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A Re-‐Examination of Funk's Musical Influences and Cultural Heritage

Jake Fletcher

Honors Thesis

December 2013

Re-‐Examination of Funk Music 2

Contents

ABSTRACT 3 LIST OF APPENDIX 4 GLOSSARY 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMEMTS 6 THESIS 7 BIBLIOGRAPHY 39 APPENDIX 41

Re-‐Examination of Funk

3

ABSTRACT

Today’s general-‐public perceives funk from its past incarnations as a 1970s

African-‐American Dance Party full of psychedelic clothing, giant Afros, and

outlandish dancing. By the time the genre was appropriated into other pop culture

music forms, people had little time to really understand what this art form meant to

our society. Just now scholars are beginning to wonder, suggesting that funk

spearheaded black nationalism and brought black Americans closer to African

cultural practice. A two-‐pronged discussion analyzing funk’s musical heritage and

current practice alludes to the fact that European and African societies had already

developed a cross-‐cultural practice through music, suggesting funk symbolizes a

musical meeting point of cultures. Not only is funk a cultural dialogue, but in real-‐

time performance, advanced levels of musical communication are occurring

involving a variety of musical practices that can attest to funk being a virtuostic

music form comparable to European music and jazz.


APPENDICES

Appendix A. -‐ J.S. Bach, Fugue in Gminor, BMV 578

Appendix B. -‐ C.K. Ladzepko, Ghanian Drumming Demonstration,

1994 (Transcription by Author)

Appendix C. -‐ Lettuce, Reunion, Live at Blue Note Tokyo, 2003

(Transcription by Author)

Appendix D. -‐ The Meters, Just Kissed My Baby, Rejuvenation, 1974

Appendix D. -‐ Lettuce, Bowler, Fly, 2010 (Transcription by Author)

Appendix E. -‐ Maceo Parker, Cold Sweat (Transcription by Author)

Appendix F. -‐ Cross Rhythm Analysis of Maceo Parker’s Solo on Cold

Sweat

Appendix G. -‐ Form Analysis Example, Bowler


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GLOSSARY OF TERMS Additive rhythm – asymmetrical groupings of rhythm, such as 3 + 3 + 2 found commonly in funk music Antiphony – a particular structure of melody, where two or more musicians alternate musical phrases Beat -‐ creates a solidified context of space and time in which the musicians play Call and response – a modern synonym for antiphony . A musician or group of musicians’ will state a unified theme; “the call”, and another faction of the group well provide a musical response. Discursive repetition-‐ repetition of longer units such as themes and movements within a symphony Gankoqui – bell /percussion idiophone used in Ghanian drumming Global fusion – musical styles that use overlapping elements of time, pitch, timbre, and process from our global music vocabulary. See Mark Hiljeh, Towards a Global Music Theory Isoperiodic -‐ To be isoperiodic, the fixed time span must be equal among all musicians, each musician is playing his phrase repeatedly. See Anne Danielsen, Presence and pleasure and Mark Hiljeh, Towards a Global Music Theory Legato -‐ a term for the musician that dictates his expression of the phrase. Legato means smooth, rounded phrases and each note is given it’s full duration Multi-‐linear rhythm –interrelationship of rhythmic patterns or phrases is controlled by relating them to a fixed time span Musematic repetition-‐ repetition of short musical phrases, allows for collective variative forms of improvisation and organization Off beat accent – the author’s preference over syncopation, because funk music adds weight to the off beats more than someone who is syncopating Organization of rhythm – funk music utilizes a unique organization of rhythm to create it’s polyphonic texture Participatory nature – a community, temporary or permanent, that sees all as equal in function and purpose. In terms of music there is no hierarchy within an ensemble and in the temporary communities they create through live performance, an audience member is made to feel equal in function to a moment of solidarity


Phrase-‐ an orchestrated grouping of two or more consecutive melodic notes Polyphonic texture – the resulting timbre of a musical performance that utilizes polyphony in the song’s structure Process – a term “substituting” form for the discussion of large, structural relationships found in music. Form is limited, because it assumes music takes on a pre-‐ordained method of organization, which is antithetical Rhythmic dissonance – two or more phrases inter-‐related asymmetrically through rhythm Subdivision -‐ The subdivision indicates what rhythmic value will the players use to construct their phrases. Has also been defined as “density referent”. Syncopation -‐ placement of rhythmic stresses or accents where they wouldn't normally occur Ostinato – a musical phrase that is short in duration and continuously repeated during the performance


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Would like to thank my thesis advisor Dr. Caniato, Dr. Levine and

The Honors Program, and all the musicians I have worked with.


Recent scholarship has attempted to legitimize the cultural

contribution of funk music and those artists which pioneered the genre

on the premise that funk provided a form of expression and identity for

African-‐Americans. Scholars therefore conclude that funk is a cultural

institution that is only interacting with the African-‐American segment of

the United States.1 Funk has always touched the lives of individuals

beyond the realm of the African American community.2 Those scholars

who suggest that funk is strictly a black form of expression acknowledge

also that funk is both a culmination of African and Western music

influences. However, little attention is given to these “Western”

attributes in scholarship.3

Funk music should rather be presented as a balanced expression of

Western and African influence. These two seemingly different worlds are

presented at odds because both African and European music originated

from separate cultural orientations. With a new set of circumstances,

1 Rickey Vincent in Funk: The Music, Rhythm, and People of The One claims that “the idea and importance of funk comes from the depths of black American life” (p.6). Arguably every summary of funk almost exclusively references it is a black form of expression. 2 Anne Danielsen introduces herself in Presence and Pleasure: The Funk Grooves of James Brown and Parliament as a “white funk fan”. She describe the experience of this music in the 1970s for her and others as thrilling and offering alternatives in American culture, thereby offering an account of funk reaching out to a cultural framework beyond black America. See Anne Danielsen, Presence and Pleasure: The Funk Grooves of James Brown and Parliament (Middletown, Wesleyan University, 2005), 8. 3 Both Danielsen and Vincent present discussions that weigh more heavily on the “Retention of African Heritage” in Funk. See Vincent, Funk: The Music, Rhythm and People of The One, p. 36 and Danielsen, Presence and Pleasure, p.43-‐49.


9

brought upon by the arrival of the African diaspora into Colonial

American society, overtime these two cultures would come to find

musical expression as a mutual interest. To this day, musicians still

embrace the musical dialogue of both Europe and Africa. Spanning from

Appalachian Folk Music to Ragtime, Blues, Jazz, Rock and Electronica,

Funk is just one of these cultural meeting points.4

An introduction to the history and characteristics that define funk

music will briefly treat the definitions of scholars and their ideas. Having

failed to yet agree on a universal definition of funk, it is important to

present the similarities of these definitions as themes or ingredients,

which are essential in funk music. Primary audio examples best present

the process of funk music and my analysis attempts to discern language

patterns in the style. Language patterns subsequently prove that funk

music has a method and process to the feel it creates, revealing the

calculated intentions in the notes of performers. By responding to the

moment of music and in a larger sense, a global heritage of music making,

4 See Roberts, John Storm. Black Music of Two Worlds, (New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1998) and Kubik, Gerhard. Africa and The Blues (Jackson: University of Mississippi, 1999).


this discussion is presented to readers with the hopes that the reader can

discern the “global fusion” created in funk music.5

Due to the number of ways in which the word and concept of “funk”

has permeated global society, it’s various definitions have led people to

draw a multitude of conclusions on what music constitutes funk.

Definitions have ranged minimalist assertions such as “Whatever has

groove” to arduously complex as presented by Rickey Vincent, author of

Funk: The Music, Rhythm, and The People of the One.6 A textbook

definition of funk, from the New Grove Dictionary of Music, summarizes

funk as “a music genre that originated in the mid-‐late 1960s when

African-‐American musicians created a rhythmic, danceable new form of

music through a mixture of soul music, jazz, and R&B”.7 While these may

all stem from fact, the definition presents a strictly “Afro-‐American”

narrative of funk’s heritage. In addition, the terms “rhythmic” and

“danceable” are too broad to specify the inner-‐workings of funk music

process.

5 Mark Hijleh, Towards a Global Music Theory, (Ashgate, 2012), 7 uses the term “global fusion” to define the ongoing globalization of musical understanding and enculturation. 6 Fred Wesley, cited in Vincent, Funk. 7 Sadie, Stanley and Tyrell, John. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), s.v. “funk”.


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Among the first to publish a comprehensive academic discourse on

funk, Vincent presents an interesting methodology in a subject with

limited research. His conclusion leads him to his definition of funk,

which he termed “music, lifestyle, and grassroots philosophy of self

development”. Vincent repeatedly stresses funk’s connection to black

identity, claiming, “The idea and importance of funk comes from the

depths of black American life”. 8 The musicians themselves are also

unable to encompass a universal definition of funk. Bootsy Collins and

Fred Wesley, two of funk’s innovators and mutual band-‐mates through

James Brown, were able to cite the essential ingredients, displaying funk

as a unified process conducted amongst musicians.9 On a technical level,

the musicians are correct, but referring back to the Grove Dictionary of

Music definition that used “danceable”, the musician’s perspective fails

to encapsulate how humans connect with funk. This is more then simply

the subjective experience of audience, but rather the purpose of music

within the lives of humans. Those who have long grappled with the

8 To clarify the latter part of Vincent’s definition, in the 1960s and 70s, funk emerged from a radical rhythmic and harmonic experiment by James Brown to a self-‐made cultural institution. Vincent, Funk: The Music, the People and the Rhythm of the One, 5. 9 For Bootsy Collins discussion see Bootsy Collins, Rock School Volume 3: Funk”, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7mEwH9-‐_XxM. Fred Wesley cited in Vincent, Funk: The Music, the People and the Rhythm of the One, 13. In presenting his Global Music Theory, Mark Hiljeh considers process as more appropriate then form.


phenomenon of funk see a deep connection with music and human

physiology.10

My discussion does not intend to provide a definition of funk for

the world to abide by. As a musician, I am interested in the process of

what creates funk feeling and if analysis will discern the intention of the

musicians. Funk is a musical style which hosts a wide range of

ingredients, large and small, that compose the whole. The rest of my

discussion intends to dissect the various approaches and musical

techniques found in analyzing examples of funk.

Those who have offered to explain funk’s importance approach the

subject with an angle on its musical foundations in the 1960s as “a

synthesis of the entire black tradition”.11 The assumption becomes

peculiar when considering the wide crossover appeal of funk during the

same time-‐period. James Brown with his first popular singles in 1965, “I

Got You, I Feel Good” and “Papa’s Got A Brand New Bag”, reached a wide

multiethnic and multiracial audience. In a later generation, George

10 “Many, if not all, of music’s processes are found in human body”. See Mark Hiljeh, Towards a Global Music Theory, 17 See Anne Danielsen, Presence and Pleasure, 12 where she introduces her research on the relationship between funk and phenomenology/hermeneutics. 11 Vincent explains how funk music’s birth resulted from a cultural revolution happening in the Afro-‐American community based on ideas of “Afro-‐centrism”, black nationalism, and civil rights. It was thus strictly from his point of view a black form of expression. See Rickey Vincent, Funk: the Music, the People, and the Rhythm of the One, p. 8-‐15.


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Clinton would be remembered as a cultural icon of black prosperity, yet

his ultimate message of feeling “the one” in funk was to bring everyone

together.12 What I am attempting to display is how scholars tend to shun

the universal intention and application of funk music that defies ethnic

boundaries.13

Funk’s complex musical structure directly stems from a complex

set of influences. African and European diasporas begin to communicate

as they heard and interpreted each other’s musical forms and practices.

A comparison of opposite orientations to music making finds funk to be

an intermediary somewhere in the middle of a continuum between the

well-‐formed structure of European music and the spontaneity in African

Drumming. Not only does it broaden the diversity of funk’s heritage, but

alludes to a larger pattern of cross-‐cultural interaction.14 The cultural

12 George Clinton’s music has always had a deep resonance with the African aesthetic and tradition, including an emphasis on a “cosmic oneness” that pervaded humanity and created imagine communities of unified solidarity (See Vincent, 258-‐9). 13 During the process of enculturation of black musicians in America, part of creating a cultural discourse for the African diaspora was to identify “vastly different but equally valid goals” for their community.13 In parallel, musicologists will often argue the same of African music as having equally valid goals. African cosmology is directly translated into the performance of African indigenous music. (chapter 1) 14 There is no denying that many of funk’s premier innovators were of African – American origin, thus there is a direct connection to a heritage that has learnt to adapt as a “subordinate culture”. From the moment globalization took hold and forced these two cultures together, the current existence of what Amiri Baraka defines as the “blues aesthetic-‐-‐ a combination of the musical heritage of African with contemporary expression based on experience in West” (Baraka, Digging: The Afro-‐American Soul of American Classical Music, 19). A living experience outside of one’s home led the African emigrants in the West Indies and United States to acquire an enculturation of there cosmopolitan surroundings (Sales, Jazz: America’s Classical Music, 3)


meeting point that funk embodies had begun long before. The evidence

lies in examination of fundamentals in European and African music

process. Both share similar forms of music practice where the

performers “establish a framework of regular beats or fixed time span

based on the events in the music” that is then allowed to conflict and

deviate by use of musical process. In addition, both western and African

music exert an ability to maintain rhythm that is not directly reinforced

by the song’s original framework. Evidence presented in recent

scholarship indicates that organization of rhythm transcends notions of

ethnicity and lies in the physiological world that is the mind of the

listener.15

A comparison of two musical examples, one from the Western

Romantic Period (J.S. Bach, “Little Fugue in G minor, BMV 578) and an

African Drumming Demonstration will demonstrate a similar mentality

to fundamentals.16 Both performances use a constant pulse to direct the

15 David Temperley compares both Western & African orientations to rhythm, demonstrating similarities and differences, backed by physiological understanding of humans and rhythm. See Temperley, Meter & Grouping in African Music, 77. 16 J.S. Bach, Fugue in Gminor, BMV 578, IMSLP/Petrucci Music Database, http://conquest.imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/d/dd/IMSLP04395-‐Bach_-‐_BGA_-‐_BWV_578.pdf. For African Drumming Demonstration, see Ladzepko, C.K. “Drum Rhythm Principles of Percussion Polyrhythm from Ghana, West Africa”, filmed in 1994. See “West African Music/Ghanian Drumming Examples” in Author’s Blog, http://funkyfletchmusic.com/2013/09/17/west-‐african-‐musicghanian-‐drumming-‐examples/


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musical events and show interpretations of rhythm above the fixed time

span. The performance of Bach’s Fugue is directed to the common time

symbol at the beginning of the music, which instructs the performer to

divide a quarter note pulse into patterns that are 4 quarter notes in

duration (Appendix A). When Ladzepko demonstrates the standard

gankoqui pattern, the phrase begins and ends in the time span of four

pulse beats (Fig 3.1-‐2, Appendix B).

Fig 3.1, Pulse Level, Drumming Demonstration, C.K. Ladzepko

3.2 Ladzepko, Standard Gankoqui Pattern


From the establishment of pulse in the musical events, both

examples demonstrate deviation and contrast from the original pulse

scheme. Examples of different gankoqui patterns in Ladzepko’s

demonstration all implement a high degree of contrasting rhythm. The

first variation mirrors the subdivision of the ground layer pulse, but the

phenomenal accent is offset an eighth note after the original pulse (3.3).

The second variation presents an example of 3 against 4 cross rhythm.

When two phrases played simultaneously exert different durations of

pulse or phenomenal accents, cross rhythm happens. The phenomenal

accent begins with the pulse, but the phrase is organized around a new

grouping of beats (3.3a). Let alone any additional variation, the original

gankoqui pattern is based on a cross rhythm with the original pulse. The

pulse is organized into groupings of three eight notes, while the

gankoqui ostinato suggests groupings of two eighth notes (3.3b).

Fig 3.3 Ladzepko, First Gankoqui Variation


17

Fig 3.3a Ladzepko, Second Variation

Fig 3.3b, Ladzepko, Standard Gankoqui Pattern, Analysis of Cross

Rhythm

In Bach’s Fugue, the expansion of the opening statement (A1)

results in phrases inter-‐relating through rhythm. It is not specified as

cross rhythm, because all phrases relate symmetrically to each other

and the original pulse.17 What changes at measures 7 and 10 for


example, is the subdivision of its rhythm. In measure 7, the bottom

phrase fragment is organized at an eighth note level while the top

subscribes to a sixteenth note level (vice versa at measure 10, see fig

3.4).

3.4 J.S. Bach, Little Fugue in Gmin, BMV 578, Comparing density of

phrases (m. 7 & 10)

Fig 3.5 Hemiola


19

Fig 3.6, J.S. Bach, Little Fugue in Gmin, BMV 578, example of hemiola, m.

11-‐13

Fig 3.6 is showing an asymmetrical relationship between phrases,

which European practice defined as polyrhythm.18 They found it in the

Greeks, who had developed the concept of hemiola, a rhythmic ratio of

3:2 that originated in the melodic interval of perfect fifth (6.7).19 The

hemiola asserts itself at measure 11-‐12, the end of phrase A1, and exerts

itself at several levels of musical relationship. Line 1 is organized

around the dotted quarter note level and the restatement of Phrase A in

the bass (line 3) begins after a rest of 6 beats (Fig 6.8) Organizations of

3:2 relationships are prevalent in the musical process of Western

composers and their appearance disputes the conceived inability of

Western composers to interpret pulse beyond those instructed.20 A

microscopic analysis gives evidence to the case that African and

Western orientations to rhythm share similar fundamentals.

18 Polyrhythm and cross rhythm exhibit a fundamental difference because polyrhythms are still organize by the same point of rhythmic resolution. Cross rhythm in this sense, is closer to the European idea of polymeter, where phrases can end in different spaces during the musical performance. 19 Sadie, Stanley and Tyrell, John. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 11: 361-‐62. 20 “The European tradition requires such close attention to their (phrases in music) concrete expression that rhythmic elaborations is limited for the most part to mere ornament.” Cited it Temperley, Meter and Grouping in African Music.


Equally valid to the argument of similarities are the differences

that exist between both Western and African music process. Western

music undoubtedly has a “well-‐formedness” to its process because of

metrical organization. The phenomenal accents are enforced by metrical

organization and thus all rhythms belong to the beat.21 Even though

Bach presents deviations of the pulse in the Fugue, his phrases follow a

form that begin and end with the downbeat of the meter. In West

African drumming, phenomenal accents adhere themselves to the

musician’s phrase. Even if African musicians are agreeing on an

internalized pulse, the musical events in African drumming create a

rhythmic effect that is not metrical. Collectively, the phrases of African

musicians create an isochronous pulse, meaning no weight or accent is

given to a particular instance of the pulse. 22

While Western music may consider rhythmic elaboration as no

more than “mere ornament”, African music considers it vital to the

process.23 An isochronous pulse allows an African drum ensemble to

employ unique schemes of multi-‐linear rhythm (see fig 3.7). This 21 Temperley, David. “Meter and Grouping in African Music: A View from Music Theory,” Ethnomusicology, Vol. 44, No.1 (Winter 2000), 68. 22 For discussion/further clarification of isochronous pulse see Mark Hiljeh, Towards a Global Music Theory, 35 and Anne Danielsen, Presence and Pleasure, 43-‐49. 23 Richard Alan Waterman, “Hot Rhythm’ In Negro Music” cited by Temperley, Meter and Grouping in African Music, 76-‐77.


21

requires each member of the ensemble to act as subservient to the

collective timbre.24 In other words, “everyone is included…and essential

to the total vibe.25

Fig. 3.7 Multi-‐linear Rhythm

Multi-‐linear rhythmic relationships consist of members within an

African drumming ensemble using different sets of cross rhythm. The

gankoqui patterns presented interpreted the fixed time span differently

(3.3-‐3.4). Without metrical organization, these relationships can

continue for any duration and the musicians do not adhere too an

agreed instance of rhythmic resolution as in the use of meter.26 Even

with the appearance of musical phrases in the Western form that

24 The music of Africa and its practice is rooted deeply in the African’s animist orientation of cosmology. In their animist worldview, the Africans see every organism connected by the larger universe and the belief that an individual’s purpose is defined by function within the greater entity. See Baraka, Amiri. Digging: The Afro-‐American Soul of American Classical Music. (Berkeley: UC Press, 2009). 25 Vincent, Funk: The Music, Rhythm, and People of The One, 37. 26 Anne Danielsen, Presence and Pleasure, 43.


deviate from the original pulse, metrical organization and “well-‐

formedness” make it so phrases belong to the beat and are thus

subjected to an enforced beat pattern presented at the onset of any

musical performance.27

The discussion of Western and African influences are important

because the environment and culture on which funk was developed,

America, has a long history of acculturating these distinct theories of

rhythm into it’s unique musical contribution. From this perspective,

funk is merely a spinoff of this fusion, which encompassed American

music forms such blues, jazz, and more. Closer analysis of funk music

performances however, reveals distinct characteristics that set it apart

as unique and an equally legitimate musical contribution.

Funk presents a uniquely wide-‐open opportunity for composers

and performers to experiment with instrumentation. Because of its

participatory nature (meaning it encourages communal participation

rather then a strict divide and hierarchy of performer and audience),

funk ensembles can start at one size and grow within the instance of one

performance. For example, an album produced by a funk band will most

27 “Well-‐formedness” applies to the metrical structure of Western music. See David Temperley, Meter and Grouping in African Music, 68.


23

likely feature different instrumentation on each track and at live

concerts; funk ensembles will often feature special guests in various

parts of the performance.28 Therefore, funk can exist in a number of

musical contexts. However, while the ensemble’s instrumentation can

be variable, every funk band contains a core group of instruments,

which are drums, electric bass, electric guitar, and keyboard.29 Beyond

this, different instruments appear, although less commonly, including

vocals, woodwinds, brass instruments, Latin and African Percussion,

and even less common, string ensembles. While the style of funk was

popularized by bands that featured vocalists such as James Brown and

Wilson Pickett, the musicians who accompanied them immediately

responded by forming their own rhythm bands, such as The Meters,

provided successful formulas for funk to be played in an instrumental

context.30

What is more essential for the creation of funk music, rather then a

particular instrumentation, is the method and language of funk

musicians. Not limited by possibilities, funk ensembles create their 28 See “Show Review: Lettuce at Brooklyn Bowl, 5/24/13” on author’s website (funkyfletchmusic.com/2013/06/03/show-‐review-‐lettuce-‐at-‐brooklyn-‐bowl-‐52413/) A direct account of how a funk ensemble changed it’s instrumentation throughout the show 29 Subject to variation. 30 Vincent, Funk: The Music, The People and The Rhythm of the One, 66.


timbre from a rhythmic dialogue becoming in a sense, “one giant drum

kit”.31 The emphasis on rhythm stems from the organization of funk

bands and the attitude with which they perform together. Funk bands

exist on values such as “egalitarianism” and “equality”.32 Even though

solo features exist, one individual does not shine over the collective. All

the musicians are interacting with another through sonic conversation

using the play-‐rest approach. The dialogues are created by the

musician’s ability to understand the musical phrases presented by

others. In turn, the musician will rarely imitate the ideas of other

members, but add his/her own statement that is complimentary. For

example, in Period A of Reunion In all eight measures, the bass line

leads into the horn melody, allowing them to make a musical statement,

and subsequently responds at beat four where the horns rest (Fig 4.1).

Fig 4.1, Lettuce, Reunion, Bass Performance in Period A

31 Ibid, 60. 32 Ibid, 14-‐15.


25

Funk creates what scholars call a “high-‐density” or polyphonic texture,

meaning multiple musical parts occurring at once. It requires the

musicians to be precise and conscience of the rhythmic density of the

phrases in relation to others. An even more systematic use of play – rest

approach is found in the vocal performance of Zigaboo Modeliste’s in

the Meters, “Just Kissed My Baby” (Appendix D).

4.2, The Meters, Just Kissed My Baby, excerpt of vocal performance in

Period A

Funk’s dense musical structure owes itself to a series of asymmetric

rhythmic relationships. These relationships of rhythm are collectively

defined as multi-‐linear rhythm that conceptually mirrors that of African

Drumming. Above the ground layer, exists an infinite stratosphere of

rhythmic dimensions existing in between the beats. The player in funk

music thus has liberty to phrase using rhythms within the beat.

The practice of interpreting pulse beyond that which was mentioned

conceptually in Chapter 3 is called subdivision. The subdivision indicates


what sets of rhythmic values the musician may use to construct their

phrases.33 A common subdivision in funk is subdividing a beat that

equals one quarter note in length into 4 sixteenth notes (fig 4.3). This

indicates that four sixteenth notes equal the duration of one beat.

Because of the infinite division of rhythms, off beats can appear in a

different levels or durations of rhythm. If a 4/4 bar is divided into the

half note value, then beats 2 and 4 are considered off beat. (see fig. 4.4)

Multi-‐linear organizations of rhythm therefore, occur at all levels and

duration of rhythm.34

Fig. 4.3 Subdivision of 16th Notes within organizing quarter note beat

Fig. 4.4 Beats 2 and 4 as Off Beat Accents

33 Mark Hiljeh suggests “it may be said that the fastest value triggers subdivision”. See Mark Hiljeh, Towards A Global Music Theory, 35. 34 Mark Hiljeh, Towards A Global Music Theory, 41.


27

Subdivisions are further organized by additive (symmetric) and divisive

(asymmetric) groupings. Funk utilizes a mixture of both. Specifically,

asymmetrical grouping of subdivisions occur within a symmetrical

organization of the beat. The most common additive rhythms in funk

are 3+3+2, being eight notes or sixteenth notes (See Fig 4.4 and 4.5).35

The relationship of additive and divisive rhythms creates an

organization of rhythm resembling rhythmic dissonance.36 The additive

structures fall in between the divisive pattern present at the ground

layer of rhythm, thus indicating that funk musicians are interpreting the

fixed time span in ways that do not always reflect the ground layer of

pulse (see fig 4.6).

Fig. 4.5 Additive over divisive rhythm (3+3+2 eight notes). The >

symbol indicates where the new grouping of beats begin in the top staff.

The bottom staff is the accents provided by the organizing beat.

35 The use of numbers 3 and 2, two prime numbers, is significant in the universal definition of rhythm. A unifying principle in rhythm .Mark Hiljeh argues, is the “tension between simplicity and foundational nature of prime numbers”. Every number besides one can be divisible and broken down to a prime base of 2 or 3. Thus, Hiljeh concludes that “groupings of two or three are the best way to delineate rhythmic context”. See Mark Hiljeh, Towards A Global Music Theory, 17. 36 Mark Hiljeh, Towards a Global Music Theory, 35.


Fig 4.6 Additive over divisive rhythm (3+3+2 sixteenth notes)

Fig 4.7 Marvin Gaye, What’s Happening Brother? , Bassline

Fig 4.8 James Brown, Cold Sweat, Drum Pattern (measure 2)


29

A high percentage of funk songs will utilize ostinato form to

organize and present phrases. An ostinato in music is a short musical

idea cycled repeatedly throughout the song or section of it.37 The

patterns presented by ostinatos are cyclical and often serve as an

introductory theme to a funk song. The extensive use of ostinatos in

funk indicates that funk music is heavily based on isoperiodic units of

musical phrases. Isoperiodic phrasing, short phrases repeated cyclically,

by its nature yields phrase manipulation and frequent improvisation by

the musicians.38

38 See Anne Danielsen, Presence and Pleasure, 43. Other scholars argue the short duration of phrase cycles in African drumming are reflected in funk. See Rob Bowman, “Funk and James Brown: Re-‐Africanization, the Interlocked Groove, and the Articulation of Community.” In Music Traditions: Cultures and Contexts, edited by Robin Elliott and Gordon E. Smith, 258-‐268. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2010.


Fig. 4.9 Lettuce, Reunion, Guitar Ostinato

Fig.4.10 Lettuce, Bowler, Bass Ostinato

Fig 4.11, The Meters, Just Kissed My Baby, Clavinet Ostinato

A specific ostinato may belong to one or two instruments in the

performance, but funk songs can feature a multi-‐linear scheme of

different ostinatos. From this perspective, a cyclical reoccurrence of

multiple ostinatos at the same time is remarkably similar to the

organization of phrases found in African Drumming.39 Understanding

the egalitarian notions of the ensemble and carefully balanced multi-‐ 39 Rob Bowman, “Funk and James Brown: Re-‐Africanization, the Interlocked Groove, and the Articulation of Community.” In Music Traditions: Cultures and Contexts, edited by Robin Elliott and Gordon E. Smith, 258-‐268. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2010.


31

linear rhythm is how players decide whether to imitate or provide a

contrasting phrase (for example of direct imitation in the Western

sense, see Bach’s Fugue, appendix A).

The ability to imitate or inter-‐relate which requires the musician

to reflect on a previously stated phrase and interpret his own way is not

only a process of composition, but real time performance. Thus, funk

musicians experience a musical dialogue in motion during a

performance. Analysis of specific examples reveals how both in

composition and in real time performance, funk musicians are using

Western schemes and methods for creating musical phrases and events.

A modern funk song, “Bowler” by Lettuce, provides an example of how a

composer may construct a chain of phrases.40 The phrases that belong

to the horns and bass ostinato hold a distinct pattern in their

relationships. Horn Phrase A and B do not imitate or reflect the bass

ostinato except in tonality. At Phrase C, the song moves to a new

harmonic area and a symmetrical divide occurs in the bass and horn

phrase relationship. In the first two measures of Phrase C, both phrases

imitate each other, only varying by pitch. The following two measures,

40 Douglass M Green. Form in Tonal Music: An Introduction to Analysis, (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965), 48.


the bass and horns show contrast, presenting dissimilar phrases. (fig

4.12) Phrase D returns to the original tonic after the subcadence of IV >

V and introduces a new phrase that imitates the underlying bass

ostinato. (appendix E)

Fig 4.12 Lettuce, Bowler, Phrase C

Funk composers will also use previous musical events in a new

context. This method is called expanding the statement. Looking back at

Phrase D in “Bowler”, a clear motif is being outlined by the horns, only

varying in pitch and interval (4.13). This is an example of a melodic

sequence, where a previously stated motif is manipulated melodically.

In the Meters’ “Just Kissed My Baby” (Appendix D), the idea of Period B

reflects a motif found in the organ part. Not only did Period B provide an

expanded statement of the motif, but the harmony has progressed a

whole step above the original tonic (I > II, Fig 4.14).


33

4.13, Lettuce, Bowler, Phrase D, Motivic Analysis

4.14, The Meters, Just Kissed My Baby, Example of expanding the

statement

In saxophonist Maceo Parker’s solo over “Cold Sweat”, a completely

improvised performance exhibits clear organization. In the audio

example, Maceo takes a 32 bar solo (Appendix F). A number far from

random, 32 measures is not only equal to the length of the pop music

form (AABA), but also reflects the Western notion of symmetrical 8 bar

phrasing. Maceo and funk improvisers are presented with an entirely

different landscape in the midst of symmetrical form. Where Western

music process relies on degrees of harmonic movement, funk tunes such


as “Cold Sweat” are all written on one chord. Funk musicians are

subsequently forced to remove any dependency of harmonic motion in

guiding improvisation. As Maceo demonstrates, funk musicians rely on

communication with the ensemble, the reoccurrence of motifs, and

cross rhythm in improvisation. A clear example is measure 6-‐7 which

repeats a motif presented measure 2-‐3. (4.16, 4.16a)

4.16, Maceo Parker, Cold Sweat, m.2-‐3 of solo

4.16a m. 6-‐7 of solo

Successful improvisation in funk does not only depend on the

soloist, but the band’s ability to support and build ideas with the soloist.

There is evidence that Maceo references the drum groove in his solo.

Looking at measure 2-‐3, 6-‐7, the heavier accents in Maceo’s phrasing

lineup with the snare hits on the drum. (4.17). The rhythm section in


35

supporting an improvised performance enters into a musical dialogue

with the soloist.

Fig 4.17 Maceo Parker, Cold Sweat, rhythmic relationship between

Maceo and drummer

Equally significant in Maceo’s solo is the evidence of cross-‐rhythm in

his phrasing. Funk is believed to have derived it’s dance-‐ability from

having a tendency towards cross rhythm, which means that cross

rhythms in the musicians phrases occur but are periodically short due

to metrical organization.41 The validity of this theory is tested when

Maceo’s solo are analyzed for the appearance of these cross-‐rhythms. In

Maceo’s solo, 16 phrase fragments, nearly half the notes in his solo, are

found to suggest a 4:3 cross rhythm.42 A 4:3 cross rhythm means the

41 Anne Danielsen, Presence and Pleasure, 44. 42 The choice of suggesting cross rhythm is important because the appearance of cross rhythm means that the player does not need to accent every beat in the 4:3


player reinterprets the meter into groupings of three sixteenth notes

while playing over the original pulse subdivision (four sixteenth notes)

(see 4.18).

4.18, Maceo Parker, Cold Sweat, Rhythmic Analysis (m.9-‐10)

What is critical to these cross rhythms, however is that they are

fragmented, not cyclical as in the case of African drumming. What

breaks up any continuous cross rhythm is the meter itself. In the funk

music process, musicians hold an interesting relationship to the pulse

and organizing meter, one that is best described as tension and release.

The analysis of funk performances revealed deviation from the original

cross rhythm. What is required is that a high volume of accents must occur in the phrase to indicate that he is superimposing a new pattern of rhythm. (appendix d) Cross rhythm is similar to polymeter because two phrases that exert polymeter start in a different place (See Mark Hiljeh, Towards A Global Music Theory, 35). As evidenced by Maceo Parker’s solo, the cross rhythms do not usually begin on beat 1 (appendix). Anne Danielsen argues that 4:3 cross rhythm has appeared frequently in the technique of ragtime, defined as a secondary rag over simple syncopation (See Anne Danielsen, Presence and Pleasure, 62).


37

pulse at the motif level, where the tension exists. Ultimately in funk

music, larger phrase and form schemes are enforced by metrical

organization, thus releasing the tension and providing resolution. In

Maceo’s solo, the presence of cross-‐rhythm happen in durations of three

beats, shorter than the overriding meter. The beginning and end of

cross-‐rhythms do not happen always a downbeat, thus there is no

systematic approach to the placement of cross rhythm.43 The only

unilateral notion of cross rhythm in funk is the use of tension and

release. The player has liberty to superimpose new and creative

patterns of rhythm, but is mindful of the larger form and periodic cycles

in the funk music process.

What observations of the funk music process show is that the

components, which could be rather thought of as formulas, are general

and do not create the same effect each time. These generalized

approaches to the funk form allow for creativity but equally legitimize

funk as a musical form that enforces deliberate structure and calculated

musical decisions. Funk music takes elements of Western and African

music practice into a unique musical setting. Communication is essential

43 Placement of cross rhythms by the performer may be in larger part due to the musical dialogue occurring during the funk process.


in creating a cohesive, well-‐balanced funk sound because funk utilizes

multi-‐linear rhythm to organize phrases. The risk of using multi-‐linear

rhythm is that layering phrases can become too dense, over-‐tipping the

compositional balance. When analyzing the phrase structures found in

funk, they reflect the performer’s decision to play and use space or rest.

By giving phrases their breathing room, the funk ensemble can achieve

tightness and cohesiveness amidst a complex polyphonic structure.

Funk has not yet received the academic legitimacy of its American

musical peers. Jazz and Blues, considered from their birth, “black” forms

of expression, can now rightfully claim institutionalized prestige, with

the number of multiracial universities, education programs, and

organizations enforcing the appreciation of the jazz and blues dialoues.

As to funk’s destiny in America’s cultural legacy, it remains unknown.

The discussion proves however, that if one were to take the time to

analyze what is happening in a funk music performance, one can discern

the unified language, techniques, and intentions of funk musicians.

Further adding legitimacy is funk’s acknowledgement of heritage.

Arguably, no music comes from thin air; it is a product of what

musicians hear. Funk is equally an attempt to present a unique and

modern musical statement, as it is a response to heritage and certain


39

musical traditions. The interaction of African and European diasporas in

America would allow an eclectic blend of musical styles to cross-‐

pollonate and result in a number of uniquely “American” forms of

musical expression from Ragtime to Blues all the way to Hip-‐Hop. As a

response to musical heritage, funk music relies upon a precarious

balance of culture and musical practice from Europe and Africa. Rhythm

in funk is successful upon acknowledging the metrical order rooted in

European music. Yet, in utilizing African techniques of cross-‐rhythm,

isoperiodic phrasing, and multi-‐linear rhythm, the performer can

deviate from the general order of the song. As funk music process

represents in many ways, a cultural dualism, it shows how society can

transcend ethnic boundaries to create a new form of expression. Funk

has deeper importance and more to say about the history of America

then we have given credit. The popular decadence of the 70s continues

to be the cultural stereotype of funk music, however the evidence of this

discussion would argue funk has a unified discourse, method, and set of

values that do not adhere to a specific group or sub-‐culture of people.

The message of funk is universal, it is as evident in the notes of the

performers as it is in the hearts and minds of audiences, who all come

together under the groove.


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