Archaeological Investigations in Northern Chile_ Project Tarapaca. Pre Ceramic Resources

Society for American Archaeology

Archaeological Investigations in Northern Chile: Project Tarapaca. Preceramic ResourcesAuthor(s): D. L. True, Lautaro Nunez A., Patricio Nunez H.Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 35, No. 2 (Apr., 1970), pp. 170-184Published by: Society for American ArchaeologyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/278146 .Accessed: 29/12/2010 19:50

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN NORTHERN CHILE: PROJECT TARAPACA-PRECERAMIC RESOURCES

D. L. TRUE, LAUTARO NU(NJ EZ A., AND PATRICIO NUNIEZ H.

ABSTRACT

A series of nonceramic sites is described for the purpose of indicating the nature of the resources to be found along the western margin of the Andean precordillera in northern Chile. Artifacts recovered from several sites are similar to those designated Ayampitin and Lauricocha from other regions in Andean South Amer- ica. Strong ties are suggested between coastal and in- ternor sites, due either to trade relationships between separate groups or to the same peoples occupying a series of site locations on a seasonal round. Detailed studies that hopefully will clarify these relationships are in process. Information on permanent agricultural settlements in this same region will be presented in a future summary.

/t RCHAEOLOGICAL research was carded ut in norther Chile during 1966 and 1967

under the auspices of the University of Cali- fornia/University of Chile Cooperative program, hereafter referred to as the "Convenio."

At the time this archaeological work was first considered, the ultimate goals of the larger Con- venio program in anthropology had not yet been determined. It was possible, however, to suggest a preliminary research design for archaeology in northern Chile wherein two kinds of problem- oriented studies would be implemented:

1. Contributions to the prehistory of northern Chile resulting from selected excavations in several key locations;

2. Contributions to archaeological theory and method through the development of coor- dinated long-range study programs in areas where near ideal conditions prevail for the study of (1) culture change, (2) ecological adaptation in arid land situations, (3) settlement-pattern studies and related sociocultural adlustments in response to environmental change or climatic fluctuation, and (4) archaeological definition of the sociocultural aspects of prehistoric com- munities in a formative stage of development.

This suggests some of the more obvious possibilities and is not intended to be a complete listing of the significant problem-oriented research potential for this area.

Step one in the implementation of this project was an aerial survey of the topography and resources of the larger area. In addition to the obvious value in understanding the topography

and terrain features, this survey resulted in discovery of several sites which might have been difficult to locate from the ground. Next, preliminary ground surveys were made in the Que- brada Camifna, Quebrada Tarapaca, Quebrada de Quisma near the Oasis of Pica, and in the Quebrada Guatacondo.

Although it was recognized that the solution of many of the suggested problems would eventually involve investigations in other regions, the emphasis in this program was to be placed on that area along the lower reaches of the western flank of the Andean Cordillera (precordillera) extending from the Quebrada Camarones in the north to the River Loa in the south (see Fig. 1).

More specifically, it was planned that the be- ginning stages of the project should be con- cerned with settlement patterns, land use, ecological adaptation, and general patterns of cultural development within two particular trans- verse valleys:

1. The Quebrada Tarapaca 2. The Quebrada Guatacondo.

Phase one of this project was to confine its activities to the Quebrada Tarapaca. A later phase would proceed with investigations in Guata- condo after various administrative problems had been resolved. As of this writing, plans are being formulated under the direction of Dr. C. W. Meighan, University of California, Los An- geles, to implement the Guatacondo phase of this project in cooperation with Dra Grete Mostny, Director of the Museo Historia Natu- ral, Santiago, Chile.

Although the intent of the initial phase (project Tarapaca) was to be essentially exploratory, at least some aspects of all of the above stated objectives have been considered in the work completed so far.

THE AREA

Tarapaca is the northernmost of the Chilean provinces. Except for the higher mountain regions, it is one of the world's most barren desert regions (Dingman and Galli 1965: 8-12; Bow- man 1924; Bird 1943: 184). The climate is controlled or modified by the cold Humboldt cur-

170

TRUE AND OTHERS ] PROJECT TARAPACA 171

Littoral & Coast Central Western Flank InterAndean Bolivian

Range Valley SubCordillera Valleys(Basins) Altiplano

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scale 1:500 000 modif ied after Nunez 1967 PC

=- Littoral & Coast Range )li.j

__ InterAndea n Val leys (Basi ns ) l

Idealized Cross Section

FIGURE 1 FIG. 1. Terrain features and location of sites and localities mentioned in text.

172 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY' [ VOL. 35, No. 2, 1970

rent, and rainfall is literally unknown for this area. The coastal regions have considerable fog, and on occasion this fog (known locally as Camanchaca) extends inland nearly to the base of the Andean subcordillera. In a few isolated coastal locales, condensation from this fog is sufficient to support a feeble stand of transient vegetation. For all practical purposes, however, there is no rain-controlled vegetation in this province lower than 3,000 m. above sea level. Even in the higher elevations cover is sparse and typical of arid desert regions.

Throughout its length (within the Province of Tarapaca) the coastline is rough and rocky. Open sandy beaches are not common, and coastal terrace features, as such, are narrow and poorly developed. The coastal scarp rises steeply in near cliff-like formations to an elevation of some 500-600 m. near Iquique, and up to 1,200 m. above sea level near the southem margins of the province. Just inland from the coastal scarp, which has considerable local relief, elevations increase rapidly to the point where peaks; up to 1,600 m. above sea level mark the crest of the coastal range.

Between the eastern margins of the coastal range and the westem slopes of the Andean subcordillera there is an open valley-like region with little overall relief. This interior valley lies at an elevation of some 1,100-1,200 m. above sea level in the area just east of Iquique. Elevations increase slightly to the north and drop to about 900 m. above sea level in the vicinity of the Salar de Pintados. The valley, or region of interior drainage, extends essentially unbroken from the Quebrada Camifna in the north to the River Loa in the south.

The portion of this interior valley region that concerns us here extends from the Quebrada Camifia to the Quebrada Guatacondo and is known locally as the Pampa de Tamarugal. Basically the Pampa Tamarugal consists of a series of salares, or dry lake beds, which form the terminal basins for several exotic streams originating in the Andean highlands to the east. For most quebradas, and for most years, little surface water reaches these basins, although the water table in some portions of some salares is presently high enough to support scattered stands of Phreatophytic vegetation (Prosopis sp.) .

The eastern margin of the Pampa Tamarugal is characterized by a series of coalescing alluvial fans - probably of late Pleistocene and post-

Pleistocene age - marking the outlets of the aforementioned exotic streams. In some instances these fans extend well into the valley and cover portions of the old lake beds. In many locales, the western foothill region of the Andean subcordillera extends nearly to the margins of the salares. For the most part this aspect of the local topography consists of massive fan- like deposits (fanglomerates) broken by occasional, partly submerged, mountain peaks and ridges. These older fans and possible piedmont formations are sharply dissected in the upper regions of the subcordillera by high gradient streams. Present stream flow seems hardly sufficient to have created the extant topography, even given considerable time.

Emphasis in the present work is directed toward those locales immediately adjacent to the salares, but the topography of the larger area and the climatic conditions responsible for this topography are of considerable import in the interpretation of prehistoric cultural activities in this region. Detailed discussion of local environmental and ecological situations will be presented in future reports dealing with specific problems.

PROJECT TARAPACA 1966-1967 The basic intent of this first phase of the

project was to obtain information that would permit the definition of a local cultural sequence, and to explore the possibilities for more detailed future studies oriented toward theoreti- cal problems. It was proposed that these goals could best be met as a result of a concentrated effort within some limited area, as opposed to a shotgun approach wherein a number of short- term one-shot investigations would be instigated over the area at large. This was the basis for the decision to spend over a year working in a single quebrada. Further, it was obvious that even a portion of one quebrada included more resources than could be examined in the available time.

The resulting research design called for inten- sive examination of the archaeological resources within a small defined territory (see Fig. 2). This territory was set up to include the widest possible range of cultural activities over the longest possible span of time. It extended from the margins of the Pampa Tamarugal to the point in the canyon where the steep canyon topography typical of the subcordillera began. These bounds included an area of open pampa

TRUE AND OTHERS] PROJECT TARAPACA 173

Punts

P Pic h alo

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Scala 3 kiomatarsa

*t- > \< / 23 t X ~~~~~~~~~~~~* modarn vi lIaga C &E-workshop stations PF ""s P X 2 tb *t > X \ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~ arcaaoloia sitar 2-works hop concant ratior

+- ffi/8; 26 ( _______ ung raded road~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ nraa ra

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seron A-S_-r P sqabrada

FIG. 2. Location of sites and area of investigation.

and part of the margins of a salar (possible Early Man); an area in the lower reaches of the quebrada marked by intermittent water supply and low-relief topography (intermittent occupation with hunting and gathering as well as horticultural possibilities); and an area of marked relief with steep canyon walls and a perennial stream (permanent agricultural villages more or less in the Andean tradition).

The defined territory was approximately 25 km. in length and 1 to 2 km. wide, depending upon the width of the quebrada. The majority of the field research was carried on in the lower half of this territory in an area of considerably less than 20 sq. km. Field work was in progress in one form or another from July, 1966, through July, 1967.

Within this designated territory, a total of 83 separable sites was recorded. For the most part these were sites not previously recorded, al-

though some were known to Chilean archaeolo- gists working in the province. The region was surveyed in part the previous year by archaeolo- gists from the University of Chile (L. Nunfiez 1965a: 17-19; 1966: 25-30).

It is considered likely that the artifacts so far recovered and examined in the sequence of sites ranges in time from some 6000 years B.C. through Spanish Colonial occupancy.

These resources have been categorized as fol- lows:

1. workshop or quarry sites; 2. habitational sites including open camps and

permanent masonry structures; 3. cemetery sites; 4. other - includes ceremonial locations,

ground figures, petroglyphs, etc. Because of the complex nature of the permanent habitation sites, cemeteries and ceremonial

174 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [ VOL. 35, No. 2, 1970

TABLE 1 Site Frequency and Distribution

WORKSHOP SITES

Tarapaca 9,1011,28 (possible 19,21,22)

Total 4

NONAGRICULTURAL CAMP SITES

Temporary Camps Seasonal

Tarapaca 1 2,3,448,12,i4,18,24,25,26 29 31 32

Tempora ry Camps Stopover

Tarapaca 14A, 2A, (possible 19,21, 22

Temporary Camps Transition ?

Tarapaca 35, 14A(house pit component)

Total 21

AGRICULTURAL VILLAGES

Permanent Settlements Prehistoric

Tarapaca 5,13,13A.15,17,34,44,46,52,55,61,62,63,65,69,77&Cas

Permanent Settlements Historic

Tarapoca 16 38 49 50 60

Temporary Settlements

Tarapaca 6 7 20 81

Total 26

CEMETARY SITES

Tara paca 3640 4145 48 5154 57 58 64 72 75 78 79 80

OTH E R Total 15

Ground Figures

Tarapaca42 71 7682

Petroglyph Sites

Tarapaca 30 43 47 68

Terraces Fields Corrals etc.

Tarapaca 23 27 33 53 56 59 66 67 70

Total 17

83

locations, this initial report will be confined to consideration of what we designate workshop and temporary campsites (preceramic). A later report will discuss the more important agricultural villages and the cemeteries associated with them. Table 1 presents the distribution of the sites in terms of the above listed categories.

WORKSHOP SITES

Workshop sites are defined as those locations marked by artifacts and chipp,ing waste, but lacking obvious refuse or midden deposits. There may be indications of artifact use as well as manufacture, but there is no suggestion of habitation on the spot. Some overlap between sites in this category and habitation sites may exist since it is not always possible to distinguish between sites resulting exclusively from the by- products of tool manufacture and those repre- senting short-term occupational situations where some tool manufacturing was carried on. Two kinds of workshop situations have been identified in the present sample:

1. scattered isolated indications of tool manufacture;

2. concentrations of debris and tools.

With few exceptions, the entire terrace front- ing the quebrada from Huarasifia to the Pampa is a nearly continuous zone of prehistoric occupation. At dozens of locations along this front, it is possible to find scattered bits of chipping waste and occasional artifacts. These locations are in addition to those specifically designated as sites. The overall appearance is that of a scattered cultural substrate over which various other activities were carried on from time to time in later years. In some instances the more recent occupancy has obliterated or become mixed with the earlier remains. In other situations, the scattered waste and tools seem undisturbed by later activities. Sites along the lower reaches of the quebrada and along the pampa were often relatively undisturbed. It is the sites in this part of the region that concern us at the present time.

The scattered workshop debris mentioned above is found in two kinds of situations: isolated finds that appear to be the by-product of the manufacture of a single tool, and more concentrated manifestations of chipping waste that may or may not be actual sites. For the former, usually only the waste flakes are found, but in some instances the tool itself - a heavy biface - is found in situ. There does not seem to be any patterning in the distribution of these stations other than the fact that they tend to follow the margins of the Pampa. They are not close enough together to call the aggregate a site, but there are locations in which they are much more concentrated than in others. These areas of con- centration are indicated on Fig. 2 as areas C, E, and F. In area C, more than 40 stations were noted in a space about 800 m. long and less than 50 km. wide. There is no refuse or other indica- tion of cultural activities associated with these stations. Each station seems to be an independent manifestation of some cultural activity un- related to the next, except that the by-product is a similar tool or blank - made of similar material. The use of these tools and the exact nature of the finished product are not known. Similar artifacts are found scattered along the quebrada proper, and once in a while a specimen or two turns up in the excavated camp sites. Im- plements of this size and configuration, however, do not seem to be significant elements on any of


the later sites so far investigated. A preliminary study of the implements does not show any significant wear patterns or markings along the cutting edges. All of the specimens so far examined, however, have been lightly wind abraded, and this would eliminate most evidence for such wear.

In addition to the scattered stations described above, one location along the Pampa was located where similar kinds of chipping waste and some similar artifacts were more concentrated (see Fig. 2, area D). This locale contains more than one kind of tool-making waste, and more than one time period may be represented. The con- centration may be the by-product of some particular cultural pattern, or it may be the fortui- tous overlapping of the activities of several cultural patterns through some period of time. In any case, the chipping waste here is more hetero- geneous than in the isolated stations, and it is clearly different from those locations given site designations below.

Four locations have been designated as actual sites (Tarapaca 9, 10, 11, and 28). All are located along the Pampa or in the lowest reaches of the quebrada (see Fig. 2). Three other sites may represent workshop locations, but it is not clear whether these are short-term camps or specialized manufacturing situations (Tarapaca 19, 21, and 22). For the present, these three sites will be excluded from the discussion.

The four Pampa sites are nearly identical in terms of their physical location and the artifacts found there. They are marked by concentrations, from 10 to 20 cm. deep, of chipping waste and artifacts. Most of the debris in each case was located within an area some 10 m. wide and 50 m. long. All are located directly on a low bluff overlooking the Pampa. The primary material being utilized here was a reddish-brown rhyolitic stone. although some fine-grained basalt was used. This latter is common in the region and was widely used in other cultural situations.

On the basis of a preliminary examination, the artifacts from these sites can be categorized as:

1. leaf-shaped bifacially flaked implements that probably served as knives;

2. leaf-shaped bifacially flaked implements- somewhat smaller in size - that may have been projectile points;

3. leaf-shaped unifacial implements that may have been scrapers or partially finished knives or projectile points;

b

C E NT I M E TER S

d

FG. 3. Heavy biface artifacts or blanks from

isolated workshop stations.

4. an occasional heavy biface similar to those found on the scattered stations described above.

The sample from the four sites includes several hundred artifacts. Quantification of this sample in terms of artifact types and frequencies and possible functional interpretation of the implements will be presented in the future after the lithic analysis (presently in process) is complete. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate typical artifacts from the workshop locations at Tarapaca.

Most of the artifacts found in the above- mentioned locations have been mentioned in the literature dealing with this part of the Andean region (Barfield 1961: 93-100; Orellana 1963: 13-14; Le Paige 1963: 191-3; L. Nu'Tnez 1965a: 189-204). Implements in thi's tradition are surely related in some way to assemblages from Ayampitin and Intihuasi (Gonzales 1952: 110- 33; Gonzales 1960a:- 1-296); from Lauracocha (Cardich 1964); and from Callavallauri (Tscho- pic 1946). They are similar to tools Lanning and Hammel include in Period III in their 1961 synthesis (Lanning and Hammel 1961: 139-54)

176 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY VOL. 35, NIO. 2, 1970

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FiG. 4. Projectile p-oints and knives from the workshop sites (Tarapaca 10).

and are also similar to what Lanning includes in Period II and Period III in his 1966 resume (Lan- ning 1966: 135).

HABITATION SITES

The most common and basic subdivision for this site category is that which separates ceramic-

producing groups from nonceramic or preceramic peoples. Unfortunately, the point in time when ceramics were introduced into this region has not yet been established in any secure way. In general, it is assumed that ceramic-using peo, ples were associated with a sedentary agriculturally based subsistence and that preceramic


groups were hunters and gatherers without permanent villages. However, there is no neces- sary relationship between preceramic and preagricultural in this part of the world, although the two conditions tend to be found together.

Until a substantial number of radiocarbon determinations are available for the area and until detailed studies of the resources have been completed, it may not always be possible to dif- ferentiate temporary camps of traders or herders from those actually belonging to preceramic- preagricultural collectors. To further compli- cate the situation, it is almost certain that there were circumstances wherein agricultural peoples subsisted to a considerable degree on non- cultivated vegetable foods such as algarroba (Prosopis sp.).

Only nonceramic, nonagricultural sites are included in the present survey. Agriculturally based habitation sites will be discussed in a later paper. A total of 21 sites is included in this category (habitation sites - nonceramic). These can be further subdivided into a number of groupings based on several shared traits, although, in fact, each site is slightly different from the rest. Tentative groupings for these sites are suggested below. The order of presentation does not neces- sarily reflect the relative time placement of the groups. Following the group heading, the sites believed to belong in that group will be listed.

Group 1 (Tarapaca 18, Tarapaca 14) These are sites characterized by numerous

heavy lithic implements; they lack evidence for the use of bifacially flaked knives or projectile points. The artifacts are typical of those tools archaeoloigists call cobble choppers, hammers, planes, and the like. These are found on surface sites, i.e., there is no well-developed midden. There is, however, evidence of faunal remains on the surface, and some pockets of refuse were located in the test excavations.

Most of the tools are basalt, and most are typical of those described by Bird from Taltal and Quiani (Bird 1943: 237-8, 286-90). It is important to stress the fact that, although bifacially flaked knives or points are clearly not part of the assemblages here, no claim is made, nor is it suggested, that these sites represent what Krieger and others have called a "Preprojectile point Horizon or stage" (Krieger 1964: 42-51). The time placement of these sites in the local sequence is problematical. The possibility that they are part of some older nonprojectile-point- using cultural pattern must be considered, but it

is not likely in this context. Other sites in the sequence have the same range of heavy lithic tools plus bifacially flaked knives or scraping tools. Organic material suitable for radiocarbon determinations was collected from both sites.

Group 2 (Tarapaca 1, Tarapaca 3, Tarapaca 4, Tarapaca 8, and Tarapaca 12) Sites in this category are characterized by

heavy lithic tools similar to those described in Group 1 above, but with the significant addition of numerous well-made bifacially flaked tools (see Fig. 5). The sites are open camps without obvious structural features. Most artifacts were found scattered over the surface, but some refuse or midden is present. This refuse contains numerous faunal remains, charcoal, some vegetable material, and chipping waste. Milling-stone elements may be part of the assemblage, but they were found on the surface of only one of the five included sites. Manos were recovered from the excavations at Tarapaca 12. Tarapaca 12 is dif- ferentiated from the remainder of these sites on the basis of the above-mentioned milling-stone elements and on the basis of a distinctive triangular-shaped knife or projectile point with a concave base (see Fig. 51, m) . This artifact assemblage, minus the milling-stone elements and triangular points, is found associated with a number of structures and rock features on site Tara- paca 1. However, the relationship between the artifacts and the structures is not clear. It is suggested, but not demonstrated, that the structures postdate the artifacts described.

Material from Tarapaca 2 is similar in many respects to that of Tarapaca 12 and probably should be included within this group. Though the artifact assemblage seems to be mixed, some elements on this site are distinctive, and it is difficult to know where it fits into the sequence.

Group 3 (Tarapaca 2A, Tarapaca 14A) Sites in this group are characterized by well-

made, pressure-retouched, bifacially flaked implements including a distinctive serrated form that may represent a very sophisticated tool (see Fig. 6a). Knife-like forms are common, with both leaf and oval configurations. The sites are small camping areas (TR-2A is less than 10 m. in diameter) marked by a shallow sheet of refuse or midden and considerable chipping waste. Some cobble tools or heavy implements were found on the surface, but not in the refuse sheet or pockets. Scraping tools are present but are not common. No milling-stone elements were


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".':' "'.,,.."::,:: ": .....::.:..: .::,.,--..... . :, -'.... .... .: .:.:' .. ..:- ....:... ,:. ..:: ::..::,:".:, .:

..-. .-.. .. .............. . .:::: .. ... .. ..... ...... ..: ......,.,:,. ......... .. ........ %...: - - - .. ...:........ .. . .... . ... ..... .: . ... .........:............:..... ...:.. '' '',..... ... ..: .:..,-..,::;i.-,.:!:::'... :::

:.:.::..-.-: ...:...:...:.,.:,j: ::- -. .. . . ...:... ....:..:::'' ..:..:.:.:.:-.-....:: - - - -.....::::.:::.:"::::::.......:.....:".::.".:...,.:.-.- -,,- .. . .... ::..:.:. .. .... ..,:. -::--:-::.:.::j.: :.-:..........-.%-:.::... .. .::..:!:!::.:..

FiG. 5. Artifacts from Tarapaca 12. This assemblage is typical of Group 2 habitation sites.


found on these sites. Faunal remains in the refuse include numerous bone fragments believed to be guanaco (Lama huanacus [Mo- lina]). Fish-bone and mollusk remains are common, and dried fish remains were recovered in one refuse pocket. Vegetable material was present in the sample but has not yet been identified.

Group 4 (Tarapaca 24, Tarapaca 25, Tarapaca 26, Tarapaca 29, Tarapaca 31, and Tarapaca 32) Sites here are marked by heavy concentrations

of artifacts and chipping waste, sometimes over extensive areas (site Tarapaca 29 covers not less than one acre). A wide range of artifact forms are present in the sample, and these include triangular, concave-based points (see Fig. 6 h-o), bifacially flaked knives, numerous flake scrapers, drills or gravers, and several kinds of choppers, hammers, and planes not unlike those described for sites in Group 1 above. In most cases, this similarity is not marked, however, because the tools from this group of sites tend to be smaller in size and somewhat more refined in appearance. Milling-stone elements are common on site Tarapaca 29 as are some rock features that may be remains of house circles. Simple rock align- ments and design elements were found adjacent to the site proper. A thin sheet and occasional pockets of refuse were found under the surface artifacts and were intermixed with a veneer of windblown sand. Hearths or burned areas were definitely associated with this refuse. Some faunal and vegetable materials were recovered.

Group 5 (Tarapaca 14A; house-pit zone Tara- paca 35) These two areas represent small groups of

shallow house pits. The artifacts seem to be related to material found on the Group 3 sites above, but with several significant differences.

Excavations from the house-pit sector of Tara- paca 14A reveal oval floor surfaces, 16-18 in. below the present surface. Each living area or house unit has a central hearth and evidence that suggests the roofs were formed by setting small diameter poles around the edges of the pit and pulling them together in the center in some way. This is not definite, however, and ramada- type roofs, typical of the area at the present time, may have been constructed in some instances. The upper portion of the fill in these houses con- tained numerous heavy lithic tools similar to those from Tarapaca 18. Milling-stone elements

were common both on the surface and in the house pits themselves. The most diagnostic artifact so far examined from this site is a small leaf- shaped or oval projectile point (?). This form was not recovered from any of the sites described above. Some maize was recovered from the house fill, and it is suggested that this is a transition phase in the local sequence - part of the settling-down process associated with the acqui- sition of agriculture. Not much more can be said until the refuse has been studied in detail and until radiocarbon dates are obtained.

The small oval projectile points recovered from the house refuse here are nearly identical to those recovered at Conanoxa, near the Que- brada Camarones to the north (Niemeyer and Schiappacasse 1963, lamina IV). A single radiocarbon date from Conanoxa suggests a time placement of some 3,500 to 4,000 years before the present (1790 B.C.+-130, IVIC-175) for this material (L. Nufiez 1965b: 107-09). However, it is not stated from which portion of the Cona- noxa site the dating sample was taken, and Conanoxa may represent more than one cultural pattern through some significant timespan.

DISCUSSION

The brief description of a series of preceramic sites described above is not intended to be- nor to provide the basis for -a detailed com- parative study. The intent of this preliminary report is nothing more than to indicate that these kinds of cultural remains have been recovered in this region, and to suggest the basis for a possible local sequence. Without detailed artifact descriptions, artifact frequencies, and the study of accompanying faunal and floral associ- ations, no serious reconstructions are possible, of course.

Some of the artifacts recovered from the workshop sites seem to fall into what has been termed the Andean Biface tradition (Lanning 1966: 134). The larger of the bifaces - those found on the isolated stations here in Tarapaca - are probably earlier in time than the Puripica or Ayampitin types found on the workshop sites proper. But this has not been established strati- graphically or with any independent dating methods. No satisfactory function or use for these heavy tools has been demonstrated, and so far there is insufficient evidence here to suggest any specific cultural affiliation. What we can say is that they are most often found on the margins of dry lake beds (salares) where,


in times past, standing water or a forest cover of Phreatophytic vegetation existed, at least on an occasional basis. This cover had a significant subsistence potential both as food for animals which might be hunted, or as food for the hunters themselves. Similar artifacts (see Fig. 3a-e), be they blanks, finished tools, or some of each, have not been reported from the adjacent littoral. They have been reported from several inland sites along the Pampa Tamarugal (Salar de Soranal, reported by L. Nun'iez and Varela 1964: 189-204; Puquio de Nunfiez, reported by Lautaro Nunfiez, personal communica- tion, 1967), and from the higher basins in the adjacent subcordillera (Salar de Huasco, reported by L. Nuniez and Varela 1966: 9-25; Salar de Talabre, reported by L. Nuiez 1967: 5-11).

All of the cited reports are preliminary, and no attempt has yet been made to study these tools in detail. Work by Lanning in the Talabre region probably includes artifacts similar to those from Tarapaca, but the details on these investigations are not yet available (Lanning and Pat- terson 1967: 44-50).

For Tarapaca, it is suggested that this class of implement represents the earliest evidence for occupation so far discovered, but it is also likely that the use of similar forms persisted for some considerable time. An early age cannot be at- tributed to such tools strictly on the basis of formal attributes or typological considerations.

The material from the workshop sites (Tara- paca 9, 10, 11, and 28) is somewhat better known, and some tentative comparisons within the larger area can be made. Most implements recovered from the workshop sites are clearly within the Ayampitin, Lauricocha, and Puripica traditions.

It is generally assumed that this class of material represents projectile points and knives and that these tools were the by-product of some hunting peoples or culture (see Fig. 4a-o). The animal most often cited as the object of these activities is the guanaco (Lama huanacus). There is so far, however, no direct association between the tools recovered from the workshop sites and any faunal material. The leaf-shaped point/guanaco-hunting relationship for Tara- paca must be considered logical but not yet demonstrated.

We agree, however, that these implements were made by hunting-and-gathering peoples and that the sites along the salares were temr

porary camps. We see these camps as part of a seasonal round extending from the higher Andean regions to the coastal foothills. Sites in the Tarapaca sequence that best fit this pattern seem to be limited to workshop situations. No milling-stone elements or refuse depositions are associated with the tools. However, it is possible, if not likely, that most of the actual camps were made on the Pampa proper where there was cover, water, and firewood, as opposed to exposed dry camps on the terraces themselves. So far no exploration of the Pampa has been made with the discovery of such camps in mind. The nature of the Pampa - with seasonal flood- ing and alluviation, shifting wind-borne sand deposits, and considerable cultivation in recent times - makes the discovery of such evidence in situ highly unlikely. The possibility that the milling stone may have been part of this pattem must be considered, even without direct evidence locally. Milling-stone elements are reported as part of the Ayampitin assemblage (Gonzales 1960a), and it is likely that algarroba (Prosopis) was an important food source along with whatever animals might have been hunted.

With possible cyclic shifts in the Humboldt current and a postulated general increase in precipitation as we move back in time, it is possible to suggest that portions of the coastal range were at times much more suited to seasonal grazing than they have been in recent centuries. Thus some subsistence for grazing animals may have been available, at least on occasion, within the coastal-range province. The fruit pods and seeds of the algarroba and tamarugal could easily have provided another important food source for such animals, as well as for human gatherers. With extensive stands of this vegetation spread over a substantial portion of the Pampa Tamarugal and with occasional stands of annual vegetation along the coastal range, some considerable food resources were available for grazing animals such as the guanaco, in spite of the seeming lack of such a potential at the present time. Differential maturation of these resources in different regions would provide the basis for a seasonal round oriented toward both hunting and collecting activities. Utilization of maritime resources may have been part of this round, although there is little to suggest this for that particular cultural pattern or period of time.

What we are saying is that, in spite of the fact that the larger region is and has been for several thousand years a barren desert environment,

............ . E...................... ............ . .... ... } M Is

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* : : : . | !; .............~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .. ;. .. ... ..... . ... ...... ..... ... ... . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... ... . .. . . ........... ..

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: .: ;.; : .... :.:; : : : . ............. . ... . . S :::: :~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... .

................................................................. ................ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .... ... .. ....... i..............................................................

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FIG. 6. Artifacts a-g typical of Group 3 habitation sites. These are also representative of the short-term stopover sites. Artifacts h-o are typical of Group 4 habitation sites and representative (along with artifacts a-a on Fig. 5) of the seasonal campsite pattern.


there have been from time to time important subsistence resources available, at least on a seasonal basis. The most reliable of these resources depended upon runoff from the higher Andean regions and were, to a great degree, independent of the local lowland climatic situation which in its own right does not normally produce sufficient moisture to support any significant amount of life in the area.

The prehistory of the region must be inter- preted in terms of this subsistence base, with the recognition that it was subject to considerable fluctuation with respect to both its existence and relative productivity.

The idea that resources such as this are best exploited as part of a seasonal round is, of course, widely recognized. Such a seasonal round extending from the coast to the upland Punas in the Andean region has been suggested for parts of Peru (Lynch 1967). Lanning (1966: 133-8) agrees that transhumance was a highly likely mode of exploitation for this part of the Andean region.

Relationships between the workshop sites and the temporary campsites within the Quebrada area are not clear. Leaf-shaped bifacially flaked tools occur in nearly all the campsite situations. Frequencies vary from site to site, and the fav- ored lithic material (rhyolite) on the workshop sites is replaced by basalt on most of the camps. We can say that we have a number of single- component sites, each of which seems to have a slightly different and distinctive artifact inventory. There is some sharing of elements between the assemblages, suggesting possible relationships of one sort or another.

Impressionistically, it is possible to suggest that two separable cultural patterns are involved. These patterns may be sequent in time, one following the other, or they may be more or less contemporary. The differentiation is based upon two lines of projectile-point development and upon the nature of the complete assemblages for each grouping or pattern.

The first pattern is characterized by tiny camping locations and distinctively shaped projectile points or knives marked by finely serrated edges (see Fig. 6a-e). Sites in the second pattern include large numbers of heavy lithic tools, several categories of scrapers, drills, gravers, and milling stones. Bifacially flaked knives are common in these assemblages, as are triangular-shaped projectile points with concave bases (Fig. 5a-o; Fig.

6h-o). Sites included here are much larger than the first category.

Although it is in part speculation without firm empirical support, we suggest that the sites in the first pattern were the by-products of small groups camping for short periods of time, then moving on. These may or may not be seasonal occupations for the purpose of exploiting some local resources. They seem more like overnight stopover stations or short-term resting camps, with little concern for local resources as such. The small size of the sites -only a few yards in diameter - indicate one-time occupancies and do not suggest annual encampments. They might represent the activities of some specialized segment of some larger group working out of a more permanent camp elsewhere. The refuse at both Tarapaca 2A and 14A indicates strong ties with the sea. Much of the faunal material is fish bone, dried fish remains, and shellfish of at least two kinds. Larger mammal bone, believed to be guanaco, was also present in significant quantities.

The sites in pattern 2 look like the kind of accumulations that would result if small family groups of hunters-and-gatherers returned year after year to the same general locations. Milling stones and the more complete tool inventory suggest longer stays and a concern with local vegetable resources.

No attempt has been made to fit all of the mapped nonceramic sites into this twofold divi- sion. Some sites are clearly mixed, and others were contaminated by the activities of later agricultural groups living over much of the same territory.

Time placement for both patterns must await radiocarbon determinations. A single radiocarbon date from the refuse in Tarapaca 12 provides the basis for an estimate for the age of one component of the second pattern (2740 B.C.?

80 years, UCLA 1293, Berger, personal com- munication, 1967). It is not possible to say much more on the basis of local data. Comparison of the assemblages here with similar artifacts from sites in adjacent areas suggests that all of the sites in both pattern 1 and pattern 2 postdate the workshop sites described previously. In other locales, some stratigraphic relationships provide a general suggestion of time placement that may be valid in the Tarapaca sequence as well. Ravines (1967: 39-56) describes material from several sites located in southern Peru not far from the Chilean boundary. His sites were


found at an elevation of some 3,000 m. above sea level. Most of the diagnostic artifacts in his assemblages are duplicated in the Tarapaca sites. Several sites in the Atacama have also produced similar artifacts (Orellana and Kaltwasser 1964: 37-76; Kaltwasser 1963: 55-71; Orellana 1965: 81-115). Many of the point types recovered by Bird from the site at Quiani and Punto Pichalo are similar to points from several of our sites (Bird 1943: 232-77). The relationships between these coastal finds and the Tarapaca artifacts will be examined in greater detail as soon as the analysis of the inland artifacts has been completed.

Ravines' material from Toquepala and Abrigo Caru is of particular interest for several reasons. The altitude at which the material occurred indicates a highland seasonal camp; also, Ravines has a stratigraphic sequence, and he has several radiocarbon dates (Ravines 1967: 39-56). If the chronological placement suggested by Ravines is accepted, elements similar to those from the second campsite pattern in Tarapaca would be later in time than those in the first. Triangular points with concave bases, then, fall later in time than the leaf-shaped forms with serrated margins. Ravines (1967, Lamina XXXIII) puts the serrated leaf-shaped form and a triangular form with a contracting base or stem as early as 6000 B.C. The triangular form with a contracting stem is identical or nearly so to those classified as Arenal by Lanning (1965: 75) and to the type called Tetragonal by L. Nu'-nez (Nu'-nez and Varela 1966: 14). We suggest that the relationships are essentially correct, but that the date is a bit on the early side. L. Nu'nez and Varela (1966) suggest a sequence for their finds at Salar de Huasco that does not disagree with Ravines' relative time placement, but they do not attempt to place their sequence in absolute time other than to follow Gonzales (1960b).

A seasonal round similar to that suggested for the earlier workshop sites probably applies to most of the sites in the pattern 2 campsites. Pattern 1 sites may have been way-stations between more or less permanent coastal locations and seasonal upland camps.

Hopefully, complete analysis of the recovered artifact samples, radiocarbon dates from a number of key locations, and detailed study of the faunal and floral remains from the site refuse will place these sites more precisely in time and will provide the basis for some significant con- tribution to the prehistory of the region.

Acknowledgments. Appreciation is expressed to the Ford Foundation for its generous support of this project. Many other individuals and institutions contributed to the success of this work. Acknowledgments of this assistance will be made on an individual basis as the various seg- ments of the project are completed.

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LANNING, EDWARD P. AND THOMAS C. PATTERSON

1967 Early Man in South America. Scientific Amer- ican, Vol. 217, No. 5, pp. 44-50. New York.

LE PAIGE, GUSTAVO

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Chile. Trabajos de Prehistoria del Semiznario de historia primitiva del hombre de la Universidad de Madrid, Vol. 9, pp. 7-35. Madrid.

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ORELLANA, MARIO R. AND JORGE KALTWASSER P.

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS

Davis, California March, 1969

Documents

Archaeological Investigations in Northern Chile_ Project Tarapaca. Pre Ceramic Resources