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Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics
• “Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and choice, is thought to aim at some good; . . . ” (NE I,1).
• What is the chief good we aim at?• Answer: Happiness.
• Question: But how do you define happiness?
I, 4-5: Common Opinions on the Meaning of Happiness
• Happiness = PLEASURE?• “pleasure” refers to physical enjoyment.
• Happiness = HONOR?
• Happiness = WEALTH?
• Happiness = CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE?
I, 6: Meaning and Types of “Good”
• Difficulty re: the Form of the Good.• Honor truth more than our friends (Plato)!
• “Good” is an adjective used in many way• re: Substances• re: Accidents
• Non-relative goods: good in themselves• Relative goods: • good or useful for something else.
I,7: The Specific Human Good
• Happiness is a non-relative good:• = good in itself.• Relative goods are chosen for the sake of
happiness.
• Characteristics of Happiness:• self-sufficient• desirable• complete• goal or end of action (final cause)
Argument for Nature of Happiness
• Everything has a natural function(s)• IF it functions well, we call it “good.”• Human beings have a function(s).• Functioning is related to soul, as source of motion/action
• Living = functioning
• Living well = functioning well.• Functioning well means to function with excellence =
arete = virtue.• Human excellence = functioning with virtue.• In keeping with the highest and best functions.
• Living = functioning
• Living well = functioning well.
• Functioning well means to function with excellence = arete = virtue.
• Human excellence = functioning with virtue• in keeping with the highest and best functions.
I, 7: Definition of Happiness (Formal Cause)
• “Human good” [= happiness] is
• activity of soul [genus]
• in conformity with the best and most complete excellence. [specific difference]
Greek terms
• Happiness (ευδαιμονία - eudaimonia:)
• Activity of soul (ένεργεία ψυχής –
• energeia psuches
• According to excellence/virtue (άρετη –
• arete)
Happiness is:
• Happiness is a good of the soul.
• Happiness is for the noble and good person.
• Happiness requires external goods• for life and human functioning• to do good deeds • Happiness obtained by some kind of
learning/training.
I,13: Nature of Human Soul
• non-rational functions + rational functions• / \ / \• / \ / \• nutrition appetite intellectual• growth desires • reproduction • ↓ ↓• Moral Virtues Intellect. Virtues• (or vices) (or vices)
Two Types of Virtues
• Virtues or excellences of character• Are we born with them?• How do we acquire them?• By practice, habituation
• Virtues or excellences of the mind• Are we born with them? • How do we acquire them?
• By studying, teaching, learning: formal/informal
Acquiring virtue:
• Moral virtue: It is a habit of character.
• How do you acquire a habit?
• Intellectual virtue:
• Acquired by teaching, study, and experience.
Do I have a virtue, e.g., courage?
• 1. Is it a habit?
• 2. Can you act with a certain ease in frightening situations?
• e.g.: speaking up when someone is insulting you or someone else in your presence?
Questions
• Does performing a good action mean you have the virtue?
• For example, giving a donation.
• How would you tell?
II, 6: Definition of Virtue( 1107 a 1-4)
• “(Moral) virtue” is a state of character • [genus)• 2) concerned with choice,• 3) lying in a mean,• 4) a mean relative to us,• 5) this mean being established by reason,
• 6) in the way a person of practical wisdom would discern it.
III: Freedom and Choice
• Are we free?• How do you know?• Are you “free” when under peer pressure?• To what extent?• Are we free when very angry? • Or feeling very lazy?
• What might limit freedom?
• What might limit responsibility?
III, 1-2: Human Action
• Voluntary
• Involuntary (= against our will)
• Mixed: partly voluntary, partly involuntary
• Non-voluntary (act of a human, but not a human action formally speaking)
Principle (standard) for Determining Degree of Freedom
• Human Actions
• (in terms of the source of motion/action)
• Voluntary (moved by self)
• / | \
• With deliberation From From Passion
• and choice anger
III, 2 (cont)
• Involuntary Action
• (moved by outside source)
• / \
• Affecting Mind Affecting Will
• Ignorance Forced
• / \
• Of end Of circumstances
Mixed Human Actions
• Mixed Human Actions
• / \
• Regarding Regarding
• Particular Action: Case in General:
• voluntary involuntary
• (e.g., fear)