AreviewofpostglacialemergenceonSvalbard,FranzJosefLandand ... 2006 readings/Svalbard-Barents Sea...AreviewofpostglacialemergenceonSvalbard,FranzJosefLandand NovayaZemlya,northernEurasia

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doi:10.1016/j.qua

Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434

A review of postglacial emergence on Svalbard, Franz Josef Land andNovaya Zemlya, northern Eurasia

S.L. Formana,*, D.J. Lubinskib, !O. Ing !olfssonc, J.J. Zeebergd, J.A. Snydere,M.J. Siegertf, G.G. Matishovg

aDepartment of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL 60607, USAb Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, The University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0450, USA

cDepartment of Geology and Geography, University of Iceland, Is-101 Reykjav!ık, IcelanddNetherlands Institute for Fisheries Research, Haringkade 1, P.O. Box 68 1970 AB IJmuiden, The Netherlands

eDepartment of Geology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USAfBristol Glaciology Centre, School of Geographical Sciences University of Bristol, University Road, Bristol BSS 1SS, UK

gMurmansk Marine Biological Institute, 17 Vladimirskaya Street, Murmansk 183010, Russia

Abstract

The pattern of postglacial emergence in the Barents Sea is pivotal to constraining the timing of deglaciation and extent and

thickness of the last ice sheet in northern Eurasia. This review unites records of Holocene relative sea level from Svalbard, Franz

Josef Land, and Novaya Zemlya to better understand the geometries of past ice sheet loads. Emergence data from northern Eurasia

confine the maximum area of glacier loading to the northwestern Barents Sea, where >100m of emergence is measured on

Kongs^ya. Deglacial unloading commenced on western and northern Spitsbergen c. 13–12 14C ka ago, and by c. 10.5 14C ka on

eastern Svalbard and more distal sites on Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya. The marine limit phase (c. 13–12 14C ka) on

western and northern Spitsbergen is characterized by the construction of spits indicating a dominance of long-shore drift over storm-

generated fetch, reflecting extensive sea-ice coverage of coastal areas. At sites in proximity to the ice sheet margin on western and

northern Spitsbergen there is evidence for a transgressive–regressive cycle c. 6–4 14C ka, possibly reflecting back migration of

displaced mantle material. A modern transgression is inferred from the marine erosion of 17th century cultural features and 14C ages

of whalebone and terrestrial peat buried by modern storm gravels that place sea level at its present position by c. 2 to 1 ka ago. The

greatest observed emergence on Franz Josef Land occurs on Bell Island, with a marine limit at 49m aht, formed c. >10 14Cka.

Available emergence data since 9 ka show rising strandlines toward the southwest at B0.3m/km. The northern limit of emergence

on Franz Josef Land is poorly constrained because relative sea-level data is sparse north of 80�300N. In contrast to Svalbard and

Franz Josef Land, the marine limit on northern Novaya Zemlya is only 10–15m above high tide and formed between 6.5 and

5.0 14C ka when global sea level was stabilizing. All sites show little apparent emergence during the past 2 ka, with the youngest

raised landforms at identical heights to storm beaches. This minimal glacio-isostatic signature on Novaya Zemlya and on Vaygach

Island, where deglaciation commenced >10ka ago, indicates ice sheet thicknesses of o1.5 km. The spatial variation in emergence

for the Barents Sea indicates that western and northern Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya were near the reactive margin of the ice

sheet and these areas sustained the briefest ice coverage (2–6 ka) and were probably not in isostatic equilibrium. In contrast, central

and eastern Svalbard and southern Franz Josef Land were beneath a substantial ice load and probably sustained this load for c.

10 14C ka and achieved isostatic equilibrium. Isostasy residual from an ice sheet model portrays well the general pattern of uplift and

load response at the centre of ice sheets, but deviates substantial at the ice sheet margin or areas covered by thin ice, like Novaya

Zemlya.

r 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction

The pattern of postglacial emergence for many areasin the Northern Hemisphere is pivotal in assessing the

g author. Fax: +1-312-413-2279.

s: [email protected] (S.L. Forman).

front matter r 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

scirev.2003.12.007

distribution of past ice-sheet loads and deglacial history(e.g. Andrews, 1970). Observations on postglacialemergence are also important for developing a betterunderstanding of the glacio-isostatic adjustment processand the constraining properties of the underlyingsolid earth (Peltier, 1974, 1998; Cathles, 1975; Clarket al., 1978). Recent refinements in models of mantle

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viscoelastic structure and an improved understanding ofthe extent and chronology of the Laurentide, Fennos-candian and Antarctic ice sheets provide a basis forestimating variations in ice sheet thickness during thelast deglaciation (Clark et al., 1994; Peltier, 1994, 1996;Lambeck, 1995). These earth rheological models accom-modate site-specific relative sea level and global eustaticrecords (Fairbanks, 1989) providing new insight into thebalance between ice sheet volume and changes in globalsea level in the past c. 20,000 yr (Tushingham andPeltier, 1991; Peltier, 1994, 1996).In the last two decades of the 20th century large

uncertainties persisted on the geometry of late Pleisto-cene ice sheets and ice caps over the shelf seas borderingthe Arctic Ocean. Reconstructions of Late Weichselianice sheet extent in the Barents Sea region range from acontiguous marine-based ice sheet over much of theEuropean arctic (e.g. Peltier, 1994, 1996; Lambeck,1995), to smaller, coalescent ice caps based on arcticarchipelagos (e.g. Lambeck, 1995; Siegert and Dowdes-well, 1995; Siegert et al., 1999; Svendsen et al., 1999).This past disparity in ice sheet reconstructions reflectedthe paucity of field observations to constrain the extent,thickness, and timing of late Quaternary glacial eventsin northern Eurasia. A critical field observation todetermine the magnitude and distribution of past-glacierloads and the timing of deglaciation is the altitude andage of raised-beach deposits. Quantitative studies onSvalbard defining the pattern of post-glacial emergenceand timing of deglaciation have been pursued since thelate 1950s (e.g. Feyling-Hansen and Olsson, 1959; Blake,1961a; Salvigsen, 1978, 1981, 1984; Forman et al., 1987;Landvik et al., 1987; Forman, 1990; Salvigsen et al.,1990; Bondevik et al., 1995; Forman and Ing !olfsson,2000; Br .uckner et al., 2002). Starting in the early 1990sthe large expanse of the Russian Arctic becameaccessible to international scientific expeditions provid-ing new Quaternary geologic data on former ice sheets.This review unites observations on Holocene relative sealevel history for Svalbard (Norway) and Franz JosefLand and Novaya Zemlya (Russia) to assess patterns ofpostglacial emergence for areas that were beneath theBarents Sea/Eurasian ice sheet (Fig. 1).

2. Near-shore conditions and the raised beach record

The present altitude of raised beaches in the Eurasiannorth reflects principally two competing processes; thepostglacial rise in global sea level and isostatic upwarping of the lithosphere with disintegration of the lastice sheet that mostly occupied the Barents Sea. Globalsea level has been relatively stable in the past 6000 yr(Kidson, 1982; Fairbanks, 1989; Bauch et al., 2001)thus, raised beach elevation attained since the mid-Holocene reflects predominantly isostatic compensation.

However, in areas where post-glacial emergence wasmodest (o50m), relatively brief (100 s to 1000 s ofyears) arrests in sea level or transgressive–regressiveevents (o2m) have been documented, reflecting theinterplay between eustasy, isostasy, and steric and non-steric changes in sea level (Hafsten, 1983; Svendsen andMangerud, 1987; Forman, 1990; Fletcher et al., 1993;Forman et al., 1996; M^ller et al., 2002). Changes in thecourse of relative sea-level on an emerging coastline areidentified as constructional (broad raised terrace) or anerosional (escarpment) landform in the raised-beachsequence, reflecting the complex interaction between sealevel, sediment supply, slope and wave energy (e.g.Elfrink and Baldock, 2002).The elevation of raised beach landforms was deter-

mined with either a barometric altimeter with an error of1–2m or by transit or level with a precision of 10–30 cm.However, the relief on any one raised beach is usually 1–2m, which limits precision in assessing past sea level.The datum for measuring the elevations across a raisedstrand plain is the present mean high tide mark (m aht),which is easily discernable on most coastlines as a swashlimit. Coastal areas in the Barents Sea are microtidalwith o2m between high and low tide (Proshutinskyet al., 2001). The storm beach elevation varies across thearea attaining heights of 1–2m within inner fjords andincreasing to 4+m on exposed rocky headlands andareas exposed to direct storm fetch (Forman, 1990;Zeeberg et al., 2001). Driftage is often conveyedfurther inland and beyond the storm beach limit upvalleys with the reverse flow of river discharge during astorm surge.

3. Radiocarbon dating

Radiocarbon dating of driftwood, whalebone, walrusbone, seaweed and shell from raised-marine sedimentsprovides age constraint on marine inundation anddeglaciation. Driftwood is the preferential subfossilcollected from the raised-beach sequences because ofits suitability for 14C dating and close association withpaleo-sea level. Often, the outer rings of driftwood logswere sampled to obtain 14C ages in close associationwith the sea level depositional event. If driftwood wasnot located, then whalebone and walrus-skull bone wereretrieved for 14C dating. Bones were usually sectioned bysaw and an internal, well-preserved dense part of thebone was submitted for 14C dating. The collagen-dominated gelatin extract from each bone was dated,which in previous Arctic studies has yielded accurate 14Cages (e.g. Forman, 1990; Bondevik et al., 1995; Formanet al., 1997) and have not given anomalous young ages,as bones from lower latitudes (Stafford et al., 1990).Often the apatite fraction for whalebones or walrus-skull bones was analyzed to evaluate the veracity of the

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Fig. 1. Barents Sea region in northern Eurasia. Shown is most likely Late Weichselian ice sheet limits in northern Eurasia (from Alexandersson et al.,

2002; Polyak et al., 2002; Svendsen et al., 1999). The limit of the last (Middle Weichselian; 60 ka) ice advance from the Barents Sea and Kara Sea onto

the mainland is indicated by the Markhida Line (Mangerud et al., 1999). Also shown are uplift-isobases for 5000 14C yr BP in meters above present

sea level. Thin dotted line is the 300m bathymetric contour.

S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–1434 1393

corresponding gelatin-based 14C age. If the apatite 14Cage for the whalebone agrees at one sigma with theaccording 14C age on the gelatin extract, then the bonewas a closed system for 14C. Starting in the late 1980s toearly 1990s most 14C ages on shells are on a single valveby accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS) analysis, whichcircumvents earlier problems of dating shells of mixedage (Miller and Brigham-Grette, 1989). Prior to dating,most shells received at least a 50% leach in HC1 toremove potential contaminants. To compensate for themarine 14C reservoir effect, 440 yr was uniformlysubtracted from all 14C ages on whalebone, walrus,seaweed and shell assembled for this review (Table 1;

Appendices A, B and C). This reservoir correction isderived from pre-bomb shells from Nordic seas (Man-gerud and Gulliksen, 1975; Olsson, 1980). Epifaunalshells collected in the late 19th century from Franz JosefLand and Novaya Zemlya yielded similar 14C values,though infaunal bivalves (Portandia arctica) yield agesof 760–600 years (Forman and Polyak, 1997). Theradiocarbon timescale is used in this review because it isalso the choice of the preponderance of previous studies.Radiocarbon ages are converted to the calendar time-scale (Stuiver et al., 1998) only when used to testmodelled-ice-sheet-induced isostasy (Siegert and Dow-deswell, 2002).

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Table 1

Holocene emergence data and calculated uplift rates for Svalbard, Norway, and for Franz Josef Land, and Novaya Zemlya, Russia

Locality Reference Inferred emergence in meters since: Marine

limit2Present

uplift rate

Remnant

uplift (C)

Uplift

half-life

Curve fit6 k-value4

5 ka1 7 ka 9 ka (m aht) (mm/yr)3 (m)4 (yr)5 R2 (� 10�4)

Svalbard, Norway

Bj^rnoya Salvigsen and Slettemark (1995) 0 0 0 0

Hornsund Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970) o5 7 B25

Southern Sorkapp Land Ziaja and Salvigsen (1995) 5 10 o0.5 0.6 1600 0.99 4.1

Ytterdalen, Bellsund Landvik et al. (1987) 8 27 64

Wedel Jarlsberg Land, S.

Bellsund

Salvigsen et al. (1991) 6 9 20 55–60

Kapp Linne, Isfjorden Sandahl (1986) 5 8 26 65–75

Daudmanns^yra Forman (1990) 4 o5 11 48

Bohemanflya and Erdmannflya Salvigsen et al. (1990) 3 5 17 65.5

Blomesletta P!ew!e et al. (1982) 7 12 25 90+ 1.1 0.9 2000 0.87 3.5

Kapp Ekholm, Billefjorden Salvigsen (1984) 10 20 45 B90

Southern Prinz Karls Forland Forman (1990) 3 5 36

Br^ggerhalv^ya Forman (1990) o5 o5 o5 46

Mitrahalv^ya Forman (1990) o5 o5 o5 20

Reinsdyrflya Lehman (1989) o5 o5 o5 25

Gr(ahuken Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982) o3 o3 8 >40

Mosselbutka Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982) o3 o3 21 >65

Woodfjord, Andr!eeland Br .uckner et al. (2002) o3 o3 10 73

Lady Franklin Fjord,

Nordaustlandet

Blake (1961a) 5 10 30 50+ 1.0 0.2 1300 0.56 5.5

Phipps^ya, Sj^yane Forman and Ing !olfsson (2000) o3 o5 o5 22

Stor^ya Island Jonsson (1983) 17 26 42 66 0.7 1.6 1800 0.99 3.8

Svartknausflya, Nordaustlandet Salvigsen (1978) 20 29 55 70+ 0.8 1.8 1800 0.99 3.8

Kongs^ya Salvigsen (1981) 31 45 69 100+ 1.6 5.5 2300 0.97 3.0

Kapp Ziehen, Barents^ya Bondevik et al. (1995) 20 37 62 88.5 1.2 3.4 2100 0.99 3.3

Humla, Edge^ya Bondevik et al. (1995) 22 37 59 86.8 1.2 3.4 2100 0.99 3.3

Diskobukta, Edge^ya Bondevik et al. (1995) 20 35 56 85.1 1.1 3.2 2000 0.99 3.2

Southern Edge^ya Bondevik et al. (1995) 23 35 53 85–90 1.1 3.2 2100 0.99 3.3

Agardbukta Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991) 17 25 38 50 0.7 1.7 1900 0.97 3.6

Hopen Island Hoppe et al. (1969) 23 35 48 60+ 1.3 4.0 2300 0.98 3.0

Mean 1.170.3 2.971.5 20007300

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Novaya Zemlya, Russia

Cape Spory Navolok Zeeberg et al. (2001) 10 12 0.6 1.6 2300 0.99 3.4

Cape Bismarck Zeeberg et al. (2001) 10 13 1.7 4.4 3500 0.78 1.8

Cape Zhelaniya Zeeberg et al. (2001) 9 11 0.5 1.6 2300 0.85 3.1

Ivanov Bay Zeeberg et al. (2001) 9 13.5 0.7 4.0 3500 0.94 1.7

Russkaya Gavan Zeeberg et al. (2001) 9 12 0.5 1.8 3500 0.95 2.4

Cape Medvezhy Zeeberg et al. (2001) 11 12 0.8 3.7 3500 0.97 2.2

Velkitsky Bay Forman et al. (1999a,b) 10 10 0.9 4.0 3300 0.99 2.3

Nordenski^ld Bay Forman et al. (1999a,b) 11 11 0.9 2.5 2300 0.84 2.8

Mean 0.870.4 3.071.2 30007600

Franz Josef Land, Russia

Alexander Island Glazovskiy et al. (1992) 15 >21 24 0.9 3.4 2700 0.93 2.6

Southeast George Island Forman et al. (1996) >20 38 1.1 3.2 2000 0.95 3.4

Bell Island Forman et al. (1996) 20 29 45 49 0.9 2.9 2200 0.98 3.2

Northbrook Island Forman et al. (1996) 22 32 34 43 1.0 3.2 2200 0.92 3.2

Etheridge Island Forman et al. (1996) 22 28 1.0 2.8 1900 0.99 3.6

Hooker/Scott Keltie Island Forman et al. (1996) 18 28 30 38 0.7 2.0 2000 0.94 3.4

Hooker Island, Cape Dandy Lubinski (1998) 20 29 32 38–36 0.7 1.7 1500 0.85 4.8

Nansen and Koettlitz Islands Forman et al. (1996) 20 26 28 29 1.0 4.0 2700 0.99 2.6

Leigh Smith Island Forman et al. (1997) 24 40 1.4 5.0 2500 0.89 2.8

Brady Island Forman et al. (1997) 18 24 31 34 0.7 2.1 2000 0.98 3.4

Heiss/Fersman/Newcombe

Islands

Forman et al. (1997) 16 21 4.2 7.6 1300 0.95 5.5

Hall Island Forman et al. (1997) 18 27 31 32 0.8 2.6 2200 0.97 3.2

Wilzchek Island Forman et al. (1997) 16 26 0.9 3.5 2600 0.96 2.7

Koldewey Island Forman et al. (1997) 17 23 24 0.7 1.9 1900 0.97 3.6

Klagenfurt Island Forman et al. (1997) 17 20 0.8 2.2 2000 0.98 3.5

Mean 1.170.9 3.271.5 21007400

1Cummulative postglacial emergence since 5,000 14C yr BP.2Late Weichselian to Holocene marine limit.3Estimated contemporary emergence rate extrapolated from a curve fit function relating radiocarbon flotsam dates to elevation4The function is a negative exponential in the form U ¼ Cekt where U is uplift, C is remnant emergence, k is a time constant, and t is time. Estimated remnant emergence extrapolated from curve

fit function.5Estimated half-life of emergence based on curve fit function (t1/2=ln 2/k) and rounded to nearest 100 years.6R2 value for exponential curve fit function to calendar corrected emergence data.

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4. Svalbard

Raised marine landforms were first recognized scien-tifically on Svalbard by pioneering Scandinavian geol-ogists Nordenski^ld (1866) and De Geer (1919).Strandlines were first dated by radiocarbon by Fey-ling-Hanssen and Olsson (1959) and by Blake (1961a) incentral Spitsbergen in Billefjorden and on northernNordaustlandet, in Lady Franklin Fjord, respectively.Intensive study of the Quaternary geology of manyforelands on Svalbard during the past two decadesprovides an improved understanding of the pattern ofpostglacial emergence and isostasy (Table 1; AppendixA; Fig. 2). Well-preserved and extensive Late Weichse-lian and Holocene raised beaches from 60 to 130m ahtoccur on eastern Svalbard and islands in the Barents Seareflecting the area of maximum ice sheet loading

Fig. 2. Majority of post-glacial emergence curves for S

(Salvigsen, 1981; Forman, 1990; Forman et al., 1997;Landvik et al., 1998). Whereas, on northern and westernSpitsbergen postglacial emergence is usually confined to65m aht or lower (Forman, 1990; Forman et al., 1997),indicating comparatively modest loads near or beyondthe margin of the ice sheet. The elevational limit oflittoral processes from the last deglacial hemicycle istermed the Late Weichselian marine limit (LWML) andis commonly demarcated by a broad constructionalterrace which represents en echelon accreted stormbeach gravels or erosional landforms, such as anescarpment eroded into surficial deposits or bedrock.There are 28 separate assessments of post-glacialemergence for Svalbard (Table 1; Appendix A, Fig. 2).In this review we summarize post-glacial emergence byconsidering records from western Spitsbergen and fromeastern Svalbard.

valbard, Norway (modified from Forman, 1990).

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4.1. Western spitsbergen

The raised beach sequence on Br^ggerhalv^ya whichis typical for western Spitsbergen (Forman et al., 1987;Landvik et al., 1987; Forman, 1990; Andersson et al.,1999) has been divided into three distinct age groups(Fig. 3) on the basis of the degree of terrace dissection,preservation of individual shorelines and the extent ofpedogenesis (Forman and Miller, 1984; Mann et al.,

Fig. 3. Vertical aerial photograph (S70-4231, copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt

raised-beach sequence the oldest extending up to 80+m aht and dated to >12

limit at 45m aht and is expressed as a truncated spit-cusp, shown by arrows.

29m aht, numerous discrete strandlines occur down to the modern shore (fr

1986). The oldest terrace sequence c.>140 ka old foundbetween 80 and 55m aht is highly dissected with only20–40m long remnants of the original surface preserved.These deposits lack distinctive shoreline morphologies,can be traced intermittently and contain a silt-rich B-horizon that exceed 80 cm thickness. Deposits of anintermediate age, c. 60–80 ka (Forman and Miller, 1984;Forman, 1990), occur between 44 and 55m aht andexhibit B horizon of 70–50 cm thickness. Moderate

, Oslo) of Br^ggerhalv^ya, western Spitsbergen. Shown are a tripartite

0 ka. The youngest sequence is demarcated by Late Weichselian marine

Three large raised barrier beaches occur at 45, 37, and 39m aht. Below

om Forman et al., 1984).

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Fig. 4. Late Weichselian and Holocene relative sea level for

Br^ggerhalv^ya, Spitsbergen. Note rapid fall in relative sea level c.

9.5 ka and inferred trangressive and regressive event c. 6 ka (from

Forman et al., 1987).

S.L. Forman et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 1391–14341398

dissection of these deposits has produced 100–200mlaterally continuous terrace remnants, with subduedstrandlines recognizable. A distinct change in geo-morphic expression occurs at 45m aht (Fig. 3); theterraces at and below this level exhibit exceptionallywell-preserved beach morphologies with B-horizons thatare o30 cm thick. This prominent geomorphic bound-ary is dated on Br^ggerhalv^ya and other areas ofwestern and northern Svalbard at c. 13–11 ka (Formanet al., 1987; Landvik et al., 1987; Lehman, 1989;Forman, 1990).The lowest and youngest raised beach sequence on

Br^ggerhalv^ya from the last deglacial hemicycle dis-plays striking changes in beach ridge morphology withaltitude that can be related to the rate and direction ofrelative sea level change (Fig. 3). Three large beachridges between 20 and 45m altitude have broad crests(100–200m wide) and relief up to 5m. Below 20m aht,numerous narrow (5–10m) and low (o2m) strandlinesoccur down to the present shore where a large barrierbeach ridge is actively forming.On morphologic consideration alone, the Br^ggerhal-

v^ya sequence below 45m aht suggests that relative sealevel initially fell slowly and was interrupted by at leastthree short periods of still stand or possibly transgres-sions that caused the construction of three barrierbeaches with crests at 29, 37, and 45m altitude (Fig. 3).Following construction of the ridge at 29m, sea level fellrapidly leaving only minor multiple strandlines down tothe present shore where a coarse, clastic beach ispresently forming in response to an ongoing transgres-sion (Forman et al., 1987). The occurrence of morpho-logically similar raised beach sequences on KappGuissez and Mitrahalv^ya (Forman, 1990) to the north,with massive beach ridges near the marine limit (albeit atdifferent altitudes due to regional variations in isostaticdepression) succeeded at lower altitudes by minor ridgescontinuing to the modern shore strengthens thisreconstruction of relative sea level dynamics.The other striking feature of this raised beach

sequence is the occurrence of a breach in the 45mshoreline accentuated by curved terrace remnants,oblique to lower beaches (Fig. 3). This breach mayrepresent the cusp of a spit built when the LWML wasestablished, and subsequently eroded. Spits typicallyform in shallow coastal waters where there is abundantsediment supply and long-shore drift predominates,rather than storm generated fetch. An ice-covered seawould have dampened severely the dominant westerlyfetch and favored longshore drift in near shore leads tobuild a spit on Br^ggerhalv^ya. Later, ice-free coastalconditions could have caused a switch to modern waveconditions and intensity that resulted in the truncationof the spit. Spit remnants have been identified at themarine limit on other forelands of western Spitsbergen,including Mitrahalv^ya, Sars^ya, Daudmanns^yra and

southern Prinz Karls Forland (Forman, 1990; Anders-son et al., 1999).Two whalebones collected above the LWML on

Br^ggerhalv^ya yielded infinite 14C ages (>36 ka) onthe collagen fraction, supporting pedologic and geo-morphic interpretations that middle Weichselian orolder raised beaches occur on Br^ggerhalv^ya (Formanand Miller, 1984). Whalebone retrieved from theLWML on Mitrahalv^ya at 20m aht was dated to12,9607190 yr BP (Beta 10,986). The marine limit atthese two sites was established essentially synchronouslybecause Kapp Mitra and Br^ggerhalv^ya was eitherunglaciated or deglaciated early at similar times (c.>13 ka) (Lehman and Forman, 1992). A whale ribretrieved from a swarm of bones on the 37-m prominentbeach ridge dated to 11,7607430 yr BP (GX-9909).Because this is one of the oldest ages on Svalbardassociated with postglacial raised beach deposits theother half of the bone was dated by a second laboratoryfor verification. This second age, 11,8007180 yr BP (I-13,793), is well within standard deviation of the originalage, giving an added measure of confidence to thedating. Radiocarbon ages of c. 12.5–11 ka are alsoassociated with LWML landforms and deposits nearBellsund (Landvik et al., 1987) and southern Prinz KarlsForland (Forman, 1990; Andersson et al., 1999) and tothe north in Woodfjord (Br .uckner et al., 2002).Whalebones from discrete strandlines below 30m tothe present shore on Br^ggerhalv^ya range in agebetween 10,275790 yr BP (DIC-3122), and92307340 yr BP (GX-9908) with most ages overlappingat two standard deviations (Fig. 4). Similar apparentrapid rates (2–3m/100 yr) of emergence have beendocumented for other sites on western Spitsbergen,including Daudmanns^yra, Southern Prinz Karls For-land (Forman, 1990), Bellsund (Landvik et al., 1987),

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Fig. 5. Holocene relative sea level for Kongs^ya, Svalbard, which

exhibits the greatest post-glacial emergence in the Barents Sea (from

Salvigsen, 1981).


and Erdmannflya and Bohemanflya (Salvigsen et al.,1990). The rapid emergence probably reflects an elasticcrustal response to ice unloading c. 10,000 yr BP.Abundant evidence exists for a sea level oscillation in

the middle Holocene across broad areas of western andnorthern Svalbard. Near Br^ggerhalv^ya, a whaleboneat 5m aht behind the modern storm beach at T^nsneseton the north shore of Kongsfjord yielded an age of59007210 yr BP (GX-9899), indicating that middleHolocene sea level was similar or slightly higher thanthe present level (Fig. 4). Other sites along westernSpitsbergen (Landvik et al., 1987; Forman, 1990),northern Spitsbergen (Br .uckner et al., 2002) and onPhipps^ya (Forman and Ing !olfsson, 2000) constrain thishigh sea-level event between 6 and 4 ka ago. This highstand is associated with a prominent constructionalbeach between Isfjord and Bellsund, on westernSpitsbergen (Landvik et al., 1987) and erosion andtruncation of older raised beaches on Phipps^ya (For-man and Ing !olfsson, 2000). This dated sea level event isoften associated with the first pumice level, which iswidely recognized across Svalbard (Blake, 1961a;Salvigsen, 1978, 1984), but may have occurred up to2 ka earlier on Erdmannflya and Bohemanflya, on thenorthern shore of Isfjord (Salvigsen et al., 1990).

4.2. Eastern Spitsbergen and Svalbard

On Eastern Spitsbergen (Bondevik et al., 1995) andislands in the Barents Sea, like Stor^ya (Jonsson, 1983)and Hopen (Hoppe et al., 1969), there is singlegeneration of raised beaches usually exceeding 50maht, indicating full coverage and erosion by the BarentsSea ice sheet (Landvik et al., 1998). The pattern ofpostglacial emergence for Nordaustlandet is not wellconstrained. Only two emergence records exist for thisisland (Blake, 1961a; Salvigsen, 1978), although it is onepotential source for the ice sheet that covered theBarents Sea during the late Weichselian. The highestdeglacial standlines on Svalbard are recognized on KongKarls Land in the western Barents Sea (Salvigsen, 1981;Ing !olfsson et al., 1995). Although most raised beachesclose to the marine limit often are obscured bysolifluction on Kongs^ya, levels slightly above 100mhave been identified (Fig. 5). On the west side ofSvensk^ya raised beaches are traced to higher levels, toapproximately 120m aht, indicating potentially greaterglacier loading toward Spitsbergen. The Kongs^yaraised beach at 100m aht is securely constrained by a14C age on Larix sp. log of 9850740 yr BP (GSC-3039),indicating full deglaciation by at least c. 10 14C ka(Salvigsen, 1981). Marine limits of approximately 90maht in Billefjorden, Spitsbergen and 85–90m aht onBarents^ya and Edge^ya (Bondevik et al., 1995) alsoindicate appreciable loading, with deglaciation of thelatter dated to c. 10–10.4 14C ka (Landvik et al., 1998).

Emergence of Hopen, south of Edge^ya, shows unusualnear linear emergence since c. 9.4 14C ka (Fig. 2), whichmay reflect initial emergence under a thinning ice sheet,with a subsequent declining rate of emergence postdeglaciation. Emergence records from southern Nor-daustlandet (Salvigsen, 1978) and Edge^ya and Bare-nts^ya (Bondevik et al., 1995) show a fluctuation ofemergence rate at c. 6 ka, which may reflect the middleHolocene transgression documented at other localitieswhere total emergence is o70m (Forman et al., 1987;Landvik et al., 1987; Forman, 1990; Forman andIng !olfsson, 2000; Br .uckner et al., 2002) (Fig. 2).

4.3. The pattern of post-glacial emergence on Svalbard

Abundant chronologic control places retreat of thenorthern and western margins of the Barents Sea icesheet on to Svalbard by c. 13,000–12,000 14C yr ago(Forman et al., 1987; Mangerud et al., 1992; Svendsenet al., 1992; Elverhî et al., 1995; Lubinski et al., 1996;Knies and Stein, 1998; Landvik et al., 1998; Kleiberet al., 2000; Br .uckner et al., 2002). The LWML phasebetween c. 13,000 and 10,500 14C yr BP on manyforelands on western and northern Spitsbergen ischaracterized by the construction of spits, with long-shore drift predominating over storm-generated fetch.The inferred dominance of long shore drift and thepaucity of driftage associated with the LWML mayreflect extensive sea-ice coverage of coastal areas ofwestern Spitsbergen, obstructing the passage of whalesand driftwood laden sea ice and dampening theprevailing westerly waves. A more sea ice dominatedNordic Seas c. 15–11 ka is consistent with diatom


paleoceanographic proxies (Ko@ et al., 1993). Thepresence of whalebone, albeit rare, however indicatethat sea ice periodically dissipated in the NorwegianSea to allow the migration of whales to Svalbard.This variability in sea surface conditions is characteristicof the last glacial maximum when there were sub-millennial-scale oscillations in the dominance ofNorth Atlantic and Arctic water masses off of Svalbard(Hebbeln et al., 1994; Dokken and Hald, 1996). Therate of emergence during c. 13,000 and 10,500 14C yrwas relatively slow (1.5–5m/ka) reflecting the rateof isostasy just exceeding eustatic rise of sealevel of approximately 15m/ka for this interval(Fairbanks, 1989).Relative sea level fell rapidly (15–30m/ka) for many

sites on western and northern Spitsbergen between10,500 and 9000 14C yr BP with raised beaches depositedparallel to the present shoreline, indicating that wavedirection was similar to that of the present. Emergencecommenced for areas on eastern Spitsbergen (Salvigsenand Mangerud, 1991), Barents^ya and Edge^ya (Bon-devik et al., 1995) and Kong Karls Land (Salvigsen,1981) post 10,500–10,000 14C yr BP. The presence ofextralimital, thermophilous mollusk Mytilus edulis inwestern (Salvigsen et al., 1992) and northern Spitsbergen(Br .uckner et al., 2002; Salvigsen, 2002) starting 950014C yr BP and on Edge^ya c. at 9000 14C yr BP (Hjortet al., 1995) is coincident with the ubiquity of whaleboneon lower terrace surfaces indicate that summer sea icecoverage was considerable less and near shore waterswere warmer (>1�C) than present. This marine warmthis a result of increased advection of North Atlanticwaters c. 10,000 14C yr BP off of Svalbard (Ko@ et al.,1993) and into the Barents Sea (Lubinski et al., 2001;Ivanova et al., 2002), coupled with heightened summerinsolation 70–80�N at c. 11,000–7000 14C yr BP (Bergerand Loutre, 1991).A mid-Holocene (6–4 14C ka) transgressive–regressive

cycle is recognized at many localities on western andnorthern Spitsbergen (Forman et al., 1987; Landviket al., 1987; Forman, 1990; Forman and Ing !olfsson,2000; Br .uckner et al., 2002). The transgression did notexceed 7m of elevation and is demarcated by aconstructional terrace that truncates early Holoceneregressional strandlines. Radiocarbon dating of avariety of marine subfossils associated with this trans-gressive feature indicates that the sea occupied this levelbetween 6000 and 4000 14C yr BP. Even in areas oneastern Svalbard where total emergence is >70m thereis a noticeable fluctuation in emergence rate centered at6000 14C yr BP, which may also reflect this sea leveloscillation (Salvigsen, 1981; Salvigsen and Mangerud,1991; Bondevik et al., 1995). However, one emergencerecord from Bohemanflya and Erdmannflya places atransgressive–regressive event considerably earlier be-tween 8000 and 7000 14C yr BP (Salvigsen et al., 1990).

The disjunct timing for this sealevel event may reflect thecomplexities of relative sea level with a collapsingforebulge and the back migration of the viscous mantleeastward with deglaciation (Fjeldskaar 1994). A moderntransgression has been inferred from the marine erosionof 17th century cultural features (Feyling-Hansen, 1955;Blake, 1961b; Forman et al., 1987). Radiocarbon ages ofwhalebone and terrestrial peat buried by the modernstorm beach on western Spitsbergen support thisinterpretation and indicate that sea level rose to itspresent position c. 2000–1000 14C yr BP (Forman, 1990;Andersson, 2000).Emergence curves from western and northern Spits-

bergen provide the oldest (c. 13,00014C yr BP) butdiscontinuous post-glacial record of relative sea level forSvalbard (Fig. 2). This pattern of emergence corre-sponds well to predictions for sites that were at or nearthe margin of a large ice sheet (Transition zone I/II ofClark et al., 1978). In contrast, shoreline displacementon eastern Svalbard and islands in the Barents Seacommenced c. 10,000 14C yr BP and is continuing atpresent (Forman et al., 1997). These records are similarto relative sea level predictions for areas that werebeneath a substantial (>1km) ice sheet load (Clarket al., 1978; Lambeck, 1995, 1996). The spatial variationin emergence recognized for Svalbard indicates thatwestern and northern Spitsbergen was near the reactivemargin of the ice sheet. Marine geologic studies on thecontinental shelf and slope north of the Barents Seaplace advance of the last ice sheet Sea ice sheet to itsnorthern limit by c. 21–23 14C yr BP and retreat ofnorthern areas of Svalbard and Franz Josef Land by c.15 ka (Leirdal, 1997; Kleiber et al., 2000). Thus, icemarginal areas on northern Svalbard potentially sus-tained relatively brief ice coverage (3000–8000 yr), undervariable ice sheet or ice stream flow and were probablynot in isostatic equilibrium, with glacio-isostatic unload/load half life of B 2000 years (Forman and Ing !olfsson,2000). In contrast, central and eastern areas of thearchipelago, which deglaciated by at least c. 10.5 14C yrBP (Landvik et al., 1998) were beneath a substantial iceload and probably sustained this load for at least10,000 yr and achieved isostatic equilibrium. Earthrheology-based ice sheet models which are predicatedon isostatic equilibrium often model well the formercenters of ice sheets, but deviate from field observationsfor non-equilibrium areas at the ice margin (Formanand Ing !olfsson, 2000).The decline in elevation (19m aht) of the marine limit

and associated isobases (Forman, 1990; Forman et al.,1997; Landvik et al., 1998) in southernmost Spitsbergenand no emergence on Bj^rn^ya (Salvigsen and Slette-mark, 1995) indicates minimal glacier loading and/orearly deglaciation (before 10 ka); the former is supportedfrom marine geologic records from the adjacent BearIsland Trough (Faleide et al., 1996).


The pattern of post-glacial emergence since 9000 and5000 yr ago is assessed for Svalbard, Franz Josef Landand for the latter period for Novaya Zemlya (Fig. 6).The combination of emergence data from Franz JosefLand, Svalbard and Novaya Zemlya is justified becauseglacio-isostatic compensation reflects past glacial loadsover 100s of kilometers, with a half-life response ofapproximately 2000 years (Table 1). These isobases arehand contoured from 14C-dated relative sea level recordsfor individual raised strandplain sequences (Fig. 2;Appendices A and B). The 9000 14C yr BP isobasedefines a broad zone of maximum emergence throughthe east and centre of the Svalbard archipelago, withislands in the Barents Sea and eastern Svalbardregistering greatest emergence. There is a noticeabledeflection westward of isobases into Isfjord and Van

Fig. 6. Estimated emergence isobases for the Barents Sea area since 5000 an

points, which are listed in Table 1.

Mijenfjord indicating areas of substantial ice sheetloading. The 5000 14C yr BP isobase, though registeringat least 50% less emergence than the 9000 14C yr BPisobase, portrays a similar pattern to older isobases, andthus is an effective measure of past glacier loading.

5. Franz Josef Land

Raised beaches were initially recognized on FranzJosef Land during early geologic exploration (Koettlitz,1898). Dibner (1965) and Grosswald (1973) were thefirst to undertake a systematic study of post-glacialemergence on Franz Josef Land. They identifiedextensive raised-beach sequences on Hooker, Hayes,Alexandra and other islands in the Franz Josef Land

d 9000 14C yr. Circles indicate placement and value of emergence data


archipelago. Most notably, they collected five driftwoodsamples from raised beaches for 14C dating, providingthe first age constraints (c. 6000 yr) on deglaciation andemergence of Franz Josef Land. More recent contribu-tions (Glazovskiy et al., 1992; N.aslund et al., 1994;Forman et al., 1995, 1996, 1997; Lubinski, 1998)contribute in total fifteen records (Table 1; AppendixB; Fig. 7) of postglacial relative sea level and strati-graphic assessments on deglaciation for central andsouthern Franz Josef Land and are a basis forsummarizing the pattern of post-glacial emergence.The studied islands, in the central and the southern

part of the archipelago, are bounded by sounds andfjords with water depths of >250m (Matishov et al.,1995). Most of the archipelago (85%) is covered byglaciers and all islands studied have low elevation(o100m aht) forelands covered partially by raised-beach sediments. Most sounds and fjords in thearchipelago are covered usually by sea ice for 9–10months of the year (Denisov et al., 1993). Sea iceconditions in the inter-island channels during July andAugust are variable, ranging from open water condi-tions to full sea-ice coverage. Gravel and boulder

Fig. 7. Holocene postglacial emergence records for Franz Jo

beaches dominate the present shore of central andeastern Franz Josef Land. Storm-beach gravels and sea-ice-pushed ridges often extend up to 2–3m above thepresent high-tide level. The tidal range on Franz JosefLand is approximately 0.5m (Denisov et al., 1993).There are 15 separate assessments of post-glacialemergence for Franz Josef Land (Table 1; Fig. 7), andin this review we present as points of discussionrepresentative site from across the archipelago, includ-ing Bell, Hooker and Halls Islands.

5.1. Hooker Island

One of the broadest forelands in the archipelago is onHooker Island, rising to approximately 100m aht, in thefore of the Jackson Ice Cap (Fig. 8). This foreland wasinitially studied by Forman et al. (1996), and was thefocus of more detailed assessment by Lubinski (1998),which provides a detailed record of postglacial emer-gence (Fig. 9). A SPOT satellite image shows the inlandlimit of littoral deposition on Hooker and Scott KeltyIslands as a distinct lighter-toned surface that fills riverdrainages (Fig. 8). This marine-limit depositional

sef Land, Russia (modified from Forman et al., 1997).

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Fig. 8. Spot Image of Hooker and Scott Keltie Islands showing valley infills at the marine limit (36m aht) and a prominent escarpment, below the

Marine Limit (26m aht) and associated with an arrest in sea level fall (from Forman et al., 1996).

Fig. 9. Elevation-age relation for raised beaches on Cape Dandy, Hooker Island, Franz Josef Land. This relative sea level curve is constrained by 2314C ages from the Cape Dandy region (solid boxes), an additional 21 14C ages from raised beaches within 20 km of Cape Dandy support the relation

(open symbols). Error bars are one standard deviation (from Lubinski, 1998).



feature is composed of fluvially dissected, sandy togravelly, shallow-water marine sediments. Paired valvesof Mya truncata, with periostracum and siphon pre-served and collected from the lower part of the marinedeposit yielded 14C ages of 10,2907115 yr BP (GX-17266), 9995785 yr BP (AA-8566) and 9645780 yr BP(AA-8567). The marine limit at 3672m aht oninterfluves is recognized as the boundary betweenwashed, rounded gravels and an unsorted glacial drift.A whalebone from 33m aht on a regressional strandimmediately below the marine limit yielded the 14C ageof 94157125 yr BP (GX-17197G), providing a mini-mum age for the initial fall in postglacial sea level.On Hooker Island a broad constructional marine

terrace commonly occurs approximately 6m below themarine limit. Driftwood embedded near the crest of thisterrace at 29m aht gave 14C ages 87157100 yr BP (GX-17198) and 72457100 yr BP (GX-17556) and indicatethat relative sea level was stable during this interval. Amore detailed study of emergence that generated 23additional radiocarbon ages constrains this arrestbetween c. 9.0 and 7.8 14C ka (Lubinski, 1998). Initialobservations of a broadening in the regressionalsequence at 1772 and 872m aht, corresponding to c.5500 14C yr BP and 3500–3000 14C yr BP, that wereinterpreted as arrests in emergence (Forman et al.,1996). Subsequent detailed dating of a raised beachsequence at Cape Dandy (Fig. 9) does not indicate anychange in emergence rates corresponding to theseelevations or ages (Lubinski, 1998).The lowest raised beaches at 1–2m aht on Hooker

Island, at the head of Calm Bay (Fig. 8) are protectedfrom storm waves that form 2–3m high storm beacheson the outer coast of the island. Partially buried logsfrom raised surfaces at 1 and 2m aht yield 14C ages775765 yr BP (GX-17200) and 1100780 yr BP (GX-17199) indicating little remaining emergence. Surpris-ingly, a log buried at 0.5m aht gave the 14C ages>38,000 yr BP (GX-17201), the only evidence for openwater conditions before the Late Weichselian.

5.2. Bell Island

The highest marine terrace on the archipelago isidentified at 4972m aht inset against a steep bedrockslope on southeastern Bell Island (Forman et al., 1996).Radiocarbon ages of 92207120 yr BP (GX-17209G)and 97057105 yr BP (GX-17208) on whalebone anddriftwood imbedded in regressional gravels at 4772 and4572m aht, respectively provide minimum limiting ageson emergence. Below the marine limit there are a seriesof steeply inclined marine terraces covered by eoliansand.On southwestern Bell Island a gently sloping foreland,

covered by raised beaches to approximately 30m ahtprovides an optimal setting for resolving a time series

for emergence. A striking geomorphic feature is a 2–5mhigh escarpment at approximately 26m aht eroded intobeach gravels and bedrock. A 14C age on driftwooddeposited against the escarpment places the erosionalevent before 6000 yr BP. A prominent raised accre-tionary spit occurs at 1672m aht; a 14C age on a whalejaw bone from the cusp of the spit places construction atc. 4300 yr BP. On Bell Island, the lowest identifiedraised-beach surface is at 1m aht, situated about 100mbehind the modern storm beach. Driftwood imbeddedinto this raised beach surface yielded the 14C age of1050795 yr BP (GX-19476G), indicating that emer-gence is nearly complete.

5.3. Hall Island

Field studies concentrated on the southeastern gla-cier-free forelands on Hall Island. The limit of marineinfluence was identified to 3272m aht as a washinglimit eroded into drift-covered bedrock. Associated withthis washing limit is a discontinuous constructionalbeach with superimposed ice-pushed ridges (cf. Martini,1981) that crests at 32m aht. These well-preservedmarine limit features are within a few 100s-of-m of thepresent margin of outlet glaciers of the Hall Island icecap. A 14C age of 86557145 yr BP (GX-19495) ondriftwood from a regressional strandline, approximately1m below the marine limit, provides a minimumconstraining age on deglacial emergence. Driftwoodlocated inside Severe Bay at 23m aht gave the 14C age of83107145 yr BP (GX-19512), at least 1000 yearsyounger than the inferred age of the equivalent raisedbeach outside the bay. This log was found at the base ofa scree slope and may have been retransported down-slope with postglacial regression.A sequence of marine sand beneath raised-beach

gravels along the inner part of Severe Bay herald evenearlier deglaciation (Forman et al., 1997). Exposed instream and coastal sections is a sequence of stratifiedsand and silty-sand, containing isolated drop stones.Centimeter-scale beds fine upward from a medium tocoarse sand to a sandy-silt. Throughout the sequencethere occur paired mollusks of Macoma calcarea andMya truncata, and other marine fauna. The presence ofabundant paired mollusks with periostracum and hingeligament, and common burrowing structures indicatesan in situ fauna. Most notable is an increase in bed dipsfrom 5� to 10� at the section base to 25� to 30� up-section, concomitant with a general coarsening in thesand fraction. The plunge of the beds (155–120�)indicates a sediment source from the northwest, towardthe present outlet glacier margin. The sequence wastruncated with regression and emplacement of beachgravels on top of the section. Radiocarbon ages onpaired Mya truncata shells from this sequence placedeposition of these near-shore sands between c. 8300


and 9700 14C yr BP. This sedimentary sequence repre-sents deltaic sedimentation immediately in front of aglacier margin. The lowest, shallowly inclined beds (dipsof 5–10�) mark bottom-set deposition. The overlyingmore steeply inclined beds may reflect progradation ofthe delta front with fall or stabilization of relative sealevel, or slight advance of a nearby (within 0.5 km)outlet glacier.

5.4. The pattern of postglacial emergence for Franz Josef

Land

Radiocarbon ages on in situ mollusks and one pieceof driftwood place deglacial invasion of the sea alongBritish Channel at or before 10,400 14C yr BP (Formanet al., 1996). A number of 14C ages between 9200 and9700 14C yr BP on driftwood and whalebone o10mbelow the marine limit clearly show that forelandsadjacent to British Channel were deglaciated by theearly Holocene. Raised glacial-marine and deltaicsediments dated between 9.7 and 8.3 14C ka within1 km of present glacier margins indicate that outletglaciers were at or behind present limits during the earlyHolocene (Lubinski et al., 1999). Limited marinegeologic studies of interisland channels on Franz JosefLand place deglaciation by c.10–9.6 14C yr BP (Polyakand Solheim, 1994; Lubinski, 1998). It remains un-certain whether unstudied areas to the northeast, likeGraham Bell Island, share a similar glacier history. Theregional pattern of postglacial emergence indicates thatpast glacier loads were greater over the adjacent BarentsSea than Franz Josef Land (Figs. 6 and 10). Themaximum-recorded glacio-isostatic compensation forFranz Josef Land is toward the southwest, on BellIsland, with a marine limit at 4972m aht, formed c.10,000 14C yr BP. The lowest recognized emergence is onthe easternmost island studied, Klagenfurt, with amarine limit of 2072m aht dated at c. 6000 14C yrBP. Emergence isolines further east and north are notwell constrained because of the paucity of relative sea-level data, especially north of 80�300N. The availableemergence data since 9 and 5 ka show these raisedsurfaces respectively ascending toward the southwestinto the Barents Sea at approximately 0.3 and 0.1m/km(Forman et al., 1996).There is a clear absence of cobble or boulder beaches

at the marine limit, though clastic beaches are commonlower in the regressional sequence and at the presentshoreline. The highest level of marine incursion iscommonly demarcated by a discrete washing limitingeroded into glacial drift and in many valleys, particu-larly on Hooker Island, is coincident with sandy marineinfill. There is also a noticeable paucity of driftwood andwhalebone associated with the marine limit surface(Forman et al., 1996; Lubinski, 1998). The lack ofboulder-dominated beaches and a paucity of driftage at

the marine limit may indicate a more permanent coastalsea-ice coverage that would dampen waves and restrictthe flux of flotsam during initial emergence (cf.H.aggblom, 1982).There is evidence that emergence is nearly complete

on Franz Josef Land. Driftwood 1–2 above the stormbeach limit yielded 14C ages between 775 and 1500 yrBP, indicating emergence rates for the past millenniumof o1–2mm/year (Table 1). Similar low rates ofemergence in the past millennium in Fennoscandinaviaare characteristic of areas that sustained modest LateWeichselian ice sheet loads (o1500m) within a few 100sof km of the inferred ice sheet margin (Emery andAubrey, 1991; Fjeldskaar, 1994).

6. Northern Novaya Zemlya

The first scientific expeditions to Novaya Zemlyaidentified raised beaches up to 100+ m, which wereassumed to reflect glacio-isostatic unloading from a LateWeichselian glaciation (Gr^nlie, 1924; Zagorskaya,1959; Kovaleva, 1974; Grosswald, 1988). The occur-rence of raised beaches >100m in elevation on NovayaZemlya, similar to areas at the former centre of icesheets in central Canada and Fennoscandinavia, is animportant criterion for reconstructing a 3-km-thick icesheet centered over Novaya Zemlya (Lambeck, 1995;Peltier, 1996). However, observations in the 1990s(Forman et al., 1995, 1999a, b; Zeeberg et al., 2001;Zeeberg, 2002) of the raised marine record on northernNovaya Zemlya places the postglacial marine limit amagnitude lower at c. 15–10m aht. Rheological model-ing with this lower glacio-isostatic response yields an icesheet centered on the Barents Sea and terminating intothe Kara Sea with an inferred thickness of o1500mover Novaya Zemlya (Lambeck, 1995). Presented in thissection are the studied localities from the northern andsouthern Barents and Kara Seas coast and for VaygachIsland that principally constrain post-glacial emergence(Figs. 1 and 11).

6.1. Kara Sea coast: Cape Bismark and Cape Spory

Navolok

The marine limit is demarked in a bay south of CapeBismark by a well-developed raised beach berm thatvaries in elevation between 12.5 and 13.5m aht. Thewestern end of the berm consists of rounded beachpebbles and terminates against frost-shattered, lichen-covered bedrock. Driftwood collected immediatelybehind the berm and 14C dated to 5365760 yr BP(GX-25466; Zeeberg et al., 2001) provides a closelimiting age on initial emergence (Fig. 11). A whalevertebrae and driftwood collected behind the bermyielded anomalous young ages of c. 3710 14C yr BP

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Fig. 10. Estimated emergence isobases for Franz Josef Land, Russia since 5000 14C yr BP and 9000 14C yr BP. Circles indicate location and value of

data points. Data for Franz Josef Land are shown in Fig. 7 and listed in Table 1 (from Forman et al., 1997).


(GX-25467) and 3485 14C yr BP (GX-24850) respec-tively, and probably were carried over the berm crestduring later storm surges. The modern storm beach limitat Cape Bismark is 6.4m aht, reflecting exposure of thebay to a predominately southeastern fetch.The marine limit at Cape Spory Navolok, a headland

projecting B4 km into the Kara Sea 15 km south ofCape Bismark, is a distinct wave-abraded escarpment at7–11m aht (Zeeberg, 1997; Forman et al., 1999a, b). Adiamicton above this escarpment at 1271m aht isunwashed. Previously, a driftwood log (4860714014C yr BP (GX-18532) was retrieved at Cape SporyNavolok by Grosswald (Forman et al., 1995). Theemergence curve and marine limit at B13m aht for

nearby Cape Bismark indicate that the elevation of1872m aht estimated for this log is probably too highand it has been re-assigned an elevation of B12m(Zeeberg et al., 2001).

6.2. Kara Sea coast: Cape Zhelaniya

The marine limit in the Cape Zhelaniya area liesbetween a 10.5m-high berm crest southwest of CapeMavriki and unwashed diamicton at 13m aht. Thestorm beach limit at Cape Zhelaniya is B1.5m,indicating low wave run-up. Cape Zhelaniya is aB500–200m-wide promontory protruding about1.5 km into the Kara Sea. The pattern of postglacial

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 11. Post-glacial emergence curves for northern Novaya Zemlya (from Zeeberg et al., 2001) and Nordenskj^ld Bay (Forman et al., 1997).


emergence for the Cape Zhelaniya area is constrained bysamples from Cape Mavriki, Cape Serebryannikov, anda sequence in the B600m-wide bay east of CapeMavriki. A heavy driftwood root section provides theoldest (4380760 14C yr BP; GX-25459) and highest(7.0m aht) sample (Appendix C). This sample wascollected from rounded cobbles on a bedrock notch,indicating a washing limit at 9.5m aht at the base of aescarpment with active solifluction.There is a possible washing level above the Holocene

marine limit (B13m) between 20 and 30m aht. Theseolder marine shoreline features include erosionalnotches in bedrock at Cape Mavriki and prominenthorizontal, beach-like platforms at B24m aht at Cape

Zhelaniya. Similar platforms were observed at theOrange Islands, about 25 km NW of Cape Zhelaniya.

6.3. Barents Sea coast: Ivanov Bay

The marine limit at Ivanov Bay is demarked by aprominent raised berm that infills a 2 km-wide valley upto 13.5m aht. Skeletal remains of a beached whalescattered over this berm at 11.5 and 12m aht yieldedages of 64457105 14C yr BP (GX-24843) and 6640710514C yr BP (GX-24844), providing the oldest age con-straint for the marine limit on north Novaya Zemlya(Table 1). The highest raised beach at the foot of theberm at 8.8m aht is dated to 37607 45 14C yr BP (GX-


25464). Modern wood was encountered up to 4.3m ahtin Ivanov Bay and on its western cape (Cape Varnek).Driftage at both locations included German sea minesfrom the 1940s at 2m aht, indicating low storm surgeactivity in the past B60 years.

6.4. Barents Sea coast: Cape Medvezhy

A detailed record of emergence was established on a4 km long stretch immediately southwest of CapeMedvezhy. This area is exposed to Barents Sea stormsurges resulting in storm run-up to 6m aht in streamvalleys. Driftwood associated with the modern 4m-highstorm ridge encroaches onto the slightly lower raisedbeach. Subfossil driftwood partly buried in this surfaceat 3.8m aht yielded an age of 295750 14C yr BP (GX-24858; Appendix C), indicating little to no effectiveemergence in the past B400 years. The raised beachsequence terminates against a B5m high escarpment,and the highest discernable raised beach was found at10.5m aht. A driftwood log at 10.3m aht behind thisridge yielded an age of 4070755 14C yr BP (GX-24864).Two kilometers to the south of this location theregressional littoral fill against the escarpmentextends to 12m aht, demarking the marine limit forthis area.

6.5. Barents Sea coast: Russkaya Gavan

Russkaya Gavan (Russian Harbor) is a 10 km-long by5 km-wide fjord that runs N-S (Fig. 11). The emergencesequence studied is on a B400 m-long beach in a 2 km-wide bay separated from the main fjord by a promon-tory. The storm beach is o2m high. A series of raisedbeaches descends from a well-defined raised berm at11.5–12.5m aht, which is cut by a meltwater streamdraining a valley parallel to the Shokalski Glacier. Themarine limit is demarked by a clear contact betweenrounded pebbles and bedrock covered by a thin(o0.5m) diamicton, containing angular, poorly sortedclasts. Subfossil driftwood is found between 2 and 4maht, but is rarer at higher elevations. The highestretrieved driftage is a 2m-long log at 6.5m aht, whichyielded an age of 4145750 14C yr BP (GX-24857;Zeeberg et al., 2001). The general scarcity of driftwoodand low-elevation storm beach probably reflect the bay’ssheltered topography and position to Barents Sea stormrun-up.A pronounced bedrock notch at B23m on the

promontory north of polar station Russkaya Gavanpossibly indicates a pre-Holocene washing limit. Thislevel appears to be similar to the pre-Holocene levelsfound at Cape Mavriiki, Cape Zhelaniya, and theOrange Islands.

6.6. Vaygach Island

The marine limit was assessed in the summer of 2000on Vaygach Island around Cape Bolvansky and CapeDiakanova, respectively the northern and southernmostcapes of this 100 km-long island. The marine limit wasfound to coincide with the modern storm beach atB2maht. Radiocarbon ages on weathered, probably in situdriftwood collected among modern, sawn logs on CapeBolvansky, indicate little (o2m) relative sea levelchange in the past B6 centuries (Zeeberg et al., 2001).

6.7. Post-glacial emergence on Novaya Zemlya

The marine limit formed on northern Novaya Zemlyabetween 6500 and 5000 14C yr BP when global sea levelwas stabilizing (Kidson, 1982; Fairbanks, 1989; Bardet al., 1996). All sites show little apparent emergenceduring the past 2000 years, with the lowest raisedlandforms at identical heights to storm beaches (Fig.11). The emergence curves for north Novaya Zemlya(Fig. 11; Table 1) indicate an average uplift-rate ofB0.8mm/yr at present and B2.5mm/yr between 5000and 4000 14C yr BP. However, a 35 yr-long tide gaugerecord from Russkaya Gavan polar station yieldsmodern uplift rates of 2mm/year for north NovayaZemlya (Emery and Aubrey, 1991; p. 144). The loweruplift rates based from the raised beach record probablyreflects the influence of wave-run up, which oftenredeposits driftage to a higher elevation, near the stormbeach limit, yielding young ages for the lowest raisedbeaches and resulting in artificially depressed upliftrates. Uplift rates during the past B4000 yr, wererelatively low (o2.5mm/yr) and may partially reflectlow elevation of raised beaches (10–15m aht) effected byvariability in wave run-up. Thus, apparent uplift rates of0.8mm/yr and uplift half-lives of 3000 yr for the pastB4000 yr may be underestimates and the actual half-lives are probably shorter, between 2000 and 3000 years(Table 1).Ice retreat from coastal areas of northwest Novaya

Zemlya is constrained by the c. 8000 and 8700 14C yr BPshell ages from Ruskaya Gavan (Zeeberg et al., 2001)and a basal age of c. 9240 14C yr BP on a marine corefrom Nordenski^ld Bay (Forman et al., 1999a, b). Initialretreat of outlet glaciers on Novaya Zemlya is poten-tially coincident with cessation of glacial marinedeposition in northern and eastern Barents Sea at c.10,000 14C yr BP (Polyak and Solheim, 1994; Polyaket al., 1995, 1997, 2000; Lubinski et al., 1996; Hald andAspeli, 1997) and the onset of postglacial emergence onFranz Josef Land and eastern Svalbard c. 10,000 14C yrBP (e.g. Bondevik et al., 1995; Forman et al., 1995, 1996,1997; Landvik et al., 1998). Older minimum limitingdeglacial ages of c. 13,000 14C yr BP have been obtainedon marine cores from the deep (water depths >450)


troughs in the northern shelf of the Barents Sea(Lubinski et al., 1996; Polyak et al., 1997; Hald et al.,1999; Kleiber et al., 2000). Nearby sedimentrecords from the continental slope in the Arctic Oceansuggest that initial decay of the Barents Sea icesheet along its northern margin began c. 15 ka (e.g.,Knies and Stein, 1998; Knies et al., 2001; Kleiber et al.,2000).Early Holocene uplift of Novaya Zemlya, prior to

formation of the marine limit (B6000 14C yr BP), isextrapolated from the relative sea level record. Calcu-lated uplift rates of 5–6mm/yr between 9000 and 600014C yr BP indicate that about 15–20m of uplift occurredduring this period, compared to about 40m of globalsea-level rise (Kidson, 1982; Fairbanks, 1989; Bard et al.,1996). Thus, it is inferred that sea level rise outpaceduplift, implying a transgression until cessation of globalsea level rise c. 6000 14C yr BP. Isostatic rebounddominated postglacial eustatic sea-level rise after c. 600014C yr BP, resulting in formation of the marine limit andregression to the present shore. Novaya Zemlya’suniformly low (15–10m aht) marine limit is similar tothe marine limits found in southwest Scandinavia(Svendsen and Mangerud, 1987) and on northwest andsouth Svalbard at the thinning edge of the Barents Seaice sheet (Forman, 1990; Ziaja and Salvigsen, 1995;Forman and Ing !olfsson, 2000). Based on these studiesand assuming a comparable rheological response tounloading, Novaya Zemlya’s low Holocene marine limitand current uplift rates of B1–2mm/yr reflect a LateWeichselian ice load o1000m (Lambeck, 1995, 1996;Peltier, 1996).Isostatic uplift on north Novaya Zemlya since

5000 14C yr BP is 1071m on the east coast (capesBismark and Spory Navolok) and the west coast(Ivanov Bay and Cape Medvezhy). Lower uplift valuesof 871m aht since 5000 yr at Cape Zhelaniya andRusskaya Gavan probably reflect low wave run-up,resulting in driftwood deposition at lower elevations.Isostatic uplift since 5000 14C yr BP is 1171m in theNordenski^ld Bay 300 km south of our northernstudy area, suggesting that the isobase pattern runsparallel to the Novaya Zemlya coastline (Fig. 6).Furthermore, the similarity of uplift on Cape Medvezhyand Cape Bismark, areas with comparable stormrun-up on opposite sites of the island, suggests littledifferential uplift across the B80 km width of NovayaZemlya (no east–west tilt) since 5000 yr BP. Thereare no Late Weichselian or Holocene raised marinesediments along the mainland coastlines of theKara Sea and southwest Yamal Peninsula (Mangerud,et al., 1999; Forman et al., 1999a, b). This, andthe absence of Holocene raised beaches on northern-most Vaygach Island, implies that the line ofzero-emergence runs immediately south and east ofNovaya Zemlya.

7. The marine limit and deglaciation in the Barents Sea

Available chronologic control from land areas and thecontinental shelf places retreat of the northern andwestern margins of the Barents Sea ice sheet by c. 13,00014C yr BP (Forman et al., 1987; Svendsen et al., 1992;Polyak and Solheim, 1994; Elverhî et al., 1995;Lubinski et al., 1996; Br .uckner et al., 2002). Stableisotopic and IRD records from the continental slope inthe Arctic Ocean suggest that initial decay of the BarentsSea ice sheet along its northern margin began c. 15,00014C yr BP ka but that major grounding line retreat offthe shelf may not have begun until c. 13,500 ka (e.g.,Knies et al., 1999, 2000; Kleiber et al., 2000). Geo-morphic and stratigraphic evidence place deglacialunloading of central Franz Josef Land prior to 10.0–10.4 14C ka (Forman et al., 1996, 1997); a similarconclusion has been reached for eastern Svalbard(Landvik et al., 1998). The apparent age differencebetween deglaciation of the deep troughs in the northernBarents Sea at c. 13 ka and the adjacent Franz JosefLand at c. 10.4 ka may reflect relict glacier cover giventhat glacial marine sedimentation occurs in the troughsuntil c. 10 ka (e.g., Lubinski et al., 1996). Nevertheless, ahiatus in datable material delivered to the archipelagocannot be ruled out.There is a distinct absence of boulder-dominated

beaches at the marine limit on Franz Josef Land, thoughboulder beaches are common lower in the regressionalsequence and at the present shoreline. The highest levelof marine incursion is demarcated commonly by adiscrete washing limit eroded into glacial drift, or inproximity to a sediment source, constructional beachridges in valley mouths. There is a noticeable lack ofdriftage on the marine-limit surface. Only two pieces ofdriftwood, one from Hall Island and the other fromKoldewey Island, were retrieved after surveying numer-ous marine-limit landforms on central and eastern FranzJosef Land. A similar paucity in driftage on marine-limitsurfaces was observed on western Franz Josef Land(N.aslund et al., 1994; Forman et al., 1996). The lack ofboulder-dominated beaches, occurrence of sea-icepushed ridges, and scarcity of driftage on marine limitsurfaces may indicate a more permanent sea-ice cover, atleast in the near-shore zone, that would dampen wavesand restrict the flux of flotsam during initial emergence(H.aggblom, 1982; Stewart and England, 1983).The oldest 14C ages on driftage and shells of c. 10.4 ka

from raised marine deposits on Franz Josef Land(Forman et al., 1996) and eastern Svalbard provide aminimum age on deglaciation, particularly if perennialsea ice dominated with ice sheet retreat. A permanentsea-ice cover would restrict the flux of flotsam (H-.aggblom, 1982; Stewart and England, 1983), the in-migration of whales (Moore and Reeves, 1993), andcolonization by mollusks (Peacock, 1989). Diatom


records for the Norwegian and Greenland seas indicatea perennial sea-ice pack between c. 13 and 10.5 ka, withpresent sea-surface conditions prevailing by 10 ka (Ko@et al., 1993). However, planktonic foraminferal recordswest of Svalbard indicate periodic open water conditionsin the late glacial (Hebbeln et al., 1994; Dokken andHald, 1996). The occurrence of whalebones, thoughrare, dated between 13 and 11 14Cka indicates episodicopen-water conditions extending to nearshore areas onwest Spitsbergen (Forman et al., 1987; Forman, 1990).However, there is a distinct absence of whalebone anddriftwood c. >10 ka. on northern Spitsbergen, eventhough strandplains formed >11 ka, indicating theabsence of open water conditions conducive for thetransport of driftage upon deglaciation (Salvigsen andØsterhlom, 1982; Lehman, 1989; Br .uckner et al., 2002).Perennial sea-ice cover may have dominated northernSvalbard and Franz Josef Land during the late glacialuntil northward propagation of regional oceanographicwarming after 10.5 ka (Ko@ et al., 1993; Polyak et al.,1995; Lubinski et al., 2001; Ivanova et al., 2002).The first-order dimensions of the Late Weichselian

Barents Sea ice sheet are indicated by the maximumuplift pattern in the northwestern Barents Sea, alongwith the position of moraines on the shelf edge north ofSpitsbergen (Elverhî et al., 1995; Leirdal, 1997, in:Forman and Ing !olfsson, 2000) and around Bear Island(Salvigsen and Slettemark, 1995). These constraintsimply an ice dome with a radius of B500 km. Theeastern limit probably terminated in the Kara Sea(Polyak et al., 2002) with ice flow likely followingbathymetry. Major ice streams descended into the FranzVictoria, St. Anna and Voronin Troughs while ice alsospread into the southern Barents Sea (Lubinski et al.,1996; Polyak et al., 1997, 2000; Siegert et al., 1999;Kleiber et al., 2000). There is compelling evidence for asubsidiary ice stream that flowed eastward across thenorthern Kara Sea and terminated on the TaymyrPeninsula (Alexandersson et al., 2002; Polyak et al.,2002). The ice dome in the Barents Sea and a potentiallysmaller form over Novaya Zemlya drained to thesouthwest with an ice stream into the Bear IslandTrough. Eastward ice flow from the Barents Sea dometoward Novaya Zemlya would have to overcomeaccelerated flow into the St. Anna Trough and thenovertop Novaya Zemlya’s steep and high (1000m)topography. Mountains and plateaus of Novaya Zem-lya, therefore, may have sustained a satellitic ice domeduring the last glacial maximum, consistent with thecoast-parallel isobases at 5 ka (Zeeberg et al., 2001).Glacier cover of islands in the Barents Sea was

probably reduced compared to present glacier limitsduring the early Holocene (10–8 ka). At a number oflocalities on Franz Josef Land, within 1–2 km of thepresent glacier margin, in situ shells from raised-marinesediments yield 14C ages between 9.7 and 8.3 ka,

evidence that outlet glaciers were at or behind presentmargins by the early Holocene (Forman et al., 1996,1997; Lubinski et al., 1999). Blake (1989) reports AMS14C ages of c. 9.7–9.2 ka on shell fragments from aninterlobate moraine from a northern outlet of theNordaustlandet ice cap. These ages indicate that thisoutlet retreated at least 6 km from its current positionduring the early Holocene to allow marine incursion anddeposition of shells. On Stor^ya, a small island, 15 kmeast of Nordaustlandet, the inferred presence of c. 9–5 ka old raised beach deposits beneath the present icecap marks a significant reduction or possible absence ofthe ice cap during the early Holocene (Jonsson, 1983). Asimilar geomorphic relation was recognized on Alexan-dra Island, Franz Josef Land, where raised beachesdated between c. 6800 and 5000 14C yr BP arejuxtaposed at the present ice-cap margin, evidence forless glacier cover during the early Holocene (Glazovskiyet al., 1992).

8. Postglacial emergence in the Barents Sea

There is abundant evidence for pre-Late Weichselianraised beach features on western and northern Spitsber-gen and on Novaya Zemlya. These basic field observa-tions indicate that the last glaciation was not the mostextensive, nor resulted in the greatest ice sheet loads inthe late Quaternary. The most extensive older raisedbeach sequence occurs on western and northernSpitsbergen, where well-preserved remnants occur upto 40m and above the Late Weichselian marine limit(Forman et al., 1984; Mann et al., 1987; Forman, 1990).Many of these surfaces, particularly on western andnorthern Spitsbergen (Forman et al., 1984; Forman,1990; Andersson et al., 1999) show no evidence forglacier over riding while other sites show coverage by athin discontinous diamiction associated with the lastglaciation (Mangerud et al., 1992; Forman et al., 1997).Direct dating of subfossils from these older deposits andcorrelation to nearby stratigraphic sections place thesehigh relative sea level events c. 60–80 ka and >140 kaago (Forman et al., 1987; Miller et al., 1989; Forman,1999). Washing levels are also identified at a number ofsites above the Holocene marine limit at B24m aht onnorth Novaya Zemlya (Zeeberg et al., 2001). Thesenorthern levels are probably related to raised beachdeposits between 20 and at least 36m aht in Nor-denskj^ld Bay about 175 km to the southwest, whichyielded shell ages of >30 ka and are interpreted toreflect ice loading by an Early or Middle Weichselian icesheet (Forman et al., 1999a). Evidence for earlier glacialevents is better delineated on the Eurasian mainland byglacier marginal deposits in north Russia (MarkhidaLine) and west Siberia that indicate ice-sheet advancefrom the Barents and Kara Seas onto the mainland


during the Early (c. 100 ka) or Middle (60–70 ka)Weichselian (Astakhov, 1998; Forman et al., 1999b;Mangerud et al., 1999; Svendsen et al., 1999), thoughthere is also evidence for northerly ice flow into the KaraSea from mainland Russia (Forman et al., 2002;Lokrantz et al., 2003).This assessment of the pattern of postglacial emer-

gence for the Barents Sea places a maximum LateWeichselian ice sheet load over the northern Barents Seaand eastern Svalbard. The emergence data from FranzJosef Land indicate substantially less isostatic compen-sation than eastern Svalbard (Salvigsen, 1981; Salvigsenand Mangerud, 1991; Bondevik et al., 1995). Observa-tions of a low (10–15m aht) and young (B6000 14C yrBP) postglacial marine limit on Novaya Zemlya (For-man et al., 1995, 1999a; Zeeberg et al., 2001) confines themaximum ice sheet load to the northern and westernBarents Sea. The pattern of glacio-isostasy is incon-sistent with a dominant ice sheet load modeled overNovaya Zemlya and the Kara Sea (Peltier, 1994, 1996).The southern limit of maximum isostatic rebound in theBarents Sea is more difficult to constrain. However,there is no evidence for northerly deflection of post-glacial isobases on Fennoscandinavia or the KolaPeninsula (M^ller, 1986; Snyder et al., 1996) indicatinga diminished ice-sheet load and/or early deglaciation ofthe southern Barents Sea. Glacio-isostatic response waseven more modest in the southern Barents Sea withmarine limits registered at o10m on southern NovayaZemlya and Kolguev Island (Forman et al., 1995), zeroemergence on Bear Island (Salvigsen and Slettemark,1995) and Vaygach Island (Zeeberg et al., 2001) andpostglacial submergence of the Pechora lowland coast(Tveranger et al., 1995).Modeling the course of uplift in the Barents Sea

provides insight into eustatic and isostatic controls onthe course of postglacial relative sea-level. An exponen-tial function (U=Cekt; where U=uplift, C=remnantuplift, k=rate constant and t=time), provides a first-order approximation for the form of postglacial upliftfor many areas that sustained 1000+m-thick ice sheetsin the Late Weichselian (Andrews, 1968, 1970; Bakkelid,1986; Forman et al., 1997). A similar formulation is usedto model uplift for Franz Josef Land, eastern Svalbardand Novaya Zemlya, which yielded highly correlated fits(R2=>0.90; Table 1). Calculations using emergencedata spanning the past 10 ka are corrected to reflect totaluplift by adding the estimated rise in global sea-levelduring this interval (Fairbanks, 1989). It is assumed thatglobal sea level is stable after 6 ka (Kidson, 1982) andthe total sea level rise isB55m after 10.5 ka (Fairbanks,1989; Peltier, 1994). To assess present rates of uplift anduplift half-lives, the radiocarbon chronology for uplift isconverted to calendric time (Stuiver et al., 1998).Exponential fit of 14C-corrected uplift data for Franz

Josef Land and east Svalbard indicate that these areas

are close to isostatic equilibrium at present (Table 1).The uplift rate constant (k) for Franz Josef Land andeastern Svalbard is relatively uniform yielding meanvalues of 3.2� 10�4/yr and 3.4� 10�4/yr for the past12,000 calendar years (Table 1). The resultant averagehalf-life of uplift is approximately 2000 years, which issimilar to values for northern Canada (Andrews, 1968;Dyke et al., 1991) and Fennoscandinavia (Bakkelid,1986; Weihe, 1996). The present estimated rate ofuplift for Franz Josef Land is 1.170.9mm/yr, with aninferred 3–2m of uplift remaining (Table 1). Theinferred present rate of uplift on eastern Svalbard issimilar at 1.170.3mm/year, with 1.5–5.5m ofisostasy projected in to the future. Kongs^ya, Aagard-bukta on eastern Spitsbergen, and localities on Bare-nt^ya and on Edge^ya have the greatest inferredremaining emergence (3.4–5.5m) and the presentuplift rates (1.2–1.6mm/yr), which is consistent withmaximum Late Weichselian glacier loads over theBarents Sea and eastern Svalbard (Salvigsen, 1981;Forman, 1990; Forman et al., 1995, 1997; Landviket al., 1998).The estimated contemporary, maximum uplift rates of

0.7–1.6mm/yr for eastern Svalbard and Franz JosefLand are consistent with the closest tide gaugemeasurements on northern Novaya Zemlya, RusskayaGavan (Emery and Aubrey 1991, p. 114). Sea levelmeasurements for this locality in the northern BarentsSea over the past 40 years yield a land uplift rate of2mm/yr. In contrast, predicted uplift residuals of 3–8mm/yr (Peltier, 1996; M2 model) are at odds with theobserved current uplift rates of 0.7–2mm/yr, reflectingthe rheological response from a modelled 2-to-2.5-kmthick Late Weichselian ice-sheet over the Barents andKara seas, (Peltier, 1994, 1996).The sea-level curve from Barbados currently provides

the best approximation of the course of global sea levelduring the last deglaciation (Fairbanks, 1989). However,uncertainty remains on directly applying sea-levelestimates from Barbados to the Barents Sea because ofimprecise estimates on the progression of the geoidduring deglaciation and gravitational effects on sea levelby adjacent ice sheets (e.g. M .orner, 1978; Anderson,1984; Fjeldskaar, 1994). To minimize uncertainties ofapplying an equatorial sea level record to the BarentsSea, the derivative of the Barbados sea-level curve(Fairbanks, 1989) is presented as a negative ratecompared to the modelled isostatic response (Fig. 12).The average rates of eustatic sea-level rise and isostaticadjustment are computed in 1000 14C year incrementsfor the past 10 ka (Fig. 12). The difference between therate of eustatic rise and isostatic compensation yields apredicted emergence rate/ka. This predicted emergencerate is then compared to the measured emergence ratefor Hooker and Scot Keltie islands and KoldeweyIsland, southern Franz Josef Land (Forman et al., 1996,

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 12. Plot of the rate of sea-level change for 1000 14C yr BP intervals for the past 11,000 yr. Changes in eustasy derived from Fairbanks (1989).

Modeled uplift rate derived from exponential fit of uplift data (Forman et al., 1997). Rate of modelled emergence is derived by subtracting rate of

eustasy from rate of modelled uplift. Measured emergence rate is from empirically derived relative sea-level curve for Hooker and Scott Keltie islands

(Forman et al., 1996).


1997) to evaluate the interplay between eustasy andisostasy in the Barents Sea (Fig. 12).The measured emergence rate for Hooker and Scott

Keltie Islands agrees well with modeled rates from thepast 7 ka (Fig. 12), consistent with the primacy of glacio-isostatic adjustment in the middle and late Holocene forcontrolling the course of relative sealevel in the BarentsSea. However, prior to 7 ka there is a noticeablediscrepancy, particularly on Hooker and Scott Keltieislands, with measured emergence rates lower than thosepredicted (Fig. 12). This lower initial emergence rate onFranz Josef Land is reflected as a diachronous marinelimit dated between 10.4 and 6 ka, and previouslydenoted as a transgression (N.aslund et al., 1994) or anarrest with fall in relative sea level (Forman et al., 1996).It is unlikely that the lower measured rates of emergencebefore 7 ka reflect glacier reloading, with outlet glaciersat or behind present position by the early Holocene(Lubinski et al., 1999). Alternatively, the reflooding ofthe Barents Sea after deglaciation, c. 13–10 ka may be asufficient load to dampen glacio-isostatic compensation.The average present depth of the Barents Sea is 230mand at c. 10–9 ka the western and central portions wereapproximately 150–50m deeper because of down warp-ing from prior ice-sheet loading. The inferred water loadin the Barents Sea c. 10 ka may be equivalent to 20–10%of the modelled ice-sheet load during the glacialmaximum (Lambeck, 1995) and would dampen theinitial rate of emergence (Forman et al., 1997).

9. Comparison of model and data or glacial isostasy

The glacial history hypothesised from analysis ofraised beaches can be tested using numerical ice-sheetmodels. Such models differ from solid-Earth models inthat uplift rate calculations are made independent of

measurements, whereas solid-Earth models are forcedby rebound records. Like solid-Earth models, ice-sheetmodels also assist in the interpretation of uplift recordsby providing information in regions where data areabsent, and for extending uplift rates backwards in time.One argument against the use of ice-sheet models forthis purpose is that their solid-Earth component is basic.However, a model inter-comparison exercise has re-vealed little difference between the results of sophisti-cated Earth rheology models and some much simplermodels (Le Meur and Huybrechts, 1996). In particular,simple models are capable of determining uplift ratesand patterns across regions that have experienceddeglaciation, though they are less good at determininguplift distal to formerly glaciated terrain.Siegert et al. (1999) used an ice-sheet model to

understand the glacial history of the Eurasian Arctic.As the model ran, the topographic grid, over which theice sheet was constructed, was continually adjusted toaccount for ice-loading of the crust through a glacialcycle following the isostasy method developed in Oerle-mans and van der Veen (1984). In this method, the totaldeflection of the lithosphere can be approximated as thesum of the deflections caused by discrete loads in eachcell. The lithosphere is allowed to approach equilibriumby an exponential decay. In each model year thelithosphere is adjusted by 1/f times the distance toequilibrium. The value of f, a characteristic timeconstant governing the rate at which isostatic adjust-ment occurs, is taken as 3000 years, which is compatiblewith that determined by Fjeldskaar (1994) fromScandinavia.The ice-sheet was forced to decay, through enhanced

rates of iceberg calving, from geologically-derived limitsat the LGM (Svendsen et al., 1999; Fig. 13). The patternof ice decay was matched to further ice sheet limits at15,000 and 12,000 cal. yr (Landvik et al., 1998). The

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 13. Ice sheet thickness at (a) 14,000 cal. yr ago, (b) 13,000 cal. yr ago, (c) 12,000 cal. yr ago, (d) 11,000 cal. yr ago. Contours are in meters (Siegert

and Dowdeswell, 2002).


result was a time-dependent view of ice sheet decayacross the Eurasian Arctic (Siegert and Dowdeswell,2002).At the LGM the model predicts the ice sheet to be

over 2.5 km thick across Scandinavia, around 1 km inthe Barents Sea, and less than 300m thick to the eastover the Kara Sea (Fig. 13). Ice decay began within thedeep bathymetric troughs of the Barents Sea. Inparticular ice calved embayments existed within theBear Island Trough in the western Barents Sea, and theFranz Victoria Trough to the north, west of Franz JosefLand (Fig. 14). By 13 cal. ka ago, the model suggeststhat the Bear Island embayment increased in size tooccupy the majority of the southern Barents Sea.Following this, the Franz Victoria embayment grewsouthwards, thus separating the ice cap over Svalbardand the northwest Barents Sea from ice over NovayaZemlya and Scandinavia. By 11 cal. ka ago, small icecaps over Svalbard and the southernmost Kara Sea areall that was left of the former marine ice sheet. AcrossScandinavia, however, the ice was as thick as 2 km. Thisland-based ice quickly decayed such that by 9 ka verylittle of the Eurasian ice sheet remained.There are four main characteristics of modelled bed

uplift associated with the decay of ice within theEurasian Arctic (Fig. 14). First, contours depicting therate of uplift at 11 ka (B9.7 14C ka) can be traced fromSvalbard across the northern margin of the Barents Sea

to Franz Josef Land. The contours are concentric aboutthe central Barents Sea, which is consistent with upliftisobases (Fig. 6). As ice decay continues, this centremigrates northwards such that by 9 cal. ka (8.1 14C ka) itis located to the south of Kong Karls Land (and to thewest of Hopen) in the northwestern Barents Sea.Second, Severnaya Zemlya and the Kara Sea experi-enced very little uplift, and the Taymyr Peninsulavirtually none. Third, Bear Island, to the north of theBear Island Trough on the western margin of theBarents Sea, experienced quite low uplift rates duringdeglaciation (o20m 1000 yr�1 at 11 ka), and virtuallyno uplift subsequent to ice decay. Fourth, at 11 cal. ka(B9.7 14C ka) the model predicts an uplift rate gradientfrom north to south across Novaya Zemlya. In the norththe rate is quite low (close to zero at the northernextreme of the island), whereas in the southwest it isaround 100m 1000 yr�1. At this time, however, themodel predicts that the island to be covered by ice,which is in agreement with limited glacial geologicobservations (Forman et al., 1999a, b). Subsequent todeglaciation of Novaya Zemlya, at 10 ka (B9 14C ka),the gradient of uplift rates is removed, such that upliftrates are between 20 and 40m 1000 yr�1 across the bulkof the island. This rate of uplift appears excessive withactual rates of 1–4m 1000 yr�1 for 6–5 cal. ka (Fig. 11)and a marine limit of 10–14m aht for northern NovayaZemlya.

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 14. Rate of bedrock uplift at (a,b) 11,000 cal. yr ago, (c,d) 10,000 yr ago and (e,f) 9000 yr ago. Note that (a), (c) and (e) show contours in 20m/

1000 yr up to 100m/1000 yr and (b), (d) and (f) display contours at 100m/1000 yr-intervals (Siegert and Dowdeswell, 2002).


10. Conclusions

The pattern for post-glacial emergence is particularlywell constrained for Spitsbergen, Edge^ya and Bare-nts^ya, but other islands of the archipelago, likeNordaustlandet, have sparse data coverage. The areaof maximum uplift on eastern Svalbard needs better

definition, particularly on Svensk^ya, where the highestpostglacial marine limit of 120m+ has been measured(Salvigsen, 1981). The glacio-isostatic signature forFranz Josef Land is incomplete with many areas to thenorth and east remaining largely unstudied(Forman et al., 1997). The glacial history of much ofnorthern and southern Novaya Zemlya is largely


unknown and additional studies are needed toconfirm the modest uplift associated with the lastdeglacial hemicycle (Forman et al., 1999a, b; Zeeberget al., 2001).There is clear evidence for early deglaciation of

northwestern Spitsbergen by c. 13 ka ago, which resultsin a variable relative sea level response with transgres-sive and regressive events, compared to deglaciationat c. 10.5–10 ka for eastern Svalbard where uplift isessentially exponential. Maximum isostatic compensa-tion of >80m aht is registered on Kongs^ya andadjacent eastern Svalbard and these areas and theadjacent Barents Sea are inferred to have sustained thegreatest ice sheet loads (Lambeck, 1995). Emergenceisobases are deflected around Isfjord and Van Mijenf-jord, Svalbard indicating sustained and a thicker iceload associated with these bathymetric lows, presumablyas ice streams.Ice sheet loading is smaller on southern Franz Josef

Land than eastern Svalbard, with maximum emergenceof 49m aht on Bell Island. Novaya Zemlya exhibitslow total emergence of 15–10m aht and initiated late,c. 6–5 ka. Modest and late emergence on NovayaZemlya and Franz Josef Land indicates that theseareas sustained modest ice sheet loads at the reactivenorthern and eastern margins of the Barents Seaice sheet. The estimated half-life for uplift in theBarents Sea is approximately 2000 yr. Present upliftrates are between 0.5 and 2mm/yr and emergence isnear completion with projected future uplift of 1–6m.Water loading in the glacio-isostatically depressedBarents Sea in the early Holocene (10–7 ka) slowedemergence rates. Glacioisostatic equilibrium wasprobably achieved for eastern Svalbard and islands inthe Barents Sea. In contrast, areas of western andnorthern Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land and Novaya

Table 2

The Radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associated marine subfossils are pr

Dated material Shoreline

altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

Blomsletta/Billefjorden, Spitsbergen: marine limit B90+m aht

Mytilus edulis valves 5.8 3370790

Mollusc fragments 8.0 5630765

Shells from Arstarte terrace 17 75957110

Shell valves of Mytilus edulis 19.5 6000780

Mya truncata samples 21.2 8480770

Mya truncata samples 31.3 9340775

Mixed shells 42 88707200

Mixed shells 50.7 95407140

Mixed shells 56 94007150

Driftwood, Larix occidentalis 65 10,0307140

Zemlya may not have achieved equilibrium reflecting anice sheet loading hemicycle o8000 yr, an importantconsideration for refining Earth rheology-based ice sheetmodels.

Acknowledgements

This research is supported by National ScienceFoundation awards DPP-9001471, OPP-9222972 andOPP-9223493, and OPP-9796024 and Office of NavalResearch contract N00014-92-M-0170 and was under-taken in cooperation with Leonid Polyak (Ohio StateUniversity). We thank the crew of R/V Dalnie Zelentsy

for gaining access to Franz Josef Land (1991–1994). Thework of !O. Ing !olfsson was supported by the SwedishNatural Sciences Research Council, G .oteborg Univer-sity and The University Centre on Svalbard (UNIS). Weexpress our gratitude to Pyotr Boyarsky and theHeritage Institute (Moscow) for providing access toNovaya Zemlya (1995, 1998) and Vaygach Island(2000). Dmitri Badyukov supported us in the field.Thanks are also due to George Maat and Henk vanVeen (Stichting Willem Barents, The Netherlands) forhelp with logistical arrangements and the Corps Marinesof the Royal Dutch Navy for provision of gear.Transport in 1998 was aboard R.V. Ivan Petrov (Arch-angelsk).

Appendix A

Radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associatedmarine subfossils fromraised beach sequences on Sval-bard, Norway (Table 2).

esented in Table 2

d13C Laboratory

number

Reference

U-126 Feyling-Hansen and Olsson (1959)

and Olsson (1960)

SI-4307 P!ew!e et al. (1982)


T-4628 Salvigsen (1984)

SI-4306 P!ew!e et al. (1982)

SI-4308 P!ew!e et al. (1982)




Salvigsen (1984)

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 2 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

d13C Laboratory

number

Reference

Brøggerhalvøya, western Spitsbergen: marine limit 4671m aht

Whale vertebrae partially buried in

raised beach

4 92307340 �17.0 GX-9908 Forman et al. (1987)

Shell fragments from soil pit in raised

beach

5 99607110 +2.6 GX-9894 Forman et al. (1987)


raised beach

8 98007370� �16.8 GX-9893 Forman et al. (1987)


raised beach

14 93657280� �16.8 GX-9892 Forman et al. (1987)

Paired valves of Mya truncata from

sublittoral sands

15+ 10,620790 02 DIC-3122 Forman et al. (1987)

Paired valves of Hiatella arctica from

sublittoral sands

20+ 99507315 02 GX-8590 Miller (1982)

Whale rib embedded in raised beach 23 99207315� �17.0 GX-9891 Forman et al. (1987)

Unidentified bone fragment 27 6207135� �15.6 GX-10106 Forman et al. (1987)

Whale rib partially buried in raised

beach

30 96057155� �16.3 GX-10730 Forman et al. (1987)

Unidentified bone fragment 36 22,2207600� �16.8 GX-10105 Forman et al. (1987)

Whale rib from crest of 37m raised

beach

37 10,8807170� �15.0 GX-10731 Forman et al. (1987)


beach

37 11,7607430 �15.2 GX-9990 Forman et al. (1987)


beach (sub sample of GX-9990)

37 11,8007180 �20.0 I-13793 Forman et al. (1987)

Whale vertebrae behind marine limit 46 >36,000 �15.7 GX-9907 Forman et al. (1987)

Whale rib behind marine limit 46 >35,71075070–

3080

�15.7 GX-9907 Forman et al. (1987)

Mitrahalvøya, western Spitsbergen: marine limit 2072m aht


raised beach

2 25775 �15.5 GX-10771 Forman (1990)


beach

5 94157155 �16.6 GX-10775 Forman (1990)


beach

7 95057155 �16.8 GX-10773 Forman (1990)


beach

4 96007160 �16.5 GX-10778 Forman (1990)


beach

10 98407160 �16.5 GX-10772 Forman (1990)

Whale cranium buried in raised beach 15 10,3107330 �17.7 GX-10103 Forman (1990)

Whale cranium in beach gravels at

marine limit

20 12,9607190 �17.4 B-10968 Forman et al. (1987)

Tønsneset, western Spitsbergen

Whalebone behind modern storm

beach

5 59007210 �16.6 GX-9899 Forman et al. (1987)

Shell and barnacle fragments from

raised beach

10 10,0657170 +1.7 GX-10104 Forman et al. (1987)

Shell from raised beach surface 10 91857120a Tln-249 Punning et al. (1978)

Daudmannsøyra, western Spitsbergen: marine limit 4872m aht

Larch log buried in raised beach

gravels

5.5 5590790 �252 DIC-2902 Forman (1990)

In situ Mytilus edulis paired valves 4 60307200 �0.4 GX-10037 Forman (1990)


beach gravels

10 88107140 �17.9 GX-10777 Forman (1990)


raised beach gravels

14 90407165 �16.8 GX-10776 Forman (1990)



30 92957160 �16.0 GX-10593 Forman (1990)

Whale rib embedded in raised beach 38 93557170 �16.6 GX-10591 Forman (1990)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 2 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

d13C Laboratory

number

Reference



24 94207160 �17.6 GX-10592 Forman (1990)


beach gravels

42 99407310 �14.4 GX-9910 Forman (1990)

Southern Prinz Karls Foreland, western Spitsbergen: marine limit 3672m aht

Whale cranium buried in raised beach

surface

3 370780- �15.9 GX-10734 Forman (1990)

Whale vertebrae on raised beach 4 820780- �15.9 GX-10735 Forman (1990)

Whale rib partially embedded into

raised beach

3 49257100 �15.9 GX-10732 Forman (1990)

In situ Mytilus edulis paired valves

from raised beach

5 8940790 02 DIC-3054 Forman (1990)

Paired valves Mya truncata from

raised beach

10 9420790 02 DIC-3052 Forman (1990)

Whale jaw bone 10 94107140 �19.2 T-2235 Salvigsen (1977)

Whalebone 28 95607130 �16.1 T-2233 Salvigsen (1977)

Whale rib partial buried in beach

gravels

32 10,4707160 �19.2 I-13794 Forman (1990)

Whale jaw bone partial buried in

beach gravels

35 11,2107180 �19.2 I-13795 Forman (1990)

Ytterdalen, N. Bellsund western Spitsbergen: marine limit 6472m aht

Whalebone 7.0 4490750 T-5664 Landvik et al. (1987)


Seaweed 8.2 61807180 T-5406 Landvik et al. (1987)


Driftwood of Picea sp. 10 77707110 T-5271 Landvik et al. (1987)



Balanus sp. 24 90107130 T-5663 Landvik et al. (1987)

Fragments of Mytilus edulis from

raised beach surface

13.8 90307100 T-5662 Landvik et al. (1987)


Fragments of Hiatella arctica and

Mya truncata from silt

>30 10,240770 T-4943 Landvik et al. (1987)

Hiatella arctica valves from frost

sorted sediments

50.9 10,6007130 T-5410 Landvik et al. (1987)


Mya truncata from gravels

55.6 10,8407110 T-5995 Landvik et al. (1987)


Mya truncata from surface

50.6 11,0207110 T-4865 Landvik et al. (1987)

Wedel Jarlsberg Land, S. Bellsund, western Spitsbergen: marine limit 55–60m aht

Shell fragment from beach gravels

that rise to marine limit

50.5 11,9107145 02 Ua-1081 Salvigsen et al. (1991)

Fragment of Mya truncata or Hiatella

arctica from silt

>48 11,3557160 02 Ua-1082 Salvigsen et al. (1991)

Small bone, probably whale and

elevationally displaced

51.3 94707160 �14.6 T-7669 Salvigsen et al. (1991)

Large whale vertebrae buried in

beach gravels

25.3 91807130 �15.6 T-7671 Salvigsen et al. (1991)

Log of Larix sibirica embedded in

permafrost/gravels

10.8 87607120 �26.12 T-7672 Salvigsen et al. (1991)

Whale jaw from raised beach 10 89607120 �18.8 T-1829 Salvigsen (1977)

Large whale cranium within beach

gravels

6.7 59707100 �14.4 T-76701 Salvigsen et al. (1991)

10-m long log of Larix occidentalis on

raised beach

6.0 1100780 02 T-7672 Salvigsen et al. (1991)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 2 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

d13C Laboratory

number

Reference

Mosselbukta, northern Spitsbergen: marine limit 65þ m aht

Driftwood Picea sp. 5 75307100 T-3454 Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)

Shell valves of Mya truncata 35 9,3607110 T-3734 Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)

Shell valves of Mya truncata and

Hiatella arctica

65 10,6607100 T-3735 Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)

Gr (ahuken, northern Spitsbergen: marine limit 40þ m aht

Whale cranium 6 8830770 T-3097 Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)

Shell valves of Mytilus edulis 8 93607110 T-3098 Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)

Shell valves of Hiatella arctica 41 10,9207120 T-3099 Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)

Reinsderflya. northern Spitsbergen: marine limit 2572m aht

Whale cranium 5 9160770 T-2838 Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)

Whale rib on raised beach 19 9330790 T-2703 Salvigsen and Østerholm (1982)

Whale rib on raised beach 23 98507135 �17.0 GX-11294 Lehman (1989)

Whale rib from sublittoral sands 9.5(15) 91307210 �17.2 GX-10685 Lehman (1989)

In situ paired valves of Mytilus edulis

in beach gravels

5 9015780 �19 DIC-3076 Lehman (1989)

Woodfjord, northern Spitsbergen: marine limit 74m aht

Paired valves of Mytilus edulis 5.20 5970750 2.3 UtC-10089 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Duplicate of UtC-10089 5.20 6012744 0.6 Hd-20823 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Shell debris from raised beach ridge 2 6597755 2.9 Hd-20946 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Shell debris, mostly Mytilus edulis

from beach ridge

5.20 9370757 1.3 UtC-10142 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Mostly Balnus sp. debris from beach

ridge



beach ridge


Mytilus edulis from beach ridge 4.50 8842775 0.9 Hd-20789 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Whale rib buried in beach ridge 5.20 8797775 �17.9 Hd-20989 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Balnus sp. debris from beach ridge 11.60 9395766 1.6 Hd-20872 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

C in living position from beach ridge 20.50 9459751 1.8 Hd-20891 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Duplicate of Hd-20891 20.50 9462750 1.5 UtC-10084 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Shell debris from raised beach ridge 24.20 9490760 1.3 UtC-10147 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Paired Mya truncata valves from

raised beach


Shell debris of Mya truncata from

raised beach

22.70 96877102 2.3 Hd-20806 Br .uckner et al. (2002)


raised beach

17.80 9540772 1.8 Hd-21035 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Mya truncata in living position in

homogeneous sand

B17 9590750 1.1 UtC-10152 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Duplicate of UtC-10152 B17 9660781 1.5 Hd-20824 Br .uckner et al. (2002)


raised beach

22.70 9591777 1.8 Hd-20822 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Duplicate of Hd-20822 22.70 9639781 1.5 Hd-22790 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Shell debris from raised beach ridge 20.00 9618748 2.5 UtC-10095 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Shell debris from raised beach ridge 26 9658765 1.6 Hd-21014 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Paired Hiatella arctica valves from

sublittoral sand

>33 9806743 1.2 UtC-10154 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Single shell valve from raised beach

(same as Hd-20988)

33 10,443744 �0.4 UtC-10155 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Shell debris from raised beach 33 9825786 1.2 Hd-20993 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Shell debris from raised beach (same

as UtC-10153)

34 10,659791 1.8 Hd-20988 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Hiatella arctica from raised beach 34 9970760 1.7 UtC-10146 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Mya truncata from raised beach 30 10,041766 1.6 Hd-20998 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Mya truncata from raised beach 33 10,170760 1.8 UtC-10153 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Shell debris from raised beach 44 11,000760 1.7 UtC-10145 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Mya truncata from raised beach 55.20 11,040760 1.5 UtC-10144 Br .uckner et al. (2002)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 2 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

d13C Laboratory

number

Reference

Shell debris from sublitoral sands at

base of beach ridge

41 11,087757 1.5 Hd-20867 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Shell debris from fjord terrace

disturbed by solifluction

B40 11,091779 1.8 Hd-20807 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Mya truncata from marine sediments

on top of till

>40.90 11,115775 1.5 Hd-20781 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Mya truncata from raised beach 44.10 11,150760 2.1 UtC-10143 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Paired valves of juvenile Mya

truncata from highest terrace

69.50 11,530760 1.5 UtC-10141 Br .uckner et al. (2002)

Bohemanflya and Erdmannflya, Isfjord, Spitsbergen: marine limit 65.571m aht

Whale cranium 3.5 5,150780 T-6289 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Mytilus edulis 8.0 7680790 – T-6283 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Mytilus edulis 10 7690780 Lu-2139 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Mya truncata 7.0 79307100 T-8629 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Mytilus edulis 11.6 80607100 T-6288 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Mytilus edulis 5.0 8210790 T-6284 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Modiolus modiolus 6.5 8670790 T-6235 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Mytilus edulis 16 89707110 T-6285 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Mya truncata 18–20 9190790 Lu-2138 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Mya truncata and

Hiatella arctica

41 95007100 T-6286 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Hiatella arctica 20 9510790 Lu-2364 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell valves of Hiatella arctica 29 96807110 T-6282 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Shell fragments 47 97207110 T-6287 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Whale jaw bone 35 11,2107180 I-13795 Salvigsen et al. (1990)

Agardhbukta area, eastern Spitsbergen: marine limit 5071m aht

13-m long log of Pinus silvestris 1.5 810780 �26.12 T-4941 Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)

5.7-m long lower whale jaw bone in

beach gravels

3.0 800770 �15.9 T-5127 Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)

2-m long log of Larix gmelini in beach

gravels


Whale baleen from beach gravels 16 49907105 �17.0 T-5128 Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)

Shell fragments with Mya truncata

and Balanus sp.

8 53307100 �1.0d T-5125 Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)

5-m long log of Larix sibirica buried

in beach gravels


Whale rib embedded in beach gravels 24.0 6810+110 �15.4 T-5126 Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)

Shell fragments of Mya truncata and

Balanus sp.

36.5 90407140 1.6 T-4938 Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)

2-m long whale rib imbedded into

raised beach

50 98707140 �26.3 T-4937 Salvigsen and Mangerud (1991)

Hornsund, southern Spitsbergen: marine limit B25m aht

10-m long log on surface 5.5 1080770 �23.7 U-619 Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)

Whale jaw bone 5.5 680770 �19.5 U-2048 Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)

Shell valves of Mya truncata, A.

borealis and C. islandica

5.5 88707180 �2.1 U-2079 Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)

Shell fragments of Mya truncata and

Hiatella arctica

7.5 91807110 +0.2 U-665 Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)

Shell fragments mostly of Balanus sp. 8.0 6770790 +0.3 U-682 Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)

Whale lower jawbone, 1.9-m long 8.0 89407140 �17.1 U-703 Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)

Another collagen fraction of U-703 8.0 94007230 �18.2 U-2130 Birkenmajer and Olsson (1970)

Hiatella arctica from raised beach

gravels

20–21 9920790 T-6222 Landvik et al. (1992)

Southern Sørkapp Land, southern Spitsbergen: marine limit 1071m aht

Seaweed (Laminaria sp.) in beach

gravels

2 2715785 T-10861 Ziaja and Salvigsen (1995)

Whalebone within beach gravels 10 64657105 T-10860 Ziaja and Salvigsen (1995)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 2 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

d13C Laboratory

number

Reference


gravels

9.5 6440755 T-10859 Ziaja and Salvigsen (1995)


gravels

9.5 65807160 Gd-6583 W !ojcik and Zala (1993)

Kongsøya: marine limit 100+m aht

25-cm diameter log of Larix sp. 2.5 110760 T-3727 Salvigsen (1981)

50-cm diameter log of Populus sp. 4.7 750760 T-3460 Salvigsen (1981)

50-cm diameter log of Pinus sp. 10.3 2150770- T-3728 Salvigsen (1981)



50-cm diameter log of Pinus sp. 23.5 3970780 T-3730 Salvigsen (1981)

40-cm diameter log of Larix sp. 27.0 4440+80 T-3726 Salvigsen (1981)



15-cm diameter log of Picea sp. 44 6760790 T-3457 Salvigsen (1981)

Whalebone 50 76407110 T-3731 Salvigsen (1981)

25-cm diameter log of Picea sp. 58 83707100 T-3456 Salvigsen (1981)

Whalebone 88 87407130 T-3907 Salvigsen (1981)

25-cm diameter log of Larix sp. 100 97907120 T-3397 Salvigsen (1981)

25-cm diameter log of Larix sp.

(subsample of T-3397)

100 9850740 GSC-3039 Salvigsen (1981)

Hopen: marine limit 60+m aht

Driftwood 4.4 12007100 St-2455 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Driftwood, 1 m-long log, diameter 24

cm

4.5 800770 St-1958 Hoppe et al. (1969)

2.8-m long whale jaw bone in beach

gravels

5.3 655770 St-2116 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Driftwood, root plate 70-cm long,

diameter 38–32 cm

8.2 1740770 St-2020 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Whale rib, 165-cm long, diameter 12–

20 cm

12.5 3670780 St-2120 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Driftwood, root plate 84-cm long,

diameter 38–32 cm

12.8 3065775 St-2019 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Driftwood, >2-m long log, diameter

24 cm

14.8 4010780 St-1959 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Whale vertebrae 14.8 37857100 St-1958 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Whale rib, 1.2-m long, diameter

13 cm

17.9 4115780 St-2213 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Driftwood 23.5 5935780 �26.8 St-8606 Zale and Brydsten (1993)

Driftwood 27 6100780 �25.1 St-8605 Zale and Brydsten (1993)

Driftwood 30.5 6240780 St-2018 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Driftwood 48.5 95357120 �27.0 St-8603 Zale and Brydsten (1993)

Driftwood, 1.1-m long log 50.6 94357115 St-1960 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Driftwood, probably a root, 1.5-m

long log, diameter 18 cm

51.1 95107120 St-2225 Hoppe et al. (1969)

Driftwood 58 98007130 �27.4 St-8604 Zale and Brydsten (1993)

Kapp Ziehen, Barentsøya: marine limit 88.571.0m aht

2.1-m long log of Larix gmelini buried

in sediments

3.8 655750 �24.52 Lu-3542 Bondevik et al. (1995)

4.0-m long log, 25-cm diameter found

on surface

4.8 975760 �24.52 Lu-3385 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.6-m long log of Pinus cembra 8.9 2835750 �24.52 T-10251 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.3-nm long log of Picea abies 12 3605770 �24.52 Lu-3543 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2.8-m long log of Picea sp. 13.5 3640790 �24.52 T-10252 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.3-m long log of Picea mariana

buried in sediments

17.2 4475795 �24.52 T-9918 Bondevik et al. (1995)

0.8-m long log root piece of Picea sp. 20.5 4680775 �24.52 T-10253 Bondevik et al. (1995)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 2 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

d13C Laboratory

number

Reference

2.4-m long log of Picea sp. embedded

in beach ridge

22.8 5355780 �24.52 LU-3383 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.8-m long log of Larix sp. in beach

sediment

30 6170785 �24.52 T-9917 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.6-m long log with root plate of

Pinus cembra

34 72207110 �24.52 T-10254 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Small piece of log with partial root

plate

36.6 6950740 �24.52 T-10981 Bondevik et al. (1995)

0.30-m long log buried by 1m of

beach gravel

36.6 6945750 �24.52 T-10980 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Paired valves of Hiatella arctica

buried by 1m beach gravel

36.6 6995760 1.02 TUa-690 Bondevik et al. (1995)

At least 1.6-m long log of Larix

gmelini buried in sediments

39.2 78807115 �24.52 T-10255 Bondevik et al. (1995)

At least 1.6-m long log of Pinus

cembra in beach ridge

42.9 79057110 �24.52 T-9916 Bondevik et al. (1995)

0.55-m long whale rib 50.1 88557160 �16.4 T-10257 Bondevik et al. (1995)

At least 0.9-m long log of Larix

larcina buried in sediments

56.7 8870755 �24.52 T-9915 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Piece of Hiatella arctica buried by

1.4m beach gravel

63.6 9205785 1.0 TUa-689 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Two big whale jaw bones buried by

1.4m beach gravels

63.5 9135745 �19.8 T-10978 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2.0-m long log of Salix sp. buried in

sediments

63.5 9105755 �24.52 T-9914 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.15-m long log of Picea abies buried

in sediment

70.8 94457110 �24.52 LU-3381 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.8-m long log of Larix gmelini buried

in sediments

79.8 96157110 �24.52 LU-3382 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.2-m long log of Picea mariana

buried in sediments

80.2 9595770 �24.52 T-10256 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.3-m long whale jaw bone in river cut

through the ML

88.5 9585760 �20.6 T-99131 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Redate of T-99131 88.5 9470760 �22.9 T-99131I Bondevik et al. (1995)

Humla, Edgeøya: marine limit 86.871.0m aht

Whale jaw bone 3.2 605755– �17.0 T-10806 Bondevik et al. (1995)

At least 4-m long log of Pinus silvistri

buried in sediments

3.6 580750 �25.1 T-9891 Bondevik et al. (1995)

At least 4.5-m long log of Pinus

cembra

5.6 1725745 �23.8 T-9897 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Whale cranium part on terrace

surface

7.7 2125765 �16.1 T-9880 Bondevik et al. (1995)

3.5-m long log partial buried 11.2 3105745 �24.5 T-9885 Bondevik et al. (1995)


sediment

14.6 3765740 �24.7 T-9898 Bondevik et al. (1995)


sediment

17.2 4460770 �24.0 T-9886 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.2-m long log of Pinus silvistri buried

in sediments

19.8 4555765 �25.7 T-9887 Bondevik et al. (1995)

4-m long log of Picea sp. or Larix sp.

in beach sediments

23.4 5130765 �24.2 T-9893 Bondevik et al. (1995)


sediment

27.9 5830760 �24.6 T-9892 Bondevik et al. (1995)

4-m long log of Pinus silvistri buried

in sediments

30.2 6180755 �23.9 T-9890 Bondevik et al. (1995)

3–4-m long log of Picea sp. or Larix

sp. in beach sediments

31.9 6275765 �23.1 T-9883 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Two big whale jaw bones partially

buried by beach gravels

35.5 6670790 �18.2 T-9879 Bondevik et al. (1995)

0.9-m long log frozen into ice wedge 43.8 7850785 �25.5 T-9894 Bondevik et al. (1995)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 2 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

d13C Laboratory

number

Reference

Near vertical >1m long log of Larix

sp. in ice wedge

47.5 8200765 �24.2 T-9884 Bondevik et al. (1995)

At least 4.0-m long log of Larix sp. in

beach sediment

51.4 8725770 �23.5 T-9895 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2-m long whale jaw bone 55.1 8750790 �16.6 T-10804 Bondevik et al. (1995)

At least 3.2-m long log of Larix sp. in

beach sediment

55.1 8720765 �25.2 T-9896 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2 big whalebones, possibly jaws 58.8 89407100 �17.5 T-9878 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2.8-m long log of Larix sp. on surface 61.6 9310770 �23.9 T-9889 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.3-m long whale rib 65 91257130 �16.9 T-10803 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Log of Picea sp. or Larix sp. in

sediments

65 9240755 �25.7 T-9888 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Large whale jaw bone within

permafrost

73.9 9310780 �15.6 T-9877 Bondevik et al. (1995)

0.75 long log on surface 75.6 96207130 �23.6 T-10133 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Southern Edgeøya: marine limit 90–85m aht

Wood fragment of Populus sp. 75.6 9485780 �27.3 T-9882 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Shell fragment found on surface 86.8 98857130 1.0 TUa-400 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Whale rib 1.9 6207100 �16.42 St-2873 Bondevik et al. (1995)

4.5-m long log in beach sediments 1.9 6207100 St-2819 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Dorsal whale vertebrae 3 11707100 �16.42 St-2698 Bondevik et al. (1995)

7-m long log on raised beach surface 3 12407100 St-2660 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2.5-m long log in beach sediments 6 20157100 St-2523 Bondevik et al. (1995)

30-cm diameter log in beach

sediments

14 37257100 St-2521 Bondevik et al. (1995)

6.5-m long log partially in beach

sediments

16.5 39557100 St-2522 Bondevik et al. (1995)

15-cm diameter log in beach

sediments

20 47607100 St-2484 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2.5-m long log partially in beach

sediments

24.5 53007100 St-2519 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Dorsal whale vertebrae partially in

beach sediments

34.5 66307100 �16.42 St-2579 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Well-preserved unidentified

whalebone

39 77957110 �16.4 St-2590 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1-m long log partially in beach

sediments

39.5 79657100 St-2485 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.5-m long log in beach sediments 53 92307110 St-2520 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Large jaw bone 72 95207125 �16.42 T-9908 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Shell fragments on raised beach

surface

75 10,200795 +1.02 TUa-269 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Large log on slope of raised beach

surface at 75m aht

75 95957110 �25.42 T-9907 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Diskobukta, western Edgeøya: marine limit 85.1+m aht

11-m long log partially in beach

sediments

3 1270775 �23.7 T-10135 Bondevik et al. (1995)

5-m long log of Larix sp. on surface 4.6 1715775 �23.3 T-10136 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2.1-m long log on raised beach

surface

12.6 3730790 �24.8 T-10142 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Small log of Larix sp. on surface 15.6 4130790 �24.2 T-10141 Bondevik et al. (1995)

3-m long log of Larix sp. on surface 25.1 6020760 �24.2 T-10137 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.7-m long log of Picea sp. or Larix

sp. on surface

26.6 5930755 �24.9 T-10139 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2 shell valves of Mytilus edulis 26.8 58357125 +0.5 T-9920 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2.7-m long log of Larix sp. on surface 33.3 6770760 �23.5 T-10140 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Paired valves of Mytilus edulis 2m

below surface

35.4 71757110 +0.5 T-9922 Bondevik et al. (1995)

At least a 4-m long log partially

buried in beach gravels

35.4 7255765 �24.6 T-10807 Bondevik et al. (1995)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 2 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

d13C Laboratory

number

Reference

Large well preserved whalebone on

surface

35.9 70507115 �16 T-10805 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Short log of Picea sp. or Larix sp. on

surface

36.8 75507115 �25.2 T-10138 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Paired valves of Mytilus edulis 3.5m

below surface

38 87557125 �0.2 T-9919 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Small wood stick from T-9919

location

38 8615760 �24.5 TUa-691 Bondevik et al. (1995)

1.2-m long whale rib bone 43.2 8130770 �17.6 T-10044 Bondevik et al. (1995)

0.25-m long log of Picea sp. 2.5m

below surface

48.9 93457130 �25.4 T-10134 Bondevik et al. (1995)


gravels

66 9380745 �24.6 T-10043 Bondevik et al. (1995)

2-m long whale jaw bone 67.8 93357105 �20.3 T-10045 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Shell fragment from section near the

marine limit

77.6 10,015775 +1.7 TUa-338 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Shell fragment likeTUa-338 77.6 9565780 +1 TUa-627 Bondevik et al. (1995)

Svartknausflya, southern Nordaustlandet: marine limit 70+m aht


25-cm diameter log of Pinus sp. 4.5 2600770 �24.5 T-2692 Salvigsen (1978)


30-cm diameter log of Larix sp. 10.5 40207100 �24.4 T-2693 Salvigsen (1978)

15-cm diameter log of Salix sp. 12.2 4100790- �27.1 T-2694 Salvigsen (1978)

30-cm diameter log of Picea sp. 14.7 4650790- �27.1 T-2395 Salvigsen (1978)

30-cm diameter log of Larix sp. 16.0 4560780- T-2396 Salvigsen (1978)

30-cm diameter log of Larix sp. 16.4 4970760- �25.9 T-2699 Salvigsen (1978)

Whalebone 19.2 5740790 �17.6 T-2510 Salvigsen (1978)

0.5-m long conifer log on raised beach

surface

23.1 6270790 �24.6 T-2698 Salvigsen (1978)



15-cm diameter log of Salix sp. 36.8 81507100 T-2507 Salvigsen (1978)


35-cm diameter log of Larix sp. 43.7 87707120 �26.0 T-2695 Salvigsen (1978)

20-cm diameter log of Picea sp. 46.3 88907130 �26.7 T-2696 Salvigsen (1978)

30-cm diameter log of Larix sp. 487 87807110 T-2505 Salvigsen (1978)


Piece driftwood of Larix sp. 52.8 9130780 �26.4 T-2697 Salvigsen (1978)

Whalebone 60.7 96407140 �18.5 T-2502 Salvigsen (1978)

8-cm diameter log of Salix sp. 65.5 9550780 T-2696 Salvigsen (1978)

Whale vertebrae 70 97007120 �17.0 T-2394 Salvigsen (1978)

20-cm diameter log of Picea sp. 89.9 >46,600 T-2393 Salvigsen (1978)

Lady Franklin Fjord, northern Nordaustlandet: marine limit >50+m aht

Driftwood 2.0 67807100 U-33 Blake (1961a,b)


Whalebone 7.5 63807150 U-110 Blake (1961a,b)


Driftwood 8 67407110 U-111 Blake (1961a,b)

Mostly Hiatella arctica shells 8.5 91007130 U-120 Blake (1961a,b)


Mostly Mytilus edulis shells 9 86307190 U-173 Blake (1961a,b)

Mostly Hiatella arctica shells 9 92907130 U-162 Blake (1961a,b)





Whalebone 17.6 85307180 U-115 Blake (1961a,b)


Mostly Mya truncata shells 31 93907130 U-95 Blake (1961a,b)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 2 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

d13C Laboratory

number

Reference



Phippsøya, Sjuøne, northern Svalbard: marine limit 2271m aht

>0.75-m long log embedded in raised

beach gravel

3 57257115 �24.3 GX-22381 Forman and Ing!olfsson (2000)

Cranium bone from whale skull,

collagen fraction


Paired Hiatella arctica from littoral

gravels


3.5-m long log embedded in raised

beach berm


Whale ear bone from partially buried

skull, collagen fraction


Mya truncata shells from raised beach 6 9410760 �17.5 Salvigsen and Nydal (1981)

Articulated Balanus balanus 10 9210760 +1.9 GX-22386 Forman and Ing!olfsson (2000)

Storøya: marine limit 6671m aht

Driftwood 5.8 2965785 ST-7987 Jonsson (1983)








1The marine reservoir correction for shell, whalebone, walrus bone and seaweed is 440 years (Mangerud and Gulliksen (1975); Olsson (1980)).2These values for d13C are assumed.


Appendix B

Radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associatedmarine subfossils from raised beach sequences on FranzJosef Land, Russia (Table 3).

Table 3

The radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associated marine fossils on Franz Josef Land are presented in Table 3


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

13C Laboratory

number

Reference

Alexandra Land: marine limit 23.571m aht

Driftwood 5.0 1655770 St-12664 Glazovskiy et al. (1992)

Driftwood 5 15507115 Mo-421 Grosswald (1973)

Driftwood 8–9 3000755 Kovaleva et al. (1974)


Driftwood 10 4250790 Le-179 Dibner (1965)

Driftwood 10 4520760 Kovaleva et al. (1974)

Shells 15 7825790 St-12783 Glazovskiy et al. (1992)


Algae peat 17.5 55007235 Mo-355 Grosswald (1973)

Driftwood >19.0 81307115 St-12782 Glazovskiy et al. (1992)

Driftwood >14.0 8150750 Beta 58703 N.aslund et al. (1994)

Whalebone >13.0 88507180 St-13901 N.aslund et al. (1994)





ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 3 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

13C Laboratory

number

Reference

Bell Island: marine limit 4971m aht

1.5-m long log on raised beach above

storm limit

3 1050785 �25.6 GX-19476 Forman et al. (1996)

1.5-m long log embedded into raised

beach

6 22057110 �24.6 GX-19570 Forman et al. (1996)

Whale vertebrae on raised beach 9 2800785 �16.7 GX-19471G2 Forman et al. (1996)

Whale skull fragment on buried in

raised beach

13 3905790 �16.5 GX-19472G2 Forman et al. (1996)

3-m long whale jaw bone on raised

spit

16 4255790 �16.7 GX-19473G2 Forman et al. (1996)

Whale skull fragment on buried in

raised beach

23 5465790 �16.9 GX-19474G2 Forman et al. (1996)

Driftwood at marine escarpment 27 60457125 �22.2 GX-19475 Forman et al. (1996)

Driftwood embedded into raised

beach

45 97057105 �24.5 GX-17208 Forman et al. (1996)

2-m long whale rib imbedded in

raised beach

47 92207120 �17.1 GX-17209G2 Forman et al. (1996)

Northbrook Island: marine limit 4371m aht

1.5-m long whale rib imbedded in

raised beach

3 1425780 �16.6 GX-19483G2 Forman et al. (1996)

Whale vertebrae disc imbedded in

raised beach

8 24057105 �16.5 GX-19484G2 Forman et al. (1996)

2-m long log on raised beach 13 39507110 �24.3 GX-19485 Forman et al. (1996)

1.2-m long log on descending raised

beach

18 4380790 �24.6 GX-19486 Forman et al. (1996)

1-m long log on raised beach 22 4435770 �25.0 AA-15679 Forman et al. (1996)

1-m long log on raised beach 30 6300765 �26.2 AA-16586 Forman et al. (1996)

Whale vertebrae on raised beach 36 92207165 �18.0 GX-19487G2 Forman et al. (1996)

Southeastern George Island: marine limit 3871m aht

0.5-m long log on raised beach above

storm limit

4 1340780 �26.1 GX-19477 Forman et al. (1996)

2.5-m long log on raised beach 7 2180780 �25.3 GX-19478 Forman et al. (1996)

3-m long log in swale of raised beach 9 24807100 �23.2 GX-19479 Forman et al. (1996)

5-m long log on descending raised

beach

15 3860790� �24.5 GX-19480 Forman et al. (1996)

1-m long tree root-plate fragment on

raised beach

18 45657115 �24.5 GX-19481 Forman et al. (1996)


beach

20 4785795 �24.4 GX-19482 Forman et al. (1996)

Paired Mya tnuncata from glacial

marine silt

>20 5035770 0 AA-12482 Forman et al. (1996)

Hooker (H) and Scott Keltie (S) Islands: marine limit 3871m aht

0.5-m long log on raised beach (H) 1 775755 �24.7 GX-17200 Forman et al. (1996)


Driftwood on low raised beach (S) 5 22157125 �24.6 GX-17187 Forman et al. (1996)

Driftwood on raised beach (S) 8 29707145 �23.0 GX-17188 Forman et al. (1996)

0.5-m long log wedged into raised

beach (H)

9 2655775 �26.2 AA-16587 Forman et al. (1996)



Whalebone embedded in beach berm

(H)

23.4 68407115 — GX-21246G2 Weihe (1996)

Whalebone at base of berm (H) 24.7 59407120 — GX-21244G2 Weihe (1996)


Whale vertebrae disc imbedded in

raised beach (H)

26 6555795 �17.4 GX-17558G2 Forman et al. (1996)


1.5-m long log on descending raised

beach (H)

29 72457100 �25.6 GX-17556 Forman et al. (1996)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 3 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

13C Laboratory

number

Reference

1+m long log buried in raised beach

(H)

30 87157100 �25.0 GX-17198 Forman et al. (1996)

Driftwood on top of raised berm 30.6 77707140 — GX-21245 Weihe (1996)

Whale vertebrae on raised beach (H) 32 75607295 �19.3 GX-17557G2 Forman et al. (1996)

Whale vertebrae on raised beach (H) 33 94157125 �17.8 GX-17197G2 Forman et al. (1996)

96207230 �13.1 GX-17197A3 Forman et al. (1996)

Whalebone (H) 35 95457175 — GX-21247G2 Weihe (1996)

Paired Mya truncata from marine

sand (H)

30(36) 10,2907115 �0.3 GX-17266 Forman et al. (1996)


sand (H)

32(36) 9995785 04 AA-8566 Forman et al. (1996)


sand (H)

34(36) 9645780 04 AA-8567 Forman et al. (1996)

Driftwood 2-m below the marine

limit (H)

36 96707140 — GX-21249 Weihe (1996)

Mya truncata fragment from marine

sand (H)

37 9690790 — AA-19032 Weihe (1996)

Mya truncata fragment from marine

sand (H)

34 9890790 — AA-19033 Weihe (1996)

Driftwood just below the marine limit

(S)

37 99657145 — GX-21248 Weihe (1996)

Cape Dandy, Hooker Island: marine limit 3871m aht

Driftwood from 2nd youngest non-

modern beach

2.1 505755 AA-19697 Lubinski (1998)

Driftwood from youngest non-

modern beach

2.4 745755 AA-18995 Lubinski (1998)

>1.5-m long driftwood log 3.6 1045750 AA-18997 Lubinski (1998)

Driftwood partial buried by beach

gravels

3.0 1180750 AA-18996 Lubinski (1998)

>1.5-m long driftwood log partial


4.5 1635770 AA-19698 Lubinski (1998)

Driftwood, root plate 6.6 2190760 AA-19699 Lubinski (1998)

Driftwood mostly buried in beach

gravels

10.1 2480760 AA-18998 Lubinski (1998)

>1.5-m long driftwood log partial


11.1 3265770 AA-18999 Lubinski (1998)

Driftwood, root plate 14.6 3750765 AA-19701 Lubinski (1998)


gravels

14.0 3765765 AA-19700 Lubinski (1998)

5-m long driftwood log partial buried

in beach gravels

18.2 4445755 AA-19001 Lubinski (1998)


gravels

19.0 4625755 AA-19000 Lubinski (1998)


gravels

21.0 5295780 AA-19002 Lubinski (1998)

>1.5-m long driftwood log 22.9 5645760 AA-19003 Lubinski (1998)

0.4-m long log mostly buried in beach

gravels

27.6 7010770 AA-19004 Lubinski (1998)

Koettlitz (K) and Nansen (N) Islands: marine limit 2972m aht

Driftwood on raised beach (K) 5 1500760 �22.0 GX-17195 Forman et al. (1996)



1.5-m long log from raised beach (K) 16 4235775 GX-17192 Forman et al. (1996)

Paired Mya truncata from sublittoral

sand (K)

26(29) 10,2907115 +1.1 GX-17267 Forman et al. (1996)

Paired Hiatella arctica from littoral

gravel and sand (K)

25(26) 6190760 04 AA-7902 Forman et al. (1996)

0.5-m long log on raised beach (N) 27 10,3607115 �24.0 GX-17196 Forman et al. (1996)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 3 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

13C Laboratory

number

Reference

Etheridge Island: highest raised beach 2871m aht

2+m long log on descending raised

beach

4 1075765 �25.3 GX-17559 Forman et al. (1997)

1.5-m long log behind berm of raised

beach

16 4215780 �25.3 GX-17202 Forman et al. (1997)

1+m long log behind berm of raised

beach

21 5000780 �22.8 GX-17203 Forman et al. (1997)


beach

23 4890780 �22.3 GX-17204 Forman et al. (1997)

Brady Island: marine limit 3471m aht



2-m long tree root-plate buried in

raised beach

12 4150790 �26.9 GX-19490 Forman et al. (1997)

Whale skull partially buried in raised

beach

16 4855780� �16.9 GX-20740G2 Forman et al. (1997)

0.5-m long tree root-plate buried in

raised beach

19 5100795 �24.4 GX-19491 Forman et al. (1997)


0.3-m long wood fragments within

raised beach

29 81357115 �25.4 GX-19493 Forman et al. (1997)

Leigh Smith Island: marine limit 4072m aht



raised beach

10 2010775 �23.6 GX-20742 Forman et al. (1997)

1-m long log in raised beach 14 2790770 �24.0 GX-20743 Forman et al. (1997)


3-m long log buried in raised beach 25 5080780 �23.4 GX-20745 Forman et al. (1997)

Haves (H), Fersman (F) and Newcombe (N) islands: marine limit 2171m aht

1.5-m long log buried in raised beach

(H)

1 1075760 �25.1 GX-18307 Forman et al. (1997)

1.5-m long log on raised beach (N) 1.5 1830765 �25.8 GX-18316 Forman et al. (1997)

2-m long log on raised beach (N) 3 2040765 �27.6 GX-18312 Forman et al. (1997)

4+m long log on raised beach (F) 6 29807125 �24.7 GX-18310 Forman et al. (1997)


raised beach (F)

8 36357135 �26.3 GX-18309 Forman et al. (1997)


raised beach (N)

9 38857140 �25.5 GX-18315 Forman et al. (1997)


3-m long log on raised beach (N) 12 4315775 �27.2 GX-18314 Forman et al. (1997)


raised beach (N)

17 4935780 �17.2 GX-18313G2 Forman et al. (1997)


raised beach (N)

17 47757165 �15.3 GX-18313A3 Forman et al. (1997)



muds (H)

>5 5090765� 04 AA-10247 Forman et al. (1997)

Driftwood (H) 10 47757115 Grosswald (1963)

Champ (C) and Wiener Neustadt (W) islands

Mya truncata valve from sublittoral

sand (C)

>9 9386790� +0.7 GX-19027-

AMS

Forman et al. (1997)

Hiatella arctica valve from sublittoral

sand (W)

>3 89707100 +0.9 GX-21170-

AMS

Forman et al. (1997)

Klagenfurt Island: Marine Limit 2071m aht




ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 3 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

13C Laboratory

number

Reference


raised beach

10 3635775 �24.6 GX-18294 Forman et al. (1997)


raised beach

14 48707155 �25.4 GX-18295 Forman et al. (1997)



Wilczek Island: Marine Limit 2571m aht

0.75-m long log buried in raised beach 4 9757105 �24.6 GX-18299 Forman et al. (1997)



0.75-m long log buried in raised beach 12 36607100 �26.1 GX-21367 Forman et al. (1997)


Fragment from whale skull 16 44257110� �17.0 GX-21366G2 Forman et al. (1997)



Walrus skull in raised beach 22 5880785� �16.5 GX-18306G2 Forman et al. (1997)

50307170� �11.6 GX-18306A3 Forman et al. (1997)

Koldewey Island: marine limit 2471m aht

2-m long log in raised beach behind

storm beach

2 1100770 �25.0 GX-19507 Forman et al. (1997)



2 m-long log on raised beach 6 28707105 �26.8 GX-19502 Forman et al. (1997)


1-m long in raised beach 10 3625790 �26.1 GX-19503 Forman et al. (1997)



raised beach

21 64707100 �24.8 GX-19505 Forman et al. (1997)


5-m long log in raised beach at marine

limit

24 79807140 �25.8 GX-19508 Forman et al. (1997)

Outer Hall Island: marine limit 3272m aht




raised beach

9 3515785 �23.4 GX-19498 Forman et al. (1997)


0.3-m long wood fragments within

raised beach

18 5010795 �25.7 GX-19500 Forman et al. (1997)

1.5-long log buried in raised beach 23 64907130 �25.2 GX-19494 Forman et al. (1997)

1-m long log buried in raised beach 31 86557145 �24.4 GX-19495 Forman et al. (1997)

Severe Bay, Hall Island: marine limit 2372m aht

2-m long splinter log found on raised

beach

23 83107145 �24.6 GX-19512 Forman et al. (1997)

Whale skull from washed sublittoral

sediments

>8 94507165 17.3 GX-19511G2 Forman et al. (1997)


delatic sands

>3 96557100� +1.9 GX-19509 Forman et al. (1997)


delatic sands

>7 82607115� +0.9 GX-19510 Forman et al. (1997)

1440 years has been subtracted from 14C ages on marine subfossils to compensate for the 14C oceanic reservoir effect (Mangerud and Gulliksen

(1975); Olsson (1980); Forman and Polyak (1997)).2The collagen-dominated gelatin extract for all whalebones was dated.3Radiocarbon age on the apatite extract.4A 13C value of 0 was assumed for marine carbonate analyzed by the National AMS facility at the University of Arizona.



Appendix C

Radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associatedmarine subfossils from raised beach sequences NovayaZemlya and Vaygach Island, Russia (Table 4).

Table 4

The radiocarbon ages on driftwood and associated marine subfossils from Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach Island, Russia is presented in Table 4


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

13C Laboratory

number

Reference

Cape Bismarck: marine limit 1371m aht

Partially buried 1.5-m long log 12.5 (10) 5365760 �24.7 GX-25466 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Whale vertebra 10 3710775 �16.8 GX-25467G Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Driftwood log 2.5m long 10 3485785 �25.1 GX-24850 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Decayed 2-m long log 7.2 2985750 �24.2 GX-24851 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Root section 6.7 1365740 �25.5 GX-25465 Zeeberg et al. (2001)


Partially buried 8-m long log 4.7 1875750 �26.2 GX-24853 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Cape Spory Navolok: marine limit o13m aht

Log partially buried 12 48607140 �26.4 GX-18532 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

3-m long log partially buried 4.5 2955780 �25.4 GX-23233 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Willem Barents’ ship timber 2 360 Gawronski and Zeeberg

(1997)

Cape Zhelaniya: marine limit >10.5m aht

Root section 1.5-m 7.1 4380760 �25.8 GX-25459 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Log 5-m long from snow bank 6.5 4000785 �24.6 GX-24835 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Log 2-m long from solifluction 6.1 3710780 �26.3 GX-24837 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Log >l-m long partially buried 4.2 3200780 �23.8 GX-24838 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Log 5-m long partially buried 3.8 3205755 �24.7 GX-24839 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Log >1m long partially buried 3.7 1930745 �25.1 GX-25460 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Log 2.5-m long partially buried 3.5 1570770 �26.8 GX-24840 Zeeberg et al. (2001)



Ivanov Bay: marine limit 13.571m aht

Whalebone 13.5 (12) 68857105 �17.2 GX-24843G2 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Whalebone 13.5 (12) 70807105 �17.1 GX-24844G2 Zeeberg et al. (2001)




Partially buried 4-m long log 5 805755 �26.6 GX-24847 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Partially buried 2.5-m long log 4.3 575740 �23.0 GX-25462 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Partially buried >5-m long log 4.2 1830750 �26.4 GX-24848 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Cape Medvezhy: marine limit 1271m aht

Log 3-m long from base of solifluction lobe 10.5(10) 4070755 �26.1 GX-24864 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Log o2.5-m long from snow bank 9 3635750 �25.9 GX-24863 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Partially buried >3-m long log 6.9 3070750 �25.8 GX-24860 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Decayed, part buried 7-m long log 6.2 2125775 �26.1 GX-24861 Zeeberg et al. (2001)


Decayed, part buried 4-m long log 4.4 945755 �26.6 GX-24859 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Decayed, part buried 2.2-m long log 3.8 295750 �27.3 GX-24858 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Russkaya Gavan’: marine limit 1271m aht

Partially buried B2-m long log 6.5 4145750 �25.3 GX-24857 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Buried B3-m long log 3.6 2890750 �24.3 GX-25469 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Log 3-m long 3.6 3105775 �23.6 GX-24856 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Partially buried B3-m long log 2.9 1535750 �25.2 GX-24855 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Root of 4-m long log 2.1 600745 �24.4 GX-25468 Zeeberg et al. (2001)


ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 4 (continued)


altitude

(m aht)

Laboratory 14C

age or reservoir

corrected age1

(yr BP)

13C Laboratory

number

Reference

Nordenski .old Bay: marine limit 1171m aht

1.5-m log on vegetated surface above storm

beach

2 445760 �24.8 GX-17899 Forman et al. (1999a,b)

Wave abraded 1-m long log in beach gravels 3.5 1380765 �25.6 GX-18318 Forman et al. (1999a,b)

Whale vertebrae buried in beach gravels 5 17257120 �23.5 GX-18317G2 Forman et al. (1999a,b)

20407120 �11.3 GX-18317A3 Forman et al. (1999a,b)

1.5-m long log behind raised beach berm 5.5 1510765 �23.5 GX-17898 Forman et al. (1999a,b)

Walrus jaw bone on raised beach 8 3775775 �14.6 GX-18320G2 Forman et al. (1999a,b)


Whalebone partially buried in beach gravels 9 3625775 �17.0 GX-18319G2 Forman et al. (1999a,b)


Vilkitskiy Bay: marine limit 1071m aht

5-m log on partially buried in beach gravels 3 8057105 �24.8 GX-18290 Forman et al. (1999a,b)

Whale vertebrae buried in beach gravels 8 4425780 �16.8 GX-18291G2 Forman et al. (1999a,b)


Vise Glacier-Inostrantsev Bay: marine limit 1071m aht

1-m log on partially buried in beach gravels 3 7907105 �25.3 GX-18292 Forman et al. (1999a,b)

3-m log on buried in beach gravels 5 24707120 �26.1 GX-18293 Forman et al. (1999a,b)

Vaygach Island: Cape Bolvansky, marine limit B2m aht


Partially buried B2-m long log 1 470740 �25.5 GX-27229 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

Partially buried root section of log o1 270740 �24.9 GX-27228 Zeeberg et al. (2001)

1440 years has been subtracted from 14C ages on marine subfossils to compensate for the 14C oceanic reservoir effect (Mangerud and Gulliksen

(1975); Olsson (1980); Forman and Polyak (1997)).2The collagen-dominated gelatin extract for all whalebones was dated.3Radiocarbon age on the apatite extract.


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