http://www.jstor.orgAristotle and EducationAuthor(s): Felix C. RobbSource: Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 20, No. 4, (Jan., 1943), pp. 202-213Published by: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (Taylor & Francis Group)Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1489937Accessed: 01/06/2008 22:00Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available athttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unlessyou have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and youmay use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. 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For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.ARISTOTLE ANDEDUCATION FELIXC.ROBB Birmingham Southern College "For hym wasleverhaveathisbeddesheed Twentybookes, cladinblakor reed, OfAristotleandhis philosophie, Thanrobes riche, or fithele, or gay sautrie." -Chaucer Thetwo greatperiods ofGreekeducational thought werethe HellenicandtheHellenistic.Betweenthemlived Aristotle,adjudged by commonconsentthebesteducatedmanwhoeverlived.Hewas a philosopher,psychologist,logician,moralist,politicalthinker, bio- logist, and literary critic-amanwhoseremarkablebreadthand depth of learning have inspired admirationand praise in everyage. ToEusebiushewas"nature's privatesecretary,dipping his pen in intellect;" to Dante, the"masterofthosethatknow."ToAlexander Bainhewasa"devoteetofactsandamasterofthe highest ab- stractions;" to Hegel, "a manbesidewhomno age hasan equal."1 Perhaps morethan any other person, Aristotlehasdeterminedthe fundamental concepts ofwestern thought.Byanalyzing,defining, and classifying thevariousbranchesof knowledge helaidthe foundationsformodernscienceand philosophy. His writings,par- ticularly the Organon, foundtheir way into university curricula andremainedtheretodominatethe thinking oftheMiddle Ages. Evensolateastheseventeenth century, JohnLockewasheardto say withanoteof exasperation abouttheOxford curriculum, "The AristotleoftheSchoolmenstilldeterminesthestudiesofthe place." Ithasbeen suggested thatthesuccessionSocrates-Plato-Aristotle hasareal unity, andthatinAristotle'sworksistobefoundthe fulfillmentoftheSocratic impulse.2Certainly itis difficult, ifnot impossible, toconsiderAristotlewithout lingeringupon hisrelation tohis predecessors. Hewas very muchaPlatonist.In fact, Plato wouldhavehim every inchaPlatonist. For, onceafterAristotlehad intimatedthatallwisdomwouldnotdiewith Plato, theoldmaster issaidtohavereferredtohisbrilliant pupil as"a foalthatkickshis motherafter draining her dry."3 'ThomasDavidson, AristotleandAncientEducationalIdeals,pp.153, 154. 2J.L. Stocks,Aristotelianism,p. 13. "Benn, TheGreek Philosophers,London,1882, Vol. I,p. 283. [202] ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION Nevertheless, detailsoftheinfluenceofPlatoandothers upon Aristotle'sworkarewithoutthe scope ofthis paper, the purpose ofwhichistostatetheessentialfactsofhis life, tosearchouthis beliefswhichbearmost directlyupon education. I.LIFEOF ARISTOTLE Aristotlewasborninthe year 384B.C.Socrateshadbeendead fifteen years, Platowas 43, andthe Academy had already beenin existencefora year ortwo.His birthplace wastheIonian colony of Stagira, in Thrace, abouttwohundredmilestothenorthofAthens. Hismotherwasdescendedfromthe early settlersofthe place and his father,Nichomachus, wasacourt physician intheserviceof AmyntasII,King ofMacedonand grandfather ofAlexanderthe Great. Justhowconsiderableorhow direct, wastheinfluenceofNicho- machus upon hissonisamatterfor conjecture. Itwas possibly through the encouragement ofhisfatherthatAristotle developed aninterestin physicalphenomena andthus prepared himselfto becomethe"founderofscience."Asonewriter expressesit, Aristotle was "broughtup intheodorofmedicine."4 Still, herefusedto followtheancestral professionand, afterthedeathofhis parents, journeyed southtoAthensto study underthefamedPlato.Tra- ditionhasitthatinAthensthe eighteen-year-old lad,inquiring the way tothe Academy, waslabeleda"barbarian" by astreetidler andwas givenroguish directionsinsomesuchmannerasthis: "Ifthouwouldstfindthe Academy, walknorthwest through the Dipylongate, followthe Cephissus Riveramileorsotothesuburb oftheCeramicus.Therethoucanstseea garden witha high wall. Ifthouheareststudents makinggreat talkbeneaththe trees,apply thy uncouth ear, andifthoucanstnotunderstandawordof it, thou wiltknowthouhastreachedthe place thouseekest."5 For nearlytwentyyears Aristotleremainedatthe Academy in pursuit oftruthand goodness,listening tothe aging Plato, and acquiring thatvast encyclopedicknowledge whichlaterhewas tosetforthinlecturesandscientifictreatises.Hedelvedinto every phase of learning,nothingbeing soobscureordetailedastoforbid hisobservationofit. Beingfairly welloff financially, he began the collectionof manuscripts forhisown library, thesecondsuchcol- lectioninexistenceatthattime.Aboutthemethodsand subjects of study atthe Academy weknowlittle.WedoknowthatAristotle 'Durant, The StoryofPhilosophy,p. 58. 'Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia, Vol. 1,p. 283. 1943] 203 PEABODYJOURNALOFEDUCATION taught inthe school,perhaps rhetoric;thathewastutored by a Plato occupied withthe problems of"ideas"andtheir divisibility; thathereceivedtherethe germ ofhis logic and metaphysics; that heassistedPlatoinhiswork and, in time, roseto challenge the teachings ofhis master, even rejecting themostfundamentalof them, thedoctrineofself-existentideas.Plato recognized the great- nessofhis amazingpupil fromthenorthand spoke ofhimasthe "Nous" ofthe Academy-thepersonification of intelligence. WhenPlatodiedhewassucceededasheadofthe Academyby a nephew,Speusippus.Seemingly, Aristotledidnottakeoffenseat thissacrificeofmerittothe "partiality of blood," and having written versesin praise ofhisdeceased master, hedeterminedtoleaveAthens. Aristotlehadnowreachedtheendofthefirstofthree periods into whichhislife may be divided;(1) His stay atthe Academy,(2) That period bestdescribed by theGermanword "Wanderjahre," and (3) The period ofhisworkasheadofthe Peripatetic schoolinthe Lyceum atAthens. With Xenocrates, anotherofPlato's pupils, Aristotle journeyed to Atarneus, thehomeofhisformer guardian.Uponarrival, he learnedthatanoldfriendandfellow student, Hermeias,hadbecome tyrant ofthat region. Aristotleremainedthereforthree years, marriedHermeias' adopteddaughter, andmovedtotheislandof Lesbos, whereshe died,.leaving himaninfant daughter. Soonthere- afterhewascalledtothecourtof Philip ofMacedontotake charge oftheeducationof youngAlexander, thenthirteen years old. In training sucha youth as Alexander, Aristotlecould onlyhope to give anewdirectionto passions and powers whichitwastoo latetomoderateorcontrol.Histreatiseon politics hassetforththe plan ofeducationbest adapted to persons ofthe highest rankin society; andin performing thetask assigned tohim byPhilip, this plan wastobemodified byadjusting ittothe peculiar circumstarices andthe extraordinary characterofa pupil destinedtobethe military masteroftheworld. Very littleisknownaboutthis period of Aristotle's life, a thing tobe regretted, for knowledge ofthat period wouldcastconsiderable light onhiseducational practices andbeliefs. Thedeathof Philip andtheaccessionofAlexandertothethrone terminatedAristotle's stay inMacedon."Asthe pupil setoutto conquer theinhabited world, themastersettledinAthenstoestablish hisdominionoverthewholefieldof knowledge. Itwasoneofthose raremomentsin history whenthebarriersseemto fall, tillthe only limitisthatset by shortnessoflifeor weaknessofwill."6 'Stocks,op.cit.,p. 33. 204 [January ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION Finding Xenocratesin charge ofthe Academy, Aristotle opened a schoolinasuburban gymnasium, knownasthe Lyceum,where, in spite ofa growinghostility tohispolitical affiliations, studentsin large numberscameto partake ofhis great knowledge. His energies nowweredividedbetweenintensive writing and teaching, andhe foundtimefor physical exercise only while engaged: ithelatter. This practice of strolling aboutthe "peripaton," orwalk,ofthe temple of LycianApollo whilehe taughtgave toAristotleandhisfollowers thename "Peripatetics." Itwas during hissecondresidencein Athens, inthetwelveyears from335to323 B.C., thatAristotle composed mostofthegreat worksinwhichhe sought tosum up theresultsofalifeof study and thought. These years we may considerasthethirdofthethree major periods intowhichhislifehasbeendivided.Hehadbeeninno hasteto put himselfon record, anditwasnotuntilhehadreached a consistentviewoftheworldthatheventuredto treat, inadefinitive way,anyaspect ofit.Thusitwasthateachofhistreatisesformeda part ofone great wholeof thought.Unfortunately his plan wasnot completed, andoftheworkswhichhedidwrite only aportionhas comedowntous. Aristotle's writings ranintothehundreds.Theexotericworks whichheintendedforcirculationhavebeen lost, while only the esotericandlessreadablediscoursesin philosophy andscienceremain. Hisworksin logic-the"Categories,""Topics," "Prior" and"Posterior Analytics," and "Sophistical Refutation"werecollectedandedited by later Peripatetics underthegeneraltitleofAristotle's Organon. Itwasthis work,translated byBoethius, whichbecamethemoldof mediaeval thought andthebulwarkofScholasticism. During the years thatAristotlewas engaged inhis prodigious workat Athens, his position was becoming moreandmoreinsecure. Following thedeathof Alexander, a longsuppressedhostility ofthe anti-Macedon party burstforth against Aristotlewithirresistible violence.Their chargeagainst himwas impiety, more specifically, the deificationofamortal.Aristotlefoundit expedient towithdraw fromAthenstohis country homeat Chalcis,saying thathewould not give Athensachancetosinasecondtime againstphilosophy. While awaiting anotherturnofaffairshewastakenillandinthe ye4r 322hediedofadiseasefromwhichhehad long suffered. Forallhis greatlearning Aristotlewasa very human person. We missinhimthevisionand poetic charmof Plato, forcommonreason washissole authority. Yetwe may besurethathelovedlifeas hedid learning, thathefelta genuine affectionforhisrelatives 19433 205 PEABODYJOURNALOFEDUCATION and friends, andthathisintimateswere impressedby the nobility, the kindness, and justice ofhisnature. II.ARISTOTLE'SEDUCATIONALBELIEFS In1918 theN.E.A.Commissiononthe Reorganization of Secondary Education produced adocumentwhichwasintendedtosetanew goal for high schoolsinAmerica.Inthis report theCommission heldthateducation"should develop ineachindividualthe knowledge, interests,ideals,habits, and powerswhereby hewillfindhis place andusethat place to shape bothhimselfand society towardever noblerideals."7Thatstatementwould hardly bemoreAristotelianif Aristotlehadwrittenithimself. Furthermore, Aristotle anticipated by sometwothousand years allbutoneoftheseven greatprinciples setforthinthe report. That exception wasvocationaleducation. Witharathernaive conception oflifeinhisideal community, Aristotlefailedtoenvisionthe complexities ofanindustrialized worldwhenhewarned against vocational training and any semblance of "professionalism" intheschools.Inhisschemeof things the drudgery ofmanuallaborand craftsmanship wastodevolve upon slaves,mechanics,farmers, andthe like-personsdeniedthe rights of citizenship. Fortheeducationofthesemembersofthestatewho arenot citizensthereisnoprovision.They learntheir practical duties byperforming them. Thematterof training for citizenship isessentialtoanunderstand- ing ofAristotle's philosophy ofeducation.Hebelievedinanaris- tocracy ofintellect and, with typical Greekdisdainformanual labor, wrote:"Hewhocanforeseewithhismindis by natureintendedto belordand master; andhewhocanwork only withhis body is by natureaslave."8 AtonetimeAristotlemadea study oftheconstitutionalhistories ofovertwohundredand fifty differentstates.Asaresultofthis investigation heconcludedthatthestateisthe highest socialinsti- tution, onewhichsecuresthe highestgood or happiness ofman.To thestateisowedthe allegiance and support ofallitscitizensand itssubordinateinstitutions.The highest artofman-Aristotlecalls itPolitics-istodirect society soasto produce the greatestgood for mankind.Andbecausethesuccessofastate dependsupon thede- velopment ofa happy, virtuous, and intelligentcitizenry, the purpose ofthe state,therefore, istoeducateitscitizens.Educationmust beamatterof public concern, andnot something lefttothe caprice of parents. 'EllwoodP. Cubberley, PublicEducationintheUnited States,p.633, sAristotle,Politics, Book 1, ch. 2, sec.1252b. 206 [*January ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION AnAristotelianeducationshall necessarily havereferencetosome community. Inthis community itshallbethefunctionofeducation tofitthe young for intelligentparticipation incivicactivities. Only inthismannercantheinstitutionsofthestatebe safeguarded and the plurality whichisthestatebemadeintoa unity. Above all, the citizenshallbe taught obedienceto existinglaw, elsethestateis impossible. Happiness isamatterofchiefconcerninAristotle's conception of the good life. Everycommunity shallhaveasitsultimate goal the attainmentof happiness; andthat city isbest governed which pro- videsthe greatestopportunity foritsattainment. Happiness,by Aristotle's definition, is essentially therealizationandtheexercise ofvirtue.This virtue, or goodness, isoftwokinds: goodness of intellectand goodness ofcharacter.Intellectual integrity isin- creased mainlybyinstruction, whereasfinenessofcharacteris produced inusnot bynature, but by habitsformed through our relationtoa proper environment.Itisataskoftheschoolto provide thatdesirableenvironment. BecauseweoftenlikebestwhatevercomesfirstAristotlewould keepveryyoung children "strangers" toallthatis bad, untilsuch atimeastheir training shallhave developed inthem powers of discrimination. Thereafter, itisnot bysuppressingfeelings or by removing all opportunities for wrong actionthathewouldmake peoplegood, butrather byletting themhavethe feelings andcom- mitthe acts,directing themsothatthese feelings andactionsshall constitutea training in rightjudgment. RecallthatoneofthesevenCardinal Principles or objectives of the twentieth-century schoolis"ethicalcharacter."Charactertrain- ing inAristotle'sschemeofeducationtakes precedence overallother immediate objectives oftheschool.Onecan hardly avoid noting the rigorous natureofthe schooling herecommends.This aspect is broughtforcibly tomind by the following linesfromtheEthics. Commentingexpansively, JohnBurnet says of them, "Thisisthebest accountofthe training ofcharacterthathaseverbeen given and shouldbe engraved intheheartof every educator."9 Strength is producedbytaking a great dealofnourishmentandunder- going a great dealof exertion, anditis just the strong manthatcando these things best.Soitisinthecaseof goodness. Itis byabstaining from pleasures thatwebecome temperate anditiswhenwehavebecometem- perate thatwearebestabletoabstainfromthem.So again with courage; itis byhabituating ourselvesto despiseobjects offearand byfacing themthatwebecome courageous, anditiswhenwehavebecome courageous thatweshallbestbeabletofacethem. 'John Burnet, Aristotleon Education,p. 48. 19433 207 PEABODYJOURNALOFEDUCATION Wemusttakethe pleasures andpains-that supervene uponouractions as symptoms ofourcondition.Themanwhoabstainsfrom bodilypleasures andactually enjoys :ding sois temperate, whilethemanwhodoessobut dislikesitis intemperate. Themanwhofaces danger and enjoysdoing so, orat any rateisnot painedby it,isbrave;buttheman whofacesitwith painisacoward.For goodness ofcharacterhas to dowithpleasuresand pains. Itis pleasure thatmakesusdowhatisbad,andpainthat makes usabstainfromwhatis right. Thatis why we require tobetrainedfrom ourearliest youth, asPlatohas it, t6feel pleasure andpain attheright things. Trueeducationisjustthat.0 Aristotlemaintainedtoafaultthatthisisatwo-valuedworld. Itisaworldof night and day, of good and evil, ofbusinessand pleasure, warand peace.Byenormouslyextending this listofbal- anced, or opposing, valuesitbecomestheconsiderabletaskofeduca- tiontotrain persons forthebetteralternatives. We mightlogicallyexpect thatsuchalearnedmanasAristotle wouldbeobliviousofthesocialforceswhich shape a growing child andwouldexalt scholarship attheexpenseofsocial development. However, suchwasnotthecase.A part ofthelittlethatisknown aboutAristotle's training ofAlexanderrevealsthatinAristotle's schoolat Mieza, Alexanderwas by nomeansthe onlypupil. Such an arrangement wouldhavebeeninconsistentwithone: ofthefunda- mental principles ofAristotle's pedagogicalsystem. Forheheld that education, particularly moral education, was largely tobeat- tained through personalassociations. The sharp and irritating cornersofachild's personality wouldbe dubbedoff byrubbing elbowswithotherchildren.Insuchmanner couldthechild experience learning of great socialvalue.Aristotle knewthatanother rugged littleindividualistcouldteach head-strong Alexander manythings with greater successthanhe. Inhisown teaching, atthe Lyceum and elsewhere, Aristotle ap- proached theidealofinformaleducation.AsPlatoand Socrates, he epitomized that"comaraderie"of pupil andteacherwhichlends itselfbesttothe fellowship ofkeenmindsandthe contemplation of high-order abstractions.Itisa relationship difficulttoachievein the grade schoolswherementalandsocialdifferencesare greatest, yet itisbasictothesuccessful guidance ofa pupil. Toonewhose study ofancient philosophers hasbeenlimitedthe "modernity" ofAristotlecomesasamild surprise. For instance, the "modern"and challenging problemofhowschoolchildren may be guided toa worthy useof spare timehasitsancient counterpart in Aristotle's "gospel ofleisure."Morethantwomillenniums ago he was asserting thatthe highest educationisintendedtofitusforthe 'Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, Book 2, ch. 2, sec.1104b. 208 [January ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION right andnobleuseofleisure.ItisAristotle'scontention that, since wecannot alwayswork, ifoureducationhasnotfittedustouse our spare time rightly, wearesuretotaketothelifeofmereamuse- ment. Physical educationwas always amatterof primary concerntothe ancientGreeks.In regard tohealthAristotleis veryspecific. Care ofthe bodyought to precede thatofthemind. Physicalwell-being is essentialtomentalhealthandabalancemustbemaintainedbetween bodily exerciseand training ofthemind.Innocaseshouldchildren bebrutalized bysubjection toviolenteffort. Youngsters ought not atthesametimetolaborwiththeirmindsand bodies, for"thelabor ofthe bodyimpedes the mind, andthelaborofthemindthe body."12 Turning nowtothemore scholarly phaseof education, wefind thatAristotlewasthefirsttoformulatethe logic ofinduction13and issaidtohaveusedtheinductiveprocessmorethan any manin prior or subsequent ages.14 Forthis persistent andimmenselabor heis justly calledtheFatherof Logic. The underlyingthought in his theory ofinductionisthis:Truthrevealsitself subjectively in thehistoricconsciousnessoftheraceand objectively inthefactsof nature. Therefore, hismethodof learning istoseeknew light from whatis already knownand observed,proceeding totheunknown by meansofinductionand syllogism.1" Aristotlehada deep concernforthe objectivepresent, asevidenced by his great intellectual curiosity, hiscareful observations, andhis classificationofaccumulatedfacts. Emphasis was placedupon the concreteembodimentofideasas against the conceptionalism andthe universalsofPlato.Hiswork represented a turningaway from vague generalities totheprecisionofascientificmethod. Despite this scientific tendency,experimentation hadlittle place inAristotle's technique,probably because satisfactoryexperimental mechanisms wereatthattimeunknown.l1 Aristotle'sinterestsrantoward biology andnatural science, toward the physicalphenomena of life, ratherthantomathematical concepts andsheerideation.WiththeaidofAlexanderthe Great, hewasable toestablishafine zoologicalgarden filledwith specimens fromall the regions traversed by thearmiesofhisformer pupil.Through "Ari-totle, Politics.Book8.ch.5. sec.1339a. 'J.M. Warbeke.The Searching Mind ofGreece,p. 277. "BecausethelittlethatAristotlewrote concerning theartof indlctive reasoning was lost, followersandinterpretorsofthemasterofinduction ironically fastened upon thehumanracethe type ofintellectuallifethatwas deductiveincharacter. '"Aristotle'sfamous syllogism: "Allmenaremortal.Socratesisaman. Therefore,Socratesismortal." "Will Durant, The StoryofPhilosophy,pp. 64-65. 19433209 PEABODYJOURNALOFEDUCATION hisobservationoftheseandother phenomena hewas intriguedby the continuity ofnatureandallbuthit upon the evolutionaryprocess asthe way oflife.17 ConsiderableattentionhasbeendirectedtoAristotle's philosophy ofthe "golden mean." Applied toeducationthis philosophy would provide aflexible school,adaptable toconditions existing under quite differentconstitutions.Itwouldbea school proceedingsanely toward its objectives, aschoolwhere theory isnot givenprecedence over practice, andwhereno singlephase ofchild development receives emphasis tothedetrimentofothers. By thissame concept all per- ception isviewedasthe power to apprehend deflectionsfromamean. Virtuebecomesanexerciseofsuchtraitsasare destroyedby excess or deficiency and preservedby themean.Sincethemeanwilllie wherea prudent manwould putit,emphasis isthrown upon educa- tion,practice, and progress. Aristotleconceivedoflifeasa process ofactive development, not simply aconditionof being; andin outlining a system ofeducation hefollowedanorderofhuman development whichseemednatural. Inthe concluding sentenceofPoliticshesums up his philosophy in thesewords:"Thus isclearthateducationshouldbebased upon three principles-themean, the possible, the becoming, thesethree."18 III.ARISTOTLE'SSCHEMEOF PUBLIC EDUCATION Theeducative process, administered by aselect group of citizens, knownasthe "guardians of education,"may bedividedintothree periods: education during thefirstseven years, the years fromseven to twenty-one, andlifeafter twenty-one.19 1.Thefirstseven years. Marriage isamatterofbasicconcerntoeducation.Thestatemust assume responsibility fortheeducationofchildrenevenbeforetheir birth,byforbiddingmarriage to any who might be physically or mentally unfit.Thestatelimitsthenumberofchildrenandsees tothedestructionor exposure ofdefectivesandthoseborninexcess ofthe quota. Neitherathletesnor weaklings are byphysical make- up suitedfor parenthood. Aristotlerevealsthatthebest age for matrimony is thirty-seven foramanand eighteen forawoman.20 Youthful marriages are undesirable, forthechildrenareoftensmall, ill-developed, and"tendtobefemale." Furthermore, thechildrenin 'EdwinWallace, Outlines of the PhilosophyofAristotle,p. 83. "Aristotle, Politics.Book 8, sec.1342b. "Practically allthatAristotlewroteaboutformal pducaticn iscortainpe inBooksSevenand Eight of Politics, a fragmentary work. "Aristotlewas thirty-seven atthetimeofhisfirst marriage. 210 CJanuary ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION suchinstancesconsider themselves contemporaries oftheir parents and are contemptuous. Although children must remain at home until they are seven years old, slight stress islaid upon the family as aninstitution oran edu- cative influence.Aristotle seems more aware of the dangers of family life. However, hedoesnotrecommend suchaunification ofstate aswouldabolishthe familyaltogether. He merely feelsthatin- sistence upon the complete brotherhood of man, and especially the communism of wives, would yield adiluted affection, as hefeltthat communismof property wouldresultina shirking ofcivicre- sponsibility. Much careshouldbeexercisedin providing proper nourishment for young children.Inthe earlyyearsthey should become inured to cold,exposure, andotherforceswhichincrease hardihood, if survived.The loud screaming and crying of children ought not to be checked, for straining thevoicehasa strengthening effect upon the body. Little children, up tothe age of five, arenottobe subjected to any instruction or rigorous discipline, things thatconstitute impedi- mentsto earlygrowth.Playactivities, if properlyconducted, are types offuturestudies.Games andotheramusements ofchildren should not be vulgar, tiring, or effeminate. The; environmentof youngsters needcarefulcontrol. Impro- prieties of speech and manner, improper pictures or statues, and contact withslaves should be prohibited from their early experience. Thus, by thetime they areold enough to"sit atthe public tables and drink strong wine" education willhave armed them against evil influences. 2.The years fromsevento twenty-one. There arefourbranches offormal training inAristotle's curricu- lum: letters,gymnasticexercises,music, andsometimes drawing. Letters and drawing are taught fortheirusefulnessinthe ordinary conduct of life;gymnastics foster manliness; butsomedoubt exists in Aristotle's mind as to the purpose of music. About the teaching of letters Aristotle has written little. According tosomeauthors this subject includesalloftheSevenLiberal Arts butmusic.Whetherornotthatis true, Aristotle recognized the importance of reading and writing as essential tools for the acquire- ment of additional knowledge. The drama and other arts are valued for their "purging" effect upon the emotions and passions.Byproper excitementandcatharsisthefineartstrainchildren's emotions, draining themoffina pleasant andharmless way. 1943] 211 PEABODYJOURNALOFEDUCATION Educationofthe body is designed to supplement other phases of child development andshouldnotbecomeanendinitself.Up to the age of puberty children ought to undergoonlylight exercises whichwillnot impedegrowth. When boyhood is over,young men devotethemselvesforthree years tothe study of letters,music, and drawing,unhamperedby the physical exertionsof gymnastics. Thenceforth, untilthe completion oftheformaleducation, they are subjected tosevereexerciseandstrict dieting, mentalexertion being reducedtoaminimum. Concerning musicasabranchof study Aristotlehaswrittenan almostelaborate essay. He begins thediscussion byinquiring as tothenatureandfunctionofmusic.Isitanamusement, an occupa- tionforcultured leisure, ora gymnastic forthesoul?Heconcludes thatitisall three, andis worthy of study forthesakeof any one ofthem.Atthesame time, itschiefvalueineducationliesinits thirduse-asaninstrumentofmoralworthandasan expression ofthesoul.Becausemusicmakestheheartsofmen glad, we may assumethatchildren ought tobetrainedinit. Variousresultsofmusic may ensue.Somemusicis saddening, enfeebling themind. Phrygian harmoniesarouseenthusiasm.Some music gives asentimentalturntoone's thoughts. Doricharmonies produce a feeling ofbalanceandcollectedness.Thereiscoarsemusic and refined, fromwhichitisobviousthatmusichasa power toform characterandthereforeshouldbeincludedasa part oftheeducation ofthe young. Having convincedhimselfthatmusicisa propersubject ofin- struction, Aristotlewonders why weshouldbothertotrainchildren to play musicalinstrumentsthemselves.Cannottruepleasurebe hadandcorrect judgments formedfrom hearing others?Theanswer iscontainedinhisassertionthat"itis difficult, ifnot impossible, for thosewhodonot perform tobe goodjudges ofthe performance of others."21 Besides, childrenmusthave something todoforamuse- ment and,just astherattleisthe properthing forbabiesto prevent themfrom breakingthings aboutthe house, somusicalinstruction isasuitablerattleforolderchildren. Themostbeneficialresultsofmusical training willbeattained if, insteadof engaging inlaborious practice, suchasis necessary for public exhibitionanda display of"fantasticmarvelsof execution," childrenwilllearn justenough toenablethemtotake delight in noble songs and rhythms. Fromthis principle we may inferwhatinstrumentsshouldbe 21Aristotle,Politics, Book 8, ch. 5, sec.1340b. EJanuary212 ARISTOTLEANDEDUCATION used. Any instrumentwhich requiresgreatskill, asfor example the fluteandthe harp,ought nottobeadmittedintoeducation.Aristotle hasa special dislikeforthe flute,saying thatitisaninstrumentnot expressive ofmoralcharacter.In fact, becauseitistoo exciting, itisimmoralandshouldberesortedtowhenthe performance aims notat instruction, butatthereliefofthe passions. Those rhythms and songs whicharesedateand expressive of manly character-Doricharmonies-followthemeanbetweentheextremi- tiesof feeling andaremosttobedesired. Music, when played for audiences, needstobe appropriate tothe occasion, aswellastothe age andnatureofthelisteners.Sincetherearetwokindsof public, theonefreeand cultivated, theotherrudeand vulgar, thereshould be played selectionswhichafford pastime tothelatteraswellasthe former.Ethicalharmoniesshouldbe taughtchildren; therestto beleftforprofessionals. 3.Lifeafter twenty-one. Thosewho successfullycomplete thestatesystemofeducation becomecitizensandare assigned to posts ofactive service, where theymayput to practical usetheir philosophy. As theygrowolder, theygradually risetopositions demanding less practice andmore thought.Finally theiractivedutiesceaseand they devotetheir entiretimeto speculativephilosophy, in contemplation ofdivine things. The very oldestarechosenas priests, sothat theymay "livewiththegods."Thusdomen graduallypass fromtheworld oftimetotheworldof eternity. AndthusdoesAristotlesettlethe question oftherelativevaluesofthe practical andthe contemplative life.Heseesthemas complements ofeachother. 1943] 213