water transport operations are
confined to combat service support roles in the com-munications zone (COMMZ). However, sometimesArmy water transport units are committed to combatsupport functions in support of a corps support com-mand (COSCOM), especially in contingency areasor in theaters of operations before a fully developedtheater Army organization has been formed.
Army watercraft can be used in a variety ofoperations to include support of both logistical andtactical missions. These operations range from thoseat large, deep draft freed port complexes to am-phibious assaults on hostile shores. Each type ofoperation has its own peculiarities that require dif-ferent types and combinations of watercraft to ensuremission accomplishment.
Fixed port operations are conducted atdeveloped shoreside facilities. Oceangoing shipsmay be docked along the piers or quays and theircargo discharged directly onto the pier. Army tugsare used to berth ships alongside the pier and assistthem in maneuvering. The terminal commander mayuse command and control watercraft to take harborpilots out to the ships.
TYPES OF WATERCRAFTWatercraft are described by type of construction
design and by type of use.Design Types
Displacement hull craft are designed so that amajor portion of their hull remains below waterduring use. This group of vessels consists of bothself-propelled and non-self-propelled craft. Self-propelled craft include tugs, logistics support vessels(LSVs), command and patrol craft, poweredcauseway units, and landing craft. Landing craft areshallow-draft, flat-bottomed vessels. Under certainunderwater gradient conditions, landing craft canmaneuver close enough to the beach to dischargetheir cargo through low ramps. Non-self-propelledcraft include dry and liquid cargo barges, floating
causeways, and floating cranes. See Appendix B forinformation on causeway systems.
Amphibians are designed to travel both in thewater and on land. The current inventory includeswheeled craft and air-cushion vehicles (ACVs).They all are self-propelled.
Use TypesWatercraft are used in four principal roles.Pod and Harbor Support. The most common
support craft are tug boats. Modernizing the Armywatercraft fleet will result in two sizes of tugs in theinventory. Large tugs are used to dock and undocklarge ocean ships and to position other non-self-propelled craft in and around the harbor complex.Small tugs assist in docking operations and maneuverbarges in shallow or constricted waters where largetugs cannot operate. Additional equipment such asfloating cranes unload heavy lifts when shoresidesupport is not available.
Inland Waterway (IWW). IWW operations aregenerally characterized by the use of tugs and bargesto extend the theater transportation system fromdeep-draft ports to inland discharge points. Usinghost nation assets must be strongly considered sincethose craft are designed for use in their specificcountries’ waterway system. Landing craft andLSVs can supplement standard tug and bargeoperations.
LOTS Support. Landing craft and amphibiansare the principal craft that transfer cargo fromanchored ships to shoreside unloading points. Ad-verse underwater gradients or offshore obstacles,such as reefs or sandbars, preclude efficient use oflanding craft. In these circumstances, using am-phibians is more advantageous. Landing craft, on theother hand, are generally more durable; have a greatercapability for accommodating heavy, outsize cargo;and are more economical to operate. Floatablecauseway components provide interfaces at shipside,particularly in conjunction with the discharge ofRO/RO vessels, and also span from the shore outwardto landing craft that otherwise would be grounded.
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These systems complement each other. The plan-ner must develop a LOTS support package thatblends the advantages of the different equipmentinto an efficient force mix package.
Intratheater Support. Intratheater support takesthe nature of a transshipping concept that applies tocontingency operations in underdevelopedcountries. The few available major ports must beefficiently used in conjunction with other ports orlimited capacity sites not served by military sealiftcommand operations. Vessels that best support thistype of use are craft with relatively shallow draft thatcan transport a variety of cargoes and whose sus-tainability permits extended operation. The LSV hasbeen specially acquired for this use. The 2000 classlanding craft, utility (LCU), although of far lesscapacity than the LSV, can augment intratheater sup-port when not required in its primary LOTS role.
COMMAND RELATIONSHIPSThe command element in the COMMZ is the
theater Army headquarters, which provides an in-tegrated support system for two or more corps. Thetheater Army operational area extends from theocean terminals of the theater to the rear boundaryof the corps. It links the combat force to its sourceof manpower and materiel replenishment. Thetransportation command is one of the four functionalcommands of the theater Army.
Army water transport units normally operate aspart of a terminal service organization. These unitsare attached to and commanded by elements of theterminal service organization, which is a terminalgroup. The terminal group commands, controls,plans, and supervises the operations of up to sixterminal battalions.
The terminal structure in Figure 2-1 shows thecommand relationships within the theater Army.Units under the terminal battalion are structuredaccording to their mission, physical terminallayout, and most efficient mix of watercraft unitsand terminal service units required to support theterminal. The planner must ensure that thecapabilities of the terminal service units equal orexceed those of the watercraft units hauling thecargo. This requirement prevents bottlenecks atthe terminal and maximizes the use of watercraft.The wholesale logistical transportation system
must be treated as an integrated pipeline. The in-dividual capacities of the various components mustcomplement the overall objective.
The terminal battalion (TOE 55-816L) is thebasic operating element of the theater terminal struc-ture. The terminal battalion commands, controls,plans, and supervises attached units. These units arerequired to discharge up to four ships simultaneouslyat an established water terminal or up to two ships ata LOTS site. The terminal battalion also commandstwo to seven companies and operationally controlsspecial units assigned to provide security or othersupport to the battalion.MOBILITY REQUIREMENTS
Generally, the transportation unit’s location onthe battlefield dictates its mobility requirements.Requirements based on echelon of assignment areas follows:
• Units located in the division and forwardrequire 100 percent mobility.
• Units located in the corps require 50 percentmobility.
• Units located in echelons above corps (EAC)require 33 percent mobility.
ARMY WATER TRANSPORT UNITSThree major types of company-sized water
transport units in the Army are: the medium boatcompany, the heavy boat company, and the mediumlighter company (ACV). Also, several separatewatercraft teams with tables of organization andequipment (TOEs) are designed to perform specialmarine service support functions when less-than-company-size units are required. When required,these teams can augment other watercraft or ter-minal service units.Transportation Medium Boat Company (TOE 55-828L)
The transportation medium boat companyprovides and operates landing craft to move person-nel and cargo in Army water terminal operations andwaterborne tactical operations. It also augmentsnaval craft in joint amphibious operations when re-quired. The task lighter is a landing craft,mechanized (LCM).
The company is assigned to a transporta-tion command (TRANSCOM), a subordinate
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functional command of the theater Army in atheater of operations. It is normally attached to atransportation terminal battalion (TOE 55-816L) orto a transportation terminal group (TOE 55-822). Itmay be attached to the Navy to support a joint am-phibious operation. It may also operate separatelyunder an appropriate commander, such as a theaterArmy area command (TAACOM), in an independentlogistics support area where no combat zone exists.
The capability data in the following paragraphshas been extracted from TOE 55-828L. However, forunit capability planning on a daily basis, the com-mander may prefer the craft capability data and turn-around formula in the second paragraph morehelpful.
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At Level 1, operating on a 24-hour basis with a75 percent availability of equipment, this unit can–
• Transport an average of 1,000 short tons(STONs) of noncontainerized cargo daily.(This estimate is based on each of the 12landing craft transporting an average of 42STONs per trip and making two trips daily[12 x 42 x 2 = 1,008].)
• Transport a maximum of 720 STONs of non-containerized cargo on a onetime lift using 12landing craft.
• Transport 240 20-foot equivalent containersor trucks per day using 12 landing craft eachmaking 20 trips per day.
• Transport 2,400 combat-equipped troops ona onetime lift using 12 landing craft.
One landing craft, mechanized (LCM-8) can–•
•
•
•
•
•
Transport 60 STONs of noncontainerized cargo.(Normally the boat runs out of cargo spacebefore it reaches cargo weight limitations.)Transport one 20-foot equivalent container.(The design maximum gross weight of a fullyloaded 20-foot container [ammunition/generalcargo] is 44,800 pounds or 22.5 STONs.)Transport one truck and trailer or severalsmall vehicles that do not exceed the cargospace of the boat (42.75 feet) or a lift capacityof 60 STONs. The deck is 42.75 feet long and14.5 feet wide.Transport 200 combat-equipped troops(over short distances).
Cruise 150 nautical miles when loaded.Operate in a water depth of 6 feet whenloaded.
The transportation medium boat company has18 LCM-8s at Level 1. One is authorized for thecompany headquarters; one, for the maintenanceand salvage system; and sixteen are distributedevenly to the four boat sections of the two boatplatoons. The unit also has several wheeledvehicles and trailers and two bulldozers. Refer toTOE 55-828 for a description of equipment.
The medium boat company consists of a com-pany headquarters, a supply and maintenanceplatoon, and two boat platoons (Figure 2-2).
Elements of the supply and maintenance platoon arethe platoon headquarters and supply section and themaintenance and salvage section. Each of the twoboat platoons is made up of a platoon headquartersand two boat sections.
The company headquarters provides command,administration, and control for all elements of thecompany. This includes planning, direction, super-vision, supply, subsistence, communications, boatcontrol, and clerical services. The company head-quarters has one task LCM-8 used during the com-mand and control exercises. The craft can beequipped to serve as a floating command post andcommunication center. If a boat section or platoonis dispatched to another operational site or if thelanding craft is operating at widely dispersed loca-tions, it is used where it can best exercise commandand control.
The supply and maintenance platoon has aplatoon headquarters and supply section and a main-tenance and salvage section. The platoon leader isresponsible to the company commander for supervisingthe platoon engineer; a marine engineering warrantofficer (military occupational specialty [MOS] 881A2)supervises the maintenance and salvage section.
The platoon headquarters and supply sectionperforms overall supervision and planning. It alsorequests, receives, inspects, classifies, stores, issues,and accounts for repair parts and supplies.
The maintenance and salvage section performsunit and direct support levels of maintenance andsalvage operations for organic watercraft. OneLCM-8 is assigned to the maintenance and salvagesection for use in contact repair and maintenance andsalvage operations. The transportation floating craftgeneral support maintenance company (TOE 55-613L) provides general support maintenance from anonpropelled floating machine shop (FMS).
Each of the two boat platoons in the mediumboat company consists of a platoon headquarters andtwo boat sections. This organization lets a boatplatoon or a boat section be relatively independentlyused. For example, either a platoon or a section maybe detailed temporarily from the company as part ofa lighterage task force at another location. Whendetailed, the element must be supported by a contactmaintenance team from the supply and maintenanceplatoon. Each platoon headquarters has a platoonleader and a platoon sergeant. Each boat section has
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four task LCM-8s and crew for around-the-clock with two V-12 engines. In light of this change ofoperation. The section sergeant also serves as acoxswain on one of the section trail. Crew assign-ments to individual boats should be stabilized asmuch as possible to promote healthy competitionbetween crews in operating and maintaining theircraft and to pinpoint responsibilities. Each craft hastwo landing craft operators, two marine engine menand two landing craft seamen.
The company has 18 LCM-8s. The LCM-8 is awelded steel, twin-screw craft used to land equip-ment, trucks, trailers, and tracked vehicles (Figure2-3). It also transports cargo and personnel duringLOTS and amphibious operations. The LCM-8 isused in rough or exposed waters. It can operatethrough breakers, remain upright and tight whenground on a beach, and retract from the beach underits own power. The craft is propelled by four maindiesel engines assembled as two twin-engine propul-sion units. The service life extension program(SLEP) for the LCM-8 is to replace the four engines
engines, speed may increase.
The LCM-8’s characteristics are –
• Length overall-73 feet 8 inches.• Beam, extreme -21 feet.• Mean draft, loaded -4 feet 7 inches.• Cargo capacity-60 STONs.
• Cargo space:– Length, 42 feet 9 inches.
– Width, 14 feet 6 inches.• Speed:
— Loaded, 9 knots.— Modification II, 11 knots.
• Weapons:— Two .50 caliber machine guns.— Two .40 millimeter grenade launchers.
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Transportation Heavy Boat Company (TOE 55-829L)
The transportation heavy boat companyprovides and operates landing craft to transportpersonnel, containers, vehicles, and outsize cargoin offshore discharge operations. The heavy boatcompany augments lighterage service in a port orharbor, in inland or coastal waters, or betweenislands. The company also provides lighterage ser-vice required in joint amphibious or other water-borne tactical operations. The task craft is thelanding craft, utility (LCU).
The company is normally assigned to aTRANSCOM, a subordinate functional command ofthe theater Army, and attached to a transportationterminal battalion (TOE 55-816L) or terminal group(TOE 55-822L). It maybe attached to the Navy insupport of a joint amphibian operation. It may alsooperate separately under an appropriate command,such as a TAACOM, in an independent logisticssupport area where no combat zone exists.
The capability data provided in TOE 55-829L isdesigned for broad transportation planning. Plan-ners should be cautious when planning LCU opera-tions. There will be two classes of LCUs employedand a unit may have more than one class assigned.LCUs are often individually- or group-tasked inpreference to unit.
At Level 1, based on 75 percent of landing craftavailable to operate on a 24-hour basis, this unitcan–
•
•
•
Transport 1,600 STONs of noncontainerizedcargo. Each vessel makes one trip daily.Transport 288 containers. Each vessel makes7.2 trips daily.Transport 3,200 combat-equipped personnel.Each vessel makes one trip daily.
Table 2-1 shows the capabilities of the individualcraft. The plans for a sustained unit capability uses themaintenance factor of two LCUs. The two classes ofLCUs are primarily designed to carry RO/RO, outsize,and heavy-lift cargo from ship to shore.
The heavy boat company consists of a companyheadquarters, two boat platoons, and a maintenanceplatoon with a direct support maintenance section(Figure 2-4).
The company headquarters is organized andfunctions in a manner similar to the headquarters ofa medium boat company.
Each of the two platoons has a lieutenant as theplatoon leader who is responsible to the companycommander for operations. The vessel master isresponsible for the safe and efficient operation andmaintenance of his craft.
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The maintenance platoon performs organiza- The company has 10 LCUs. The two types oftional, intermediate, and direct support levels of LCUs are the LCU 1600 (1667/1671) class and themaintenance on the assigned landing craft and LCU 2000 class.associated equipment.
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The LCU 1600 has twin screw, twin engineswith four rudders, including two flanking rudders(Figure 2-5). The engines are located in twoseparate engine compartments in the stern of thevessel. One engine compartment is forward on theport side; the other is offset aft on the starboardside. The crew spaces and the pilot house are onthe starboard side. These features allow the deckto be left open from bow to stern for maximum useof cargo space and ease of loading and discharge.The vessel also has a drive-through capability.
The LCU 2000 class has twin screw, dual marineengines with dual rudders and bow thruster (Figure2-6). The crew spaces are in the superstructure at thestern of the vessel. There is no drive-throughcapability. The bow thruster with remote controlhelps direct the vessel against winds and currents.
The LCU 2000 class is designed to be self-delivered overseas. During a deployment the LCU2000 class vessel is considered a class A-2 vessel andis manned accordingly.
Deployment crew complement is 16: theemployment crew augmented by 4 additional mem-bers. The augmentation crew consists of an MOS880A2, master; MOS 881A2, chief engineer; MOS91B20, medical aid specialist; and MOS 31C20,radio operator. LCU 2000 deployment manningprovides the necessary crew to safely sustain long-range ocean transit operations. Upon arrival at theemployment site, the manning is returned to theemployment mission level.
During deployments the Military Sealift Com-mand (MSC) has operational control (OPCON) andprovides optimum track ship routing (OTSR).
Other considerations and options for com-manders are as follows:
•
•
•
•
Deploy in convoy, preferably escorted by avessel with ocean towing and salvagecapability.Additional towing, salvage equipment, andspare parts may be required on board duringocean voyages.Plan for intermediate ports of call toreplenish fuel, food, and other required itemsas required.When manning cannot be augmented forocean transit, tow LCUs by ocean tugboatsor carry LCUs aboard semi-submersible(float-on/float-off) ships.
Transportation Medium Lighter Company (ACV)(TOE 55-137)
The medium lighter company operates itslighter air-cushion vehicle (LACV-30) for lighteragebetween ship and shore or from shore to shore inLOTS operations. It can also support coastal, har-bor, and inland waterway container transport re-quirements. The unit is a lighter unit that specializesin quick movement of containers (up to 20-foot) inall types of operations. The unit is especially usefulin swampy areas and in contingency areas where thebeach gradient is very slight.
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The medium lighter company (ACV) has the Due to the impact of containerization and trans-same assignment as the medium boat company. forming the US flag fleet to predominately fully cel-
At TOE Level 1 (full strength), the medium lular non-self-sustaining vessels, the normal use oflighter company can– the unit is visualized as an integral unit at designated
battalion level terminal sites. The US Navy’s
•
Transport two 8 - x 20-foot containers or auxiliary crane ship (TACS) interfaces between non-cargo up to its maximum payload of 30 self-sustaining containerships and US Army lighters.STONs per craft. From this focal point, and considering the varyingTransport 24 containers or 300 STONs of cargo commodities to be handled, loaded lighters are
dispatched to designated unloading sites on orcargo on a onetime maximum lift, using all 12ACVs. beyond the beach.
The medium lighter company consists of acompany headquarters, three lighter platoons,and a maintenance platoon. The unit providesaround-the-clock operations and has sufficientpersonnel to support a two-shift operation.Refer to Figure 2-7.
The transportation medium lighter company,equipped with the lighter air-cushion vehicle(LACV-30), can uniquely support LOTS operations.The terrain-independent characteristics of theLACV-30 give the planner a far wider range ofemployment options compared to displacement-typelighters. The LACV-30 was principally developed asa container carrier. However, it can carry other typesof cargo, to include wheeled and tracked vehicles,commensurate with its overall capacity. The LACV-30 with its high overwater speeds also allows theplanner to consider greater dispersion of vessels andunloading sites without significantly degradingoperations.
When considering to use separate elements ofthe medium lighter company, analyze maintenancesupport requirements carefully. The TOE is struc-tured to provide an amalgamation of direct andgeneral support maintenance into the unit main-tenance organization. These resources cannot sup-port separate platoon operations at sites that arelocated at extended distances from the companybase.
The LACV-30 (Figure 2-8) is a fully amphibious,high-speed craft designed to transport military cargoin LOTS operations. Its two twin-pack, turboshaftengines use standard aviation kerosene fuel (JP4).The 150-horsepower auxiliary power unit (APU)provides 115 volts, 400-cycle AC power to run theswing crane and the drive for the air managementsystem fan. The fan provides filtered, positive pres-sure for the air for the engines, the cabin, and theintakes of its own system. The basic hull structure isof hollow-core aluminum and can be disassembledinto sections for transport.
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The LACV-30 has a load supporting cargo deckarea of 1,674 square feet. It can support a fullyloaded 20-foot container at specified deck locations.The craft can transport two 20-foot containers. It cantransport all classes of supply-palletized, con-tainerized, or vehicular–up to 30 STONs underideal operating conditions. Under average opera-tional conditions, use a planning factor of 25 STONs.The LACV-30 has load spreader pallets for con-tainers and sufficient tie-down points to secure mostloads.
• Cargo space:- Length, 51 feet 6 inches.- Width, 32 feet 6 inches.
• Range with partial load - 487 miles.• Endurance with full payload - 5 hours.
Watercraft TeamsTOE 55-530L, Watercraft Teams, identifies crew
and equipment requirements for a number of spe-Specific characteristics of the LACV-30 are as cialized watercraft. When activated and assigned a
follows: unit number and unit identification code (UIC),these teams are referred to as detachments; they are
•••
•
•
•
Height, overall -23 feet.Width, overall -38 feet.Length, overall -77 feet.Net weight of ACV with normal crew-56,100pounds.Maximum land speed:- Light, 20 mph.
- Loaded, 15 mph.Maximum water speed:- Light, 57.5 mph.- Loaded, 30 mph.
normally attached to a company or to a battalion foradministrative and logistical support. In some in-stances, teams are stand-alone units such as the logis-tics support vessel. In other cases, such as small tugs,barges, and floating cranes, the teams are embeddedin a parent company.
Unless specifically provided in the in-dividual teams, each team must be furnishedpersonnel, administration, supply, mess, andunit level maintenance support. The unit towhich the teams are attached does not providethese services, they must be provided by attach-ing additional service organization teams fromthe TOE 55-500L series. All teams listedbelow, except the LA Team, are manned for24-hour operations.
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The LA Team provides the crew for non-propelled dry cargo barges. The barges vary in sizefrom 45.5 feet long to 120 feet long. The capacityvaries from 20 to 578 long tons. The larger bargescan carry bulk liquid or deck cargo.
The LB Team operates picketboats (J-boats)and coastal, harbor, inland (CHI) boats, 65-feet andsmaller. Picketboats provide water transportation,water patrols, command, inspection, and generalutility services to support port and inland waterwayoperations (Figure 2-9).
The LC Team consists of marine engineer anddeck personnel required to operate the pumps andto crew the 120-foot, non-self-propelled liquid cargo
barge can transport 4,160 barrels of liquid cargo or655 STONs of dry cargo.
The LD Team has the necessary personnel tooperate the 70-foot tug (small tug [ST]) on a 24-hour basis. This team performs operational mis-sions including fire fighting, shifting and towingbarges, and helping to dock and undock large ves-sels (Figure 2-10).
The LE Team loads and discharges heavy-liftcargo that is beyond the capability of the ship’s gear.It provides crews for the 68-STON non-self-propelled floating crane and the 100-STON floatingcrane (Figure 2-11). These cranes can be operatedon a 24-hour basis. The 68-STON crane has been
barge to transport deck or bulk-liquid cargo. The reclassified to contingency and training because ofage and limited use.
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The Team FJ provides a 24-hour operating towing operations and limited salvage operationcapability for the 100-foot huge tug (LT). The team (Figure 2-13).is capable of heavy tows within a harbor area orlimited offshore towing between terminals, berthing,and unberthing oceangoing vessels. It can alsotransport itself with a qualified escort in transoceanicvoyages. The 107-foot LT maybe rated as a 100-foottug (Figure 2-12). (Team FJ is still in the system. Itwill become obsolete with the advent of the new largetug.)
The LI Team provides a 24-hour operatingcapability for the 128-foot large tug (LT). The team
The LJ Team can carry cargo and/or equipmentthroughout a theater of operations or intertheaterroutes not otherwise serviced by MSC. The 272-footself-propelled vessel can carry up to 2,000 short tonsof cargo along inland and coastal waterways, betweenislands, and on the open seas. The LSV will alsoassist in RO/RO or LOTS operations, particularlywith container-handling equipment, vehicular, andother oversize/overweight cargo. Beaching cargocapacity is rated as 900 short tons on a 1:30 gradient
can dock and undock vessels and conduct barge beach or better (Figure 2-14).
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The LH Team provides amphibious lighterageservice primarily for items of heavy, outsize, or bulky
8- x 8- x 20-foot containers; or 2,625 combat-equipped troops in seven trips. It is the only team
equipment based on a 75 percent availability of the that is authorized a commissioned officer (detach-four LARC-60s (Figure 2-15). The daily capacity of ment commander) and a maintenance capability inthis unit is 450 STONs of heavy, outsize, or bulky addition to the vessel crew members. It is alsononcontainerized cargo in five trips; twenty-one authorized logistics and administrative personnel.
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There are two additional types of transportation watercraft that are not authorized in the com-pany-size units or teams discussed in this chapter: The non-self-propelled floating marine equipmentrepair shops (Figure 2-16) and the non-self-propelled self-elevating barge piers (Figure 2-17). The float-ing repair shop is authorized in the transportation floating craft general support maintenance company(TOE 55-157). The barge piers are self-elevating piers. Two are authorized in TOE 55-119 as platformsfor the 240-ton container crane. The A DeLong pier is 300 feet by 80 feet and the B DeLong,150 feet by60 feet. They may also be obtained as required by initiating table of distribution and allowances (TDA)requests.
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2-6. ARMY WATERCRAFT CREWING. All types of Army watercraft require appropriate crewing.Proper crew size and configuration for a given watercraft depend upon its type and designed function.Generally there are three types of Army watercraft which consist of the following vessels.
a. Self- propelled Vessels Designed for Continuous Operation. These vessels are designed asClass A vessels. This class includes tugs, LSVs, and large landing crafts (LCU-1600 and LCU-2000).These vessels have numerous critical subsystems (such as propulsion, electrical power generation, envi-ronmental control, navigation/commo, and firefighting) which demand constant attendance. When amajor subsystem on such a vessel fails, the vessel, though not mission capable, is still afloat and stillsubject to the common hazards of wind, tide, and sea state. The crew remains on board (they usually liveon board) and repairs the subsystem to return the vessel to service. These vessels are capable of longduration, independent mission profiles; some of them are capable of independent ocean crossing voy-ages. These vessels must be crewed for 24 hour-per-day operations using watch standing techniquesand procedures. Within this class of vessels are two sub-classes. They are as follows:
o Al - normally operated in coastal waters.
o A2 - fully ocean capable.
There are two types of non-self-propelled watercraft that, except for lack of propulsion sub-systems, meet all the requirements for watch standing crew. They are the floating crane and the FMS.Although both these vessels are barges, they have substantial power generation, communications, envi-ronmental control, and firefighting subsystems requiring constant attendance. They also have live aboardcapability for their crews. These vessels must be crewed for 24 hour-per-day operations using watchstanding techniques and procedures. Masters and chief engineers on all Al vessels stand a normal under-way watch and remain on call during off-duty hours. On class A2 vessels, the master and chief engineerare not part of the watch standing rotation, but remain on call 24 hours a day.
b. Self-propelled Vessels Designed for Intermittent Use or for Relatively Continuous Usein Localized Areas. These vessels are designated as Class B vessels. This class includes smaller landingcraft (LCM-8) and all amphibians. Because they generally operate in confined areas such as harbors orat LOTS sites, they typically have significant shoreside support capability available; amphibians (andtheir crews) berth ashore. Their crews are smaller and they do not have crew living accommodations.Their onboard subsystems are less complex than those of the larger vessels. Crewing for this type vesselgenerally is shift oriented and two separate crews are required for 24 hour operations.
c. Non-self-propelled Watercraft. These vessels are designated as Class C vessels. This classincludes all barges. The crew requirements vary widely with the purpose and design of the barge. Re-gardless of their specific function, they are always afloat and, therefore, subject to wind, tide, and, seastate. They have a constant requirement for tending, even when not being actively employed for theirdesigned purpose. Except for the floating crane and FMS noted above, crewing for these vessels isgenerally shift oriented.
Watercraft are crewed regardless of the class type vessel. No watercraft can safely operatewithout a full crew. Generally, fractional crewmembers (such as one marine engineman for two vessels)will not work in watercraft units as the individual craft, even those operating in the same harbor do notnecessarily operate in close proximity to each other. For vessels that are watch crewed, fractionalcrewmembers are entirely inappropriate.
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A vessel crew, even a shift oriented one, remains on the vessel whether the vessel is operating,standing-by awaiting an operation, or deadlined for maintenance or repairs. Afloat vessels must alwaysbe tended. Amphibians sitting ashore awaiting a mission must still have a crew on board (or, at least,immediately available). When any vessel is underway or under tow, a critical subsystem (such as themain propulsion system) failure, subjects the vessel to the common seagoing hazards. Also, the vesselbecomes a hazard to navigation. A full crew must be available to effect repairs or jury rig the vessel toreach safe haven.
The following subparagraphs define appropriate crews for Army watercraft. Some of the vesselsare specifically defined by Line Item Number (LIN) and others are more generic.
d. Self-propelled Vessels Designed for Continuous Operations — Watch Standing Crews.These vessels (see Tables 2-2 through 2-8) include the barge crane and the FMS. Both are non-self-propelled barges and require watch standing crews.
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e. Self-propelled Vessels Designed for Intermittent Operations-Shift Crewed. The crewsdescribed below represent two full crews. This is the minimum manning essential for operating the typewatercraft (shown in Tables 2-9 through 2-14) for two full shifts (24 hour operations).
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f. Non-self-propelled Vessels Designed for Intermittent Operation — Shift Crewed. Thesetype of vessels (see Tables 2-15 and 2-16) have a constant requirement for tending, even when not beingactively employed for their designed purpose. The crews described below represent two full crews. Thisis the minimum manning essential for operating the type watercraft for two full shifts (24 hour opera-tions).
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CHAPTER 3
LOGISTICS OVER-THE-SHORE OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTIONIn overview, an ocean vessel can anchor in the
stream or offshore. In-the-stream anchor means thevessel is anchored in protected deep water, such as aharbor. Offshore anchor is an anchorage off theshoreline in unprotected deep water. From eitheranchorage location, the ship can discharge tolighterage for subsequent discharge to a freed-portfacility or to an unimproved facility or bare beach.Figure 3-1 depicts this type of operation.
Existing port capacities in many areas willprobably be insufficient to support theater tonnagerequirements. This and the possibility of enemyinsurgent activities require that plans emphasizewidely scattered beach operations instead of largeport complexes. The senior terminal commander inthe theater must continually plan for and open newbeaches to accommodate increased tonnages toreplace the tonnage capacity of a port or unimprovedfacility made untenable by enemy actions. Plansshould include the proposed location and layout of thearea, type of lighterage to be used, task organizationneeded to attain the desired tonnage capacity, routeand methods of movement to the area, constructioneffort required, communications requirements, andlogistical support procedures (Figure 3-1).
When planning to open new bare beach LOTSsites, the first step is to determine the beach areasavailable. The degree of dispersion that can be at-tained directly relates to the daily tonnage require-ment and the size and nature of the assigned area. Assoon as practicable after the limiting points of thearea have been designated, reconnaissance shoulddetermine the sites most suitable for operations.These sites should be selected based primarily on theexisting capability to accommodate the desired ton-nage. Major factors to consider when selectingbeach discharge sites include tide, surf, beachgradients, bars, characteristics of the bottom andbeach surface, anchorage areas, weather, andtopographic features.
The commander should not forget that LOTSalmost wholly depends on favorable weather. Also,
lighterage operations alongside a vessel are par-ticularly hazardous if more than a moderate sea isrunning. Heavy surf reduces the amount of cargobrought in by lighters and can suspend the entireoperation.
After the initial reconnaissance is completedand the terminal battalions have been dispersed tosites along the coastline, the terminal group com-mander must ensure that the battalions have theunits, equipment, and other support needed for theassigned mission. Beaches ideally suited for LOTSwithout prior preparation or alteration are rare.Therefore, some engineering support is usually re-quired to enable landing craft to beach and to pro-vide exits from the beach to discharge areas and theclearance transportation net.
At each bare beach LOTS discharge point, thebeach area operations require the closest attentionand the greatest supervision. The success of eachbeach operation depends to a great extent on theefficiency of cargo operations on the beach itself.Supplies and equipment being brought to the beachmust keep moving as rapidly as possible across ittoward inland destinations. A cluttered beach is alucrative target for the enemy and hinders cargomovement. Using amphibians or LACV-30s forlightering general cargo and containers helps to sig-nificantly reduce beach congestions.
Using water transport units over widelyseparated locations along a coastline requires carefulevaluation of the maintenance system supporting acomplex of scattered operations. When operationsare conducted in a dispersed situation, increasedorganizational maintenance must be emphasized.Unit maintenance personnel should be well trained.Every effort must be made to fix minor troubles toprevent costly equipment breakdowns. The terminalgroup standing operating procedure (SOP) shouldestablish the procedure for providing maintenancesupport. Floating craft maintenance units support-ing army water transport units over an extendedlength of coastline require mobile marine repairfacilities and on-site repair service.
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Dispersing water transport units greatly increasesreliance on radio communications for effective com-mand, control, and coordination. Therefore, com-munications security (COMSEC) and electroniccountermeasures (ECCM) are even more critical tomaintaining reliable communications.BEACH SITE
The first step in planning beach operations is toselect a beach site. The terminal group or brigadeheadquarters selects the general operational area incoordination with the Navy and the Military SealiftCommand.
NOTE: In follow-on amphibious opera-tions, the Army takes over beaches selectedby the Navy and/or the US Marine Corps(USMC).A beach reconnaissance party determines the
exact location of the site. The reconnaissanceparty consists of representatives of the terminalgroup and the military police; the commander andthe operations officer of the terminal battalion thatwill operate the site; and the commanders of theterminal service, boat, and amphibian companiesinvolved. During the reconnaissance, the terminalbattalion commander selects and assigns companyareas and frontages, indicates areas of defenseresponsibilities, and tentatively organizes the areaof operations. Appendix C contains additionalinformation on beach reconnaissance.
The water transport unit commanders provideadvice and recommendations on factors and condi-tions that affect their units’ use. These recommenda-tions bear directly on the final choice of the exactoperational sites.
When nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC)operations are suspected, the beach reconnaissanceparty conducts radiological monitoring, surveys, andchemical agent detection activities to determine pos-sible contamination of prospective beach sites.BEACH CHARACTERISTICS
When selecting a specific area for beach opera-tions, the water transport unit commander is par-ticularly interested in the following physical andenvironmental characteristics:
• Composition of the beach.• Beach gradient at various tide stages.
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•
Length and width of beach.Depth of water close inshore.Tidal range and period (duration and varia-tion of high and low water) effect of tides onthe beach width.Wind and weather conditions in the area.
OPERATIONAL PLANNINGUsing lighters in beach operations must be
planned to achieve a balanced operation. The turn-around time of the lighters must match (as closely aspossible) the unloading and loading cycle of the ter-minal service units involved. Balance cannot bemaintained unless craft are unloaded at dischargepoints at least as fast as they are loaded at shipside.Every effort must be made to ensure that enoughlighters are available to accept and deliver all thecargo that the terminal service personnel can handle.Undue delays at loading and unloading points mustbe minimized. The operation should be such that alighter is alongside the hatch each time the cargohook is ready to lower. This is done by having one ormore craft stand by at shipside while one is beingloaded, and dispatching others from the beach atintervals equal to the loading time at the hatch. In-formation obtained from actual operating ex-perience should be used when planning for lighteremployment in beach operations. If information isnot available, factors noted in this manual and inFMs 101-10-1/1 and 55-15 maybe substituted.
Throughout the planning phase, the terminalcommander appraises the situation. He bases theappraisal on directives and information from higherheadquarters and on studies made by his staff. Theappraisals decide the most effective use of the boatunits. On the commander’s final decision, the staffmembers prepare a detailed plan of operation. Afterthe plan is approved and incorporated into the ter-minal battalion’s operational plan for that particularsite, it is forwarded to the terminal higher head-quarters. The plan is in the form of a standardoperation order.
The operation plan covers all units assigned orattached to the terminal. It details the preparation andactual movement of boat units to the terminal sites. Theappropriate terminal command or battalion plans theoperations of the attached boat units at the site.
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However, the watercraft unit’s operation plan providesfor operational items such as fuel and maintenancesupport. The operation order includes–
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Assignment of boat companies to shipsproviding transportation to the far shore.Far shore assignments.Probable bivouacs and anchorages.Refueling and resupply plans and facilities, toinclude hazardous waste disposal.Communications instructions.Location and operations of the floating craft
•
•
•
•
•
depot maintenance company.The operation order and the overlays that
accompany it must be in a clear and simpleform. The mission and responsibilities of theunit should be clear.
Detailed alternate plans are prepared in casethe operation plan proves infeasible when the unitarrives at the objective area. Alternate plans con-sider such possibilities as adverse weather and surfconditions, the loss of ship and craft, changes in theenemy situation, and possible changes in the beachlanding area.
The terminal command or higher head-quarters provides subordinate boat units withvarious aids useful in planning and operations.These may include–
• Aerial photographs. Photographs maybevertical, low oblique (preferably 1:3,000 atshoreline), high oblique, and stereopairs.Photographs taken at low tide arepreferred when showing the foreshore.
• Beach reports based on interpretation ofaerial photographs. They detail informationabout the length and width of the beach andoffshore approach conditions. These includelandmarks and anchorages; inshore hydrog-raphy, including tidal range, underwaterobstructions, gradient, and nature of bottom;and suitability of the beach for various typesof landing craft and craft maintenance.
•
•
•
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Photographic surface models. Thesephotographs are printed on a molded plasticrelief model of the area. They serve the samepurpose as a conventional relief map and canbe distributed more conveniently.
Shoreline photographs taken through sub-marine periscopes.Relief maps, preferably with grids, about1:5,000 with at least a 2:1 exaggeration invertical relief. Maps should be as completelydetailed as possible.Special studies prepared by theater in-telligence agencies or other agencies.Appendix D is an example of what es-sential elements of information (EEI)may be for terminal or beach operations.
Reports from interrogations of prisoners-of-war, from former residents of the area ofoperations, and from underground sources.Terrain studies.Geographical annex.Maps, charts, shoreline sketches, andphotographs of the beach area.
Commanders of boat units and their staffscarefully study these aids. Staffs study the beachapproaches, hydrography, and terrain as they af-fect boat operations. The operations officer ofthe boat battalion secures or prepares additionalaids, if required.
One of the most useful sources of informationabout the area of operations is the geographicalannex. Issued by the terminal command or a higherheadquarters, it is often distributed early in the plan-ning phase as a reference for subordinate units. (Thegeographical annex is usually issued as shown inAppendix E.)
As soon as the mission is received, the intel-ligence officer (S2) determines the requirements ofthe battalion commander and staff for additionalinformation. The S2 immediately initiates requests
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to the appropriate headquarters to secure informa-tion, as well as any maps, charts, or other planningaids that may be required.
The commander of the boat unit must secure asmuch detail as possible about the proposed landingbeaches and how to approach them. Reconnaissanceprovides much of this information. Additional infor-mation is in intelligence documents and various pub-lications distributed by higher headquarters. Anyadditional data must be secured by requests to higherheadquarters or through studies made by the bat-talion staff.
The battalion headquarters must ensure that allunits are adequately supplied with maps and chartsabout the area of operations. The following types ofnautical charts are used:
•
•
•
•
Sailing charts are used to fix a position inlong-distance navigation. They usuallyemploy Mercator’s projection. Scales are1:6,000,000 and smaller.General charts of the coast are used the sameas sailing charts and also for near-shorenavigation. They employ Mercator’s projec-tion. Scales are from 1:150,000 to 1:600,000.Coast charts are used for coastwide naviga-tion and to approach a shore from a longdistance offshore. They show details of landformations and artificial landmarks whichhelp fix positions. Scales are 1:50,000 to1:150,000.
Harbor charts are used to navigate harborsand their approaches. They greatly detailterrain and artificial objects. Scales areusually larger than 1:50,000.
Two general types of hydrographic charts areused to operate a boat unit: coastal charts andharbor/approach charts. Coastal charts showlimited terrain contour lines and details of naturaland artificial features. Harbor/approach chartsshow greater detail of harbor natural and artificialfeatures as well as the existence of hazards and/orroutes of safe approach to the harbor.TURNAROUND TIME
Turnaround time is the basic factor to determinelighterage capabilities and requirements. It is usedto compute the number of craft for a specific opera-tion or the amount of tonnage that a given number of
craft can deliver. Turnaround time is the totalelapsed time that a single lighter takes to load, travelto the discharge point, unload, and return to shipsideready to be loaded again. The elements involved areaverage speed in the water and on land (for am-phibians), distance to be traveled, loading time, un-loading time, and predictable delays. An estimatedturnaround time must be worked out for each newoperational site and mission and for each change inany of the elements given above. Sea and terrainconditions affect speed, and variations in loads alterloading and unloading times. Average turnaroundtime is computed by using the following formula:Turnaround
time =in hours
NOTE: Land distance only applies whencomputing turnaround time for amphibiansor air-cushion vehicles.
LIGHTER REQUIREMENTSOnce an average turnaround time is established
the number of lighters required to deliver an assigneddaily tonnage can be computed by using the followingformula:
DAILY TONNAGE CAPABILITIESSometimes it is necessary to forecast the amount
of tonnage that the available craft can transport over
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a specified period of time under existing conditions.Daily tonnage capabilities are computed by using thefollowing formula:
CONTROL SYSTEMThe operations of the lighterage companies
must respond to the needs of the terminal serviceunits handling the cargo at shipside and at the beach.To maintain a smooth and continual flow of cargoover the beach, the lighterage unit commander mustbe aware of the status and location of his craft.Having this knowledge allows him to relocateplatoons, sections, and individual lighters or to assignnew or additional missions as rapidly as possible.
Flexibility of operations requires a responsive,closely monitored control system. Control, main-tained mainly by radio communication, is exercisedthrough a lighter control center and various controlpoints on the beach, at shipside, and in the dischargeareas (for amphibians). The extent of the controlsystem depends on the size of the operational area,the dispersion required, the ship-to-shore distance tobe traveled, and the type of lighter being used. Inaverage situations, particularly when working twoships simultaneously, decentralizing operations toplatoon level gets the best results. Decentralizingoperations reduces communication problems andsimplifies overall control. The greater the disper-sion, the more important decentralization is.
Under decentralized platoon operationand maximum dispersion, a typical control sys-tem includes–
• A lighter control center.
• A shipboard control point on each ship beingworked.
• A discharge control point (for amphibians).
SHIPSIDE PROCEDURELoading cargo into a lighter from a vessel anchored
in the stream is difficult and somewhat dangerous. Theshipboard control point noncommissioned officer
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(NCO) must consider the conditions under which theship is being unloaded. He must constantly coor-dinate with the lighter crews at shipside to ensuresafety precautions are being followed.
If the NCO determines that continuing the dis-charge operation is dangerous, he must immediatelynotify the ship’s captain, the lighter control center,and the various unit commanders supporting theoperation. The terminal commander or vesselmaster will decide whether to continue operations orsuspend them until conditions improve.
The following factors influence the ship dis-charge rate:
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•
Type of cargo to be unloaded (mobile, con-tainerized, unitized, or loose).Characteristics of the cargo ship.MHE available.Experience of the cargo handling personnelon the ship and ashore.Weather conditions.Distance cargo ships are from the beach.Beach characteristics.Distance amphibian discharge points arefrom the beach.Enemy air, ground, and naval action.
Unless unusual wind or tidal currents exist, theship normally anchors bow to either the wind orcurrent, whichever is stronger. If all hatches arebeing worked, lighters may receive cargo over bothsides of the ship. For example, the cargo from Hold1 may be discharged over the starboard side andcargo from Hold 2 over the port side.
If sea and weather conditions prevent cargodischarge from both sides of a ship at anchor, themethod of discharge must be changed. The vesselmust be moored both bow and stern to avoid swingingto the tide or wind. The lighters should come alongthe lee side of the vessel and be moored to the vesselto receive cargo. This operation reduces the dis-charge rate about 50 percent.
Beach control personnel or the shipboard controlpoint NCO direct lighter operators to the number of thehatch and the side of the ship where they should moor.
FM 55-50
Detailed procedures for coming alongside, mooring,and clearing shipside are in FM 55-501.
Drafts of nonunitized small items of cargoare usually handled in cargo nets, which are un-hooked and left in the craft. Empty nets arereturned to the ship each time the lighter comesalongside for another load.USE OF JUMPERS
Aboard small lighters, crew members normallyperform all shipside cargo-handling operations. Ifone or more crew members are operating or main-taining their craft and cannot be spared for cargohandling duties, the unit commander may provideextra crewmen, called jumpers, to position andsecure cargo in the lighter for movement to thebeach. When available, extra crewmen are takenfrom deadlined or standby lighters. Otherwise, theterminal service company may provide them.
Aboard larger lighters, such as LCUs, a forkliftis the most prompt method to position and stackunitized or palletized cargo. The terminal servicecompany provides and operates forklifts. Becausetransferring personnel from one craft to anotheralongside the ship is potentially hazardous, jumpersand forklift operators should board and debark thelighter at the beach.
SALVAGE OPERATIONSThe main objective of salvage operations is to
keep the beach and sea approaches clear. Ex-perienced salvage men never lose sight of this mis-sion; even when freeing a single stranded or disabledcraft they do not impede beach or offshore opera-tions. To keep the beach clear, craft that can berepaired or removed quickly are given priority.Boats that cannot be salvaged readily are anchoredsecurely and left at the beach until traffic eases andmore time can be devoted to them.
When a landing craft broaches to and isstranded, salvage crews must act quickly. Speedyassistance often prevents serious damage to boats,especially in heavy surf. Fast recovery fromseaward is usually the best procedure for salvagingbroached-to boats. Methods of recovery are inFM 55-501.
When a loaded craft is aground offshore, anypractical system to expedite the unloading of cargo
from the craft should be used. Amphibians may beable to moor alongside or at the lowered ramp topermit the transfer of small cargo items by hand.Cargo in small, packaged containers up to 40 poundscan be handed over the side. Cargo boxes placed atthe rail of the craft may serve as steps and facilitatecargo handling. Rough-terrain cranes may lift cargotoo heavy to be moved by hand. The crane is drivento the stranded craft if intervening depth and surfconditions permit.
A bulldozer may push stranded craft back intothe water. The blade of the bulldozer must bepadded by fenders, salvaged tires, or similar materialto prevent damage to the hulls or ramps of the craft.To maximize salvage capability, one bulldozer shouldbe readily available to each operational beach.
No craft is ever left on the beach unattended orunwatched. The operator must remain constantly atthe controls while beaching, loading, unloading, andretracting.
ANTIBROACHING MEASURESThe best insurance against broaching to is an
alert, skilled operator who knows the capabilities andlimitations of his craft. Normally, antibroaching aidsare not used if the craft is to be unloaded quickly andretracted from the beach immediately. Under mostconditions, antibroaching lines from the bow or sternof the beached craft are impractical. In extreme surfconditions where a crosscurrent may cause broach-ing, antibroaching lines maybe used. However, theoperator must keep in mind that this method is time-consuming, severely restricts the number of craft thatcan be off-loaded along a specific sector of the beach,and is an ineffective method to prevent broaching.
The master of an LCU or an LCM-8 keeps hiscraft in position on the beach by properly using en-gines, rudders, and stern anchors. (The LCM-8 isnot equipped with a stern anchor.) If the LCU andLCM-8 are beaching on the same sector of beach, theLCM-8 is somewhat protected if it is beachedleeward of the LCU. For example, if three LCUs areon the same beach, one or two LCM-8s can bebeached and discharged in the partially protectedzone on the lee side of each LCU. When the LCM-8and LCU are loaded with similar cargo, two or moreLCM-8s can usually be unloaded in the time requiredto discharge an LCU. Preventive and recovery pro-cedures for broached-to craft are in FM 55-501.
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DOCUMENTATION
Cargo documentation is a function of the ter-minal service company. The commander of thelighterage unit determines from the commander ofthe terminal service company if there is a require-ment to document the cargo in the ship-to-shoreoperation. If the requirement exists to assure in-transit visibility and to protect the audit trail, thecommander of the lighterage is responsible for thecargo loaded aboard lighterage until it is unloaded atthe discharge point.
If required, cargo is documented according toDOD Regulation 4500.32-R. The basic documentfor cargo movements under these procedures is DDForm 1384 (Transportation Control and MovementDocument [TCMD]). This form is used as a dockreceipt, a cargo delivery receipt, an accountabilitydocument during temporary holding, and a record ofall cargo handled.
The lighter operator receives copies of theTCMD at shipside. The number of copies dependson command requirements for each particular dis-charge operation. The lighter operator signs for thecargo at shipside and delivers all copies, except one,to the shoreside checker at the discharge point. Theretained copy is initialed by the shore checker toindicate receipt of the cargo. At the end of the shift,the lighter operator turns in all initialed copies of theTCMD to the lighter control center. The informa-tion from these TCMDs provides the lighterage com-pany with throughput evaluation data.
Cargo accountability may also be accomplishedelectronically using computer hardware and a 2½-by 2-inch logistics applications of automated mark-ing and reading symbology (LOGMARS). A hand-held portable bar code reader scans the cargo as itcomes aboard the lighterage. The scanner works likean automated supermarket checkout counter. Thecargo is scanned again when it is discharged. Nopaper documents the move, but the lighter operatorcan use the LOGMARS label to identify cargo.BEACH AREA SECURITY
The terminal commander is responsible forlocal defense of his portion of the beach area. Com-manders of all units have their normal responsibilityfor the security of men and equipment. Each unit isassigned a mission in the defense system. Emergencyassembly areas are designated. An alert warning
system is established. An overlay of the beachdefense is circulated to all units in the area.
General security measures taken by lighterageunits within their bivouac areas include–
•
••
•
•
•
•
•
Dispersing all vehicles, equipment, andpersonnel.Posting guards, patrols, and sentries.
Constructing individual fighting positioncrew-served weapons, emplacements, com-munication trenches, and bunkers.Designating specific defense positions for allpersonnel and conducting alert drills to en-sure personnel are familiar with their dutiesin an emergency.
Organizing definite defense groups underleaders specifically designated in a publisheddefense plan.Organizing communication systems to beused during defense operations.Constructing obstacles to prevent the ad-vance of attacking forces.Planning for integrated fields of fire.
In an emergency, all members of the lighterageunits, including crews, may need to occupy defensepositions. Accordingly, weapons must be kept handyat all times and checked frequently to ensure they arein serviceable condition.
Defense plans for beach areas are coordinatedwith higher headquarters and integrated with thetheater Army rear battle plan and other existing basedefense plans to ensure mutual support. The respon-sible terminal headquarters establishes and coor-dinates normal passive and active security measuresto protect the beach in an air attack. These measuresconsist mainly of concealment, dispersion, earlywarning, and weapons firing. Personnel are providedshelters. A system of alert warning signals is set up,and installations are camouflaged.
Military police advises commanders on ways tosecure and protect beaches against enemy threat.Exposed as they are to pilferage and sabotage, beachareas become even more vulnerable to both enemyand criminal activities because of the accumulationof supplies. Military police become proactive tosecurity requirements as threat activity increases.
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Mines are one of the greatest threats watercraftmay encounter in any type of operation. Of mainconcern to Army watercraft are the many varieties ofshallow water, magnetic influence, and bottommines. Surface ships, submarines, or aircraft candeliver these mines. With current capabilities in-cluding delayed arming devices and ship counters,the bottom mine poses a threat to watercraft duringany phase of a waterbound operation. The bottommine is also extremely difficult to detect on rockybottoms or when buried in mud or silt. A buried mineloses none of its target acquisition or destructioncapability. Mine hunting or sweeping platforms areintensively managed resources in any theater ofoperations. Potential sources for mine clearance ser-vices include the US Army divers, the US Navy, andthe host nation.
BIVOUACSWhenever possible, bivouac areas are estab-
lished in the vicinity of the beach perimeter so defen-sive positions can be readily manned in an enemyattack. The bivouac area should be as close to theboat mooring area as possible to allow ready accessto the craft, particularly when storms arise. The firstsergeant usually supervises the organization anddevelopment of company bivouac areas. The com-pany commander and, usually, the battalion execu-tive officer inspect daily to ensure proper standardsof cleanliness and sanitation are maintained. Theimprovement of bivouac areas continues as long asthe units occupy them.
In the bivouac area, it is essential to have goodbathing facilities an adequate mess, and, in inclementweather, a place where soldiers can warm themselvesand dry their clothing.
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CHAPTER 4
INLAND WATERWAY OPERATIONS
This chapter implements QSTAG 592.
INTRODUCTIONInland waterway (IWW) operations are used
when the theater of operations has an establishedinland waterway system of connecting rivers, canals,or lakes that can be used to support theater opera-tions. The military can use IWWs to complement anexisting transportation network when moving cargointo a theater of operations. An IWW can greatlyreduce congestion and the work load of other modes.Military use depends on the direction of the water-way, the degree of development and rehabilitationrequired, the tactical situation, and the impact thatmilitary use will have on the local civilian economy.Appendix F is an extract of QSTAG 592.TYPES OF INLAND WATERWAY FLOATINGEQUIPMENT
Several types of watercraft can be used in aninland waterway service. They include lighter aboardship (LASH) and sea barges (SEABEEs); locallyavailable self-propelled barges; and US Army bar-ges, tugs, and landing craft (Figure 4-l). Thetransporter must be prepared to work with whateverassets are available.ORGANIZATION OF AN INLAND WATERWAYSERVICE
When required, an inland waterway service isformed to control and operate a waterway system; toformulate and coordinate plans for using inlandwaterway transport resources; and to integrate andsupervise local civilian facilities used to supportmilitary operations. This organization varies in sizefrom a single barge crew to a complete inland water-way service depending on requirements. It may becomposed entirely of military personnel or by local
civilians supervised by military units of the ap-propriate transportation staff section.
Inland waterway units are normally a part of thetheater Army transportation service. They are attachedto the TRANSCOM; but they may be assigned to thecorps support command (COSCOM) and attached tothe transportation brigade if the inland waterwayoperation takes place wholly within the COSCOM areaof responsibility.
Although a terminal group may operate an in-land waterway service, a terminal battalion com-posed of appropriate terminal service, cargotransfer, harbor craft, boat, and/or amphibian unitsis often employed in this capacity.THE INLAND WATERWAY SYSTEM
Three separate fictional components make upan inland waterway system (Figure 4-2): the oceanreception point (ORP), the inland waterway, and theinland waterway terminal.
The ocean reception point consists of mooringpoints for ships, a marshaling area for barges, and acontrol point. The mooring point can be alongside awharf, at anchor in the stream, or offshore. Themarshaling areas can be alongside a wharf or securedto stake barges at anchor. The control point can beashore or on a stake barge. Stake barges at the ORPcan be semipermanent anchored barges or vessels.Barges can be used to house control point crews aswell as the small tug crews, dispatchers, and otherpersonnel connected with the ORP. They shouldhave a gear locker to stow the various equipment andlines needed to service barges and tugs. Thereshould be at least two stake barges at the ORP; onefor import and one for export. LASH and SEABEEvessels are worked at the ORP.
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The US Army Corps of Engineers operates andmaintains the inland waterway in a generic theater orin CONUS. However, the host country normallymaintains and operates developed inland waterwaysystems in overseas theaters. Aids to navigation onthe inland waterways differ all over the world. Someareas do not use aids, while others use the interna-tional ocean system. The US uses many different andhighly sophisticated systems. For illustrations ofnavigation aids, refer to FMs 55-501 or 55-501-2.
The inland waterway terminal (Figure 4-3) issimilar to any other inland terminal, except that it iswhere cargo is transferred between some form oflighterage and land-based transportation. Inlandterminals vary in size and design. Some are designedfor one commodity, others, for general purposes.For military purposes, the available inland terminalmay not be what is needed; therefore, the plannerand user must adapt (at least until engineers canmodify the terminal). Quays running along the in-land waterway, finger piers at wider points, or basin-type terminals could be adapted by installingDeLong piers as quays or piers, installing regularbarges by either partially sinking or driving pilings tohold them in place, or using a beach that could beimproved.TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
The transportation planner’s interest in an in-land waterway is in its capability to move cargo.Therefore, he is interested in the effect of its physicalfeatures on its ability to carry cargo. Among thephysical features that determine what can be moved
over a waterway are the restricting width and depthof channel; horizontal and vertical clearance ofbridges; and number of locks, their method of opera-tions, and length of time required for craft to clearthem. Freeze-ups, floods, and droughts also affect awaterway’s capacity. The transportation plannermust know when to expect these seasonal restrictionsand how long they may last. He is concerned withspeed, fluctuation, and direction of water current aswell as availabtity of craft, labor, terminal facilities,and maintenance support.
QSTAG 592 standardizes documents that arecommon to several means of transport. This agree-ment helps terminal operators predict movementrequirements.
On an inland waterway, one of the followingsituations determines the method for calculating thewaterway capacity:
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The daily capacity can be estimated by deter-mining the number of craft per day that canpass through the most limited restrictionsuch as a lock, lift bridge, or narrow channeland multiplying this figure by the average netcapacity of the barge or craft in use.When the capacity of a waterway is so largeor the number of barges so limited that notenough barges are available to fill or exceedthe waterway capacity, the planner deter-mines the required capacity for militarypurposes.
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Waterway capacity is based on turnaround time.Turnaround time is the length of time between leav-ing a point and returning to it. Since barges are beingpicked up at a wharf or stake barge, barge loadingtime is not part of the computation. If barges arepicked up at shipside without marshaling at a wharfor stake barge, loading time of the barge would be-come a factor of turnaround time. The followingitems must be known to calculate turnaround time:
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• Length of haul. This is the trip distance be-tween the barge pickup point and unloadingpoints or the reverse trip.
• Speed. This is influenced by wind, current,power of craft, and size of load. If the craft’sspeed cannot be determined, assume it is 4miles per hour in still water (6.4 kilometersper hour). Speed and direction of currentcan frequently be discounted since resistancein one direction may be balanced by assis-tance in the other direction. However, this isnot always the case.
• Loading and unloading time. This is thetime to load and unload a craft at origin anddestination.
• Time consumed in locks. This is the time ittakes a craft and its tow to pass through alock. When exact data is lacking, assume locktime is one hour per single lock (step).
• Hours of operations. This figure is usuallyplanned as 24 hours per day. Maintenancefactors are applied in equipment require-ments as shown later in formulas.
• Transit time. This is the time to move thecraft the length of the haul and directlyrelated occurrences. To determine transittime, add the time to make up the tow, thedistance divided by the speed of the tow;the time consumed to pass through thelocks; and the time to break up the tow.
• Speed control. Because of possible damageto the inland waterway, speed is controlled.
• Barge, tugboat, or craft requirements. Whendetermining the number of barges, tugboats,or craft requirements, always roundup to thenearest whole number. Then apply the main-tenance factor and round up again.
Two basic types of inland waterway watercraftsystems are: barge-carrying ships and ships’ cargodischarged onto barges at the ORP.
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The most current type of barge-carrying ships Use Table 4-1 when planning for turnaround timesare LASH and SEABEE. These ships furnish and equipment requirements using barge-carryingpreloaded barges. Therefore, the ship schedules fur- ships.nish the barges used on the inland waterway system.
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When barges carrying ships are not in use and shipsare discharged onto barges at the ORP, use Table 4-2.
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CHAPTER 5
AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTIONThe four types of amphibious operations are
amphibious assault, withdrawal, demonstration, andraid. Each has a specific purpose. The amphibiousassault involves landing and establishing forces on ahostile shore. In an amphibious withdrawal, forceswithdraw from a hostile shore in naval ships or craft.An amphibious demonstration is designed to deceivethe enemy by a show of force that deludes him intoaction unfavorable to him. In a raid, forces land fromthe sea on a hostile shore intending to occupy it onlytemporarily its objective is to inflict loss or damage,secure information, create a diversion, or evacuateindividuals and materiel.
The phases of an amphibious operation followa well-defined pattern or sequence of events oractivities. This chapter discusses the activities inthe general sequence of planning, embarkation,rehearsal, movement to the objective area, andassault and capture of the objective area. Some ofthe phases overlap.
This chapter also gives watercraft commandersand operators the basic guidance Army watercrafttransport units need to participate in amphibiousoperations that support an Army or joint force. FMs31-11 and 31-12 contain more detailed informationon amphibious operations.PLANNING PHASE
Planning, as a separate phase of an amphibiousoperation, is the period between the issuance of theinitiating directive to embarkation. It is a continuousprocess that extends from the time the initiatingdirective is issued to the end of the operation.
Normally, Navy and Marine assault units con-duct amphibious operations. Army amphibians andwatercraft are used as floating platforms for on-callsupply movement and for general unloading after thebeachhead has been secured. Army amphibians andlanding craft can be part of the assault force.
Planning for coordinated training with shoreparty elements and for operational employmentbegins when the initiating directive assigning a watertransport unit to the joint amphibious task force isreceived. Immediate liaison is established betweenthe water transport unit and the naval beach groupto which it is attached. The shore party’s mission istwofold: to clear the beaches so the assault elementscan land and move across them, and to provide com-bat support and interim combat service support forthe assault elements.
Plans must be flexible so that combat demandscan be met. All commanders who furnish support forthe assault must be prepared to alter their supportplans to meet the changing needs of the landing force.The need to coordinate the detailed actions of allforces involved complicates planning for an am-phibious operation. Consequently, planning must beconcurrent, parallel, and detailed. In addition to aprimary plan, alternate plans must be developed.
During the planning phase, training shortfallsmay be discovered. They may require extensive in-dividual training as well as training with other ele-ments of the amphibious task force. As plans aredeveloped, appropriate personnel must be ade-quately briefed on the overall plans and their in-dividual and collective responsibilities.EMBARKATION PHASE
During the embarkation phase, the landingforces assigned to the amphibious task force, withtheir equipment and supplies, are assembled andloaded in assigned shipping sequence. This se-quence is designed to support the landing plan andthe scheme of maneuver ashore. Before the assaultshipping arrives, water transport unit commanders,troop commanders, naval commanders, and shoreparty commanders prepare detailed embarkationand landing plans. FM 20-12 details embarkationplanning.
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Lighterage is moved to the amphibious objectivearea aboard landing ships or assault ships. The typeand numbers of lighters that each ship of thetransport group carries are identified by hull num-ber. Representatives of the landing force coordinatewith the appropriate naval transport echelon todetermine them.
The senior water transport unit representativeon each ship, the commanding officer of troops, andthe ship’s combat cargo officer arrange the following:
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Billet assignments.
Assignment of crews, relief crews, and main-tenance teams.Assignment of working parties.Storage for fuel, lubricants, and maintenancematerial. Items must be available en routeand during initial stages of the assault.Security details.Messing procedures.
Stowage of weapons and ammunition.Supplies and equipment must be prepared for
loading before the assault shipping arrives in theembarkation area. Lighters should be completelyserviced, fuel and water cans filled, accessoriesplaced, and radio and navigation equipmentwaterproofed. A final inspection ensures all craftand equipment are in proper condition, securelylashed, adequately protected, and ready for theoperation.
If ships are to be loaded offshore, the embarka-tion area should be organized so that amphibians usedifferent beach areas. Lighters to be embarkedaboard the same ship are marshaled together andescorted by naval guide boats to their assigned craft.Craft are loaded aboard assault shipping so thatdebarkation in the amphibious objective area is in theproper order.REHEARSAL PHASE
The rehearsal phase of an amphibious opera-tion is the period where elements of the task force,or the task force in its entirety, conduct one ormore exercises under conditions similar to thoseexpected at the beachhead. The purpose of therehearsal is to test the adequacy of plans and com-munications, the timing of detailed operations, and
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the combat readiness of participating forces. It en-sures all echelons are familiar with the plan. Thethree types of exercises are–
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Separate force rehearsals. Elements whosetasks are not closely associated with those ofthe main body of the amphibious task forcenormally conduct separate rehearsals. Theadvance force and the demonstration forceare examples of elements that conductseparate rehearsals.
Staff rehearsals. All staffs scheduled to par-ticipate in the operation conduct staff re-hearsals. Conducted before integratedrehearsals, they usually take the form of com-mand post or game board exercises. If pos-sible, these exercises test communicationsfacilities.
Integrated rehearsals. The rehearsal phaseshould include at least two integrated re-hearsals for the assault phase. The firstrehearsal omits actual bombardment andunloading supplies but stresses com-munications and control in executing ship-to-shore movement. The final rehearsaluses the actual operations plans. It in-cludes token naval gunfire, air support withlive ammunition, extensive troop participa-tion and sufficient unloading to adequatelytest tactical and logistical plans, operationof ship-to-shore movement control or-ganization, and the functioning of the shoreparty.
MOVEMENT PHASEThe fourth phase of an amphibious operation is
the movement of the task force to the amphibiousarea. This includes the departure of ships from load-ing points, the passage at sea, and the approach toand arrival in assigned positions in the objective area.The task force is divided into movement groupswhich proceed on prescribed routes. Alternateroutes are designated for emergency use. Movementgroups are organized based on the speed of the shipsinvolved and the time they are needed in the objectivearea.
Some movement groups are scheduled to arrivein the objective area before D-day; some, on D-day;and others, after D-day.
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Movement groups that arrive before D-day arethe advance force. If surprise is essential, such aforce may not be used. The advance force preparesthe objective area for assault. It conducts reconnais-sance, minesweeping, preliminary bombardment,underwater demolitions, and air operations.
Movement groups arriving on D-day are themain body of the task force. They consist of one ormore transport groups, landing ship groups, supportgroups, or carrier groups. Movement groups thatarrive after D-day provide resupply after the initialassault. These massive operations involve movingmateriels and personnel into the theater of opera-tions to sustain the combat effort.
Movement groups that arrive after D-day pro-vide resupply after the initial assault. These massiveoperations involve moving materiels and personnelinto the theater to sustain the combat effort.
ASSAULT PHASEThe assault phase of the amphibious operations
begins when the assault elements of the main bodyarrive at their assigned position in the objective area.It ends when the task force mission is accomplished.When the assault phase ends, the amphibious opera-tion ends. Then the amphibious task force is dis-solved as an organization, and its elements arereassigned. Responsibility for further operations inthe former amphibious objective area is transferred.
The assault phase includes a sequence of sixactivities or operations:
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The assault area is subjected to naval gunfiremissile fire, and air bombardment.Helicopters, landing ships and crafts, andamphibians move the landing force.Assault elements of the landing force land indrop and landing zones and on the beaches.Waterborne, helicopter-borne, air-dropped,and air-landed forces unite and seize thebeachhead.Naval forces provide logistic, air, and navalgunfire support throughout the assault.Remaining landing force elements go ashoreto conduct any operations required to sup-port the mission.
The organization of landing ships, landingcraft, and amphibious vehicles employed in assaultlandings parallels the landing force organization.The landing force is organized into a landing team.The naval organization has boat groups, waves, andflotillas.
Landing teams consist of an infantry battalion orsimilar level combat unit reinforced with combatsupport and combat service support units. Theteams, normally waterborne or helicopter-borne, areorganized into waves that contain troops and equip-ment that land at the same time.
Boat groups are the naval force’s basic taskorganization for controlling amphibian vehicles andlanding craft afloat. One boat group is organized foreach battalion landing team or its equivalent. Theboat group lands in the first wave of landing craft oramphibians.
Boat waves are the landing craft or amphibianswithin a boat group that carry troops to be landed atthe same time. Organizing into waves helps controlthe boat group; command is through wave com-manders rather than directly with individual boatcommanders. Boat waves operate as a unit. Theboat group lands in successive waves according to theassault schedule. The waves are numbered firstwave, second wave, and so forth. Landing ships usedto land battalion landing teams are organized aswaves but are not included in an assault group.
Boat flotillas are formed when the operationof two or more boat groups require a commoncommander.
Ship-to-shore movement begins when orderedby the amphibious task force commander and endswhen the unloading is complete. It may be dividedinto two periods: the assault and initial unloadingperiod, and the general unloading period. Thefirst period is tactical, and the second period islogistical. For ship-to-shore movement, tacticalunits are divided into special groupings and landedin successive waves. These waves are designatedas scheduled, on-call, or nonscheduled units. Fol-lowing the tactical units, supplies are landed at thediscretion of the appropriate troop commander oras required by the landing force. Supplies solanded are designated as floating dumps or landingforce supplies.
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Scheduled waves normally consist of elements ofthe assault landing team, although other units may beincluded. Units included in scheduled waves areneeded for the initial assault. The time and place forthem to land are predetermined.
On-call waves are also needed in the initialassault, but they have no fixed time and place forlanding. On-call boat waves are held in readinessin landing craft, ships, or amphibious vehicles nearthe primary assistant central control or approachlane control ships. On-call waves are landed whenthe landing force commander calls for them.
Nonscheduled units are directed to land whenthe need for them ashore can be predicted withreasonable accuracy. They are held in readiness forlanding during the initial unloading period but arenot included in either scheduled or on-call waves.
Floating dumps provide emergency supplies.They are preloaded in landing craft, landing ships, oramphibian vehicles to meet anticipated supply re-quirements. They remain near the line of departureand land when requested by the appropriate troopcommander.
Landing force supplies are the supplies thatremain in assault shipping after initial combat sup-plies and floating dumps have been unloaded.
Army watercraft do not normally land with theinitial assault waves. They usually serve as floatingdumps or on-call elements or deliver landing forcesupplies. Following landing of the initial waves,Army watercraft are stationed at designated controlpoints until dispatched ashore by the naval controlofficer. When dispatched ashore, the crafts move tothe designated beach for unloading. After unload-ing, they move to assigned assembly areas untilrouted to a specific ship for reloading. Armywatercraft continue to function in this mannerthroughout ship-to-shore movement until releasedby the shore party commander. Then they revert tothe control of their parent organization.
In amphibious operations, the commander ofthe amphibious task force via the naval control officerexercises control of ship-to-shore movement. Theshore party via attached naval beach parties carriesout near beach movement control. Water transportunit commanders remain waterborne until the
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general unloading period begins. Then they moveashore with their control elements to coordinate withthe shore party commander and the staff of the ter-minal battalion (group) being phased ashore. Whenashore, commanders establish company commandposts and set up shore-based control systems. Whilewaterborne, water transport commanders help thenaval control officers dispatch and route craft andcoordinate maintenance and supply activities fortheir units.BEACH MARKERS
A system of beach markers is used while or-ganizing the beach to receive landing crafts, landingships, and amphibians. The markers help vesseloperators locate the correct beach in daylight ordarkness. Shore party personnel install the markersas soon as possible after the initial assault of anamphibious operation.
Beaches under attack are color designated,such as red beach or green beach, with markers ofcorresponding colors. The daylight markers aremade of cloth and held aloft as shown in Figure 5-1.During daylight, a horizontal rectangle identifiesthe left flank of a beach, as seen from the sea; asquare, the center of the beach; and a vertical clothrectangle, the right flank. During night operations,a system of white and appropriately colored lightsis used (Figure 5-l).
When the tactical plan dictates that a number ofbeaches be used, each colored beach may be furtherdivided into beach number one, beach number two,and so forth. When the colored beaches are sodivided, the markers are erected in pairs (Figure5-l).HYDROGRAPHIC MARKINGS
Hydrographic markings, such as those inFigure 5-2, have been developed for use near theshore in areas otherwise unsuitable for marking.The shore party commander determines the needfor hydrographic markings and installs them.These markings have no relation to Coast Guardaids to navigation. (FMs 55-15 and 55-501 describethe navigational aids and the US buoyage system.)Figure 5-2 shows hydrographic markings for beachoperations.
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RANGE MARKERS When ranges are constructed especially forRange markers are two lights or markers located
some distance apart and usually visible only from onedirection. They are arranged in pairs in line with thecenter of the channel or the beach. When theoperator positions his craft so that the range markersappear one over the other, the craft is on the axis ofthe channel or on the proper heading to arrive at adesignated point on the beach. Characteristics orestablished ranges are indicated on the hydrographiccharts for the particular area.
beach operations, lighter operators get an ex-planation of their purpose and use in advance.Ranges should be used only after the charts orcomplete instructions from the water transportunit commander are carefully examined. It isparticularly important to determine the distancethat a range line can be safely followed. Theshore party commander establishes ranges andinstalls range markers.
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COMMUNICATIONS FOR AMPHIBIOUSOPERATIONS
The physical conditions in amphibiousoperations require almost complete dependence onradio communication during the initial landings andunloading periods. Because of the large number ofradios available in landing force crafts and vehiclesand with the combat elements, strict adherence tosound signal security practices is essential. Becauseof this complexity, wire communication should beestablished between shore installations as early aspossible.
During the initial phases of the operations,the naval control system controls the lightersafloat and the shore party control system controlsthem ashore. Communication between elementsof the water transport units and company head-quarters is virtually nonexistent. However, theinitial intracompany communications net must be
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ready to work as soon as the unit control system isestablished ashore. This net and the control proce-dures for its use must be provided for during theplanning phase.
MAINTENANCE SUPPORTDuring the actual conduct of an amphibious
operation, only unit maintenance sections and directsupport teams will provide floating craft main-tenance support. Direct support and general sup-port companies (Chapter 9) are not phased in untilthe situation ashore is completely established.
Every effort must be made to establish organiza-tional and direct support maintenance personnel andequipment ashore as soon as practicable. Promptdelivery of supporting personnel and suppliesprevents any serious impairment that an insufficientnumber of operational lighters may cause.
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 6
SHORE-TO-SHORE OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTIONShore-to-shore operations use Army landing
craft, amphibians, and LACV-30s to transfer cargofrom one beach terminal to another along the samecoastline. Water transport units may be called on tosupport combat forces conducting shore-to-shore as-saults. They may also be requested to ferry cargoacross or along rivers and between islands in routineresupply operations. Except for the fact that ship-ping is not involved, the operational techniques forwater transport units in logistical and tactical shore-to-shore operations are identical to those describedin Chapters 4 and 5. However, because of the natureof the terrain and the differences in control require-ments, some basic planning considerations for shore-to-shore operations and particularly for rivercrossings are covered in this chapter.
During tactical shore-to-shore operations, thewater transport unit commander does not select thefinal landing site. However, he does advise the tacti-cal commander of the requirements for specific areasand indicates any conditions that would adverselyaffect the operational efficiency of the unit.
In shore-to-shore operations, there is normallysufficient time to prepare at the site to ensure missionsuccess. In general, the site selection factorsdescribed in Chapter 3 must be considered whenevaluating areas for shore-to-shore operations.Another factor to consider for river crossing opera-tions is the location of crossing sites. Crossing sitesmust be located downstream from bridge sites toreduce the chance of disabled craft and floatingdebris damaging bridges.CONTROL POINTS
Control points normally required for lighterageunits in shore-to-shore operations are—
• Lighter control center.
• Loading area control point.• Near-shore beach control point.
• Far-shore beach control point.• Discharge control point.
These points operate in the same manner andfulfill the same functions described in Chapter 3.However, the loading area control point replaces theshipboard control point and a beach control pointwill be added on the far shore. In some cases, it maybe expedient to move the lighter control center closerto the waterline and to eliminate the beach controlpoint on the near shore.ASSEMBLY AREAS
The commander of the supported unit must con-sult the commander of the water transport companybefore designating assembly areas to be used in ashore-to-shore operation. Desirable characteristicsof an assembly area include–
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Location as near as practicable to the cross-ing site.
Easy entrance from the rear and good exits tothe crossing site.Sufficient space to permit dispersion oflighters and to provide an adequate loadingarea.Defiladed so that the enemy cannot observeassembly and maneuver.Terrain firm enough to permit amphibians topass without using excessive power and itsaccompanying noise.Located as near as practicable to a safe har-bor or inlet to protect the watercraft in astorm.
RIVER CROSSINGSPlanning for river crossings requires careful
consideration of the characteristics of the body ofwater to be crossed. Each bank should have a 40percent or less slope; that is, 40 or less feet of rise foreach 100 feet of forward horizontal distance. The
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slope should gradually drop off at the water’s edge.During operations, amphibians should use multipleroutes into and out of the water to avoid forming deepruts that would cause the craft to belly down. Earth-moving equipment may be used to decrease the slopeof high banks and to level off entrances and exits.
Also consider the type and consistency of thesoil at the crossing sites. Avoid marshy, swampyareas and soils with a clay base. When no hard-packed sand entrances and exits are available inthe operational area, pierced steel planking, brush,and netting may be used to increase traction.Earth-moving equipment may be used to improvethe trafficability of the entrance and exit routes atthe crossing site.RIVER BOTTOMS
Ideal conditions for a crossing site are a sandyshoreline with a gradual slope; clear, deep water;and a clear river bottom. However, these conditionsare not often encountered in the field. Mud, the mostdifficult terrain to cross in an amphibian, is the typeof soil usually found in and around rivers. Shallowrivers with soft bottoms are particularly difficult forthese craft. If the river is too shallow to float anamphibian, its wheels will sink into the muddy bot-tom immobilizing the craft and increasing the dangerof capsizing in swift currents. A shallow river with abottom of large rocks presents similar problems for
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amphibians. Using underwater bridges constructedof sandbags can sometimes remedy these conditions.RIVER CURRENTS
Operation in rivers with swift currents (morethan 4 mph) requires highly skilled, experiencedoperators. When exceptionally swift currents areencountered, it maybe possible to rig a cable fromone bank to another to assist craft in crossing. If thiscannot be done, amphibians should back into thestream so that the rudder and propeller enter thewater first. This approach gives the operator maxi-mum control of the craft. It also causes the stern tofloat first so that it swings around and heads the bowinto the current as the craft becomes waterborne.RIVER OBSTACLES
It is unlikely that obstacles will be encounteredin the center of the river, but conventional antitank,antipersonnel, chemical, and antiamphibious minesmay be laid below the high waterline. Early recon-naissance by the tactical unit should locate minefields in the area of operations so they can beremoved or avoided during crossing. Watertransport unit personnel must be trained to look outfor mines and to mark and report their location.Naval mines probably will not be encountered in rivercrossing operations unless the river is deep enoughfor navigation by seagoing vessels. However, crewmembers must be alert for floating mines used todestroy bridges.
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 7
RIVERINE OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTIONIn areas with limited land transportation and
abundant water surface, inland waterways providenatural transportation routes and are logical popula-tion centers. In some developing countries, inlandwaterways are major arteries for economic circula-tion. River transportation of local products mayneed military operations to keep waterways openand, in some instances, to transport area produce tomaintain the local economy. Water routes arestrategically and tactically important to an insurgentor enemy force, particularly in situations where anexternal aggressor supports and directs insurgency.Such a situation dictates a doctrine and strategy ofinterdiction and control of waterways. Operationsinvolving this doctrine are riverine operations.RIVERINE ENVIRONMENT
A thorough understanding of riverine environ-ment is needed to plan and conduct riverine opera-tions. In a riverine area, watercraft are the principalmeans of transport. In such areas, indigenous per-sonnel often settle along the waterways because theyare the only usable means of travel between villages.Civilian traffic and settlements conceal the enemy’smovements and mining and ambush operations.Control of waterways is necessary in riverine areas.
Water lines of communication dominate ariverine environment. It consists of several majorrivers and tributaries or an extensive network ofminor waterways, canals, and irrigation ditches.Military movements use air and water transportationextensively due to the lack of a suitable road net.Suitable land for bases, airfields, and artillery firingpositions may not always be available. The topog-raphy of the land, the location of the civilian popula-tion, the restrictions on using agricultural land, or acombination of these factors make land unavailablewhen needed.ORGANIZATION AND COMMAND
Riverine operations are joint operations under-taken primarily by Army and Navy forces. Participat-ing forces must coordinate and integrate efforts to
achieve a common objective. Department ofDefense (DOD) and Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS)directives prescribe joint forces command arrange-ments to ensure coordination and integration. Jointcommand organizations centrally direct the detailedaction of a large number of commands or individualsand common doctrine among the involved forces.Flexibility in the organization ensures control andcoordination of these forces in varying operationalenvironments.
Mission, enemy, terrain, troops, and time avail-able (METT-T) are the basis for the task organiza-tion. Considering the total forces available, riverineoperations require a balance between types of forces.A special consideration in task organization forriverine operations is the amount of troop lift and firesupport available from Navy, Army aviation, and AirForce units. The major factors determining navalsupport requirements are—
• The extent to which navigable waters permitmoving naval support to, within, and aroundthe area of operations.
• The size of Army forces needed in the objec-tive area, the availability of other means oftransportation, and the desirability of usingother means to deliver them.
SECURITY RESPONSIBILITIESThe relationship between Army and Navy ele-
ments stationed on a land or afloat base is one ofcoordination and mutual support. The Army and Navyelements assign their appropriate share of forces forlocal base defense as the base commander directs. Themain mission of the Navy force in base defense is toprovide gunfire support and protection against anythreat from the water.
During tactical operations, the Army com-mander provides, plans, and coordinates securityelements (ground or air) along the route of the move-ment. The Navy element commander tactically con-trols the movement and maneuver of watercraftunder the operational control of the Army com-mander being supported.
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The senior Navy commander embarked is intactical control while the afloat base is en route fromone anchorage to another. Higher headquarters nor-mally directs or approves the relocation of the afloatbase. The Navy commander of the riverine force isresponsible for moving Navy ships and watercraftbetween riverine bases and support facilities outsidethe riverine area. The Army commander in theriverine area is responsible for the security of move-ment for ships within the area.
CONCEPT OF RIVERINE OPERATIONSUnits conducting riverine operations use water
transport extensively to move troops and equipmentthroughout the area. Waterborne operations nor-mally start from areas where ground forces andwatercraft marshal and load and where forces caneffect coordination. This may be at a land base nextto a navigable waterway, at an afloat base on anavigable waterway, or in an existing area of opera-tions. Once troops are aboard, the watercraftproceed to designated landing areas within an as-signed area of operations for offensive operations.
Unit plans include control measures, such asphase lines checkpoints, for the entire operation.The commander controls the unit’s movement eitherfrom a command and control boat located within themovement formation or from an airborne commandpost. Maneuver unit commanders, embarked incommand and control craft, leave these craft to takecharge of their units.
The withdrawal of troops from the area ofoperations is a tactical movement back to thewatercraft loading areas. Units are loaded in reversesequence to that used in the waterborne assault land-ing. The maneuver unit employing a perimetersecurity provides the necessary loading area securitythroughout the withdrawal operation. A tacticalwater movement back to base areas or to anotherarea of operations is performed after loading.PLANNING FOR WATERBORNE OPERATIONS
Waterborne operations require detailed plan-ning at all levels and close coordination with a sup-porting naval river assault squadron. Unitsconducting waterborne operations must be ready tobegin as soon as possible after receiving orders. Boatoperators require training in operation, main-tenance, and navigation. As a minimum, training
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to acquaint Army personnel with embarkation andloading procedures, required action during the watermovement, security at the landing area, and landingprocedures.
Plans for waterborne operations must bedetailed enough to give all participating units com-plete information. Yet, they must be simple andflexible enough to be modified as the tactical situa-tion changes.
Plans for a waterborne operation are usuallydeveloped in the following sequence:
Scheme of maneuver based on METT-T.Assault plan based on the scheme ofmaneuver.
Water movement plan based on the assaultplan and the scheme of maneuver. (Thewater movement plan includes compositionof the waterborne force, organization ofmovement serials, formation to be used,movement routes, command and controlmeasures, mine countermeasures, plans forfire support, and immediate reaction toambush.)
Loading plan based on the water movementplan, the assault plan, and the scheme ofmaneuver.Marshaling plan, when required based onthe loading plan, the water movement plan,the assault plan, and the scheme of maneuver.Deception plan, when required, based on themission.
CONDUCT OF WATERBORNE OPERATIONSUnits are trained and prepared to conduct
waterborne operations on short notice. Applyinglessons learned in previous waterborne operationskeeps SOPs current. Training and adequate unitSOPs allow marshaling activities to focus on thepending tactical operation.
Units prepare for the tactical operation, moveto their loading areas, and load onto assignedwatercraft according to the water movement tableand information in the watercraft loading table. Bulksupplies and ammunition are transported to the load-ing site and loaded and lashed in designatedwatercraft. Several units may use the same loadingsite. Therefore, loading must be completed and
consists of briefings in the marshaling or staging area
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watercraft moved to their assigned rendezvous areaaccording to the time schedule in the water move-ment table.
All water movements outside of the base areasare tactical moves. They are similar to the approachmarch of a movement to contact in ground opera-tions; speed of movement and security of the forma-tion are essential. The intent of the operation is tomove directly to the objective. However, the unit isprepared for combat at any point along the move-ment route. The terrain and the enemy situationnormally require advance, flank, and rear guards toprotect the main body during the move.WATERBORNE WITHDRAWAL
While preparing for waterborne operations,planners determine the availability of waterways inthe area of operations, the tide and current for thescheduled period of the operation, and suitable load-ing sites. This information, kept current during theoperation, is the basis for planning the waterbornewithdrawal.
Active employment of watercraft during anoffensive maneuver simplifies deception in the ini-tial stages of a waterborne withdrawal. The quantityof available hydrographic information increases as aresult of this employment.
When possible, waterborne withdrawal is timedso watercraft can approach loading areas with thecurrent on the rising tide, load during slack highwater, and depart with the current on the falling tide.
Due to the security problems that accompanylarge waterborne movements and using predictableroutes, loading during the last hours of daylight andmoving during darkness should be considered.Moving reconnaissance forward along possiblewithdrawal routes several hours ahead of the move-ment group is a useful deception measure.
Loading, normally the most critical phase of thewithdrawal, requires detailed planning when select-ing troop assembly areas, loading areas, loading con-trol measures, and watercraft rendezvous areas.
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CHAPTER 8
CONVOY OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTIONBoat units may transport cargo and personnel
from shore to shore in logistical or tactical supportoperations. The logistical operation may be con-ducted to provide facilities or to establish alternatefacilities where none previously existed. Tacticalsupport may be conducted to support landed (air,airborne, or amphibious) forces. It may be underjoint or unilateral command. The length of time orthe water distance over which landing craft can safelytransport troops ashore restricts the range of person-nel movements. Under good conditions, a boat con-voy can travel 80 to 100 miles from sunset to dawn.
A designated boat unit may be responsible forconvoy command and control, navigation and pilot-ing, and defensive measures afloat. Under suitableconditions, various types of small supply vessels orcargo barges and tugboats may also be attached tothe boat units.TRACK CHART
The boat unit responsible for the convoy issuesa track chart or overlay to each subordinate ele-ment. The track chart, prepared from a large-scalenavigation chart, shows the complete routefrom the assembly area to the beach objective.Plotting a true course and the distance in nauticalmiles without deviation shows the route. The routeor track is divided into legs at each change ofcourse. Each leg will give true course and nauticalmiles to the next change of course. At the point ofchange, a bearing and distance off is shown tosome given aid to navigation (either ashore orafloat) for course correction.
The using unit makes compass corrections forall courses, using deviation tables for each boat andthe variation shown on the overlay. The unit thendetermines the speed limit of each boat within itsoperating capabilities. The speed to be main-tained is computed so that the boat arrives at thebeach objective at a specific time (H-hour ortime of arrival). Time of departure is computedby planning backward from the time of arrival
and including a small safety factor allowance.The final time determined is the correct time ofdeparture from the assembly area.APPROACH CHART
When hazardous approaches to a beachpresent a particularly difficult problem in naviga-tion, an approach chart or overlay is issued to eachsubordinate boat element. The chart, prepared onas large a scale as possible, shows —
••
•
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Line of departure (for a tactical landing).Navigational hazards, including under-water obstacles.Courses to avoid. Boats may have toland in small groups or singularly. Theapproach may require changing coursewith several shifts in direction between thefar shore assembly area and the beach.
Formations required.Hydrographic obstructions, narrow chan-nels, wharfs, and the speed and direction ofunusual currents.
Panoramic sketches or oblique aerialphotographs of the beach seen from seaward sup-plement the approach chart. Identifying points aremarked on the photographs.PLANS AND ORDERS
Plans and orders are based on those of theterminal command or other headquarters control-ling the operation. They are usually sufficientlydetailed so the battalion headquarters will not haveto prepare an extensive operation order.
Navigational plans must be carefully studied.Particular attention must be given to accuracy oftime and distance calculations.
Orders or instructions issued to subordinateboat units will give detailed information aboutcourses, tides, currents, communications, fuel, foodfor crews and passengers, assembly points, harborsof refuge, and defense against air or sea attacks.
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If the voyage is too short for adequate briefingsaboard the craft, troops are briefed just beforeembarkation.BOAT CONTROL
While the operation is being planned, the boatnavigation officer and a representative of the ter-minal headquarters (or other unit responsible forfar-shore operations) thoroughly study landing con-ditions. Tentative plans for boat and beach controlare agreed on, including the location of landingpoints for craft.
In a shore-to-shore operation, the boat controlofficer—
•
•
•
Controls the movement of all craft betweenthe near and far shore.Marks control points to regulate boat movements and other points designated by thehigher headquarters.Informs the commander of the boat unit ofthe movement’s progress.
EMBARKATIONLanding craft are kept in dispersal areas on the
near shore until they are required to form for embarka-tion. At that time, they proceed to designated rendez-vous areas offshore from the embarkation points.Rendezvous areas are assigned for all boat units.
From the rendezvous area, landing craft aredispatched to the embarkation points. If possible,the arrival of each craft at the shore is synchronizedwith the arrival of the troops and supplies. (Thetime required to load troops and supplies must beconsidered by the unit being transported and the boatunit assigned to the movement.) To avoid unduefatigue, troops are not loaded in landing craft earlierthan necessary. Embarkation begins at the latestpossible hour that permits the convoy to depart at thedesignated time.
After being loaded, landing craft are directedvia a regulating point to the assembly area locationthat they will occupy in the convoy. Using the trackchart, they then proceed in prescribed formation tothe far shore.
The staff of the boat battalion along with theheadquarters of the units being transportedprepares an assembly chart or an overlay on a small-scale navigation chart. The chart shows true courses
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and distances in nautical miles from the dispersalareas to the rendezvous areas, from the rendezvousareas to the embarkation points, from the embarka-tion points to the regulating point, and from theregulating point to a final convoy formation in theassembly area. The assembly chart is preparedsimilarly to the track chart.
An assembly table may accompany the assemblychart. The table prescribes times of departure fromthe embarkation points and the regulating point. Italso gives the specific times of arrival for boat unitsor landing teams in the assembly areas.CONVOY ORGANIZATION
The convoy is formed in waves or elements of sixto eight boats, depending on the landing plan. Theofficer responsible for navigation and/or the com-mander of the boat unit heads the formation. Thecommander of troop personnel travels in the sameboat as the commander of the boat unit. Controlboats are stationed on the flanks. A salvage boatfollows in the rear.FORMATION
The formations used within a convoy vary accord-ing to the situation. They depend on such factors as—
•••••
•
Tactical plan (for a tactical landing).Weather.
Time of day.Sea conditions.Phase of the operation (whether the convoyis en route to the far shore or approachingthe beach for the landing).Enemy situation and capabilities (includingnuclear).
Generally, landing craft move in a column for-mation before arriving in the landing area. The dis-tance between boats, stern to bow, varies between50 and 100 yards, depending on visibility. In poorweather, craft must run as close together as possible.However, to avoid collisions, they should not movecloser than one boat length apart.
In a convoy that includes LCUs, the LCUsusually form astern of the last unit in the boat forma-tion. The senior LCU master afloat, instructed viaradio from the convoy control vessel, directs LCUformations and speeds.
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The closed-V formation provides excellent con-trol. It permits rapid deployment into an open-Vformation in case of air attack. The open-V andline-abreast formations are used to approach thebeach before landing. However, they are difficult tocontrol. Normally, they are used only for short dis-tances. The line-abreast formation is normally usedonly in a landing (usually tactical) where all boatsmust beach at the same time.
During formation, efficient control greatlydepends on the alertness of the signalman. Whenthe signalman gives a signal to change or modify theformation for the wave leader, the signalmen in allother craft in the wave must repeat it immediately.Each signalman must make sure that the boat asternof his vessel receives and repeats the correct signal.Each signalman repeats the signal until all boats inthe wave have echoed it. After the signal has beenrepeated, each signalman stops transmitting signals.An assigned crew member must be trained as thesignalman.
COMMAND CONTROLThe senior commander of the boat formation is
responsible for the control of craft, navigation, andlocal defensive measures. He must–
•
•
•
•
•
•
If
Ensure that all landing craft arrive and departfrom the embarkation points on time.Ensure that craft are in the prescribed forma-tions and depart from assembly areas on timewith minimal confusion and delay.
Provide accurate navigation from the nearshore to the landing area so that craft arriveon time and in prescribed formations.Patrol the convoy to maintain formation andhelp craft having difficulties.
Establish control vessels ahead of the forma-tion to direct the landing.Control the movement to the beach and thelanding of craft.
the convoy is engaged in shore-to-shoreoperations, one officer should be designated to stayon the near shore to coordinate boat activities.CONVOY CONTROL
The distance between craft and poor visibilitymay complicate the control of boat units in convoy.
Visual communication must be highly efficient sinceradios must be kept free for traffic other than controlmessages. Voice-amplifying equipment is desirablefor all control and salvage boats. Leaders of boatunits must ensure that coxswains maintain their posi-tions in the prescribed formation and followspecified speeds.
Night operations are particularly difficult andphysically and mentally strain personnel. Strict com-pliance with regulations concerning authorized lightsis essential. A single unauthorized light may causegeneral confusion in the convoy movement. Bowlights on top of the LCM ramp are turned offbecause they tend to blind the coxswain. A lookoutis posted in the bow to watch for hazards.
Control boats are used to prevent straggling,assist boats in trouble, and aid in navigational control.They patrol the flanks and rear of the formation andcommunicate with the navigator. Control boats(picketboats) may also serve as messenger boats.
If possible, the formation should proceed to asafe haven before the onset of bad weather. If thecontrol officer believes that further movement wouldbe hazardous, he may order the convoy to move intoa predetermined closed formation with the controlboat in the center. The craft maintain enough way tokeep their positions.
NAVIGATIONAL CHARTSince navigation is based on the unit track chart,
copies of the chart are furnished to the coxswain ofeach boat. Instructions are then available if a boatbecomes separated from its formation.
Before the movement begins, navigationalinstruments must be checked carefully. Prepara-tions include–
•
•
••
•
Swinging the craft to obtain compassdeviations.
Ensuring that each boat has a current compass-deviation table and that the coxswain knowshow to use the table properly.Calibrating radio direction finders.Testing and calibrating signaling and lis-tening devices and associated equipment.Checking timepieces, sextants, and all otherinstruments.
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NAVIGATIONAL METHODSThe navigational methods used to guide a con-
voy vary with the availability of navigational aids andcharts, ocean currents, visibility, and the configura-tion of the ocean bottom.
In a tactical operation, the position of theleading command and navigation boat must beknown accurately to within 100 to 200 yards whenwithin 1 to 3 miles of the enemy shore. This degreeof accuracy is difficult to obtain, especially if themovement is at night. Electronic signal devicessecretly planted on or near the enemy shore by otheragencies are often used to guide the lead boat,which picks up the signals with its radio directionfinder. Another method is to place personnel ashoreby rubber boat or parachute to show, at a specifiedtime, a shielded light. A beam radio or invisible-lighttransmitter may be set up to guide the navigationalvessel. However, radio silence is jeopardized whenwireless transmitting devices are used.
Regardless of the far-shore aids that may beinstalled, the navigator still must depend largelyon conventional methods of navigation. Properallowance for currents must be made; depth-findersoundings must be plotted on charts.
The effective range of radar equipment in theconvoy depends on the type of radar set used and theheight of the antenna above the surface of the water.A constant radar plot is maintained both for naviga-tional purposes and to keep a check on the convoyformation.
Two navigation vessels may work together. Onevessel, far enough ahead to reconnoiter by depthfinder or other means, establishes a buoy to mark adesignated location. The second vessel guiding theformation homes in on the buoy. To use this methodrequires good charts.
If visibility is sufficient, the navigator cantake bearings on various land features as the farshore is approached. These objectives must beknown in relation to the landing area. This mayinvolve running parallel to the beach until a suffi-cient number of points are recognized to establish aposition and to set a course for the beach.SECURITY
Fighter aircraft, Army aircraft, Navy vessels, orarmed landing craft may protect the convoy. LCMs
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and LCUs may both be equipped with weaponssuitable for antiaircraft and antiboat defense. Arma-ment may include .30- and .50-caliber machine guns,recoilless rifles, rocket dischargers, or antiaircraftguns. Upon approval of higher authority, the LCMsare modified locally according to the requirementsof the situation and the armament available. Landingcraft may also transport tanks; landing vehicles,tracked, armored (LVTAs); or self-propelled guns toprovide defensive firepower in support of an assaultlanding.
Weapons and ammunition in a craft are keptavailable at all times, and sentinels are always onduty. Each boat is assigned a sector for observationand defense. In case of attack, boats deploy intoprearranged open formations. They must avoidbecoming so scattered that communication and con-trol are lost. All available weapons are fired againstattacking airplanes or boats. In the first hours ofthe voyage, alert warning systems are tested andrehearsed.
MAINTENANCEMaintenance personnel, equipment, and repair
parts are distributed throughout the convoy. Inaddition, each company salvage boat is stationed atthe rear of its company formation. This positionenables observation of any crafts that may need help.The salvage boat also acts as a rescue boat. As theconvoy leaves the near shore, the salvage boat assistswhere needed and does not depart until the last craftis under way.
Each salvage boat carries its own speciallytrained crew. A prearranged signal indicates when alanding craft needs assistance. The salvage boatassists boats in distress as much as possible. How-ever, under no circumstances does it lose contactwith the formation. Salvage boat mechanics makeminor engine repairs, supply replacement parts, orgive the engineman instructions so he can correct themalfunction and get under way. However, repairsrequiring considerable time are refused. The salvageboat serves the entire formation. It cannot leave theformation to service individual boats.
The salvage boat may tow the disabled craftuntil repairs are made, or a mechanic maybe left tomake repairs. A control boat may tow the craft ormay transfer troops from the disabled craft toanother landing craft. If available, empty LCMs areincluded in the convoy for use in emergencies.
FM 55-50
The salvage boat and at least one landing craftin each wave usually carries towlines. The linesshould be at least 200 feet long and equipped withbridles and adequate chafing gear. The bridlesshould be designed so that they maybe secured to themooring bitts of the towed and towing craft.
At the landing area, salvage boats may cruisearound the area, alert to assist where needed, or theymay anchor at a location to observe all craft.
APPROACH TO LANDING AREA
Command and navigation boats and picketboatsmake up navigational control points and hazards. Ina tactical operation, they also mark the rendezvousarea and the line of departure. Picketboats mayprecede the convoy, establishing submerged orfloating buoys, invisible-light transmitters, and otherdevices to mark control points, obstructions, andchannels. Aircraft and submarines may also be usedfor this purpose.
An initial point may be designated about 10miles offshore to guide the boat formations to therendezvous area for tactical landings. The positionof the initial point depends on the distance betweenthe near and far shores. It should be far enoughfrom the landing area to allow the entire convoy torearrange time schedules if necessary. The convoymay be delayed at the initial point if it is ahead ofschedule or if any rearrangements are needed in theexisting formation.
In a tactical landing, when the convoy enters therendezvous area, the designated control boats moveout to their stations and mark the line of departure.The waves assemble and are ordered to the line ofdeparture according to an approach schedule.
BOAT CONTROLPersonnel normally assigned to unit head-
quarters may augment boat control personnel. In aconcentrated operation, a designated navigationofficer is responsible for the proper functioning ofthe boat control system. He directs the companycontrol boat sections which are responsible for boatcontrol on an assigned portion of the beach.
Usually, the company boat control officer andthe commander of the terminal unit handling shorefunctions go ashore in one of the first boats scheduledto land. They make a hasty ground reconnaissance
of the landing beach, check the actual conditionsagainst their plans, and make any necessary changesor modifications.
Two members of the company control boat sec-tion land in separate boats of the first wave near thecenter of the beach and immediately erect rangemarkers and other landing aids. When theremainder of the control boat section lands, itdevelops the command post and establishes thenecessary radio communications.
The duties of the control boat section on shoreinclude –
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Helping to remove underwater obstacles andother hazards to navigation.Marking obstacles that cannot be removed.
Controlling boat traffic during the approachof craft to the beach, while at the beach, andduring departure from the beach.Making emergency repairs to boats.Helping to salvage vehicles that may becomedamaged or stalled in the water at the beach.
Helping to evacuate casualties from thebeach according to the medical plan (in atactical landing).Helping to keep the beach clear.
Each control boat section closely inspects theappropriate beach area immediately after landing.Section members determine the type of bottom; thedepth of water; the location of rocks, boulders,shoals, bars, sunken wrecks, and other obstacles; thenature of any crosscurrents; and other pertinentinformation. After the salvage boat arrives, it helpsto reconnoiter the water approaches and to deter-mine the depth of water offshore.
The control boat section or personnel of theshore party (if the landing is tactical) mark andremove all hazards to navigation. Pennantsplaced on buoys or stakes mark hazards thatcannot be removed. The control boat sections ofthe appropriate shore party unit must keep the beachclear. Stranded boats, vehicles, supplies, and debrismust not be allowed to block landing points.
To control boat traffic, members of the controlboat section signal landing craft to the proper landingplace. Coxswains get directions concerning proper
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FM 55-50
angle of approach, speed, beaching lowering of center of the site and guides the beaching craft.ramp, unloading, and retraction. Since it is often Guidance is particularly necessary for craft that aredifficult for a coxswain to determine the exact loca- transporting vehicles. Range markers help thetion of a beach landing site, a flagman stands in the coxswain approach the beaching site.
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CHAPTER 9
MAINTENANCE SUPPORT
INTRODUCTIONMaintenance and repair of Army watercraft
pose problems somewhat different from those forother types of Army equipment. Support main-tenance facilities for watercraft must be located at ornear the water’s edge. Rather than being echelonedalong the forward axis of a theater as in othersystems, these facilities are generally spread laterallyalong the theater’s rear boundary. Except for someinland waterway systems, their orientation is towardthe rear.
The Army watercraft maintenance system sup-ports a variety of watercraft that can be classified intwo broad categories: lighterage and coastal harborand inland waterway vessels.
The lighterage fleet consists of amphibians andlanding craft, which deliver cargo between ship andshore. Amphibians are small craft that can operateon land and water. They include both wheeled andair-cushion vehicles. Landing craft are shallow-draftvessels designed for beaching, unloading cargothrough a bow ramp, and retracting from the beachunder their own power.
The Army watercraft fleet consists of small har-bor and larger, long-range coastal vessels. Harborcraft consist of small tugs, command control andsecurity boats (picketboats), floating cranes, andbarges that generally operate in or around harborsand on inland waterways. Coastal vessels includelarge tugs and cargo ships that can operate over longdistances along coastlines and on inland waterways.These vessels provide volume line-haul intratheaterredistribution of cargo.ARMY WATERCRAFT MAINTENANCECONCEPTS
The US Army four-level maintenance systemgives maintenance support to Army watercraft. Thefour-level maintenance concept for watercraftprovides maximum self-sufficiency, supportability,and maintainability with a minimum use ofpersonnel, parts, materiel, and equipment.
The objectives of Army watercraft maintenanceare–
• Early detection and correction of faults thataffect safety afloat.
• Sustaining an operational readiness postureby doing maintenance where it can be mosteffectively and economically performed.
To achieve these objectives, the four-levelwatercraft maintenance system provides a flexible,system-oriented supply support structure tailored tothe unique character and low density of the single-user Army watercraft fleet.
The principle of performing maintenance at thelowest possible level consistent with the personnel,skills, tools, repair parts, and time available alsoapplies to watercraft. When operational conditionsrequire, watercraft units may be authorized to per-form higher level maintenance tasks than those nor-mally authorized at unit level. Some watercraft unitshave a direct support (DS) maintenance section inthe TOE specifically for these requirements.
The maintenance system must remain flexibleenough to prevent a backlog of non-mission-capablewatercraft and to provide procedures and facilitiesto absorb increased maintenance requirementsduring periods of intense operational requirements.Early detection of potential problems duringpreventive maintenance checks and services will al-leviate many situations that cause long maintenancedowntime.
A responsive maintenance system is maintainedthrough close liaison between operating units andtheir designated maintenance support unit. To pro-vide a firm basis for support planning and to ensuresufficient watercraft availability, maintenance unitcommanders must be informed of all actual andanticipated operational changes. There must be aconstant exchange of capability information betweenthe support maintenance units and the watercraftunits they support.
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Supported units may request technical assis-tance at any time, but it should be provided on aregular basis. This ensures more effective and effi-cient user maintenance, reduces demands on thesupporting unit, and increases the unit’s missionefficiency. AR 700-4 gives detailed guidance onmaintenance technical assistance. Technical assis-tance consists of–
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•
•
Furnishing instruction and technicalguidance to supported units.Providing information on new maintenanceand supply techniques, procedures, andpublications.Providing guidance to implement main-
•
•
•
•
•
tenance directives and orders.The strength of a boat unit is measured by the
number of craft that are fully mission capable not bythe number of landing craft assigned to it. Watercraftare always critical items of equipment. Deadlining(for other than scheduled maintenance) results in aloss of tonnage, a heavy drain on the available stockof repair parts, and a rapid decline in unit efficiency.
Supervision of preventive maintenance is amajor command responsibility. It requires carefulplanning, periodic technical inspections, and a sys-tematic unit preventive maintenance program. Thecommander should immediately instruct all officersand NCOs upon their arrival in the unit of the impor-tance of a strict preventive maintenance program.
Commanders must not tolerate haphazard ser-vicing and operation. Time must be reserved fromoperations for unit preventive maintenance whichthe officers and the NCOs of the watercraft unitsmust supervise. During operations, preventive main-tenance is performed at every opportunity.
Jury-rig equipment for steering and rampoperation is placed aboard vessels for emergencyuse. If this equipment must be used, parts must berequisitioned and replaced on the original equipment as soon as possible. The supply system mustestablish demand data and preserve jury-rigmaterials aboard the boat for future use.
Normally, depending on the type unit, 25 to 33percent of the watercraft in a unit are programmedfor unit or higher level maintenance. Accordingly,plans should be based on a 67 to 75 percent assignedcraft availability for sustained operations. When
craft are transported on cargo vessels or in landingships, dock (LSDs), minor repair and maintenancemay be performed en route. However, maintenanceduring movement must not substitute for the timereserved for maintenance before embarkation.Maintenance before embarkation ensures that themaximum number of craft will be ready at the start ofthe operation. The following conditions may greatlyreduce the number of craft available for employmentduring an operation:
Operation in heavy surf or in waters studdedwith reefs or full of debris.
Long delays on a shallow beach.Storms.Lack of opportunities for preventivemaintenance.Other abnormal conditions.
CATEGORIES OF WATERCRAFTMAINTENANCE
Maintenance allocation charts are the primarymeans to identify the appropriate maintenance levelto perform required maintenance. Charts aredeveloped on a craft-by-craft basis. Authorized crewfunctions depend on the operating range of the ves-sel, crew size, and space available for storing tools,test equipment, and repair parts. Based on thiscriteria, Army watercraft can be divided into threemaintenance groupings:
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Amphibians, small landing craft, and picket-boats (small crews, short operating range,and limited space).Small tugs, large landing craft, and floatingcranes (larger crews and greater storagespace).Large tugs and other coastal vessels(large crews, greater storage space, andlong operating range under open oceanconditions).
The four categories of watercraft maintenanceare unit, direct support (DS), general support (GS),and depot maintenance.
The crew or the crew and a shore-based unitmaintenance section normally perform all marineunit maintenance. For landing trail and amphibians,separate TOE sections provide backup shore-based
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unit maintenance and direct support maintenance.Watercraft maintenance other than unit level can beprovided by a watercraft maintenance team (detach-ment) or a watercraft maintenance company.When watercraft are grouped (task organized) intocompany-sized, mission-structure elements, teamscan augment unit level maintenance. A quick turn-around of end items by replacement and minorrepair characterizes watercraft unit maintenance.Unit maintenance includes preventive maintenancechecks and services, inspection, cleaning, adjusting,lubricating, tightening, and other tasks authorized bythe applicable maintenance allocation chart. Unitlevel maintenance operations provide for man-datory parts list stockage in the form of a prescribedload list (PLL).
With the exception of those craft that haveengine room personnel assigned as part of the crew,operator maintenance of watercraft is largely limitedto proper operation and before-, during-, and after-operation checks to detect initial defects. Therefore,the bulk of the unit maintenance work load falls tothe unit maintenance section. Depending on the typeunit and if they are authorized to perform DS levelrepairs, this section performs all the unit and/or DSmaintenance functions indicated in the maintenanceallocation chart. Some units have DS maintenancesections in their TOE.
Watercraft unit capabilities are based on anaverage availability of 67 to 75 percent of theassigned craft, depending on the type unit. A con-stantly supervised operator and unit maintenanceeffort is required to sustain this rate. When main-tenance at this level is neglected, the nonoperationalrate may become so high that the unit mission can-not be accomplished.
A system of daily and scheduled preventivemaintenance inspections and services will be estab-lished and performed according to applicable tech-nical manuals. When the manuals are not availableor have not been published TB 55-1900-202-12/1provides the minimum preventive maintenanceguidance. If scheduled maintenance is performedregularly and properly, the percentage of craft downdue to equipment or mechanical failure should sel-dom exceed the 25 percent rate. When the deadlinerate exceeds 25 percent, the commander shouldensure that proper watercraft operation and main-tenance services are being performed.
The appropriate TMs list repair parts andspecial tools for each craft. These manuals listallowances of repair parts the unit may maintain.The levels prescribed cannot be exceeded unlessproperly authorized. If the company commanderdetermines that certain components suffer a highermortality rate than the stock level will support, thehigher command level is informed so they canauthorize remedial action. Remember that excessrepair parts contribute appreciably to the weight ofthe unit and creates storage and accountabilityproblems. More importantly, the parts removedfrom supply channels are denied to units immedi-ately needing them.
Marine intermediate maintenance units are al-located functions on a return-to-user basis accordingto the basic Army four-level concept. These func-tions vary for each craft as a consequence of thecrew and unit functions (authorized by range, crew,or space criteria). Watercraft support maintenanceunits provide backup supply and maintenance supportand perform those functions too time-consuming oroperationally burdensome for the operating unit.The support maintenance unit provides one-stopsupport from its base location and forward on-siteservice via floating maintenance teams. Its main-tenance operations are aboard a floating machineshop. It is located in a harbor or port facility wherethere is a high density of watercraft. Marine inter-mediate maintenance units are assigned to either aterminal group or a terminal battalion.
Contract personnel normally perform marinedepot maintenance. The depot maintenance activityis responsible for drydocking and associated repairsparticularly for larger craft, unless haul-out facilitiesare available at the unit level.RECOVERY AND EVACUATION OF WATERCRAFT
The operating unit is responsible for recovery ofdisabled watercraft. It is normally accomplished bysister vessels. The support maintenance unit isresponsible for recovery requirements beyond theoperating unit’s capability. Disabled watercraft arenormally evacuated to the nearest repair facility.When this is not feasible, watercraft are moved to thenearest haven for protection during repair or untilfurther recovery or evacuation is completed. Withinthe immediate area of operations, the terminal bat-talion is responsible for recovery and evacuation.
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Outside the immediate operational area, the in-theater controlling authority provides recovery andevacuation assistance.
The operating unit classifies disabledwatercraft and coordinates their evacuation to asupport maintenance or other facility. The marineintermediate maintenance unit also functions as amaintenance collection point. Permanently dis-abled watercraft will be cannibalized as much aspossible before final disposition.TRANSPORTATION COMPANY (WATERCRAFTMAINTENANCE) (GS)
The transportation company (watercraft main-tenance) (GS) provides direct and general main-tenance support for US Army watercraft and theirorganic navigational equipment. The unit alsoreceives, stores, and issues watercraft-peculiarrepair parts and items.
The transportation company (watercraft main-tenance) (GS) is normally assigned to a transporta-tion command (TOE 55-601L) or a transportationterminal group (TOE 55-822L). However it may beattached to a transportation terminal battalion(TOE 55-816), or it may operate independentlyunder an appropriate commander’s supervision.
At Levels 1, 2, and 3, the unit can provide theapproximate man-hours of production maintenanceshown in Table 9-1. The unit receives, stores, andissues about 9,000 line items of watercraft-peculiar
repair parts and other items. This unit also performswatercraft and marine salvage operations.
The TOE authorizes 207 personnel and about533,600 pounds (67,000 cubic feet) of equipmentrequiring transportation. Non-TOE equipment andsupplies make up about 71,400 pounds (2,000 cubicfeet). In one lift using organic assets, the unit canmove about 230 personnel and 1,692,000 pounds(136,000 cubic feet) of equipment and supplies. Allequipment is transportable by air, except–
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•••
Barge, deck cargo.
Crane, wheeled, 20-ton.
Chamber, recompression, 100 pounds persquare inch (psi).Landing craft, mechanized, 69 feet.
Landing craft, utility, 115 feet.Repair shop, floating marine equipment,nonpropelled.
NOTE: This unit has a requirement forapproximately 63,000 annual productivemanhours of diving support which isprovided by an engineer dive detachment(TOE 0550 LA00). The detachmentprovides area support on a required basisand can tailor the support package with anumber of different types of engineer diveteams.
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Although shore-based repair facilities may beestablished if required, the bulk of the unit’s work isdone aboard the floating repair shop. This shopcontains all the facilities necessary to support thecompany mission. Three repair sections, a supplyplatoon, and a repair control section normally func-tion aboard the floating repair shop.
Because the floating repair shop requires aprotected berth, the company normally operates inan established port terminal that is centrally locatedto other terminals.
The transportation company (watercraft main-tenance) (GS) requests its repair parts directly fromthe theater materiel management center, whichdirects the field depot that stocks the requested itemsto ship them. Items this company repairs are eitherreturned to the using unit, to supply stocks within thecompany, or to the appropriate field theater supplyactivity that stocks marine and/or watercraft items.TRANSPORTATION FLOATING CRAFTMAINTENANCE DETACHMENT
The transportation floating craft maintenancedetachment (TOE 55550AL00), performs DS/GSmaintenance on Army floating craft and marineequipment.
The detachment is normally assigned to a head-quarters and headquarters company, transportationterminal group, TOE 55822L or to a headquartersand headquarters company, transportation terminalbattalion, TOE 55816L. It can augment a transpor-tation company floating craft maintenance (GS),TOE 55613L000 or may operate independently for alimited time where needed.
This detachment performs all types of main-tenance on floating craft, including hull and enginerepair. It can provide the personnel, skills, andequipment to perform the following annual man-hours of productive maintenance:
Hull Repair and/or InspectionHydraulic RepairMachiningMarine Engine RepairMetal WorkPlumber/PipefitterRadio/Radar RepairRefrigeration/AirConditioning/
HeatingCarpentry/Masonry
3,1003,1006,200
27,90018,600
3,1003,100
3,1003,100
NOTE: This detachment requires about6,200 annual productive manhours ofdiving support for underwater reconnais-sance missions, welding, cutting, salvage,hull repair, and structural inspectionand/or repair. An engineer dive detach-ment (TOE 05530LA00) provides it on anarea support basis. The support can betailored with a combination of differenttypes of dive teams.
This unit receives, stores, and issuesapproximately 2,000 line items for watercraft andmarine related repair and/or replacement parts andperforms minor marine salvage operations ingeographically limited conflicts.
This unit depends on the unit to which it isattached for food service support and on otherappropriate elements of the theater forhealth, religious, legal, finance, and personneland administrative services.
STAFF SUPERVISIONA maintenance warrant officer on the terminal
battalion staff provides staff supervision of unitand direct support levels of maintenance forwatercraft and marine equipment. He conductsperiodic inspections, prepares reports of inspec-tions, disseminates technical information, andprovides technical guidance and maintenance assis-tance when required.
A maintenance officer on the terminal groupstaff provides staff supervision over maintenancefunctions for the command. The commanders of theattached maintenance units act as special advisors onfloating craft maintenance to the watercraft and/ormarine maintenance officer and to the terminalgroup commander.
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENTMaintenance management requires the com-
bined efforts of all operating and maintenance per-sonnel to ensure an effective and efficientprogram.
The terminal group and battalion commandersto which the unit’s operating craft are attached
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are responsible for watercraft maintenance manage-ment. Watercraft maintenance managementincludes —
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Establishing the requirements and proce-dures that allow adequate time to performoperator preventative maintenance checksand services and to train personnel to recog-nize conditions that, if not corrected in atimely manner, will lead to serious main-tenance problems and excessive downtimefor watercraft and marine equipment.Providing tools, test equipment, facilities,funds, and repair parts and other main-tenance supplies that are essential to themaintenance mission.Planning, programming, and budgeting forproper use of maintenance resources.
Providing technical supervision and manage-ment control over maintenance programsand activities.Reviewing accomplishments relative to effec-tive and economical uses of maintenanceresources.Evaluating maintenance concepts, policies,doctrine, plans, and procedures to ensurethat they help to accomplish the overallmilitary mission.Recommending new maintenance concepts,policies, doctrine, plans, and procedures forthe Army maintenance system.
Coordinating with the maintenance elementof the appropriate materiel managementcenter and providing it with information onmaintenance programs, status, requirements,and performance.
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9-6
EQUIPMENT RECORDS AND REPORTSThe maintenance management update contains
DA Pamphlet 738-750 which establishes equipmentrecord keeping procedures and describes in detailthe use of forms and equipment records forwatercraft and marine equipment maintenance. Theforms are used to record the operation, maintenance,and historical data to manage the Army watercraftfleet.
Within the unit itself, the records are a main-tenance management tool for the commander. Thisinformation permits the commander to properlyevaluate–
Equipment operations.Modification work orders (MWOs) requiredand applied.Equipment availability.Frequency of equipment failure.Repair parts requirements.
Unit materiel readiness.Equipment shortcomings and deficiencies.Support requirements.•
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FM 55-50
CHAPTER 10
WATERCRAFT ACCIDENT REPORTING AND INVESTIGATION
INTRODUCTIONReporting and investigating watercraft acci-
dents in a complete and timely manner is extremelyimportant. This chapter gives procedures to inves-tigate watercraft accidents and to write reports ac-cording to AR 385-40.
This chapter covers watercraft under DA juris-diction that are–
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Used in LOTS operations, CHI waterways,and ocean operations.Identified in AR 56-9, Table 1-1.
Operated and exclusively controlled ordirected by the Army. This includeswatercraft furnished by a contractor oranother government agency when operatedby Army watercraft personnel.Lent or leased to non-Army organizations formodification, maintenance, repair, test, con-tractor, research, or development projectsfor the Army.
Under test by Army agencies responsible forresearch, development, and testing of equip-ment.
Under operational control of a contractor.
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This chapter does not negate the vessel master’sresponsibility to report any applicable watercraft ac-cident, injury, or death involving commercialwatercraft or property to the USCG.WATERCRAFT ACCIDENT
A watercraft accident is an unplanned event orseries of events that results in one or more of thefollowing:
Accidents occurring while loading, off-load-ing, or receiving services at dockside.
Damage to Army property (includinggovernment-furnished material, governmentproperty, or government-furnished equip-ment provided to a contractor).
Accidents occurring during amphibious oron-shore warfare training.Fatal or nonfatal injury to military personnelon or off duty.Fatal or nonfatal injury to on-duty Armycivilian personnel, including nonap-propriated fund employees and foreign na-tionals employed by the Army, incurredduring performance of duties while in a work-compensable status.Fatal or nonfatal occupational injury or ill-ness to Army military personnel, Armycivilian employees, nonappropriated fundemployees, or foreign nationals employed bythe Army.Fatal or nonfatal injury or illness to non-Army personnel or damage to non-Armyproperty.
Watercraft accidents do not include accidentsthat are reportable under other major categories inAR 385-40; for example, aircraft, missile, or chemicalagent accidents.REASONS TO INVESTIGATE AND REPORT AC-CIDENTS
Watercraft accidents are investigated andreported to save personnel and equipment by iden-tifying problem areas (deficiencies) as early as pos-sible. Thus changes, corrections, andcountermeasures can be developed and imple-mented before more people are hurt or killed orequipment is damaged, destroyed, or lost.
If accidents are not reported, problems will goundetected. People will continue to be injured andequipment damaged.
If a problem is never reported, the responsibleperson will not know there is a problem. Nothing willbe done to fix it, and people will continue to suffer.
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WHAT TO INVESTIGATE AND REPORTAll watercraft accidents must be reported,
regardless of class, to the local activity or installationsafety office. However, only certain accidents re-quire completion and submission of DA Form 285(US Army Accident Report). These recordable ac-cidents include Classes A, B, C, and D accidents (seeAR 385-40 for details).
The Army classifies accidents by severity of in-jury and property damage. These classes (A throughD) are used to determine the appropriate investiga-tive and reporting procedures.
A Class A accident has a total cost of reportabledamage of $1,000,000 or more; destroys an Armyaircraft, watercraft, missile, or spacecraft; or has anoccupational illness that results in a fatality or per-manent total disability.
A Class B accident has a total cost of reportableproperty damage of $200,000 or more, but less than$1,000,000; an injury and/or occupational illness thatresults in permanent partial disability, or five or morepeople hospitalized as inpatients.
A Class C accident has a total cost of propertydamage of $10,000 or more, but less than $200,000; anonfatal injury that causes any loss of time from workbeyond the day or shift on which it occurred; or anonfatal illness or disability that causes loss of timefrom work or disability at any time (lost time case).
A Class D accident has a cost of propertydamage of $2,000 or more, but less than $10,000; ora nonfatal injury that does not meet the criteria of aClass C accident (no time was lost or time lost wasrestricted to the day or shift on which the injuryoccurred).
NOTE: Property damage is defined as thecost to repair or replace. Property damagecosts are separated from personnel in-jury/illness costs for classifying A through Caccidents.
RESPONSIBILITIESIf an Army watercraft is involved in an accident,
the vessel master/operator must report the accidentas soon as possible in accordance with AR 385-40.This is before and in addition to a later detailed DAForm 285 report.
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For accidents that require a board investigation,see AR 385-40. For watercraft accidents that requirea DA Form 285, the commander or supervisor direct-ly responsible for the operation, materiel, or peopleinvolved in the accident will make sure that –
An investigation is performed to obtain thefacts and circumstances of the accident foraccident prevention purposes only (AR 385-40).
Evidence is preserved per AR 385-40.DA Form 285 is completed according to in-structions on the form. The form must beforwarded through the installation safety of-fice to the Army Safety Center for recordingin the Army Safety Management InformationSystem (ASMIS) within 30 days of the acci-dent. Army national guard reports will besent to the state safety office.
ACCIDENT REPORTWatercraft accidents must be reported on DA
Form 285. The report is prepared according to AR385-40.
NOTE: This report is intended only for ac-cident prevention purposes and will not beused for administrative or disciplinary ac-tions within the DOD.In addition to the DA Form 285 report,
watercraft accidents invoking grounding that createsa hazard to navigation or watercraft safety or anyoccurrence that affects the watercraft’s seaworthi-ness or fitness for service (including, but not limitedto fire, flooding, or damage to fixed fire extinguishingsystems, life saving equipment, or bilge pumping sys-tems) will be reported to the Transportation BranchMarine Safety Office, ATTN: ATZF-CSS, Fort Eus-tis, VA 23604-5113 within 24 hours.
The following additional information will be in-cluded with the DA Form 285 as an enclosure:
Time and place of commencement of voyageand destination.Direction and force of current.
Direction and force of wind.Visibility in yards.Tide and sea conditions.
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FM 55-50
• Name of person in charge of navigation andnames of people on the bridge.
• Name and rank of lookout and where sta-tioned.
• Time when bridge personnel and lookoutswere posted on duty.
• Course and speed of watercraft. • Number of passengers and crew on board. • Names of passengers and crew. • Copies of all pertinent log entries. • List of the witnesses names and addresses. • Date steering gear and controls were last
tested. • Date and place where compasses were last
adjusted and the deviation, if any, at the timeof the accident.
• Photos of damage.• Any other details not covered above.
COLLATERAL INVESITIGATION REPORTSA collateral investigation is required in many
cases for Class A, B, or C accidents to record andpreserve the facts for litigation, claims, and discipli-nary and administrative actions. These investiga-tions are conducted in accordance with AR 15-6 andthe procedures in DA Pamphlet 385-95. All fatalaccidents require a collateral investigation. Thoseaccidents that generate a high degree of public inter-est or are likely to result in litigation for or against thegovernment also require a collateral investigation.
NOTE: Personnel investigating an accidentunder AR 385-40 will not be involved intracking, handling, or reviewing collateralinvestigations nor will they be invloved inestablishing collateral investigation proce-dures.
• Statement of any outside assistance received. • Diagrams of damage and pertinent docu-
ments.
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CHAPTER 11
BEACH AND WEATHER CHARACTERISTICS
INTRODUCTIONThe ideal beach for landing craft and am-
phibian operations is one with deep water close toshore, a firm bottom of hard-packed sand andgravel, minimum variation in tides, and a moderateto gentle (1:15 to 1:60) underwater beach gradient.It also has no underwater obstructions to seawardand no current or surf. Although such a beach willrarely exist in the area of operations, the battalionor unit commander weighs the characteristics ofexisting beaches against these desirable features(see Appendix C).BEACH COMPOSITION
Beaches are classified by their predominant sur-face material, such as silt, mud, sand, gravel,boulders, rock, or coral, or by combinations of sandand boulders. The ideal composition for beachinglanding craft and amphibians is a combination ofsand and gravel. Silt, mud, or fine sand may clog thecooling system of landing craft. Rock, coral, orboulders may damage the hull or the underwaterpropulsion and steering mechanism.
Firm sand provides good beach trafficability forpersonnel and vehicles. A beach is usually firmestwhen it is damp and when the material is of small size.Gravel has good bearing capacity but poor shearstrength. As a general rule, the coarser the material,the poorer the trafficability.BEACH GRADIENT
Beach gradient or underwater slope is usuallyexpressed as a ratio of depth to horizontal distance.For example, a gradient of 1:50 indicates an in-crease in depth of 1 foot (.3048 meter) for every 50feet (15.2 meters) of horizontal distance. For land-ing operations, it is usually necessary to find thegradient only from the water’s edge seaward to adepth of 3 fathoms (5.5 meters). Beach gradientsare usually described as–
• Steep (more than 1:15).• Moderate (1:15 to 1:30).
• Gentle (1:30 to 1:60).• Mild (1:60 to 1:120).• Flat (less than 1:120).Underwater gradients can seldom be deter-
mined from hydrographic charts. Only a few areashave charts scaled larger than 1:100,000. Moreover,since the inshore seabed is subject to frequentchange, only a very recent survey would have anyvalue. However, there are ways to estimate gradient.
Steep beaches have gradients of more than 1:15.These beaches normally have plunging breakers; butif the gradient is very steep, breakers of an unusualtype may exist. In this case, water flowing down thebeach fills the curling wave form with water and thebreaker rolls over without impact, instead of plung-ing. This type of breaking leads to swash flow up thebeach with unusual velocity and height. Steepbeaches tend to become steeper during a period ofcalm seas. A summer berm advances outward andunderwater berms and bars tend to disappear.Generally, steep beaches are composed of coarsesand particles, pea gravel, or gravel. When wavesbreak at an angle on steep beaches, currents are high.They exist throughout the surf zone and for somedistance seaward.
Beaches with slopes of 1:15 to 1:30 are beacheswith moderate gradient. Plunging breakers areless common on these beaches. Spilling breakersoccur most frequently. The probability of eachtype of breaker depends on the topography of thebeach and the type of waves that exist. If a barexists, plunging breakers may occur at low tide andbecome spilling at high tide. High, long periodswells usually plunge at both high and low tide.When spilling occurs on a bar, the wave frequentlyre-forms and plunges onto the beach face.
Beaches with a moderate gradient usuallyhave an offshore bar during all seasons of theyear, unless the beach is in partly protectedbights and bays. When high waves exist, the barbecomes more pronounced and the beach facebecomes flatter. During a period of low waves, the
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beach face becomes steeper and the bar tends todisappear or become discontinuous. Thesebeaches rarely have more than one bar.
Beaches of moderate slope are mainly com-posed of moderately fine sand. They may have agravel berm at extreme high water. Where a barexists, currents are always present in the channelshoreward of the bar. With waves parallel to thebeach, these currents are low velocity. Whenbreakers are at an angle to the beach, they may reacha velocity of 4 knots. This flow normally follows thechannel for some distance, then flows out over thebar at low points 400 to 5,000 feet apart. Thesepartial channels are called rips, and currents flowingto sea maybe very strong. Where the beach face issteep, strong currents also exist in the inner surfzone.
Beaches with slopes of 1:30 to 1:300 have gentle,mild, or flat gradients. Plunging breakers are lesscommon on these beaches; spilling breakers are therule. Plunging breakers are usually the result of atemporarily steep section of the profile. Thesebeaches often have several bars. Where long periodswells and short period waves exist, a certain amountof spilling takes place on the outer bar. Spillingmay obliterate the wind waves, and the swell mayre-form behind the bar and plunge on one of thesubsequent bars or the beach face. Unless partlyprotected, beaches of flat gradient usually haveseveral offshore bars. These beaches consist of finesand. A pea gravel or gravel beach face is sometimesfound at the mouths of small creeks. In channelsbetween bars, currents may be very strong.SEA BOTTOM
Sea bottoms most nearly ideal for landing craftand amphibian operations have coarse sand, shell,and gravel bottoms and similar foreshore beachcomposition. These bottoms are firm and usuallysmooth; but bank, bar, and shoal formations arecommon. Bottom compositions of soft mud orfine, loose sand can be hazardous to boats,vehicles, and personnel. Soft mud and loose sandcould foul the engine cooling systems. Crews oncraft equipped with beaching tanks rely on thissupply of cooling water during beaching opera-tions to prevent engine fouling. Crews on vesselsnot equipped with beaching tanks must clean thesea strainers often to ensure the engine gets anadequate supply of cooling water. Landing
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vehicles, tracked (LVTs) and other trackedvehicles sink into beaches with a soft bottom andlose traction. Wheeled vehicles may dig into sandor mud and become immobilized.
Mud and sand bottoms may be either firm orsoft, depending on the percentage of sand. A mudbottom over a rock base may be satisfactory if themud is not more than 1 or 2 feet (.3 or .6 meters) deep.Coral heads, rocks, and other underwater obstruc-tions in shallow waters near shore can cause bentpropellers and shafts, broken skegs, and puncturedhulls. Rocks covered with algae are extremely dif-ficult for personnel to walk on and may causewheeled vehicles to lose traction.
SANDBARSSandbars are likely to develop offshore of long,
sandy beaches that are exposed to continuous waveaction. On aerial photographs of quiet sea and clearwater, sandbars appear as a narrow band of lighttone against a dark bottom. On photographs ofrough water, sandbars are detected by a line ofbreakers outside the normal surf zone.
A sandbar indicates a sandy bottom offshoreand unless there are visible rock outcrops, probablya smooth, sandy bottom inshore of the bar. Thesecharacteristics, when accompanied by sand dunesbehind the beach, indicate that the beach is mostlysand. Surf is likely on such beaches. The height ofthe surf can usually be estimated accurately under agiven wind or sea swell condition if the approximatedepth over the sandbar is known.
Sandbars can be a serious menace to landings.Craft may run hard aground on them while stillsome distance from the beach loading or dischargepoint. When this occurs and an appreciable sea isbreaking on the bar, the craft may swamp andbroach to. If troops debark while the craft is hungon a sandbar, they may be endangered due to depthof water, strong currents, or a soft bottom betweenthe bar and the beach. Rather than be endangered,personnel should remain aboard the craft. Succes-sive seas may lift the craft over the bar. Then thecraft can proceed to the beach.
If the sea condition permits and the craft isunlikely to free itself from the bar, personnel shouldbe transferred to wheeled amphibians and salvagebegun to retrieve the craft. Tidal variations influencethe times when beachings can be attempted.
FM 55-50
Even though there are no bars on a beach at theinitial landing, the scouring action of the propellersof beached landing craft may create them. Afterseveral days, a built-up bar of this type may be largeenough to prevent the satisfactory beaching of LSTsand similar vessels. Alternating beaching sitesreduces this hazard.
Small sandbars may be formed between run-nels within the tidal range on foreshores having aslight slope. The height of these bars is seldommore than 2 feet (.6 meter) from the bottom of thetrough to the top of the crest. However, such barsare hazardous to operations because landing craftmay ground on the crests and troops and equip-ment must cross the stream of water to reach thedry shore. If the bottom of the runnel is silt,vehicles and heavy equipment may bog down. Itmay be necessary to beach the craft at high tide andunload it after the water has receded to a pointwhere matting can be laid across the troughs.
Whenever bars are present, the wave crestspeak up as the waves roll over the bar. The waterdepth over the bar and the wave height determineif breaking takes place on or near the bar. If waterdepth over the bar is more than twice the sig-nificant breaker height, nearly all waves pass overthe bar without breaking, but crests peak up dis-tinctly. If the depth is between one and two timesthe breaker height, waves break near the bar, someon the bar itself, and others on the shoreward side.All waves break on the seaward side when thewater depth over the bar is less than the breakerheight. Frequently, more than one bar exists withwaves breaking and re-forming and breaking againon another bar or on the beach.
Various types of bars are found off shorelines.However, three common types of submergedsandbars exist:
• The first type is found offshore of manylarge rivers and is often associated withdeltas. The multiple bars of this typecover a large area and have a wide rangein depth often extending above sea level.Charts of these bars are only accurate at thetime they are made since the bars changetremendously in size and position duringfloods and high surf. Generally floodsdecrease the depth and increase the area ofthe bar. High surf has the opposite effect.
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The second type of bar is crescent-shapedand extends convexly out from the mouthsof rivers and from the bottleneck entranceof bays. Such bars are often shallowenough to seriously hinder landing craft.While it may be advantageous to usebeaches in estuaries and bays where thesurf is low, access to these areas may bedifficult because of high breakersassociated with the crescent bars charac-teristic of these locations. Although theposition of the channel may shift, it is likelyto remain in the same general location andis readily spotted from the air. While nodirect evidence proves this fact conclusive-ly, this type of bar probably deepens duringhigh surf.The third type of bar is the type whichparallels most sand beaches. In someareas, they occur only during the season oflargest waves. Elsewhere, they persistthroughout the year. Longitudinally, thesebars may continue for miles. However, theyare more likely to develop off some por-tions of a beach more often than others.Breaks in the bars can be detected from theair. The typical depth of the longshore barranges from 3 to 15 feet below mean lowwater. In some very sandy areas, a series ofbars may extend miles out to sea; the fur-thest ones have a depth too great to inter-fere with watercraft operations.
High surf greatly modifies bar depth and dis-tance from shore. There is a rough relationshipbetween bar depth and the maximum breaker heightduring the preceding one or two weeks. If thebreakers remain constant in height long enough, thebar attains a depth slightly less than the depth ofbreaking at low tide. Large waves do not ordinarilylast long enough to cause this adjustment.ROCKS
Rocks on a beach may limit the shoreapproaches so that only a few craft can land at once.This prevents a large-scale landing and restrictsbeach operations. However, one or two rockypatches fronting a beach do not present a seriousobstacle. There is slight chance that craft will strikerocky patches that have been properly marked withbuoys.
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In a heavy sea, waves break over rocky patcheson the bottom. A light sea with waves breaking onthe rocks indicates that the rocks are dangerouslyclose to the surface.
REEFS
Coral reefs are found in shallow salt water intropical areas. The three general types of reefs are–
• Fringing reefs that are attached to the land.The reef may be only a few feet wide and isseldom more than a mile wide. Inshoreboat channels are often present on fringingreefs, but they do not occur when the reefis narrow and exposed to heavy surf action.These boat channels are about 1 to 5 feet(.3 to 1.5 meters) deeper than the rest of thereef surface and may be 10 to 50 yards (9.1to 45.7 meters) wide. These channels runparallel and close to the shore, openseaward through breaks in the reef, andmay continue for a nautical mile (1.852kilometers) or more. The channels trapsediment brought down from the land orshifted inshore from the seaward side of thereef. This sediment is often quite fine,giving the boat channels a bottom of sandor mud, although clumps of coral may livein them. Generally, they are deep enoughfor the smaller landing craft and too deepfor troops to wade.
• Barrier reefs that lie offshore and areseparated from the land by a lagoon. Theremay be a fringing reef on the land side ofthe barrier reef. Barrier reefs vary in widthfrom a few hundred feet (meters) to morethan a nautical mile (1.852 kilometers) andmay have reef islands on them.
• Atoll reefs. These barrier reefs encloselagoons. They usually have a crescentshape with the convex side toward the sea.They may contain reef islands, or heads,composed of accumulated debris from thereef. These circular, drumlike islands areseldom more than 10 to 15 feet (3.1 to 4.0meters) higher than the reef flat. Theymay be up to 100 feet (30.5 meters) indiameter with a low, swampy interior.The water surrounding a coral island isusually smooth, and the island’s presencemay not be indicated by surf. However, the
water changes color near the island fromdeep blue to light brown. The chief obstacleson the seaward side of an atoll reef are themarginal ridge with its consequent surf andthe scattered boulders of the reef, which aredifficult to spot. The inshore part of the reefis usually critical in landing operations.Often it is a band from 50 to 100 yards wide(45.7 to 91.4 meters) with boulders that mayimpede vehicular progress. On the whole,the surface of an atoll reef is more favorablefor crossing than the surface of a fringing orbarrier reef. On the lagoon side, the beachesare apt to be composed of softer sand thanthe seaward beaches. A landing on thelagoon side should be undertaken at hightide, and the numerous coral colums thatgrow in shallow water near the shore must bebypassed.
SEAWEEDSeaweed is usually found in calm waters. It
may interfere with the operation of landing craftand wheeled or tracked amphibians. The marinegrowth may consist of free-floating minute par-ticles that clog sea strainer intakes for engine cool-ing water, or it maybe a thick, heavy type of weedthat fouls propellers and tracks.CURRENTS
When visibility is poor, water currents of vari-able direction and low, changing velocity may inter-fere with or prevent landing at the designatedpoint on a beach. When alongshore currents areanticipated, unmistakable markers or landmarks areneeded to identify the beach and the approach lines.Even though landing craft compasses may beproperly compensated the current and weather mayprevent boat operators from following the intendedcourse. Therefore, all boat operators must be awareof natural and artificial ranges that can be used tomark beach approaches during day and night opera-tions. Directing individual craft by radio from aradar-equipped command and control boat or fromthe vessel being discharged is a satisfactory methodduring reduced visibility.
A strong alongshore current may contribute tothe broaching-to of craft. A broached-to conditionexists when a craft is cast parallel to the current orsurf and grounded such that maneuverability isgreatly reduced. To prevent this condition, boat
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operators must be extremely careful whenapproaching, retracting from, or trying to maintaina position on a beach. Broaching-to is dangerous ifa surf is running since the craft can be swamped ordriven higher onto the beach. In either case, assis-tance will probably be needed to recover the boat.Unloading broached-to craft is difficult. Injury topersonnel and damage to the craft and its cargo mayresult from attempts to remove cargo when the craftis not perpendicular to the surf or current. If thereare very strong alongshore currents, the beach maybecome cluttered with broached-to and swampedboats unless broaching lines are used or breakwatersand jetties are constructed.
Offshore and inshore currents are very impor-tant to watercraft operations. Offshore currentsare found outside the surf zone. Tidal currentspredominate around the entrances to bays andsounds, in channels between islands, or between anisland and the mainland. Tidal currents changedirection every 6 to 12 hours and may reachvelocities of several knots in narrow sounds. Onthe surface, tidal currents may be visible as tide ripsor as areas of broken water and white caps. Tidalcurrents are predictable; they repeat themselves asregularly as the tides to which they relate. Nontidalcurrents are related to the distribution of densityin the ocean and the effects of wind. Currents ofthis type are constant for long periods and vary indirection and velocity during different seasons.
Breaking waves create shore currents withinthe surf zone. Longshore currents flow parallel tothe shoreline inside the breakers, are commonlyfound along straight beaches, and are caused bywaves breaking at an angle to the beach. Theirvelocity increases with increased breaker height,increased angle to the beach (waves arriving paral-lel to the beach have an angle of 0 degrees to thebeach), and steep beach slopes. Velocitydecreases as wave periods increase. Longshorecurrents are predictable, but the forecastaccuracy depends on the accuracy of the waveforecast on which it is based. Where longshorecurrents are common, sandbars are usuallypresent.
Rip currents flow out from shore through thebreaker line in narrow rips and are found on almostall open coasts. These currents consist of three parts:the feeder current, the neck, and the head. Thefeeder current flows parallel to the shore inside the
breakers. The neck occurs where the feeder currentsconverge and flow through the breakers in a narrowband or rip. The head occurs where the currentwidens and slackens outside the breaker line. Theneck of a rip current is distinguished by a stretch ofunbroken water in the breaker line. The outer lineof the current in the head is usually marked bypatches of foam and broken water similar to rip tides.The head is usually discolored by silt in suspension.Troughs cut into the sand by rip currents with avelocity of more than 2 knots (3.7 kilometers perhour) may form hazards for landing craft. From theair, a rip current appears as a narrow band of agitatedwater usually marked by breakers.
Waves piling water against the coast cause ripcurrents. This water flows alongshore until bottomirregularities deflect it seaward or until it meetsanother current and flows out through thebreakers. Once feeder and rip currents form, theycut troughs in the sand and remain in constantposition until wave conditions change. Rip cur-rents are commonly found at the heads of indenta-tions in the coast. When waves break at an angleon an irregular coast, the rips may be foundopposite small headlands that deflect the currentsseaward. Anytime waves break at an angle to thebeach, currents form in the surf zone. If the beachis straight, currents flow along the beach aslongshore currents. If the beach is irregular, cur-rents flow along the shore for a short distance andthen flow out to sea as rips.
SURFOcean waves arise as a result of local and off-
shore winds on the ocean surface. Two types ofsurface waves are produced: wind waves and swells.
Wind waves are usually steep with a short timebetween successive crests. Frequently, the crestsbreak in deep water. When crests are small, they arecalled whitecaps. When crests are large, they arecalled combers or breaking seas. In deep water,these waves seriously affect the performance ofsmall craft.
Swells result from storms great distances fromthe coast. They are characterized by a long,smooth undulation of the sea surface. These wavesnever break in deep water, and time between suc-cessive crests may be very long. Small craft in deepwater are not affected by swell; however, swell doescause larger vessels to roll and pitch in deep water.
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In shallow water, swells increase in height. Uponreaching a sufficiently shallow depth, swells may giverise to an immense surf that may damage shore instal-lations or make harbor entrances impassable.
Wind waves and swell usually coexist in openwater. Wind waves may completely obscure swelluntil near the shore where the swell peaks to a greaterheight. This may be the first time the small craftoperator becomes aware of the swell. Swell arisingfrom distant storms approaches the coast at highspeeds. In the case of a large offshore disturbance,the swell usually arrives at the shoreline ahead of thestorm. For this reason, vessels trying to reach har-bors ahead of a storm may find the entrance impass-able due to breaking swell.
The most important difference betweenbreakers of similar height is whether the breakersare the plunging, spilling, or intermediate surgingtype. Because of the force of energy exerted in aplunging breaker, its impact on watercraft isgreater than that of a spilling breaker.
In a plunging breaker, the energy of the wave isreleased in a sudden downwardly directed mass ofwater. The wave peaks up until it is an advancingvertical wall of water. The crest then curls over anddrops violently into the preceding trough where thewater surface is essentially horizontal. During thisprocess, much air is trapped in the waves. This airescapes explosively behind the waves throwing waterhigh above the surface. The loud explosive sound ofthe plunging breaker easily identifies it during dark-ness or fog.
In a spilling breaker, energy is not released atonce, and the breaking process occurs over a largedistance as the breaker travels toward the beach.The wave peaks up until it is very steep, but notvertical. Only the topmost portion of the crestcurls over and descends on the forward slope ofthe advancing wave where it slides down into thetrough. This process starts at scattered points thatconverge until the wave becomes an advancing lineof foam.
A surging breaker is seen less often than aplunging or spilling breaker. In a surging breaker,the wave crest advances faster than the base of thewave looking like a plunging breaker. The base of thewave then advances faster than the crest. Theplunging is arrested and the breaker surges up thebeach face.
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NOTE: The relationship between beachslope and the ratio of deepwater waveheight to deepwater wave period is shownin Figure 11-1. This figure is an idealpresentation and does not consider suchinfluences as offshore bars and wind chop.Plunging breakers usually occur on steep
beaches rather than flat ones. The disturbing condi-tions, irregular profile, and bottom irregularities of aflat beach make it more suitable to spilling breakers.However, when plunging breakers do occur on flatbeaches, the beach is unusually regular, or has atemporarily steep section of beach in the breakerzone. Beaches in protected bays and estuaries sub-ject only to waves that have undergone considerablerefraction or diffraction almost always produceplunging breakers. Under these conditions, thebeach profile is normally very regular, disturbinginfluences are minimal, and short period wind waveshave been screened out.
The angle at which waves break in respect toshoreline contours generates a number of com-plications to landcraft operations. Short-periodwaves, wind waves, and chop do not undergo anygreat change of direction when approaching abeach. If their deepwater angle of approach is notnormal to the beach, they will break at an angle.Long-period waves reaching a beach with steepoffshore slopes may not undergo sufficient refrac-tion to eliminate the effects of direction on thebreaker angle. These conditions cause the wave tofirst strike the beach at one end or the other. Thebreaking process continues down the beach in thedirection the waves were traveling. This action setsup a current in the surf zone traveling parallel tothe shore and in the same direction as the wave.For high waves of great angle, this current maybeas great as 3 or 4 knots and imposes difficulty onlanding craft traversing the surf zone. Thesecurrents have a much greater velocity in certainparts of the surf zone. To successfully traversethe surf zone, landing craft must first estimate thedirection and total distance of drift and then directa course so that the craft meets the breaker’s cresthead on or directly astern.
The breaker or wave period affects the speedat which the craft encounters breaking waves.Short period storm waves from local sources mayoccur every 6 to 12 seconds. At this frequency, acraft does not have the opportunity to pass the
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breaking wave. Such continuous impact may cause As a deepwater wave approaches a beach, itan operator to lose his bearing and become dis- begins to peak up as it feels bottom and continuesoriented. Long period waves may occur every 10 to to increase in height until it breaks. Breakers are20 seconds. On steepbeaches, landing craft can pass normally larger than they appear from the beach.through the breaker zone between waves. Figure 11-2 shows a method to visually estimate
Generally, breakers occurring farthest fromshore are the highest. This results from an offshorebottom configuration equivalent in effect to a sub-marine ridge. This configuration leads waves to con-verge immediately toward shore. Conversely, areasin the surf zone where outer breakers persistentlybreak closer to shore than elsewhere generally havelower breakers caused by divergence over a smallchannel. Rip currents in small channels complicatethe refraction pattern in these areas. Normally, twoopposing situations are present: currents that makethe waves converge and the partial channel thatmakes the waves diverge. If the first conditionprevails, the waves may completely converge andbreak in the middle of the channel. These wavesalmost invariably are spilling breakers.
breaker height.
NOTE: The observer on the beach adjustshis position vertically so his line of sightcorresponds with an imaginary line fromthe top of the breaker to the horizon. Thevertical distance from this line to the lowerlimit of the backwash is the approximateheight of the breaker. The lower limit ofthe backwash is the lower limit of thetrough between breakers close to thebeach. This system is less accurate as thedistance between the observer and thewave increases.
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Surf characteristics can vary considerablywith respect to time and location. The degree of—variability is difficult to determine. A sequenceof waves often seems to have regular charac-teristics, but surf characteristics are as irregularas the ocean bottom topography over which theswell travels en route to the beach. Any wavesystem can develop an exceptionally high wave.Its exact time and location can never bepredicted. Because of breaker variations, surfobservers should record at least 100 breakers toobtain representative values. Under combatconditions, a sample of 50 breaker heights isacceptable.
The speed of a breaker depends on the depthof breaking. For a 6-foot breaker, the depth ofbreaking is 8 feet, and the breaker advances with aspeed of about 10 knots. The relationship ofbreaker height to breaker speed of advance isshown in Table 11-1.
The surf zone may be divided into twocategories: that caused by local winds and thatcaused by swell from a distant wind area or fetch. Acombination of these categories may cause the surfzone to assume a mixed and irregular character.
Local wind waves cause a surf zone with short,irregular crests, spilling breakers, and a generallyconfused aspect. The steep offshore waves havemany white caps. The crests do not increase inheight before they break. The wave period isusually every 5 or 6 seconds. Surf zones of thiscategory are found along the continental coastsoutside the tropics and in confined waters.
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Swell from a distant wind area causes surfzones with regular crests, plunging breakers, andlong lines of foam. Breaker or wave period rangesfrom 8 to 15 seconds, and the crest length at break-ing is usually greater than 150 feet. Offshore wavesappear low and rounded. Immediately beforebreaking they peak up sharply, sometimes doublingtheir deepwater height.
The importance of beach slope to surf is in itseffect on the width of the surf zone. The breakerline that represents the seaward border of the surfzone is found where the depth to the bottom isabout 1.3 times the significant breaker height.With 6-foot breakers, the breaker line is locatedwhere the depth to the bottom is about 8 feet,regardless of slope. On a beach with a slope of1:10, the breaker line for 6-foot breakers would beabout 80 feet from the shoreline; with a slope of1:50, about 400 feet (Figure 11-3).
Off a very steep beach, there are no lines offoam inside the breaker line. After breaking, eachwave rushes violently up the shore face and hits anybeached craft with great force. On a flat beach,there are numerous lines of advancing foam. Theenergy of the waves is expended during the ad-vance through the surf zone, and there is only agentle uprush and backrush on the beach.
When a wave approaches a straight coast at anangle, the part of the wave first reaching shallowwater slows down, while the part still in deep waterspeeds on. The slowing wave crest then swingsaround and parallels the coastline. This bending ofthe crests is called refraction. Refraction also occurswhen waves travel over an irregular bottom.
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The portion of a wave over a submarine ridgeslows down, while the portion on either side swingsin toward the ridge. When the waves swing together,each crest is squeezed and the wave height increases.Heavy surf is found wherever a submarine ridge runsout from a coast.
A submarine canyon has the opposite effect.The portion of the wave over the canyon travelsfaster than the portions on either side and fans out.When the wave fans out, the crest is stretched andwave height decreases. Refraction also causeswaves to swing in behind islands and peninsulaswhere they would not normally reach if theycontinued in their original direction. Theamount of protection afforded by headlands,peninsulas, islands, and other obstructionsdepends as much on underwater topography as onthe coastline’s shape.
TIDETide is the periodic rise and fall of water
caused mainly by the gravitational effect of themoon and the sun on the rotating earth. In addi-tion to the rise and fall in a vertical plane, there ishorizontal movement called tidal current. Whenthe tidal current flows shoreward, it is called floodcurrent; when it flows seaward, it is ebb current.
High tide, or high water, is the rising tide’smaximum height. Low tide, or low water, is thefalling tide’s minimum height. The differencebetween the level of water at high and low tides isthe range of tide.
The period of tide is the time interval fromone low tide to the following low tide or from onehigh tide to the next high tide. These intervalsaverage 12 hours and 25 minutes at most places.About every 2 weeks, during the new moon andthe full moon, the highest high water and thelowest low water occur. The combined attractiveinfluences of the sun and moon on the water atthese times cause this unusually large range oftide. These tides are spring tides. When themoon is in its first and third quarters, the attrac-tive influences of the sun and the moon opposeeach other and the range of tide is unusual1ysmall. Tides during these times are neap tides.Tides occurring when the moon is at its maximumsemimonthly decline are called tropic tides.During tropic tides, the daily range increases.
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Tidal range also varies with coastal configura-tion and barometric pressure.
The stage of the tide affects the width of thebeach and, accordingly, the type of surf, the depthof water over sandbars and reefs, the width ofexposed beach that must be traversed, and therequirements for special equipment to facilitatedebarkation. Extreme tidal ranges may restrictunloading to the period of high tide. This requiresmaximum speed of operation and a rapid, heavybuildup of supplies in the early stages of a landing.
If there is a relatively large tidal range on agently sloping beach, water may rise or descend onthe beach so rapidly that craft are stranded on adry bottom before they can retract. This may puta critical number of craft out of action until the nextrise of tide. If, in addition to a flat gradient, thebottom has many irregularities, a fall in the tidemay ground craft far from the beach proper. Per-sonnel will have to debark and wade ashorethrough these pools. If the pools are deep, a con-siderable loss of equipment can be expected.
In some cases the effect of the tide may requirethat craft be held at the beach as the tide recedes,discharging their cargo while resting high and dry onthe exposed beach. The craft then retracts on thefollowing tide.
The force of an unusually strong wind exertedon the tide at the landing area may greatly alter thewidth of beach available for operations. Alongwith an ebbing tide, a strong offshore wind mayblow all the water off the beach and, on a gentlegradient, the water level may recede to an extremedistance from the beach proper. Personnel andmaterial must then pass over a wide exposed beach.On the other hand, a powerful onshore wind canincrease the advance of high tide to such anextent that beach installations and activitiesare endangered or flooded.
Where obstacles do not exist, a landing on aflood tide is generally preferred so that craft may bebeached and retracted readily. Normally, it isdesirable to set the time for landing 2 or 3 hoursbefore high tide.
WINDWind velocity, the distance spanned by the
wind, the duration of the wind, and decay distanceinfluence swell and surf functions on the beach.
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Winds at or near the surface of the earth have beenclassified, and their characteristics are known andpredictable. Some surface winds are very deep andextend for miles into the air. Some are shallow, suchas the land breeze, and extend only a few hundredfeet (meters) above the surface. Winds aloft mayblow in a direction opposite to surface winds.Velocity and direction may vary with differentelevations.
The velocity and duration of the wind and thesize of the water area over which the wind has actedto produce waves govern the growth of waves.Swells are waves that have progressed beyond thearea of influence of the generating winds.
A very rough sea disrupts landing schedulesand formations by restricting the speed andmaneuverability of craft. Normal control andcoordination problems become more complex.Planners must consider the effects of heavy season landing craft when establishing timetables,distances to be traveled on the water, and loadsto be carried. With an excessive or poorly dis-tributed load, boats may list severely oreven sink. Extremely rough conditions maynecessitate removing loads from the craft andplacing the craft aboard another vessel or in asafe haven.
When a rough sea is anticipated, craft carrysmaller loads and proceed cautiously. Ship-to-shoredistances are reduced as much as feasible. Since theunloading of equipment and supplies may berestricted by heavy seas, priorities must be estab-lished for critical items so that the most essentialshore requirements are met as quickly as possible.WEATHER INFORMATION
Weather information about the area of opera-tions must be analyzed carefully to determine theprobable effect of weather on craft operations andworking conditions. Early in the planning stage, thebattalion commander must find out what source willfurnish weather information and in what manner.
The success of a tactical operation may dependon a sequence of several favorable days after theinitial landing has been made. The most importantconsideration is the sea and swell caused by highwinds and storms. Excessive sea and swell may endthe movement of later serials, thus placing the assaulttroops in a precarious position ashore. P1anners
must consider beaching conditions, unloadingconditions, speed of vessels, the effect of windand sea on the tides, and the physical conditionof the troops.
Alternate plans for a waterborne movementmust consider possible variations from averageweather. Weather conditions en route to the areamust also be considered. In a tactical operation,maximum advantage must be taken of weather con-ditions that might conceal an approach to the objec-tive area.
If the approach is made in calm, clear weather,the enemy can locate the attack force and thelanding area more easily, and his air attacks willnot be impeded. Bad weather, storms, fog, andwinds affect the movement, but they also force theenemy to rely on more indirect and less depend-able means of attack and of determining the targetarea.
Weather information is a communicationspriority so that plans may be made or alteredwithout delay, especially if unusual weather condi-tions are anticipated. In estimating the effects ofweather on an operation, planners must considerthe –
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Direction and speed of winds at the surfaceand in the upper air, the likelihood of storms,and the nature of storms typical to the targetarea.Distance at which objects can be seenhorizontally at the surface and both horizon-tally and vertically in the upper air.Restrictions imposed on visibility by fog,haze, rain, sleet, or snow.
Effect of extreme temperatures on personneland materiel.Effect of excessive rain or snow on personneland materiel.
WEATHER FORECASTSWeather prediction is based on an under-
standing of weather processes and observations ofpresent conditions. Weather forecasts are basedon past changes and present trends. In areaswhere certain sequences follow with greatregularity, the probability of an accurate forecastis very high. In transitional areas (or areas where
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an inadequate number of reports is available),the forecasts are less reliable. Such forecastsare based on principles of probability, andhigh reliability should not be expected. Aforecast for 6 hours after a synoptic chart(weather map) is drawn should be more reliablethan one for 24 hours ahead. Long-termforecasts for 2 weeks or a month in advance arelimited to general statements. For example, thearea which will have temperatures above orbelow normal and how precipitation will com-pare with normal is predicted, but no attempt ismade to state that rainfall will occur at a certaintime and place.
Synoptic forecasts are used mainly for day-to-day forecasts. They are developed from reportsreceived from a widespread network of stations thatmake simultaneous observations at prescribed times.Data from these observations are transmitted to aweather center and analyzed. The resulting forecastis forwarded to the operating units concerned. Thistype of forecast requires a dependable system ofcommunications. The observers must be locatedover a wide area, possibly including enemy territory.Synoptic forecasts suitable for landing operationscan be made only 1 to 2 days before the operation,but such forecasts will generally be dependable.
Conditions beyond the range of synopticforecasts are estimated by the statistical method.This method relies on weather observationsaccumulated over a period of years and describesthe average weather that may be expected in agiven area. It shows such information as thestrength and direction of prevailing winds, averagetemperatures, and average precipitation. Ifweather records at a given area have been kept fora number of years, the statistical study will becorrect about 65 percent of the time.
The value of a forecast increases if the informa-tion on which it is based is available and the principlesand processes involved are understood. Thefactors that determine weather are numerous andvaried. Increasing knowledge about them con-tinually improves weather service. However, theability to forecast is acquired through study and longpractice. The services of a trained meteorologistshould be used whenever possible. Data aboutaverage weather conditions are essential in planninga landing operation, but assault landings require cur-rent information. A forecast that is 24 to 36 hoursold is not reliable.
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CHAPTER 12
TOWING OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTIONTowing is an old and well-developed procedure.
Rescue and salvage towing generates a necessarysense of urgency. Conditions of a tow, weather, warzones, and other factors commonly make towing atime-critical operation. While certain ships andwatercraft are designed to offer towing sevices, allships can take a tow in an emergency.
Towing is a routine operation for tugs. Goodpractice of seamanship is necessary to accomplishthe mission without endangering the tow, tug, per-sonnel, or operational schedules. While nearly alltransocean and coastal tows are completed unevent-fully, emergency conditions must be expected.Proper preparations must be made for emergencyconditions. Good planning, preparation for emer-gency situations, and correct shiphandling are neces-sary elements of towing.LESSONS LEARNED
Present day towing has evolved from the learn-ing and often relearning of several obvious lessonsthat are commonly overlooked or forgotten in thezeal to accomplish the mission. The following les-sons remain valid throughout the history of engine-powered towing. They also distinguish betweensimple barge towing and open water coastal and/orocean towing. When planning and tasking a towingoperation–
• Do not keep tugs waiting unnecessarilywhile preparing or disposing of tows afterthe mission has been accomplished. Also,when the draft of the towing tugs is toogreat for the depth of water at either ter-minal, prearrange the delivery or take-overof the tow before the deep sea tug arrivesoutside.
• Do not use large tugs to do work that avail-able smaller and less powerful or less seawor-thy tugs can do. Estimate the requiredtowline pull and horsepower of the towingvessel before assigning a tug.
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Do not use tugs or other unsuitable craft todo work beyond their capacity (also considerthe towline pull).Do not use tugs on tasks for which they haveinsufficient endurance unless provisioning orrefueling them en route has been arranged.Do not unnecessarily use tugs designed orespecially suited for duty in combat zones inrear areas. The large tugs are well suited forduty in combat zones. The large salvage tugsare suited for combat towing and for emer-gency salvage or firefighting in combat areas.Do not use tugs in forward areas that haveinsufficient stability, reserve buoyancy, armorto ward off attacks by enemy planes, or sub-division to enable them to survive evenmoderate damage.Do not use tugs unnecessarily for standbyduty on salvage or rescue operations. Tugsshould not be ordered to stand by unlessthere is a definite possibility that their ser-vices may be needed and they can renderthe service likely to be required.Do not remove tugs unnecessarily fromareas where tugs equipped for rescue (sal-vage or firefighting) maybe required.Do not use tugs unnecessarily for tows thatother craft scheduled to make the same pas-sage could do or that a ship may be moreeasily made available for than a tug.
TYPES OF TOWING MISSIONSThere are three general types of towing
missions:• Administrative towing missions are routine in
nature. They reposition floating equipmentwithin the confines of the terminal harborareas; dock, undock, and assist large ships inport arrivals/departures; and perform short-range missions in protected waters whereonly light towing gear and equipment is
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required. Administrative towing usuallyrequires towing gear and equipment nor-mally found aboard as part of the tug’s basicissue items. These items are wire rope brid-les and pendants, shackles, wire rope clips,and swivels. This equipment is well suited forshort duration towing in waters protectedfrom the effects of coastal and ocean seas.Special towing missions generally transitunprotected coastal waters and the openocean. These missions require considerablylarger and stronger tugs using heavier andstronger towing gear to withstand theviolent stresses encountered in open coastaland ocean seas. Normally, these tugs havegreater towing power (larger engines andoverall heavier equipment and construction)and are equipped with towing machinery,such as single- and double-drum wire ropetowing winches; tow wire guides, rollers, andpinions; cranes or winch/boom assemblies tohandle the tow rigging; and a small workboatfor boarding and inspecting the tow while enroute. Towing gear for these missions in-clude heavy chain bridles and pendants(anchor chain), plate shackles, retrievingwires, emergency towing bridles, towlines(hawsers), flooding alarms, pumps, andanchors. Large floating equipment, such asfloating cranes (BD) and floating machineshops (FMS), are equipped with their owntowing gear. Such heavy gear cannot be car-ried as basic issue items aboard tugs becauseof weight and cube.Rescue/salvage towing missions have twoforms: planned and opportunistic. Plannedrescue and salvage towing requires generallythe same conditions of a special towing mis-sion. An additional hazard is trying to towequipment that is not seaworthy because ofbattle damage, grounding or other non-operational status. Opportunistic rescue andsalvage towing occurs when any ship or tug isin the immediate area of a vessel requiringtowing assistance to remove it from immedi-ate danger. This type of towing uses anymeans at hand to remove the stricken vesselfrom danger. The nature of the operationmakes it extremely hazardous to the towingvessel as well as the towed vessel.
TOWING RESPONSIBILITIESThe command requesting tow of craft must pro-
vide the craft in seaworthy condition with floodingalarms, navigation lights, electrical power for alarmsand lights, salvage gear (anchors and pumps), andtowing gear (bridle, pendant, and retrieving wires).For suspect or deficient seaworthiness conditions,both the tow and towing command must agree on therisk of tow.
The command accepting the tow must providetug and towing gear to connect to the towed craft’stowing gear. The tug and gear must be seaworthyfor the particular mission route and have the ap-propriate size, horsepower, and control to safelyand successfully accomplish the towing mission.On accepting the tow, the towing command ac-cepts full responsibility. Before accepting,seaworthiness must be verified. The tow should berefused if it is considered not fit for sea. Towing isaccepted only after the tug’s officers complete acomprehensive evaluation and survey of the tow.SEAWORTHINESS
Towing seaworthiness means suitable condi-tion for the mission. This concerns all the varioustechnical implications of the tow and towing vessel,including–
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Vessel design and specifications.
Structural condition and stability.Age, maintenance history, and status.Reinforcement requirements.Hull and superstructure closures.Adequacy of towing gear.Dewatering facilities.Chafing gear.Firefighting and damage control facilities.Repair parts.Tow-boarding facilities.Emergency towing gear.Waters to be transited.Hazards of the route.certificate of seaworthiness for ocean tows
must be completed. The certificate indicates the
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general characteristics of the tow, type of cargo,towing gear, lights, and emergency gear aboard thetow.
Hulls not considered seaworthy for openocean should be transported as deck cargo onheavy-lift, SEABEE, or float-on/float-off ships.Only under extreme emergency situations shouldopen ocean towing be attempted when the tow isnot considered seaworthy.TOWING SHIPS
All ships can tow in an emergency; however,only properly designed and outfitted tugs makegood towing ships. Characteristically, a tug’ssuperstructure is set forward, allowing the towingpoint to be close to the ship’s pivot point. Thetowing point is located far from the rudder andscrews so that it allows the towline to sweep thestern rail. High horsepower, slow speed, large rud-der, towing machine, power capstans, towingpoints, and a clear fantail characterize a good tug.
All ships can tow and be towed in an emergency.Ships not equipped for towing can use the anchorchain, wire straps, nylon lines, or any combinationnecessary. A good catenary ensures spring in thetowline. S1ow speed transfers the lowest dynamicload from the towing ship to the tow. Large shipscan easily overpower the tow and excessively strainthe towline. The towing ship should keep enginerevolutions low for the highest torque and loweststrain and surging.ROUTINE AND RESCUE TOWING
Administrative point-to-point towing is routineand ensures that both the tug and tow are seaworthyand prepared for the transit.
Rescue towing requires prompt action, oftenunder pressing circumstances of a war zone, salvageoperation, or inclement weather.MANNED TOWS
If a continuous watch is required on the tow, ariding crew is placed aboard the tow. The ridingcrew provides security, fire watch, damage control,line handling, communication, flooding watch, anddefense. It provides the nucleus for fire fighting,damage control, and defensive actions.
Under normal conditions, and after propersecuring for sea, most tows can be done without a
riding crew. However, there are exceptions. It is farbetter to secure the tow properly than to provide ariding crew as a substitute security.
UNMANNED TOWSBarges, floating cranes, dredges, pontoons, pile
drivers, dry docks, and ships can be towed withoutriding crews. Any hull considered seaworthy can betowed unmanned. A seaworthy hull has watertightintegrity, structural soundness, proper position ofthe centers of gravity and buoyancy, and goodstability characteristics. All cargo and equipment issecured.
Long-distance and valuable tows without ariding crew should be periodically boarded andinspected. Since the operation is often difficult andhampered by weather and sea condition, the inspec-tion should be well planned and executed promptlyand efficiently.
Using an inflatable boat to transport theinspecting party to and from the tow is recom-mended. This boat should be equipped with anoutboard engine whether or not it is veered aft ona line. This greatly enhances its maneuverabilityand permits its recovery if the veering line parts.
When preparing a crane, dredge, pile driver, orother floating equipment designed for operation insheltered waters, it may be necessary to remove highweights; to secure booms, ladders, deck structures,ballast, and trim; and to perform other unique func-tions due to the hull’s design.
Senior marine deck and engineering officers(MOS 880A2/881A2) should thoroughly analyzethe configuration and modifications to the hull andrecommend it for open ocean towing. Nothing isderived from taking a marginal tow to sea only tolose it.INSPECTION OF TOWS
Inspection must be complete and comprehen-sive. Tows should be properly trimmed, not over-loaded, and secured for sea. Deficiencies must beidentified and corrected before acceptance.
All secured gear is inspected to ensure it isproperly tied down. Turnbuckles with wire ropetie-downs are used with good holding results.Manila line lashings effectively hold light gear.After all gear is secured, tie-downs and lashingsare inspected to ensure all are taut and holding.
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Retightening of turnbuckles and lashings may benecessary during long-range tows or prolongedperiods of time. This requires the tug’s crew toboard the tow at sea, an inherently dangerous task.
When large units of high weight must besecured for sea, it is advantageous to weld them tothe deck. Welding requires extra time and effort,but the additional safety and security justifies it.
Tows are generally not dry-docked for inspec-tion before being accepted. Suitable hull inspec-tion consists of divers and internal observation andmeasurements. If a number of checks along thesides, between light and full load waterlines, showadequate thickness of the original hull side plating,the bottom of the craft to be towed is assumed tobe sound. A thorough internal inspection shouldbe made. Note the bottom framing, plating, andwelds in the forward one-fifth of the craft’s overalllength. If no evidence of serious deterioration ordisplacement of hull plating exists, the craft is con-sidered structurally sound.
If the inspection uncovers serious rusting ordisplacement of the frames, plating, bottom, orweld seams (particularly in the forward one-fifth ofthe craft’s length), the craft should be dry-dockedand necessary repairs made. While in dry dock,magnetic particle checks (or their equivalent) ofbottom, side, butts, joints, decks, and inner bottomshould be made. All defective welds and platingshould be repaired or replaced. Structural rein-forcing and load distribution may be accomplishedwith wood timbers.
Craft should be examined thoroughly beforetowing to avoid special dry-docking of craft.Thickness and magnetic particle checks madeduring cyclic maintenance and resulting repairsshould provide suitable supporting data to avoidspecial dry-docking.
All flooding alarm systems should be inspectedfor proper installation and operations. Navigationallights should be tested. Batteries, includinghydrometer reading, should be inspected and tested.There must be sufficient battery capacity to supportthe systems for the duration of the mission. Allflooding alarms and navigation lights should haveautomatic lamp changers.
Packing glands in the stern tube should bechecked. The shafts should be properly locked. If a
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riding crew is aboard, shafts may be allowed tofreewheel. The craft’s rudder must be locked mid-ships to prevent erratic behavior of the tow.
CATEGORIES OF RISKCommanding officers of the towing ship and
the towed craft should agree to the conditions ofrisk in towing the craft. Risk conditions are basedon the seaworthiness and structural condition ofthe tow, expected sea and weather conditions forthe route, and the specifications of the towing ship.
In acceptable risk, the hull, equipment, towinggear, and towing ship are seaworthy and structurallysound.
In calculated risk, tow deficiencies are accepted.The probability of tow safely reaching destinationvaries with deficiencies.ADMINISTRATION
The commanding officer of the towing shipadministers the tow, even when the tow has a ridingcrew with an officer in charge. In assuming thisresponsibility, the commanding officer of thetowing ship inspects administrative conditions onthe tow, with particular attention to–
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Personnel accounting.Sanitation facilities.Safety, security, and lifesaving equipment onboard.
General stores, provisions, equipment, andgear.
Communications.Defensive capability.
If the tow is not satisfactorily prepared, thecommanding officer of the towing ship will soinform the tow’s command to correct deficiencies.WEATHER
Whenever possible, towing operations shouldbe planned to take advantage of the best weatherconditions. Appropriate weather activitiesshould be requested to provide 24-hour forecastsevery 12 hours along the intended route, commenc-ing 24 to 36 hours before departure and continuinguntil arrival. Requests for special weatherforecasts should include the intended route andestimated speed.
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 13
BATTLE/CREW DRILLS
INTRODUCTIONA unit’s ability to accomplish a mission
depends on its soldiers’ ability to performindividual tasks and, at the same time, to operateeffectively as a unit. A battle drill is a collectivetask at squad or platoon level identified by thecommander as one of the unit’s most vital tasks forsuccess on the modern battlefield. Mission,enemy, terrain, troops, and time (METT-T) do notaffect it. A successful battle drill requires minimalleader actions to execute and is executed usuallyon a cue such as enemy actions or a leader’s order.The key principle is that it is executed the same wayevery time. Battle drills can be equipment-basedor enemy action based. The drills must bedesigned to integrate individual and collectivetraining.
Battle drills–
Relate directly to the use of TOE systemsto collectively accomplish given ArmyTraining and Evaluation Program(ARTEP) tasks.
Build teamwork.Allow units to perform critical tasks quicklythrough repetitive practice.Save lives.
TRAININGBattle drills successfully train personnel through
deliberate repetitious training. This makes neces-sary actions become second nature. The trainer, anexpert on each drill and its individual tasks, shouldtrain the soldiers on specific tasks. In the beginning,each leader and soldier should talk through the drilland the steps involved to succeed. Once each roleand its importance to the drill’s overall success isdefined, the trainer talks each soldier through hisrole. Each soldier should know the tasks of the
people around him as well as he knows his own. Thesoldiers walk deliberately through the tasks on theground, correct mistakes, and do not proceed untilthey get it right. Soldiers work repeatedly on thetasks at faster and faster speeds ensuring that thestandards are accurately and continuously met. Asthe unit improves, additional factors (stress, environ-mental changes, and different MOPP levels) areadded to the sterile environment to make the tasksmore difficult to do.
Training should be as tough as safety allows;safety is paramount. The resulting instantaneousprecise actions become combat multipliers on themodern battlefield.FORMAT
The following format is a guide for the trainerto stimulate thought in training and develop battledrills. Use a Go/No-Go evaluation to record satis-factory and unsatisfactory performance. Battledrills should be written to include the followinginformation:
Drill title.
Objective (task, cue, and standards).Soldier’s manual/collective/TC tasks thatsupport the drill.Instructions for setting up the drill.
Step-by-step instructions to implement drill.Performance measures.MOPP-level effects on training.Changes that make training more challenging.Frequency of training calendar.
Unit evaluation standards to send to highercommands for outside evaluation.
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FM 55-50
CHAPTER 14
COMMUNICATIONS
INTRODUCTIONCommunications are vital for waterborne
operations. Chapter 5 discusses communications foramphibious operations. Ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communications can be by radio,radiotelephone, flag hoist, blinker signal lights, andCW Morse code. Vessel masters, mates, andwatercraft operators must be thoroughly familiarwith their communications equipment. Shipboardcommunications are essential in normal waterborneoperations, combat support operations, distresssituations, and/or sea-air rescue missions. The signaland navigation (SIGNAV) equipment providessecure/nonsecure, high to very high frequency (HFto VHF), short- and long-range communicationscapability appropriate for the mission capability ofthe LSVs, LCU 2000s, LT 128s, and other craft in theArmy inventory. It can interface with US Navy, MSC,USCG, and merchant marine stations (shore and
The signal systems aboard Army watercraft varyin type and design (Figure 14-1). Basically, the sys-tems must meet Army tactical communications re-quirements and federal regulations that governvessel communications.TACTICAL COMMUNICATIONS
Tactical radios communicate with higher head-quarters, other Army vessels, and military units thatare being supported. FM 55-501, Chapter 9 containsadditional information on the various types of tacticalradios used aboard Army vessels. Detailed informa-tion on a specific radio used for tactical communica-tions is in the applicable TM for that particularsystem.
Currently the AN/VRC-46 FM radio set is in-stalled as the tactical radio on most Army vessels.The Single-Channel Ground and Airborne RadioSystem (SINCGARS) will replace these radio sys-
ship) and Military Afffiated Radio Stations (MARS) terns under approved fielding plans.that will be used in joint operations, deployment,morale/welfare, and long-range missions.
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MARINE COMMUNICATIONSCode of Federal Regulations 47, Subparts R, S,
T, and X delineate specific limitations andcapabilities for marine communications. Vesselsoperating more than 20 miles off shore shall have aradiotelephone (HF range) with aminimum range of150 nautical miles and not less than 60 watts peakpower. This radio shall be able to communicate atleast one ship-to-shore working frequency within16.05 to 35 megahertz (MHz). The nonportable,bridge-to-bridge (VHF range) radio shall have notless than 8 watts and not more than 25 watts peakpower. It must operate in the 156.0 to 162.0 MHzfrequency range. Several radio systems are installedon Army vessels to meet the federal requirements forcommunications at sea. In addition, portable, hand-held radios are used for internal shipboard com-munication, as well as local, short-range ship-to-ship,ship-to-shore, and detached work boat communica-tions.
Military research, development, and acquisitionagencies are working together to reduce the cost ofsignal systems. They have determined that purchas-ing commercially-designed radios that meet militaryrequirements can save money and provide high tech,state-of-the-art signal systems that meet federal com-munication regulation requirements for vessels. Asa result, different signal systems may be on Armyvessels such as those described below.AN/URC-80(V1) Radiotelephone
Commonly called bridge-to-bridge, thisradiotelephone is designed to communicate betweenships and from ship to shore.DSC-500 (Digital Selective Calling)
The DSC-500 provides the latest technology toArmy watercraft communications. It will replace theAN/URC-80. The system provides the vessel master
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with 200 different communication call functions andis equipped with built-in test equipment.
High-Frequency Radio SystemsThe high-frequency systems give Army vessels
the capability to communicate over great distances.They can be used in both secure and nonsecuremodes. There are two types found on Armywatercraft today, depending on what type mission thevessel is expected to perform.
Radio set AN/URC-92 is a mobile, half-duplex,HF transceiver system that can be operated doublesideband and/or upper or lower sideband(USB/LSB).
The other radio set is a commercially procuredHF radio adapted for military use. It is a rugged, fullyautomated, solid-state, communications system. It isdesigned as a continuous duty, high-frequency, singlesideband transceiver. It can also operate on USB,LSB, or CW for Morse code.INTERNATIONAL MARITIME SATELLITESYSTEMS (INMARSAT)
Future development for maritime communica-tions capabilities include one set of INMARSAT,Standard A, single channel, ship earth station (SES)equipment to be installed on each Army designatedvessel. Installation will include a stabilized tracking85- to 100-centimeter dish antenna with radome andantenna cabling. Below decks equipment includetransceiver, processor, telephone, and telex units.An auxiliary receiver tuned to the Armed ForcesRadio and Television Service (AFRTS) broadcastfrequency and connected to the INMARSAT SES isalso available. A public automatic branch exchange(PABX) is provided to furnish additional phone anddata line connections to the SES if desired.
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 15
WATERCRAFT OPERATIONS IN OTHER OPERATIONALENVIRONMENTS
INTRODUCTIONMilitary operations in low-intensity conflict
(LIC) support political, economic, and informa-tional actions. Planning for low-intensity conflictis the same as planning for war and may involvedirect military action. However, the objectives aregenerally to support friendly governments in waysshort of direct action.
Contingency operations are usually jointoperations. They involve the projection ofCONUS-based forces into a joint forces command(JFC) area of responsibility. The Army corpsheadquarters may form the nucleus of a joint taskforce. This task force plans, integrates, and acts atthe strategic, operational, and tactical levels of war.To achieve a rapid and decisive response, theclosure of forces into the area must be carefullymanaged.
This chapter discusses watercraft operationsin low-intensity conflict and contingency opera-tions. FM 100-20 contains more information onLIC; FM 100-15, on contingency operations.
LOW-INTENSITY CONFLICT (LIC)Definition
LIC is a limited political-military confronta-tion between contending states or groups belowconventional war but above routine, peaceful com-petition among states. It frequently involvesprotracted struggles of competing principles andideologies. LIC ranges from subversion to the useof armed force. It is waged by a combination ofmeans employing political, economic, informa-tional, and military instruments. LIC is oftenlocalized.US Army Missions
Army support to military operations in LICfalls into four broad categories: support forinsurgency and counterinsurgency, combatting
terrorism, peacekeeping operations, andpeacetime contingency operations.
Support for insurgency and counterinsurgencyincludes support for either an incumbent govern-ment or an insurgent.
Combatting terrorism includes protecting in-stallations, units, and individuals from terroristthreats.
Peacekeeping operations include militaryoperations and peacekeeping forces designed tokeep already obtained peace.
Peacetime contingency operations are politicallysensitive military activities normally characterizedby short term, rapid projection or employment offorces in conditions short of war. They includesuch diverse actions as noncombatant evacuationoperations, disaster relief, and peacemaking.They frequently occur away from customaryfacilities, thus requiring deep penetration and tem-porary establishment of long lines of communica-tions (LOCs) in a hostile environment. Planningfor contingency operations will normally occur atthe unified command level using time-sensitiveplanning techniques and crisis action procedures.
Watercraft Operation SupportWatercraft operations planners at all com-
mand levels must be involved in the planningprocess. They should determine the magnitude ofwatercraft requirements for the area of operationsand recommend the force structure to support therequirements during deployment, employment, andredeployment.
Watercraft operations planners must coor-dinate with intelligence personnel to get specificinformation on the availability and capacities ofseaports, inland waterways, and terminal facilities,and transportation intelligence data.
Watercraft requirements vary based on themission and number and type of units deployed.
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They may range from a single logistics supportvessel (LSV) to a battalion-size watercraft unit.Whatever the requirement, these units mustdeploy early, establish communication withechelon above corps (EAC) units, and rapidlyengage in cargo movement to support LIC.
Basic missions and tasks are still key require-ments in LIC. Forces must be deployed sustained,and redeployed. Army watercraft operations plan-ners must anticipate and be flexible and innovative.Without effective control of watercraft move-ments, the sustained synchronization of logisticalsupport to the military forces could severely limitan operation’s success.
CORPS CONTINGENCY OPERATIONSPlanning for corps contingency operations
consists of planning for predeployment, deploy-ment, buildup, employment, and redeploymentphases of a low- or mid-intensity conflict. Contin-gency operations planners normally plan Armywater transport operations to support contingencyforces during the buildup and employment phases.
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To a lesser degree, strategic planners may considerusing Army vessels with ocean-going capabilitiesduring predeployment to transport limited cargofrom CONUS. During redeployment, Army watertransport units maybe tasked to support retrogradeoperations.Force Buildup
During force buildup, Army water transportunits have vital responsibilities. They transportsupplies and equipment from the seaport ofdebarkation (SPOD) and support COSCOM mis-sion objectives. Contingency operations plannersand terminal commanders must plan for Armywatercraft use to relieve terminal congestion andshorten LOCs along coastal areas and the hostnation inland waterway system.Employment
The only difference between the employmentand buildup phases is the attainment of militaryobjectives. Army water transport missions in thearea of operation remain the same.
FM 55-50
CHAPTER 16
RISK MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTIONAccidents cost the Army about $500 million
each year and significantly reduce missioncapabilities. Because the Army must be prepared tooperate worldwide in many different watercraft en-vironments, the watercraft mission has become in-creasingly demanding and so have its inherent risks.This increase in risk requires leaders to balance mis-sion needs with hazards involved and to make wiserisk decisions.
Risk is the possibility of a loss combined with theprobability of an occurrence. The loss can be death,injury, property damage, or mission failure. Riskmanagement identifies risks associated with a par-ticular operation and weighs these risks against theoverall training value to be gained. The four rules ofrisk management are to–
• Accept no unnecessary risk.• Accept risks when benefits outweigh costs.• Make risk decisions at the right command
level.• Manage risk in the concept
stages whenever possible.RISK MANAGEMENT PROCESS
and planning
Follow these steps to manage risk:
• Identify hazards. Look for hazards in eachphase of the training or operation.
• Assess the risk. Ask these questions:— What type of injury or equipment damage
can be expected?— What is the probability of an accident hap-
pening?NOTE: A low probability of an accidentand an expected minor injury equals lowrisk. A high probability of an accident andan expected fatality equals high risk.• Develop risk control alternatives and make
risk decisions. If the risk cannot be
•
•
•
eliminated, then you must control it withoutsacrificing essential mission requirements.You can control some risks by modifyingtasks, changing location, increasing super-vision, wearing protective clothing, or chang-ing the time of operation. Decisions takeseveral forms:
— Selecting from available controls.— Modifying the mission because risk is too
great.— Accepting risk because mission benefits
outweigh potential loss.Implement risk control measures. Integrateprocedures to control risks into plans, orders,standing operating procedures (SOPs), andtraining. Ensure risk reduction measures areused during actual operations.Supervise the operations. Leaders mustknow what controls are in place and whatstandards are expected and then hold thosein charge accountable for implementation.This is the point when accident preventionactually happens.Evaluate the results. Include the effective-ness of risk management controls when as-sessing the operational results. Use lessonslearned to modify future missions.
RISK ASSESSMENT ELEMENTSAssessing risks has no hard and fast rules or
formats. For example, presail orders and inspectionsare essentially an assessment of risk. Different mis-sions involve different elements that can affect opera-tional safety. However, six elements are central tosafely completing most missions:
• Planning.
• Supervision.• Soldier selection.• Soldier endurance.
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• Weather.
• Mission essential equipment.Using matrices that assign a risk level to each of
the elements is one way to quickly assess the overallrisks. The following matrices are examples of riskassessments for the seven elements common towatercraft missions.
NOTE: The factors are arbitrarilyweighted. Modify them based on your par-ticular mission and unit.Measure planning risk by comparing the level of
guidance given to the time and effort expended onpreparation.
EXAMPLE: A landing craft ordered tomake a dry ramp landing on a beach that hadnot been surveyed for gradient and under-water obstructions would create a high risksituation.Measure supervision risk by comparing com-
mand and control to the mission environment.
EXAMPLE: Your vessel has been placedunder operational control of a Navy unit.You cannot adequately communicate withthe Navy unit because of equipment incom-patibility and communication procedures.In a night tactical environment, the risk be-comes high.Measure soldier selection risk by comparing
task complexity with soldier exerience.EXAMPLE: You are the master operatingan LCU with no mate on board in restrictedwaters. If you leave the bridge, you place thevessel at high risk.Measure soldier endurance risk by comparing
the mission environment with availability of basicneeds. (that is, rest, food, and water).
EXAMPLE: You are the master on an LSVoperating in coastal waters with a crewshortage that does not allow for adequatecrew rest. This places your vessel at highrisk.
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Measure mission environment risk by compar-ing the level of supervision to the task location.
EXAMPLE: You are operating a causewayferry (CF) during a LOTS operation off thecoast. Severe weather is moving in. Safehaven is four hours away, but you have beenreleased only two hours before the weatherhits. This places your vessel at high risk.
Measure equipment risk by comparing theavailability of mission essential equipment with thereadiness of that equipment.
EXAMPLE: You are an operator of aLARC-60 carrying very important personsduring a LOTS operation. You do not havean enough life jackets for personnel onboard. This places the crew and passengersat high risk.
After assessing all the risks, the overall risk valueequals the highest risk identfied for anyone element.Next, focus on high risk elements and develop con-
trols to reduce risks to an acceptable level. Controlexamples may include more planning; changes inlocation, supervision, personnel, or equipment; orwaiting for better weather.DECISION LEVEL
The level of the decision maker should cor-respond to the level of the risk. The greater the risk,the more senior the final decision maker should be.
Medium risk training warrants complete unitcommand involvement. If the risk level cannot bereduced, the company commander should decide totrain or defer the mission.
Operations with a high risk value warrant bat-talion involvement. If the risk level cannot bereduced, the battalion commander should decide totrain or defer the mission.
However, vessel masters aboard Armywatercraft that are under way must make high riskdecisions based on their judgment of the situation.
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RISK CONTROL ALTERNATIVESThe following options can help control risk:•
•
•
•
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Eliminate the hazard totally, if possible, orsubstitute a less hazardous alternative.Reduce the magnitude of the hazard bychanging tasks, locations, or times.
Modify operational procedures to minimizerisk exposure consistent with mission needs.Train and motivate personnel to perform tostandards to avoid hazards.
SUPERVISIONLeaders must monitor the operation to ensure
risk control measures are followed. Never underes-timate subordinates’ abilities to sidetrack a decisionthey do not understand or support. Monitor theimpact of risk reduction procedures when they areimplemented to see that they really work, especiallyfor new, untested procedures.
PAYOFFSRisk management gives you the flexibility to
modify your mission and environment while retainingessential mission values. Risk management is consis-tent with METT-T decision processes and can beused in battle to increase mission effectiveness.
FM 55-50
APPENDIX A
WATERCRAFT OPERATIONS IN THE NBC ENVIRONMENT
INTRODUCTIONThe threat or use of NBC agents places an addi-
tional burden on watercraft unit commanders andwatercraft operations in general. They must beprepared to take measures to minimize casualties orloss and damage to equipment, and to continueoperations to the greatest extent possible in this en-vironment.IMPACT ON OPERATIONS
The threat of NBC attack has caused the USArmy to revise its fighting doctrine. AirLand Bat-tle doctrine provides the means to reduce risk bydispersing forces, rapidly bringing these forcestogether to attack when the opportunities for of-fensive operations develop, conducting the opera-tion, and then dispersing the forces. Notpresenting a large target until it is close to enemyelements and the likelihood of an NBC attack min-imizes risk.
Although this doctrine is most effective whendealing with combat forces, those commandersoperating logistical activities in the corps rear or atEAC, must disperse their activities and elements oftheir activities to the fullest extent possible. Doing sodefeats or diminishes possible impacts of NBC threaton their operations.
Nuclear attack presents a variety of problems towatercraft unit operations. The blast and shockwavewill destroy or damage facilities and craft in theimmediate vicinity of the strike. Debris and otheritems floating or submerged in the water after thestrike can damage craft or impair operations, andradioactivity will make some areas impassable orinaccessible for continued operations. The rear arealogistics operations areas, ports, terminals, andLOTS sites will be primary targets. The enemy willtry to destroy or contaminate these areas to eliminateor disrupt our ability to sustain logistics support tothe combat forces.
Chemical and biological attacks cause uni-que problems as well. The threat of chemical orbiological attacks causes significant problems
associated with fear, apprehension, and thedisruptive or devastating effects of having tooperate in protective gear on a sustainedbasis. Chemical or biological contaminationof watercraft or cargos drastically reducesproductivity; these craft and cargos must bedecontaminated. The time required to decon-taminate and the probable shortages of decon-tamination supplies and equipment will causea shortage of craft or vessels to sustain cargooperations.DEFENSE (COUNTERMEASURES)
The efficiency of NBC countermeasuresdepends on the promptness with which they are in-itiated. Preattack protection through early warningand preventive measures taken by the operators andcrews of watercraft and vessels lessens the impactand saves time when it is time to decontaminate.Before the attack or when an attack is initiated, thecrew quickly dons protective clothing and gear;secures all doors, hatches, and vents; and in the caseof watercraft in a port or LOTS operation, dispersesas much as possible. Larger vessels’ crews will takethe same measures and at the same time put thevessel out to sea. Crew members take cover insidethe craft or vessel. On vessels with a washdownsystem, they activate the system.
After the attack, hosing down at a designateddecontamination site or washing down those vesselswith a washdown system are the only counter-measures available to decontaminate the entire craftor vessel’s exterior surfaces. Decontaminationoperations should be planned and conducted so thatnone of the agent reaches heavy-traffic points orother sensitive areas. The agent and wash watershould flow as much as possible into the sea. Nodecontaminated surface or area should be assumedto be completely free of hazard until suitable testsshow negative results.
Only under dire circumstances is contaminatedcargo delivered to the ship, beach, or other desig-nated areas following an attack. Contaminated cargo
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would normally be delivered only to contaminatedareas for decontamination or disposal.
Personnel remain in MOPP 4 until the craft orvessel and the personnel are completely decon-taminated at a designated area or decontaminationsite.STANDING NBC OPERATIONS PROCEDURES
Watercraft unit commanders should incor-porate NBC SOPs in their unit SOPs. Unit and crewpreparedness should include exercises and drills thatrequire recognition and knowledge of NBC alarms,
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donning of protective clothing and gear, and operat-ing in MOPP 1 through MOPP 4 modes for givenperiods to acclimate personnel to the rigors anddifficulties of sustained operations in this gear. Unit,watercraft, and vessel NBC equipment must be main-tained in a high state of readiness at all times, andpersonnel must be familiar with its operation.
NBC SOP checklists should be used on thewatercraft and vessels. As a minimum they shouldcontain those crew tasks and actions to be takenbefore, during, and after an NBC attack.
FM 55-50
APPENDIX B
CAUSEWAY SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTIONCauseway use is relatively unchanged from its
beginning in World War II. Although numerouschanges in design and operation have occurred, itsextension of land is still the causeway mission basis.
Transportability of causeway equipment, untilrecently, proved a major disadvantage for US Armyuse and operation. The Navy lighter series ofcauseway sections measures 6.4 meters by 27.5meters and weighs 68 metric tons. Specially adaptedUS Navy vessels transport the sections by fitting thelongitudinal edge of the section into their hull. Thesection is then hoisted just past vertical and securedusing standing rigging. This side loading technique,though operationally effective, requires a significantinvestment in designed ship assets.
The US Army modular causeway section (MCS)overcomes transportation restrictions through its In-ternational Organization for Standardization (ISO)container compatible design. The MCS is (end toend) compatible with the Navy lighter causeway sec-tion. The MCS is ocean transported by (commercialor military) deck loading or closed cell container-ship. Once on deployment station the MCSs areconnected end to end and side to side to form one ofthree causeway systems: the floating causeway (FC),RO/RO discharge facility (RRDF), and the CF.
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONSThe maximum operating sea condition is sea
state three. However, throughput capacity suffersgreatly after sea state two. Conditions below seastate one are required for assembly and installationof a causeway system. Each crew shift is eight hours.Two hours during each shift is used for preventivemaintenance checks and service (PMCS) and refuelrequirements.
Causeway sections are very seaworthy but areprone to hull punctures. Most punctures do notrender the section unserviceable during the opera-tion with the exception of the causeway powered unit.The stern portion of this section contains the fuel and
engines. Due to the freeboard and lack of watertightintegrity, the powered sections are potential casual-ties of water damage or sinking. Adequatesafeguards must be in place before beginning anoperation. These safeguards include: a severeweather safe haven plan, operating in appropriatesea conditions, and operating the craft within designparameters.FLOATING CAUSEWAY (FC)
The floating causeway (FC), sometimes referredto as the admin pier, provides a floating pier up to229 meters long. The FC allows discharge of rollingstock and containers by forward ramp vessels. TheFC is required when the beach gradient does notallow for discharge lighterage beach landings. Newlyintroduced, larger watercraft (LCU 2000 class andLSVs) all but necessitate the operation of a FC forlogistics over-the-shore operations.
ROLL ON/ROLL OFF DISCHARGE FACILITY(RRDF)
The RRDF provides an open ocean interfacebetween ocean-going vessels and vessels whose draftand design allows for beach or FC operations. ARRDF is required if port facilities are not availableand/or not adequate to meet supply/resupply needs.The RRDF is designed to provide service to self-sustaining and nonself-sustaining commercial andmilitary RO/RO vessels. Servicing nonself-sustaining vessels requires one foot or less of waveheight.CAUSEWAY FERRY (CF)
The CF provides a causeway asset interface be-tween the RRDF and the beach. The CF is thelighterage of choice for integrating the RRDF tobeach operations. The CF is required if other beachcapable vessels are not available. The CF can beconfigured to support lift on/lift off container opera-tions. Only with the heaviest track vehicles does theweight capacity exceed available deck space.
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APPENDIX C
BEACH RECONNAISSANCE
Selecting the beach site is an initial step in plan-ning offshore discharge operations. The head-quarters of the terminal command must select thesite in coordination with personnel of the Navy andthe Military Sealift Command. A reconnaissanceparty consisting of representatives of the terminalcommand, the commander of the terminal battalionthat will operate the site and his S3, the commandersof the terminal service companies, and repre-sentatives of the units that will provide lighteragesupport usually selects the exact site. During thereconnaissance, the commander of the terminal bat-talion assigns company areas and beach frontages,indicates areas of defense responsibility, locates histemporary command post, and tentatively organizesthe area for operational use.
If a ground reconnaissance cannot be made,maps, aerial photographs, and information gatheredfrom intelligence sources form the basis for a carefulstudy of the operational area. If possible, the com-manders and staff officers responsible for planningshould perform an air reconnaissance of the area.
Commanders and staffs of boat units must makea detailed study of the terrain, hydrographic condi-tions, enemy capabilities and dispositions, civilpopulation and attitude, and similarities betweenfactors affecting boat movements and approaches tothe beach. They must also analyze the lighteragerequirements and the tonnages to be handled by theircraft.
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APPENDIX D
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION (EEI)
The critical items of information or intelligencerequired to plan and execute an operation are theessential elements of information. These elementsare developed at the battalion and higher echelonsbased on mission and situation. EEI are classifiedaccording to classification guidance for the opera-tion, and priorities are designated for each item ofinformation. The EEI are then forwarded throughintelligence charnels for fulfillment.
operations. The checklists give an idea of what infor-mation is required to plan marine and terminaloperations.
NOTE: Port or beach EEI is used depend-ing on the specific operation. All operationsrequire the use of lines of communication(LOC) EEI and threat EEI. Town EEI isused for all villages, towns, or cities at ornear the area of operations.
The following EEI lists serve as a reminder ofcritical items to consider for terminal and beach
PORT EEI CHECKLISTGENERAL
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Map sheet number (series, sheet, edition, anddate).Nautical chart number.Grid coordinates and longitude/latitude.Military port capacity and method of capacityestimation.Dangerous or endangered marine or landanimals in the area.Names, titles, and addresses of port authorityand agent personnel.Nearest US consul.Port regulations.Current tariffs.Frequencies, channels, and call signs of theport’s harbor control.
Complete description of the terrain within 25miles of the port.Location of nearest towns (see town EEI),
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
airports, and military installations.HARBOR
Types of harbor.
Lengths and location of breakwaters.
Depth, length and width in the fairway.
Current speed and direction in the fairway.Size and depth of the turning basin.Location and description of navigationalaids.Pilotage procedures required.
Location and degree of silting.Size, frequency, and effectiveness of dredg-ing operations.Description of the port’s dredger.Description of sandbars or reefs in the area.Identity of any marine plants that couldinhibit movement of ships or lighterage.Composition of the harbor bottom (percentage).
WEATHER AND HYDROGRAPHYTypes of weather conditions encountered inthe area.Times when these conditions occur.Prevailing wind direction per calendarquarter.Per calendar quarter, percentage of time forwind speed within 1 to 6 knots, 7 to 16 knots,and over 17 knots.
•
•
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• Maximum, minimum, and averageprecipitation per month to the nearesttenth of an inch.
• Maximum, minimum, and average surface airtemperature per month.
• Frequency, duration, and density of fog anddust.
• Effects of weather on the terrain.• Effects of weather on sea vessel travel.• Effects of weather on logistical operations
(such as off-loading materials on vehiclesand/or rails).
• Seasonal climatic conditions that wouldinhibit port operations for prolonged periods(24 hours or more).
• Type and mean range of the tide.• Direction and speed of the current.• Minimum and maximum water temperature.• Per calendar quarter, percentage of time that
surf is within 0 to 4 feet, 4 to 6 feet, 6 to 9 feet,and over 9 feet.
• Per calendar quarter, percentage of time thatswells are within 0 to 4 feet, 4 to 6 feet, 6 to 9feet, and over 9 feet.
ANCHORAGES
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• Direction and true bearing from release point(RP) of all anchorages.
• Maximum and minimum depth for eachanchorage.
• Current speed and direction at eachanchorage.
• Radius of each anchorage.• Bottom material and holding characteristic
of each anchorage.• Exposure condition of each anchorage.• Offshore and/or nearshore obstacles, what
they are, and their distance and true bearingfrom the port.
PIERS• Type (wooden, concrete), length and width
and present condition of piers located alongshoreline.
• Type of location equipment on piers thatmay be used to off-load cargo.
• Number and types of vessels that piers canaccommodate at one time.
• Safe working load level of the pier (can sup-port 60-, 100-, and 150-ton vehicles and/orequipment).
• Water depth alongside and leading to thepiers.
• Services available (such as water, fuel, andelectricity).
• Available pier storage.• Specialized facilities available for the dis-
charge of RO/RO vessels (such as ramps).• Height of wharves above mean low water
(MLW).
• Current use of wharves.
CRANES• Number and location of cranes.• Characteristics for each crane:
– Lift capability.– Type of power.– Dimensions (maximum/minimum radii,
outreach beyond wharf face, andabove/below wharf hoist).
– Speed (lifting, luffing, and slewing[revolutions]).
– Height and width of port clearance.– Track length and gauge.– Make, model, and manufacturer.– Age and condition.
FM 55-50
OTHER MHE• Number, location, and type of other MHE.
• Characteristics for other MHE:
- Type of power.- Lift capability.
- Dimensions.- Track length and gauge, if any.- Make, model, and condition.- Age and condition
STEVEDORES• Number and size, efficiency, and working
hours of gangs.
• Availability and condition of stevedore gear.• Arrangements for gangs.• Availability of other local, national, or third
country labor.
CRAFT• Number, type, and location of small craft
(tug, pusher, ferry, fishing, pipe laying,barges) located in or near the port.
- Type of storage (open, covered, orrefigerated).
• Characteristics for each craft:- Size and capacity.
- Number of crew.- Berthing spaces.- Number and types of engines.
- Number and types of generators.
- Number of kilowatts for each generator.- Types of air compressors.- Number of air compressors.
- Types of engine control (such asmechanized, hydro, and air).
- Location of engine control (wheelhouse,engine room).
- Normal working hours/day of crew.- Telegraph engine signal, if any.
- Engine manufacturers (Fairbanks, Morse,Detroit, Cooper-Bessemer); types of hull(such as modified V, and round).
- Construction materials (wood, steel,cement, fiberglass).
- Number and types of rudder (steering,flanking).
- Number of propellers (single, twin, ortriple).
- Type of radio (AM, FM, and frequencyrange).
- Layout of the rail and road network in theport.
STORAGE FACILITIES• Number and location of storage facilities.• Characteristics of each:
- Product stored.
- Capacity and/or dimensions.- Floor, wall, and roof material.- State of repair.- Special facilities. - Security facilities.
PORT EQUIPMENT REPAIR FACILITIES• Location, size, and capabilities of repair
facilities.
• Type of equipment.• Number and abfity of repairmen.• Availability and system of procuring repair
parts.SHIP REPAIR FACILITIES
• Number and type of dry dock and repairfacilities.
• Quality of work and level of repairs that canbe made.
• Location, size, and use of other butidings inthe port.
D-3
FM 55-50
• Method for obtaining potable and boiler SECURITYwater in the port. (NOTE: See town EEI foradditional items.)
• Method for obtaining fuel, lube, and dieseloil in the port. (NOTE: See town EEI foradditional items.)
• Medical personnel in port. (NOTE: Seetown EEI for additional items.)
• E1ectrical generating facilities in port orprovisions for obtaining electricity from anexternal source. (NOTE: See town EEI foradditional items.)
• Ship-handling services available in theport.
GENERAL• Map sheet
and date).
• Size and availability of the port security force.
• Physical security facilities currently in useat the port (security fences, storage areas,electronic surveillance, and alarms).
• Fire-fighting equipment available in theport.
BEACH EEI CHECKLIST
number (series, sheet, edition,
• Nautical chart number.
• Grid coordinates and longitude and latitudeof the center beach (CB), left flank (LF), andright flank (RF).
• Shape, length, and usable length of thebeach.
• Firmness of the beach.
• Beach width and backshore width at LF, RF,and points every 200 yards in between.
• Beach composition by percent at the near-shore, foreshore, and backshore.
• Any dangerous or endangered marine or
• Beach gradient at LF, RF, and points every
land animals in the area.
ANCHORAGES• Direction and true bearing from
anchorages.• Maximum and minimum depth
anchorage.
CB of all
for each
• Current speed and direction at each anchorage.
• Radius of each anchorage.• Bottom materials and holding charac-
teristics of each anchorage.
D-4
• Exposure condition of each anchorage.• Protected anchorage nearby for landing
craft.APPROACHES
200 yards in between.• Offshore and/or nearshore obstacles, what
are they, and their distance and true bear-ing from the CB.
• Sandbars or reefs along the beach.
• Composition by percent of the immediateoffshore bottom.
• Description of navigational aids.• Any marine plants that could inhibit move-
ment of landing craft.
HYDROGRAPHY• Type and mean range of the tide.• Direction and speed of the current.• Minimum and maximum water temperature.
• Per calendar quarter, percentage of timethe surf is within 0 to 4 feet, 4 to 6 feet, 6 to9 feet, and over 9 feet.
• Per calendar quarter, percentage of timethat swells are within 0 to 46 to 9 feet, and over 9 feet.
feet, 4 to 6 feet,
FM 55-50
WEATHER• Types of weather conditions encountered in
the area.
• Times when these conditions occur.
• The prevailing wind direction per calendarquarter.
• Per calendar quarter, percentage of timethe wind speed is within 1 to 6 knots, 7 to 16knots, and over 17 knots.
• Maximum, minimum, and averageprecipitation per month to the nearesttenth of an inch.
• Maximum minimum, and average surfaceair temperature per month.
• Frequency, duration, and density of fog.• Effects of weather on terrain, sea vessel
travel, and logistical operations (such as off-loading materials on vehicles and/or rails).
• Seasonal climatic conditions that wouldinhibit LOTS operations for prolongedperiods (24 hours or more).
VEHICLE TRAFFICABILITY• Vehicle trafficability in dry and wet condi-
tions for wheeled and tracked vehicles.• Type of matting recommended (such as
MOMAT or steel planking).• Exit points for vehicles along the beach.• Roads along or leading from the beach.
• Materials that make up roads.
• Condition of the roads.• Distance from the road to MLW and high
water line.
CONSTRUCTION• Buildings on the beach.• Distance and true bearing of buildings from
CB.• Size, construction, and use of buildings.• Fortifications or obstacles on the beach.
• Distance and true bearing of obstacles fromthe CB.
• Size and construction of fortfications orobstacles.
• Piers along the beach.• Distance and true bearing of piers from the
CB.• Pier type, length, width, construction
material present condition and water depthalongside.
NEAR HINTERLAND (within 1,000 meters ofshoreline)
• Dunes along the beach; description of dunelength, width, height, and distance fromhigh water shoreline.
• Characteristics of terrain and vegetation.• Where tree line begins.• Availability and description of open storage
areas.• Power and/or pipelines in the area.
• Location size, construction, and purpose ofany buildings or other man-made objects.
• Estuaries and inland waterways; distancefrom high water shoreline (see lines of com-munication EEI).
• Road and/or rail networks (see lines of com-munication EEI).
• Town (see town EEI).
FAR HINTERLAND (1 to 30 kilometers frombeach)
• Characteristics of terrain and/or vegetation.• Power and/or pipelines in the area.• Road, rail and water networks (see lines of
commnunication EEI).• Town (see town EEI).
• Nearest airport (airport EEIs are developedwhen required).
• Military installations in the area anddescription of each.
D-5
FM 55-50
LINES OF COMMUNICATION EEI
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ROADS• Type of primary roads (concrete, asphalt).• Primary and secondary roads that allow
north-south and lateral movement.• Capacity of intraterminal road networks.• Present condition of these roads.• Bridges constructed along these roads.
• Construction materials of bridges along theseroutes.
• Width and weight allowance of thesebridges.
• Overpasses and tunnels located along theseroutes.
• Width and height allowance of the overpassesand tunnels.
• Major cities that roads enter and exit.
• Type of rail line and rail network.• Location and weight allowance of rail
bridges.• Location and restriction of overpasses and
tunnels that pass over rail lines.• Gauges.• Equipment available (for example,
locomotives [steam or diesel], flatcars,and boxcars).
• Ownership of rail network (private or government).
• Address and telephone number of rail net-work authorities.
INLAND WATERWAY• Width of the waterway.• Average depth, speed of the water, and
shallow point.
D-6
• With given cargo weight, how close to theshore will water depth allow types ofvehicles.
• Capacity to conduct clearance operationsvia inland waterway.
• Points at which tugs will be needed to sup-port travel of vessel.
• Points along the coast that are mostsuitable for different types of sea and/orland operations.
• Types of channel markers.• Points that are most suitable for mining of
waterway.• Effect, such as timely delay, that mining
would have on ship passage.
• Locations at which waterways narrow into choke point.
• Other than choke points, locations wherevessels are vulnerable to shore fire.
• Security that is available for vessels (under-way, at anchor, or tied up).
• Type of special units, such as water sappers,that can threaten sea vessels.
• Local shore security available to protect ves-sels once they are docked.
• Type and number of local watercraft avail-able to move cargo.
• Maintenance capability that exists for thesevessels.
• Docks along the waterway.• Local regulations that govern inland water-
way operations.• Address and/or telephone number of the
waterway authorities, if any.
RAIL
FM 55-50
THREAT EEI CHECKLISTEnemy threat and capability in the area of In addition to port/LOTS operations, other
operation (air, ground, NBC). primary targets in the area (military bases, key
Description of local overt/covert organization industrial activities, political/cultural center, and
from which hostile action can be expected. earth station).
Availability of local assets for rear area securityoperations.
TOWN EEI CHECKLISTGENERAL
• Name of towns.• Grid coordinates and longitude and latitude
of the towns.• Size and significance of the towns.• Primary means of livelihood for the towns.• Form of government that exists.
• Description of the local police and/or militia.• Description of the local
equipment.• Local laws or customs
operations in this area.• Availability of billeting.
POPULATION• Size of the population.• Racial and religious
population.• Languages spoken.
fire department and
that will impact on
breakdown of the
• Political or activist parties that exist in thetown.
• Population attitude (friendly or hostile).
LABOR• Names, addresses, and telephone numbers of
contracting agents available with servicesthat may be needed during operations (forexample husbanding agents, potablewater/boiler water, ship repair, coastal ves-sels, lighterage, machinist, and skilled/unskilled labor).
WATER• Availability of potable water and boiler
water.• Size, location, and condition of water
purification or desalinization plants.• Other sources of water, if any.
• Quantity, quality, method, and rates ofdelivery.
• Special size connections required, if any.• Water barges available, if any.• Water requiring special treatment before
use, if any.MEDICAL FACILITIES
• Location, size, capabilities, and standardsof local hospitals and other medicalfacilities.
• Availability of doctors (specialized), nurses,and medical supplies.
• Any local diseases which require specialattention or preventive action.
• Overall health and sanitary standards of thetowns and surrounding area.
ELECTRICITY• Location, size (kilowatts), and condition of
the power station servicing the area.• How power station is fueled.• Location and size of transformer stations.• Voltage and cycles of the electricity.• Other sources of electricity, such as large
generators, in the area of significance.
D-7
FM 55-50
POL• Location and size of wholesale fuel dis-
tributors in the area (including type offuel).
• Location and size of POL storage areasand/or tanks in the area (including type offuel).
COMMUNICATIONS• Location and size (kilowatts) of local radioand television stations.
• Address of telephone and/or telex offices.• Description of domestic telephone service
in the area (type, condition, number oflines, switching equipment, and use oflandlines or microwave).
D-8
FM 55-50
APPENDIX E
FORMAT OF GEOGRAPHICAL ANNEX
NATURAL PHENOMENA• Climate.• Weather: seasonal expectancy and extreme
conditions; effects of weather on ships,craft, and working conditions.
• Winds: prevailing and extreme.• Tide tables.• Tables of daylight, moonlight, and
darkness.• Star charts.
SHORELINE OTHER THAN BEACHES• General characteristics.
ANCHORAGES• Characteristics of sheltered anchorages for
small craft and of adjacent beaches suitablefor boat maintenance and bivouacs.
EXISTING PORTS• Evaluation of wharves, docks, unloading
facilities, covered and uncovered storage,repair facilities, and routes.
• Availability of native labor.
UNDERDEVELOPED HARBORS• Potential capacity and facilities when
developed.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS• Actual or potential supply of gravel, timber,
and other construction materials.
EXISTING ROADS AND RAILROADS• Net characteristics.• Railroad facilities immediately or potentially
available.LANDING BEACHES
• Include for each beach–- Exact location.- Portions with clear approaches.- Bars, reefs, and other obstacles (natural
or constructed by the enemy).- Gradient of underwater approaches and
its effect on the beaching of landing shipsand craft.
- Effect of tides on the width of thebeach.
- Nature of bottom immediately off thebeach.
- Surf.- Currents near shore.- Physical consistency of the beach; its ef-
fect on the movement of personnel andvehicles.
- Width at all tides.- Terrain behind the beach including con-
sistency of the ground, effect on move-ment, cover, swamps, and bogs.
- Exits, existing and potential.
- Water supply.- Terrestrial observations over beaches.
E-1
APPENDIX F
EXTRACT OF QSTAG 592: FORECAST MOVEMENT REQUIREMENTS - RAIL, ROAD AND INLAND WATERWAYS
DETAILS OF AGREEMENT
Annex : A. Table of Forecast Korexent Requirsumts - Rail, Boad and Inland ;daterways;
Rela ted docments : STANAG 2021 - Conputation of Bridge, %ft and Vehicle C l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
QSTAG 5 6 2 (STANAG 2156)- Surface Trzns?ort Request and Reply t o Surface Traspart Reqaezt.
STANAG 1059 - National S.stinguishing L e t t e r s f o ~ use A R.1 - by HAT0 F4arcee.
I. The aim of t h i s agreement i s t a a t a n h r d i z e for ABCA Forces a docunent common t o several means of transport for the q u n o s e of s u b m i t t i n g f o r e c a s t mvement requirements , including aovenent requirements based on ayproved cont ingency ,? lzss , to the* o m national a c t h o r i t i e s a n a l o r t o the nations concerned in such move-te.
2. P a r t i c i p a t i n g n a t i o n s agree t o use the standard f - -mat . found at Amex A for t h e "Table of F o r e c a s t Movement Requirement.: - R a i l , Road and In1 and Waterways W.
I,. A s soon as military a u t h o r i t i e s have knowledge of t h e i r movement (or trimsport) r e q u i r e n e n t e , f o r a given per iod of time, they a r a t o infor ; . - t b a military a u t h o r i t y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o r g a i z a t i o n or movernexts ( o r t rans?ort ) i n t h e originating n a t i o n ( o r i n t h e originating zone in a ration) as soon as poss ib l e .
4. \'men f o m z d i n g the essential informat ion the r e q u e s t i n g authority nust nse t h e f o r m a t of *he "Table of Forecas t ~ l o v e ~ e n t R e q u i r e m n t s - B a i l , 3oad and Icland V a t e r w a y ~ ~ ~ shown a t Annex A as follows:
a. Action t To t h e n i l i t a r y authority of f h e o r ig ina t i cq n a t i o n ( o r i n t h e o r i g i n a t i n g zone i n a n a t i o n ) i n charge of the o r g a d z a t i o r , or' novene~fs.
b. I x f o x a t i o n : To the nilitary ~ x t h o ~ i t l e s cc~neermed of the transiting na t i oa a d c a t i o r : o f c i e s t i a a t i o n ( o r t h e transitir-g zone arld zone of d e s t i o a t i o z in a nation).
5 a S . > u d ~ of 119ib lo of Fcrecast 24o:renez'. ,'!aq-zi:czantn - I'.ail, Road a d In land ~ater~rays" w i l l +llow t h e militazy ac tho r i t y in charge of =!IS
o r g z n i z a t i o n of movenents in the originating n a t i o n (ur in t h e originating zone in a na t ion) :
To carry out a pzeliainary survey on the possibilities of g r a t i n g the request,
To take t h e first s tepa with t h e nilitary authoritica of the transitiry nation and n a t i o n of desti~ation (cr t h e trazlsiling zone and zone of deai inat ion in a nation).
To select the t y p e of transport t o be used.
(1) Of s,teps teken to satisfy hie requests.
(2) Of t h o rnoveraents f o r which it will be nccess?xy f o r the requesting a u t h o r i t y t o make out a t~Trulspurt Requesttb in accordauce with the provision8 of @TAG 562.
To develop suppcrt ing t ranspor ta t icn plans tor forecast requirements resulting fron approved contingency planc.
6. The Forecast Movement Requirements - R a i l , Road and Inland Waterways must b e forwarded, i f p o s s i b l e , i n w r i t i n g . I t can a l s o b e forwarded by s i g n a l or by te lephone by u s i n g the code i d e n t i f y i n g the d i f f e r e n t items and co1umns. A specimen o f the "Forecast Movement Requirements - R a i l , Road and Inland Waterways" a s transmitted by s i g n a l , i s e n c l o s e d a t Appendix 2 t o Annex A .
i i For r.urcr br~d cxp1rn;rLton ret hppcndlx 1 t o Ullr Annex.
F o x t r o t
Alpha
Bravo
Charlie
Del ta
Gcho
Gclf
Period of Famcast
Im'LNIIrG
Serials or B e Item&
Reference Nrder UP Ukaa,me
Consignor
Location vldC~ord.hatea
Consignee
Location ~ x l f b o z d b z r t e n
~at ion / iu ' a t io r i~ Zones Cob -r: ern
Type of Traapaz-t Prefenei!
Enter c l a s s i f i c a t i ~ r of report as determined by o r i g h t i n g dency .
Enter period of f o r e c a s t .as announced by the appropriate na t i ona l authority.
Enter unit designation of organization responsible for submitting, Signal Group.
Enter unit designation of organization directed to receive forecast within o r i ~ i n a t i n g nation.
Use separate serial or l i n e number f o r each shipaent foreces t
Enter exact l o c a t i o n and coordinates ( 2 letters, 6 figures)
i
Enter s p e c i f i c dispatching agency
I
Enter s p e c i f i c receiving cgency 1
t
Enter exact l o c z t i o n and 1
.I coordisntos ( 2 ietters, 6 figures ,. I
h t e r Nations:! distinguish in^ Let te rs (see S T L U G 1059)
I I I
h t e r prcf e r r e t node: Road I [rP, Bail (eec STbllAG 2156) ,
1
Quebec
Roneo
Sierra
Nunber mc! Type" Passenger
Class of Supply and Tonnage
Rate of Despatch
Date IIw-merit to comence
Date I~Icvfxent ?referred/ R e q ~ i r e d f ~ r Cor?lation
assist t h e ~ o v e n e n ~ s ~ ~ r s o ~ z e i in selecting t5e nc2e of i transportation.
i
Exter class of suggly, c s t i r n x t ~ ~ j t o n s znc? cu.be. Nctc: ( s t a t e t;~? of t o n used e.g. ~ ~ . e t r L c T C ~ . ~ I ? I ' : :
~ . - m h a r ef v e h i c l cs/t2~1-Ls to be noved v z i g h t in t c x s (see note at J u l i e t above) for each, military lotld cl3ss.i- f i c a t i o n in accoriance ~ 5 t h SPAnJAG 202; ( ~ c z d ) a d skof ch number 3 t h c unifFe2. ccntours booklet ( ~ c f 1).
mter earliest d s t c t h a t zoove- n m t caE comence.
c oLmm
Tango
Unif o m
Priorities I Enter assigned priority.
Rernarke r
Enter any in fomat ior vhich w i l aesist in p l m n i n g t h e move, 0.g. heavy lifts, d ~ l n g ~ r o u s mter ia l . , s y e c i a l h a 6 1 i n g data on vllee1cd. vehicles a d passenger requirements.
MBSSAGE ( ~ ~ e c i n r n l
APPENDIX 2 ANNEX A TO QSTAG 592
SOBJZCT t TABLE OF FORIXAST M O V E m i T REQGIBEEZNTS - RAIL, R O D AXD INLA;?D \tBTZ?!./A'iS ?OR PEtIOD OF 10 JAlf TO
083 ALFA
B U V O
CEIU.LIS
DZLTA
ECaO
FOXT3OT
GOLF
90TEL
XlTCIA
3?JLIET
KILO
L I I*LA
M I K E
NOTi ' !3Zn
OSCAR
PAPA
QUE73GC
ROI-?ZO
sszxle4 TAITGO
DNI3'ORI.f
p/156
3 BEPL BH ZEEBXJGGE ES (6 figures)
9 REPL CO
IUIKITSTER MC ( 6 figures)
BE/WL/GE
R A I L
200
TROOPS
BAGGAGE
8 PIT
400 CU FT
N I L
NIL
NIL
NIL
50 MT PER DAY,
12 J1LI
15 JX? F c S ~ G I ~ l I
WO
NIL
ALFA
BRAVO ntl A nr .rn bnatrlJlr;
DELTA
ECHO lirnl7TRryF - --.-I."* GOLP
HOTEL
I N D I A
JULIET
K I L O
L r n l - I IgE
NOVXMBER
OSCAR
PAPA
QrnBEC n n u i T ~ u
SIERRA
T A X 0
UNIFQ-w
THREE ALFA
BRAVO
CHARLIE
DELTA
ECHO
FOXTROT
GOLF
HOTEL
INDIA m r r- J U L l E L
KILO LIMA
MIgE
NOv'EMBEE
OSCAR
PAPA
QUEBEC
s/7 2 3 DEPOT 603
ZEEBRDGGE ES ( 6 figures)
ASP 503
MUNSTER MC (6 figures) 'PG, ATT / m n an/ 11 u/ U&
RAIL
NIL
N I L AMPIUNITION
5000
1500 CU EETRES
N I L
N I L
NIL
NIL
1000 tE/PER DAY
12 JAN 16 JAN REQUIRED
TWO WTT. I. AU
v415 DEPOT 605
GEEL FS (6 figures)
SP 505
R H E m b E I L m (6 figures)
BE/NL/GE U L
NIL
N I L
N I L
NIL BIL
10
60 MT
40
3145 2
GLOSSARY
AC ACV AFRTS
AM A 0 APU ARTEP
ASMIS
BD CB CF CHI COMMZ COMSEC cows COSCOM DA D-day DOD DS EAC ECCM EEI EW FC
FM FMS ft G2
GS HF
in INMARSAT
alternating current air- cushion vehicle Armed Forces Radio and Television Service amplitude modulated area of operation auxiliary power unit Army Training and Evaluation Program Army Safety Management Information System floating cranes cciiizr beach
causeway ferry coastal harbor and inland waterway communications zone communications security continental United States corps support command Department of the Army deployment day Department of Defense direct support echelons above corps electronic countermeasures essential elements of information electronic warfare floating causeway frequency modulated floating machine shop feet assistant chief of staff for security and intelligence general support high frequency inches International Maritime Satellite Systems infrared International Organization for Standardization
TWW m s IWWT 52 J-boats JCS JFC JP4 U C V LAMP-H LARC LASH LCM LCU LF LIC LOC LOGMARS
LOTS LSB LSD LST Lsv LT LVT LVTA MARS MCS METT-T
MHE MHZ MLW MOMAT MOPP MOS
mph MSC MSR
inland waterway inland waterway system inland waterway terminal joint intelligence picketboats Joint Chiefs of Staff joint forces command jet fuel 4 lighter air-cushion vehicle lighter, amphibian, heavy-lift lighter amphibious resupply cargo lighter aboard ship landing craft, mechanized landing craft, utility left flank low-int ensity conflict h e s of communication logistics application of automated marking and reading symbology Iogistics over-the-shore operations lower sideband landing ship, dock landing ship, tank logistics support vessel large tug landing vehicle, tracked landing vehicle, tracked, armored Military Affiliated Radio Stations modular causeway section mission, enemy, terrain, troops, and time available materials handling equipment megahertz mean low water mobility matting mission-oriented protective posture military occupational specialty miles per hour Military Sealift Command main supply route
MWO NA NBC NCO NM OPCON ORP OTSR n A n-7 rwix
PLL PMCS
POL psi RF ROIRO nn KY
RPV RRDF S2 SEABEE SES SFC CTflhT A x I 31Ul*tI V
modification work order ..fit .,-J:t.ahla UVL appuuaurb
nuclear, biological, and chemical noncommissioned officer nautical mile operational control ocean reception point optimum track ship routing .._- Llf - -.-A- .-_ -A'- 1.--- -L ---- t - - -- puollc auromaiic Drancn excnange
prescribed load list preventive maintenanace checks and service petroleum, oils, and lubricants pounds per square inch right flank roll on/roli off release point remotely piloted vehicles roll onlroll off discharge facility inteIligence officer (US Army) sea barge ship earth station sergeant first class -:-..I .....-I ...-..:"at:-.. a q p a u u uavlganuu
SINGARS
SLEP SOP
sq ft ST STON TAACOM rF A nc- 1 flu
TC TCMD
TDA TEU TM TOE mn A x ~ o r i n 1 I 1 ~ ~ 3 L U l V l
UIC us USB USCG USMC VHF
Single-Channel Ground and Airborne R d i n Systems - ---- service life extension program standing operating procedure square feet small tug short ton theater army area command &L - T T O Xl---->- ---- 2z:--- ---- - -I-:- ine u 3 LY avy s auxulary cxant; smp
Transportation Corps transportation control and movement document table of distribution and allowances twenty-foot equivalent unit technical manual table of organization and equipment L -----a- &-A:-- ------A iranspuriaiiun wmmanu
unit identification code United States upper sideband United States Coast Guard United States Marine Corps very high frequency
Section 11. DEFINITIONS
amphibious operations - an attack launched from the sea by naval and landing forces embarked in ships or craft in- volving a landing on a hostile shore. Its purpose is to establish a landing force on shore to facilitate further combat ,,,,, c:,,.. 4.- ...-.-..-... .. ..:be $-.. n.. ...-I -,.-,...-+a ...,-,.-,I n.. ,,:,. ,-,* --=, +La ,ac', .,m .,,.a,, ,.,p f9p;l;f;mc f* +hm UpCJ illlVIW, L U 5GLW G Q 5ALG lU1 (1l1 U U V a l b G U l l Q V c l l U1 Qll Ua3L., ur L U Ubuy ~ u b u3b u r ~ L L c u ba u r rabuubo r u LUU
enemy. Tactical withdrawal of troops from land involving Navy ships may also be termed an amphibious opera- tion. Army landing craft may participate in joint amphibious operations.
bare beach operations -operations on a beach which is essentially as nature made it. Considerable engineer sup- port is needed to provide a facility suitable for cargo operations, but engineer support can be greatly reduced with the use of amphibians. These types of facilities are inefficient and only used when fured or unimproved facilities are unavailable or inadequate. There are no preexisting facilities, but LOTS site location should be in proximity to highway and rail facilities. All other capabilities, MHE, hardstand, communications, and support facilities would have to be provided.
deployment - a voyage that will place the vessel more than 24 hours from a safe haven during the transit. This is not a cargo mission but a mission to relocate or deliver the vessel to a new operating location.
depth of breaking- the still water depth at the point where a wave breaks. On an evenly sloping beach, this depth is approxbately 1.3 times the height of breaking. A sandbar may cause waves to break in water 1.7 times the breaker height.
fued-port facility- a facility specifically designed to accommodate cargo discharge or backload operations. Such facilities are characterized by sophisticated equipment and procedures. They are frequently oriented toward a specific type of w g o such as container, RO/RO, hazardous, and general cargo, &hough there is a recent trend toward combination facilities. Fixed piers normally have extensive hardstands areas, transit sheds, shore cranes, and access to wzU established and well defined rail and road nets.
harbor - a partly enclosed body of water that provides safe and suitable anchorage for ships. Harbors are either natural, seminaturd, or manmade.
jetty harbor - a harbor that depends largely or entirely on jetties or breakwaters for the protection they offer.
lagoon harbor - a shallow lake separated from the sea by a narrow island built up from soil, sand deposits, or coral growth. A lagoon is much more sheltered than a roadstead.
logistics over-the-shore (LOTS) operations- ship discharge operations that use Army watercraft units and teams to provide lighterage to transport cargo from oceangoing ships. Traditionally, LOTS has meant operations wherein a vessel anchored in open water, was discharged into Lighterage, and the lighterage was subsequently dis- charged over a bare beach. The current defmition of LOTS includes any vessel discharge operation where the ves- sel is directly discharged to other than land or land transportation. LOTS includes any vessel discharge over the shore.
refraction- the bending of a wave crest caused by one portion of the wave reaching shallow water while the remainder of the wave, still in deep water, speeds on. As a result, the wave crest swings around and parallels the coastline.
roadstead- one of the simplest forms of natural harbors. It is a sheltered anchorage parallel to or along the seacoast and flanked on its seaward side by a chain of islands or reefs.
river harbor - a harbor situated on a river at some distance from its mouth.
significant wave height - the average height of the highest one-third of all observed waves.
surf zone - the area extending from the outer breaker line to the limit of the wave uprush on the beach. Other fac- tors being equal, a wide surf zone offers less hazard to landing craft than a narrow surf zone.
unimproved facility- a fvred facility not specifically designed for cargo operations. An example of this type facility would be a pier facility frequented by fishing vessels; it would have a hardstand or hard surface alongside a shallow body of water and perhaps some type of simple shore crane used to load and discharge fishing boats. A noted lack of sophisticated facilities and equipment characterizes the facility. Water depth and pier length would be inade- quate for oceangoing vessels. Road nets would be sparse and rail probably nonexistent. Existing facilities might be adapted for use in cargo operations, but MHE, transit sheds, marshaling area, and communications would have to be provided to support operations.
wave height - the difference in elevation between the trough and crest of a wave.
wavelength- the distance between successive wave crests.
wave period- the time between the passage of two consecutive crests past a fixed point.
wave steepness- the ratio of wave height to wavelength.
wave velocity - the rate of travel of an individual crest.
FM 55-50
REFERENCES
SOURCES USEDThese are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication.Army Regulations (ARs)AR 15-6. Procedures for Investigating Officers and Boards of Officers. 11 May 1988.AR 55-19. Marine Casualties. 12 October 1970.AR 56-9. Watercraft. 30 March 1988.AR 385-40. Accident Reporting and Records. 1 April 1987.AR 310-25. Dictionary of United States Army Terms (Short Title: AD). 15 October 1983.AR 310-50. Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity Codes. 15 November 1985.AR 700-4. Logistic Assistance Program. 31 December 1984.Department of the Army Forms (DA Forms)DA Form 1208. Report of Claims Officer. January 1955.DA Form 285. US Army Accident Investigation Report. August 1990.Department of the Army Pamphlets (DA Pams)DA Pam 385-95. Aircraft Accident Investigation and Reporting. 15 June 1983.DA Pam 738-750. Functional Users Manual for The Army Maintenance Management System (TAMMS).
31 October 1989.Department of Defense Forms (DD Forms)DD Form 1384. Transportation Control and Movement Document (TCMD). April 1966.
Department of Defense Regulations (DOD Regs)DOD Reg 4500.32-R, Volume 2. Military Standard Transportation and Movement Procedures
(MILSTAMP): Transportation Account Codes (TACS). 15 February 1987.
Field Manuals (FMs)FM 24-1. Signal Support in the AirLand Battle. 15 October 1990.FM 31-12. Army Forces in Amphibious Operations (The Army Landing Forces). 28 March 1961.FM 55-15. Transportation Reference Data. 9 June 1986.FM 55-17. Terminal Operations Coordinator’s Handbook. 18 July 1979.FM 55-60. Army Terminal Operations. 18 May 1987.FM 55-501. Marine Crewman’s Handbook. 15 March 1983.FM 55-501-1. Landing Craft Operator’s Handbook. 13 May 1985.FM 55-501-2. Harbor Craft Crewman’s Handbook. 21 December 1984.FM 100-2-1. Soviet Army Operations and Tactics. 16 July 1984.FM 100-2-2. Soviet Army Specialized Warfare and Rear Area Support. 16 July 1984.FM 100-2-3. The Soviet Army Troops Organization and Equipment. 16 July 1984.FM 100-37. Terrorism Counteraction. 24 July 1987.
References-1
FM 55-50
FM 101-10-1/1. Staff Officers’ Field Manual - Organizational, Technical, and Logistical Data (Volume 1).7 October 1987.
FM 101-10-1/2. Staff Officers’ Field Manual - Organizational, Technical, and Logistical Data PlanningFactors (Volume 2). 7 October 1987.
International Standardization Agreements
QSTAG 592. Forecast Movement Requirements - Rail, Road and Inland Waterways. 1979.Joint/Multiservice PublicationsFM 20-12/FMFM 4-22/NWIP 22-6/AFR 75-6/LFM 03/NWP 22-6. Amphibious Embarkation. 11 June 1987.FM 31-11/NWP 22(B)/AFM 2-53/LFM-01. Doctrine for Amphibious Operations. 1 August 1967.Miscellaneous PublicationsUniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ).TechnicaI Bulletins (TBs)TB 55-1900-202-12/1. Watercraft Preventive Maintenance. 28 August 1988.
READINGS RECOMMENDEDThese sources contain relevant supplemental information.Army Regulations (ARs)AR 570-2. Manpower Requirements Criteria (MARC) - Tables of Organization and Equipment.
22 May 1987.AR 710-2. Supply Policy Below the Wholesale Level. 13 January 1988.AR 750-1. Army Materiel Maintenance Policy and Retail Maintenance Operations. 30 October 1989.Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs)Title 33. Navigation and Navigable Waters.Title 46. Shipping.Title 49. Transportation.Department of the Army Pamphlets (DA Pams)DA Pam 25-30. Consolidated Index of Army Publications and Blank Forms. 30 September 1990.Field Manuals (FMs)FM 8-35. Evacuation of the Sick and Wounded. 22 December 1983.FM 19-30. Physical Security. 1 March 1979.FM 55-1. Army Transportation Services in a Theater of Operations. 30 November 1984.FM 55-509. Marine Engineman’s Handbook. 3 October 1986.FM 55-511. Operation of Floating Cranes. 12 December 1985.FM 90-13 (HTF). River Crossing Operations (How to Fight). 1 November 1978.FM 90-14. Rear Battle. 10 June 1985.
References-2
FM 55-50
Technical Manuals (TMs)TM 11-5820-1044-12. Operator’s and Organizational Maintenance Manual for HR Radio System.
15 February 1989.TM 55-500. Marine Equipment Characteristics and Data. 26 May 1987.TM 55-503. Marine Salvage and Hull Repair. 13 July 1966.
References-3
INDEX
ACV. See Air cushion vehicles. Essential elements of information (EEI) Air cushion vehicles (ACVs). See also Lighter air beach C-4, C-5
cushion vehicle. 2-1 lines of communication C-6
Amphibious operations assault 5-3,s-4 communications 5-6 embarkation 5-1,s-2 maintenance support 5-6 markers for 5-4,5-5 movement 5-5 5-3 planning 5-1 rehearsal 5-2
Battle/crew drills format l3-1 training 13-1
Beach characteristics composition 11-1 gradient 11-1,ll-2 reefs 11-4 rocks 11-3,ll-4 sandbars 11-2, 11-3 sea bottom 11-2 vegetation 11-4
Beach markers 5-4
Beach reconnaissance 3-3, B- 1
Comrnunica tions amphibious operations 5-6 equipment 14- 1 marine 14-1 tactical 14-1
Computations daily tonnage capabilities 3-5,3-6 IWW using barge carrying ships 4-5 IWW not using barge wrying ships 4-6 lighter requirements 3-5 turnaround time 3-5,4-4
Contingency operations 15-2
Convoy operat ions charts for 8-1,s-3 command and control of 8-2 through 8-5 conducting 8-1 through 8-5 plans for 8-1,8-2
port C-1 through C-4 threat C-7 town C-7, C-8
Geographical annex D- 1
Hydrographic markers 5-4
Inland waterway (IWW) operations equipment 4-1 organization 4-1
IWW. See Inland waterway operations.
LACV. See Lighter air cushion vehicle
Landing craft, mechanized (LCM) capabilities 2-5 characteristics 2-5 description 2-5
Landing craft, utility (LCU) capabilities 2-7 characteristics 2-7 description 2-10
LCM. See Landing craft, mechanized.
LCU. See Landing craft, utility.
LIC. See Low-intensity conflict.
Llghter air cushion vehicle (LACV) capabilities 2-11 characteristics 2-11,2-12 description 2-11
Logistics over-the-shore (LOTS) operations antibroaching 3-7 beaches 3-3,3-8,3-9 control 3-6 jumpers 3-7 orders 3-4 reconnaissance for 3-4,3-5 salvage 3-7 support of 2-1,2-2,2-5,2-10,2-11,2-14
Logistics support vessels (LSVs) 2-1
LOTS. See Logistics over-the-shore operations,
Currents 11-4,ll-5 LSV. See Logistics support vessels.
EEL See Essential elements of information.
Maintenance. See also specific transportat ion maintenance units.
categories 9-2,9-3 concepts 9-1,9-2 management 9-5,9-6
Marine casualty accident report 10-2 initial report 10-1 investigation and procedures 10-2 through 10-4 written report 10-1,lO-2
Mobility [email protected] corps 2-2 division 2-2 echelons above corps 2-2
Ocean reception point 4-1,4-4
ORP. See Ocean reception point.
Riverine operations conduct 7-57-3 organization 7-1 plans 7-2 security 7-1,7-2
Shore-t o-shore operations assembly areas 6-1 control 6-1 rivers 6-1,6-2
Surf 11-5 through 11- 10
Tide 11-10
Threat air 1-1,l-2 countering of 1-51-3, A-2 electronic warfare 1-1,l-3 land 1-1,l-3 nuclear, biological, and chemical 1- 1, A-1 through
A-3 water 1-1,1-2
Towing types of 12-1,12-2 factors for 12-1,12-2,12-4 procedures 12- 1,12-3,12-4
Transportation company (watercraft maintenance) (GS)
assigrnent 9-6 capabilities 9-6,9-7 equipment 9-6,9-7 mission 9-6
Transportation floating craft maintenance detachment assignment 9-8 capabilities 9-8 equipment 9-8 mission 9-8
Transportation heavy boat company assignment 2-6 capabilities 2-6,2-7 mission 2-6 organization 2-6 task equipment 2-7 through 2-10
Transportation medium boat company assignment 2-2,2-3 capabilities 2-3,2-4,2-5 mission 2-2 organization 2-4,2-5 task equipment 2-5
'P ,,,,,,- c cz-- 1 1 ---- 1:-1.L- rr uspuriaiwn rneruum llgncer company (ACV)
assignment 2-10 capabilities 2-10 mission 2-11 organization 2-10 task equipment 2- 11,2- 12
Watercraft operations in LIC 15-1 operations in NBC environment A-1 through A-3 teams 2-2 through 2-14 threat to 1-1 and 1-2 types 2-1,2-2
Water transport units. See also specific units. command relationships 2-2
Weather affects on towing 12-4 forecasts 11-11,11-12 information 11- 11
Wind 11-10,11- 12
FM 55-50 30 SEPTEMBER 1993
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
Official:
*4- MILTON H. HAMILTON
Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army
04033
GORDON R. SULLIVAN General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, USAR and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-1 1 E, requirements for FM 55-50, Army Water Transport Operations (Qty rqr block no. 0394).
'US. Government Printing Office: 1993 - 728-027180039
