ARABIC COLLOCATIONS...into Arabic (Student Translators’ Group) 105 6.3.4 Part four: The Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations (Professional Translators’ Group) and (Student Translators’

ARABIC COLLOCATIONS:

IMPLICATIONS FOR TRANSLATION

By

A S Brashi

A thesis presented to the

University of Western Sydney

in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

2005

© A S Brashi 2005

http://www.bcltechnologies.com/easypdf/

ii

STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICATION

The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original

except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this

material, either in whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution.

A S Brashi

Date:


iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study would probably not be what it is now without the help, encouragement, and

advise of so many people. I would like to thank all those whose contribution made this

piece of research possible. I am greatly indebted to my principal supervisor, Professor

Stuart Campbell, who has always encouraged me and inspired me during the years of

my candidature. His valuable suggestions and constructive criticism led to improve

earlier versions of this thesis.

I am also deeply indebted to my co-supervisors, Associate Professor Sandra Hale and

Associate Professor Paulin Djité, for their support and advice. I am also grateful to the

examiners of my thesis, especially Professor Ian Mason and Professor Basil Hatim, for

their valuable suggestions and comments.

I am grateful to all the participants of this study, who have voluntarily and passionately

agreed to participate. Special thanks to Saud Al-Inizi and Aqeel Al-Shihri, Arabic

teachers in Al-Faisal College, Sydney, Australia, and Dr Zeid Al-Dakkan of the

Australian Islamic Cultural Centre, for their participation in the pilot study. Their

expertise has greatly helped me in reshaping the instruments used in this study.

I also thank my colleague and friend Dr Kelvin McQueen for commenting on and

editing some chapters of this thesis. Thanks are also due to my friend and colleague Dr

Michael Kennedy. I benefited immensely from discussions I had with him.

Finally, I cannot forget to thank my dear wife, my daughter, and my son for their

constant love, support and patience throughout the duration of the project. They have

been looking forward to seeing this mission accomplished.


iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES xii

CHAPTER

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Justification of the study 3

1.2 Aims of the study 6

1.3 Arabic used in this study 7

1.4 Presentation of Arabic examples in the study 8

1.5 Scope of collocations 9

1.6 Layout of the study 11

CHAPTER TWO: COLLOCATIONS IN ENGLISH 13

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Collocation as a phenomenon 13

2.3 The notion of collocation 14

2.4 Boundaries of collocations: differences between linguists over

collocation

19

2.5 English collocations in lexicography 25

2.6 English collocations in computational linguistics 26

2.7 Conclusion 32

CHAPTER THREE: COLLOCATIONS IN ARABIC 33

3.1 Introduction 33

3.2 Collocations in the Arabic language 33

3.3 Arabic collocations in lexicography 46

3.4 Arabic collocations in computational linguistics 50

3.5 Some sources for Arabic collocations 52

3.5.1 Collocations in the Quran 53

3.5.2 Borrowed collocations 54


v

3.6 Conclusion 57

CHAPTER FOUR: COLLOCATIONS AND TRANSLATION 59

4.1 Introduction 59

4.2 Collocations: a translation problem 60

4.3 Translating English collocations into Arabic 66

4.3.1 Translating English verb plus object collocations into

Arabic

67

4.3.2 Translating English adjective plus noun collocations into

Arabic

71

4.4 Empirical research into the translation of collocations 74

4.5 Conclusion 83

CHAPTER FIVE: AN OVERVIEW OF THE PROFESSIONAL

TRANSLATION ENVIRONMENT IN AUSTRALIA

84

5.1 Introduction 84

5.2 Historical background of immigration to Australia 84

5.3 Australia’s multicultural policy 86

5.4 The Need for English-Arabic translation in Australia 87

5.5 Translator accreditation in Australia 89

5.5.1 NAATI accreditation 90

5.5.2 Obtaining NAATI accreditation 90

5.5.3 NAATI levels 91

5.5.4 NAATI tests 93

5.5.5 Translator training 94

5.6 Conclusion 97

CHAPTER SIX: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 98

6.1 Introduction 98

6.2 Research design 98

6.2.1 Research questions 98

6.3 Setting of and participants in the study 101

6.3.1 Part one: The Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations

(Arabic Control Group)

101


vi

6.3.2 Part two: The Translation Test of English Collocations

into Arabic (Professional Translators’ Group)

104

6.3.3 Part three: The Translation Test of English Collocations

into Arabic (Student Translators’ Group)

105

6.3.4 Part four: The Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations

(Professional Translators’ Group) and (Student Translators’

Group)

106

6.4 Data collection 107

6.4.1 Instruments 107

6.4.2 Pilot studies 112

6.4.3 Administrative procedures 113

CHAPTER SEVEN: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

QUESTIONNAIRE OF ARABIC COLLOCATIONS,

CHARACTERISTICS AND SEMANTIC PATTERNING OF ARABIC

COLLOCATIONS

118

7.1 Introduction 118

7.2 Section one: Results of the questionnaire of Arabic collocations 120

7.2.1 Arabic control Group (21 respondents) 122

7.2.2 Professional translators’ Group (16 respondents) 129

7.2.3 Student translators’ Group (8 respondents) 136

7.2.4 Decisiveness versus indecisiveness 143

7.3 Section two: Characteristics of Arabic collocations 156

7.3.1 Collocations consist of two or more words 157

7.3.2 Semantic transparency 157

7.3.3 Arbitrariness 158

7.3.4 Unpredictability 158

7.3.5 Language-specificity 159

7.3.6 Flexibility of word order 160

7.3.7 Cannot be replaced by a synonym 161

7.3.8 Formality 161

7.3.9 Possibility of addition 162

7.3.10 Possibility of a change in tense 162

7.3.11 Possibility of passivization 163


vii

7.3.12 Possibility of pluralization 163

7.3.13 Possibility of collocational range expansion 164

7.4 Section three: Semantic patterning of Arabic collocations 166

7.4.1 Strong collocations 167

7.4.2 Unique collocations 173

7.4.3 Metaphorical collocations 179

7.4.4 Idiomatic extensions of collocations 182

7.4.5 Unacceptable collocations 184

7.5 Conclusion 188

CHAPTER EIGHT: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: TRANSLATION

TEST OF ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS INTO ARABIC

190


8.2 Section one: Results of the translation test of English collocations

into Arabic

193

8.2.1 The outcomes of translating the English verb + object

collocations

194

8.2.2 The outcomes of translating the English adjective +

noun collocations into Arabic

199

8.2.3 Acceptable versus unacceptable translation outcomes 204

8.3 Section two: Translation outcomes 207

8.3.1 Translating English verb + object collocations into

Arabic

208

8.3.2 Translating English adjective + noun collocations into

Arabic

221

8.4 Conclusion 231

CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSION 235


9.2 Summary 236

9.3 Implications for translation 241

9.4 Contributions made by this study 243

9.5 Final remarks and directions for further research 245


viii

BIBLIOGRAPHY LIST 249

APPENDICES 270

APPENDIX A: Information sheet and demographic questionnaire:

Arabic Control Group

271

APPENDIX B: Questionnaire of Arabic collocations 273

APPENDIX C: Information sheet and demographic questionnaire:

Professional Translators’ Group

295

APPENDIX D: Demographic questionnaire: Student Translators’

Group

298

APPENDIX E: Translation test of English collocations into Arabic 299


ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1.1 Arabic consonants ....................................................................................... 8

1.2 Arabic vowels and diphthongs .................................................................... 9

4.1 Examples of translating English collocations

into Arabic (Baker, 1992) ......................................................................... 63

4.2 Examples of translating English collocations

into Arabic (Heliel, 1990) ......................................................................... 64

4.3 Examples of translating Arabic collocations

into English (Heliel, 1990)........................................................................ 65

4. 1 Examples of English collocations that have identical equivalents in

Arabic (Ghazala, 1993b) ................................................................................. 67

4.5 Examples of English collocations that do not have identical equivalents in

Arabic (Ghazala, 1993b) ................................................................................ 68

4.6 Examples of English verb + object collocations translated into Arabic

(Ghazala, 1995) ......................................................................................... 70

4.7 Examples of English verb + object collocations translated into

a verb in Arabic......................................................................................... 70

4.8 Examples of English collocations and their identical equivalents

in Arabic (Ghazala, 1995) ......................................................................... 72

4.9 Examples of English collocations and their non-identical equivalents

in Arabic (Ghazala, 1995) ......................................................................... 73

4.10 Responses provided via reduction strategies in simultaneous

interpreting (Shakir & Farghal’s study, 1992) ........................................ 78

4.11 Responses provided via reduction strategies in translation

(Shakir & Farghal’s study, 1992)............................................................ 78

6.1 Item example of questionnaire of Arabic collocations ........................... 109

7.1 Verb + object Arabic collocations’ results:

Arabic Control Group (n=21) ................................................................. 123

7.2 Noun + adjective Arabic collocations’ results:

Arabic Control Group (n=21) ................................................................. 126



x

Professional Translators’ Group (n=16) ................................................. 130


Professional Translators’ Group (n=16) ................................................. 133


Student Translators’ Group (n=8) ........................................................... 137


Student Translators’ Group (n=8) ........................................................... 140

7.7 Results of the questionnaire of Arabic collocations

(part one: verb + object collocations) ..................................................... 143

7.8 Results of the questionnaire of Arabic collocations

(part two: noun+ adjective collocations)................................................. 147

7.9 Part one: verb + object collocations. Summary table of numbers and

percentages of preferences among the three groups ............................... 150

710 Part two: noun + adjective collocations. Summary table of numbers and

percentages of preferences among the three groups ............................... 150

7.11 Verb + object strong collocations in Arabic ......................................... 168

7.12 Noun + adjective strong collocations in Arabic.................................... 170

7.13 Verb + object unique collocations in Arabic ........................................ 175

7.14 Noun + adjective unique collocations in Arabic ................................... 176

7.15 Verb + object metaphorical collocations in Arabic .............................. 180

7.16 Noun + adjective metaphorical collocations in Arabic ......................... 181

7.17 Examples of idiomatic extensions of collocations ................................ 183

7.18 Unacceptable verb + object collocations in Arabic .............................. 185

7.19 Unacceptable noun + adjective collocations in Arabic ......................... 187

8.1 Translation outcomes of verb + object collocations:

Student Translators’ Group (n=8) .......................................................... 195

8.2 Translation outcomes of verb + object collocations:

Professional Translators’ Group (n=16) ................................................ 197

8.3 Translation outcomes of adjective + noun collocations:

Student Translators’ Group (n=8) .......................................................... 200

8.4 Translation outcomes of adjective + noun collocations:

Professional Translators’ Group (n=16) ................................................ 202

8.5 Outcomes of translating English verb + object collocations

into Arabic.............................................................................................. 205

8.6 Outcomes of translating English adjective + noun collocations

into Arabic.............................................................................................. 205


xi

8.7 Examples of the strong collocation translation outcome

(Translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic) ................. 210

8.8 Examples of encapsulation

(Translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic) ....................... 212

8.9 Examples of neutralizing verb + object collocations .............................. 213

8.10 Examples of paraphrasing verb + object collocations .......................... 215

8.11 Examples of malapropism

(Translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic) ............... 216

8.12 Examples of the translation outcome of calquing

(Translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic) .............. 217

8.13 Examples of mistranslation


8.14 Examples of unacceptable collocations in Arabic


8.15 Examples of strong collocations

(Translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic).......... 222

8.16 Examples of neutral collocations

(Translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic) ........ 224

8.17 Examples of the translation outcome of paraphrasing


8.18 Examples of calques

(Translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic).......... 228

8.19 Examples of mistranslations



xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2. 1 A sample page from Collins COBUILD

English Collocations on CD-Rom ............................................................ 28

2. 1 Results from Collins COBUILD English Collocations on CD-Rom

showing the collocates of the word "pact" ............................................... 29

2. 2 A list of short examples from Collins COBUILD English Collocations

on CD-Rom of the word "pact" collocating with the word "made" ......... 30

2. 3 A window from Collins COBUILD English Collocations on CD-Rom

showing an expanded example and an indication of the genre of the text 31


xiii

ABSTRACT

The topic of collocability has been a common concern among linguists, lexicographers

and language pedagogues recently. They find the linguistic aspect of collocation

interesting, because words do not exist in isolation from other words in a language.

They exist with other words. In every language, the vocabulary consists of single words

and multi-word expressions. Collocations are among those multi-word expressions.

The aim of this thesis is to characterize collocations in the Arabic language, to devise a

classification of the semantic and distributional patterns of collocations in the Arabic

language and to examine the problems encountered in translating English collocations

into Arabic. This will require an analysis of the collocational patterns in both English

and Arabic, a classification of the translation outcomes and, therefore, types of errors

adopted by translators, an indication of how frequent and significant each error is, and

an analysis of the causes of each error.


Chapter one: Introduction

1

1 INTRODUCTION

This thesis defines a collocation as the tendency for certain words in a language to

combine with one another, as against others that do not have this tendency of

combining together, and the meaning of which can be deduced from at least one of

the components of the collocation. Benson, Benson, and I lson (1986), in their BBI

Combinatory Dictionary of English, categorize collocations into two major groups:

lexical collocations and grammatical collocations.

Both categories are further divided by Benson et al. (1986) into subcategories.

Lexical collocations consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. They normally

do not contain prepositions, infinitives or clauses. In English, for example, the

collocation rich imagination is translated into Arabic by the equivalent collocation

عساو لايخ xayaalun waasi3un(wide imagination) or the collocation بصخ لايخ

xayaalun xiSbun(fertile imagination). The meaning association between the

components of a collocation is apparently arbitrary and non-predictable.

For example, the adjectives rich and wealthy are synonymous, however, most native

speakers of English are unlikely to produce a collocation such as wealthy


2

imagination. The noun imagination, in English, collocates with the adjective rich,

which means رفاو /ينغ /يرث tary / gany / waafir (rich) in Arabic. However, in

Arabic, the noun لايخ xayaal (imagination) collocates with the adjective عساو

waasi3 (wide), which means wide in English, or the adjective بصخ xiSb (fertile),

which means fertile.

A grammatical collocation, in contrast to a lexical collocation, is a phrase that

consists of a noun, an adjective, or a verb plus a preposition or grammatical structure

such as an infinitive or clause (Benson et al., 1986). Chomsky (1965:191) gives the

following example of a grammatical collocation (a close construction in Chomsky’s

terminology): decide on a boat, meaning ‘choose (to buy) a boat’, but on the other

hand, decide on a boat, meaning ‘make a decision while on a boat’ is a free

combination (a loose association in Chomsky’s terminology). Native speakers of

English feel that the components of decide on collocate with each other, and they will

most likely reject violations of collocability such as decide at a boat.

The interest for this research in the translation of collocations arises from their great

importance in language. They play an important role in the coherence and cohesion of

language. In addition, they are present in all text types. The translation of collocations

is a constant problem—to match the appropriate nouns with the appropriate verbs, the


3

appropriate verbs with the appropriate nouns, the appropriate nouns with the

appropriate nouns, and so on and so forth.

The approach to translation taken in this research is essentially phrase and sentence-

based rather than text-based. The justification for this approach is twofold. First, we

locate the phenomenon of collocation between syntax and lexis (see Chapter Four),

although we concede that a text- or discourse- approach could throw further light on

the topic. Secondly, the research comes down on the side of an experimental rather

than a naturalistic methodology because of the problem of gathering sufficient data

(see Chapter Four).

1.1 Justification of the Study

The importance of collocations and the problems they cause to English-Arabic

translators has been underscored by many researchers in the fields of linguistics and

translation. The translators’ knowledge of collocations (collocational competence) is

an essential requirement for the overall mastery of the target language.

Below is an example from the introduction of Charlotte Bronte’s (1847) novel Jane

Eyre of translating an English adjective + noun collocation into Arabic:


4

a- ..., there was a large public eager to read good novels.

The adjective + noun collocation in English was translated into Arabic by

Abdulkhaliq (1994) as follows:

jamhuwrun waasi3un (a wide public) عساو روهمج

In this example, the translator rendered the English adjective + noun collocation a

large public into the Arabic noun + adjective collocation جمھور واسع jamhuwrun

waasi3un (a wide public), which sounds unnatural to a native speaker of Arabic. In

Arabic, the noun روهمج jamhuwr (public) usually collocates with the adjective عریض

(wide).

Another example is taken from Charles Dickens’ (1839) novel Oliver Twist:

b- … to calltears into his eyes.


5

The verb + noun collocation to call tears is translated literally into Arabic by Dar Al-

Bihar Publishing House (1997)1 as follows:

da3watu ad-dumuw3 (to call tears) عومدلا ةوعد

A native speaker of Arabic would, most likely, expect the verb فرذ darafa (to shed)

to collocate with the noun عومد dumuw3 (tears).

From the above two examples a and b, it is obvious that translators with different

levels of proficiency face many difficulties in combining words together, resulting in

target texts that do not sound native-like nor natural. This phenomenon is mainly due

in part to a deficiency in their knowledge of collocations and also to differences in the

collocational patterns of the source and target languages. It may be also due to source

text interference. Another reason for this difficulty in translation could be the lack of

studies into Arabic collocations, resulting in an absence of resources for

understanding Arabic collocations. The need for such resources inspired the

questionnaire of Arabic collocations used for this study.

1 The name of the translator is not mentioned.


6

Despite their important role in translation, collocations have not received much

attention to date. There has been little research on how collocations are used by

translators and no study has investigated the knowledge of collocations by English-

Arabic translators. For this reason this study attempts to investigate the problems of

translating English verb + noun and adjective + noun collocations among English-

Arabic translators.

1.2 Aims of the Study

The principal questions addressed in the present investigation are concerned with

how student and professional English-Arabic translators use Arabic collocations in

translation and how their usage of Arabic collocations relates to their overall

knowledge of Arabic collocations. Answers to certain interesting questions were

sought by using elicited collocational competence and collocational performance data

among English-Arabic student and professional translators. The main purpose was

thus to make a general contribution to the understanding of the mechanisms

underlying translating English collocations into Arabic. More explicitly, the

following general aims were set up for the study:

1- To characterize collocations in the Arabic language.


7

2- To devise a classification of the semantic patterns of collocations in the

Arabic language.

3- To examine the problems encountered in translating English verb + object and

adjective + noun collocations into Arabic.

The empirical data of the study were collected from among postgraduate students of

English-Arabic translation and professional English-Arabic translators in Australia, in

addition to a control group of monolingual, native speakers of Arabic in Saudi

Arabia.

1.3 Arabic used in this study

The type of Arabic that will be under investigation in this study is referred to as

Modern Standard Arabic (MSA). Sa’id (1967) refers to MSA as that variety of Arabic

found in contemporary books, newspapers, and magazines, and used orally in formal

speeches, public lectures, learned debates, religious ceremonies, and news broadcasts

over radio and television. Al-Johani (1982:7) adds to what Sa’id said by stating that

MSA “conforms to the norms of Classical Arabic grammar”. From here onwards, the

terms ‘Modern Standard Arabic’ and ‘Arabic’ will be used interchangeably.


8

1.4 Presentation of Arabic examples in the study

Arabic examples in this thesis are first presented in Arabic script and then

transcribed. Following the transcription, and between parentheses, the examples are

translated into English.

In order to avoid orthographic difficulties in reading these examples, the phonemic

inventories of Arabic consonants and vowels are illustrated in Table 1.1 and Table

1.2 respectively, using the transliteration guide suggested by Campbell (1998).

Arabic consonant Transcriptionأ ?ب bت tث tج jح Hخ xد dذ dر rز zس sش sص Sض Dط Tظ Zع 3غ g


9

ف fق qك kل lم mن nه hو wي y

Table 1. 1 Arabic consonants

Arabic vowels and diphthongs TranscriptionfatHah aا aakasrah iي iyDammah uو uw

يأ ayوا aw

Table 1. 2 Arabic vowels and diphthongs

1.5 Scope of collocations

The present study uses verb + object and adjective + noun English collocations to

examine student and professional translators’ performance with regard to translating

these types of collocations.


10

Collocations were chosen as special objects for scrutiny in this study, because it was

believed that data derived from student and professional translators’ performance

would be ideal in many respects. Some of the reasons for choosing collocations are

listed below. Firstly, as is commonly known by linguists (e.g., Hill, 2000),

collocations are very frequent in the English language. Secondly, they are probably

the most common and most representative of English multi-word expressions.

Thirdly, collocations fall between lexis and syntax, which seems to be in line with the

current view that language competence is to be described as an interactional process

between lexis and syntax. Fourthly, collocations occur in languages with varying

degrees of restrictedness. Fifthly, they are evident in all text types. Sixthly,

collocations occur in both of the languages involved in this study, English and

Arabic. Seventhly, and most importantly, the study of collocations has largely been

neglected in translation in general and in English-Arabic translation in particular.

This study will focus on lexical collocations only. Abu-Ssaydeh (1991:66) suggests

that more attention in research should be given to lexical collocation because

“grammatical collocation has received its fair share of emphasis in the work of

grammarians and lexicographers”. Moreover, Newmark (1988:32) states that “the

chief difficulties in translating are lexical, not grammatical – i.e. words, collocations

and fixed phrases or idioms”. Therefore, this study is concerned with lexical rather


11

than grammatical collocations.

Since this thesis is concerned with lexical collocations, there will be only limited

reference to grammatical collocations. Following from this, the two terms lexical

collocations and collocations will be used interchangeably.

1.6 Layout of the study

A brief presentation of how this study is structured will be given in this section. As

was shown earlier in this introductory chapter, this study arises from the fact that

there has not been much previous research that has investigated the translation of

English collocations into Arabic. By using an empirical study, it is hoped that new

insights into the strategies of translating collocations in general, and English

collocations into Arabic in particular, will be achieved.

From a review of the literature, research questions were derived. Answers to the

questions were sought by collecting data by means of specifically designed test

instruments. First, a translation test of English collocations into Arabic was given to

two different groups: a Student Translators’ Group and a Professional Translators’

group. The translation test was followed by a questionnaire of Arabic collocations


12

that was given to the same two groups in addition to an Arabic Control Group. The

main empirical results are presented in the thesis in tabular form. Finally, the results

are discussed with reference to the definition of collocation proposed in this study

and some conclusions and implications for translation are suggested.

The study begins with a chapter discussing the literature on collocations in the

English language (Chapter Two) followed by another chapter discussing the literature

on collocations in the Arabic language (Chapter Three). Chapter Four discusses the

translation of collocations. Chapter Five presents a brief overview of the professional

translation practice in the Australian context. Chapter Six presents the research

methodology proposed by this study. Chapter Seven presents three issues: (1) the

results and discussion of the Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations; (2) the

characteristics of collocations in the Arabic language; and (3) a semantic

classification of collocations in the Arabic language. Chapter Eight introduces the

results and discussion of the Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic.

Finally, Chapter Nine concludes the thesis.

Chapter Two: Collocations in English

13

2 COLLOCATIONS IN ENGLISH

2.1 Introduction

This chapter investigates the study of collocations from a linguistic point of view.

It reviews the main theoretical studies on collocations that have taken place since

1938. It was then that the term collocation was first introduced by Harold E.

Palmer. The chapter also includes recent research on collocations. All these

studies are reviewed from the viewpoint of their contribution to the study of the

notion of collocation.

2.2 Collocation as a phenomenon

Greek Stoic philosophers studied collocation as a linguistic phenomenon in

association with lexical semantics as early as 2,300 years ago (Robins, 1967:21;

Gitsaki, 1999:10). Robins (1967) states that Greek Stoic philosophers rejected the

equation of “one word, one meaning” and suggested an important aspect of the

semantic structure of language. They believed that “word meanings do not exist in

isolation, and they may differ according to the collocation in which they are used”

(Robins, 1967:21).

The study of word collocability has remained an important field of


14

language research. The notion of collocation has achieved importance because

many linguists have surmised that there are fixed forms of expression in every

language that are stored in the minds or memories of native speakers of each

language as whole chunks of language forms and not as single words. These fixed

expressions are used in speech and writing as such. Among these fixed

expressions are collocations.

2.3 The Notion of collocation

A collocation is mainly a lexical relationship between words. This lexical

relationship is said to be subject more to arbitrariness arising from common usage

than from rules. The notion of ‘collocation’ has been familiar since the pioneering

work of Palmer (1938) who defined collocations in his dictionary, A Grammar of

English Words, as “successions of two or more words the meaning of which can

hardly be deduced from a knowledge of their component words” (1938:iv). He

gave examples such as: at last, give up, let alone, go without, carry on, as a

matter of fact, all at once, to say the least of it, give somebody up for lost, throw

away, how do you do, and let us make it do. He emphasized that each must be

learnt in the same way as one learns single words.

Later, Firth (1957:194) advanced the word ‘collocation’ as a technical term, so

that ‘meaning by collocation’ became established as one of his ‘modes of

meaning’. He wrote: “I propose to bring forward, as a technical term, meaning by

‘collocation’” (Firth, 1957:194). The term ‘collocation’ only became well known

as part of the technical terminology of linguistics after the work of Firth. He


15

suggested that ‘meaning by collocation’ is a lexical meaning “at the syntagmatic

level” not at the paradigmatic level (Firth, 1957:196). The paradigmatic

relationship of lexical items, on the one hand, consists of sets of words that belong

to the same class and can be substituted for one another in a specific grammatical

and lexical context. On the other hand, the syntagmatic relationship of lexical

items relates to the ability of a word to combine with other words. Therefore, the

attempt made by Firth to explain the meaning of a word on the collocational level

was unique, because it was concerned with the meaning relationships between

lexical items from the level of syntagmatic relationships, not from the traditional

view of paradigmatic relationships such as synonymy and antonymy. The

syntagmatic relationships between words in a sentence have been extensively

discussed in structural linguistics.

Firth (1968:182) gives the example of dark night as an adjective + noun

collocation and asserts that one of the meanings of night is its collocability with

dark, and one of the meanings of dark is its collocability with night. In other

words, any complete description of the meaning of a word would have to include

the other word or words that collocate with it. He later (1968:182) defines

collocation as “the company that words keep”. Firth considers a collocate of a

word as an order of mutual expectancy. He states that it is important to recognize

the company that a word keeps.

Lyons (1966) seemed critical of Firth’s argument that a ‘word’s collocations are

part of its meaning’ by introducing ‘meaning by collocation’ through the

distributional theory of meaning. However, he later explained that “there is


16

frequently so high a degree of interdependence between lexemes which tend to

occur in texts in collocation with one another that their potentiality for collocation

is reasonably described as being part of their meaning” (1977:613).

A number of linguists, known as Neo-Firthians, adapted Firth’s theory and

expanded on it. Halliday (1966) considered lexis as complementary to, but not

part of, grammatical theory. He introduced the notion of ‘set’ as an extra

dimension of the collocability of words. A collocation, in his definition, is “a

linear co-occurrence relationship among lexical items which co-occur together”,

whereas the set is “the grouping of members with like privilege of occurrence in

collocation” (1966:153). For example, bright, hot, shine, light, and come out

belong to the same lexical set, since they all collocate with the word sun

(1966:158).

Sinclair (1966:411) also regards grammar and lexis from “two different,

interpenetrating aspects”. He states that language patterns are treated, in grammar,

as if they could be described by a system of choices. However, for Sinclair, the

key issue is the tendencies of lexical items to collocate with one another. These

tendencies, argues Sinclair (1966:411), “ought to tell us facts about language that

cannot be got by grammatical analysis”. He, then, gives the illustration that the

contrast between lexical items is more flexible than that of grammatical classes,

for “there are virtually no impossible collocations, but some are much more likely

than others” (1966:411). Sinclair even describes the structure of a collocation:

We may use the term node to refer to an item whose collocations we


17

are studying, and we may then define a span as the number of lexical

items on each side of a node that we consider relevant to that node.

Items in the environment set by the span we will call collocates

(1966:415).

For example, if we want to study the collocational patterns of the word accident,

then accident is the ‘node’. If we decide to have a ‘span’ of four, it means that we

study the four lexical items that occur before and the four lexical items that occur

after the word accident. All the lexical items that are within the ‘span’ of the word

accident are considered to be its ‘collocates’.

An important issue in Sinclair’s theory is that he distinguishes between casual and

significant collocations. A significant collocation, he explains, is a collocation that

occurs more frequently than would be expected on the basis of the individual

items.

In 1976, Halliday and Hasan talk about ‘collocation’ or ‘collocational cohesion’,

in their book Cohesion in English, describing it as:

a cover term for the cohesion that results from the co-occurrence of

lexical items that are in some way or other typically associated with

one another, because they tend to occur in similar environments

(Halliday & Hasan, 1976:287).

They give examples like:


18

- candle- flame- flicker

- hair- comb- curl- wave

- poetry- literature- reader- writer- style

- and sky- sunshine- cloud- rain (Halliday & Hasan, 1976:287).

Such patterns, they say, “occur freely both within the same sentence and across

sentence boundaries; they are largely independent of the grammatical structure”

(Halliday & Hasan, 1976:287). This again points to them oscillating around a

more fixed meaning.

Nevertheless, their interpretation could be expressed in other terms in semantics.

For example, it may be expressed in lexical fields or relations like synonymy,

antonymy or hyponymy. Hasan (1984) subsequently rejects this use of collocation

as too broad and uses the term ‘lexical chain’.

Mitchell’s (1971) approach is different from that of the Neo-Firthians. He

considers lexis and grammar as one entity and argues for the “oneness of

grammar, lexis and meaning” (1971:43). He suggests that collocations have to be

described as ‘lexico-grammatical’. He notes that they are to be studied within

grammatical matrices, for example, adjective + noun: heavy drinker; verb +

adverb: to drink heavily; and adjective + gerund: heavy drinking. The importance

of this is that it adds a further dimension to understanding the way collocations

occur. This returns to the earlier notion of language existing in ‘chunks’, but with

a considerable amount of variability. It presupposes that collocations exist as


19

variant forms of meaning forming structures used in expressed language to create

nuance.

Newmark (1988:212) classifies collocations in English as follows:

1- Adjective plus noun, e.g., heavy labour.

2- Noun plus noun (i.e. double noun compound), e.g., nerve cell.

3- Verb plus object (which is normally a noun that denotes an action), e.g.,

pay a visit.

He mentions that these are the most common collocation types, because all three

types are centred on the noun, being the second component of these three types of

collocations in English. He then stresses that a distinction should be made

between collocations and words in a semantic field (e.g., colours, ranks, etc.) and

suggests that collocations are always linked with the concepts of usage and

naturalness (Newmark, 1988:214).

2.4 Boundaries of collocations: differences between linguists over

collocation

It is obvious that there is significant disagreement and a lack of clarity in the

definition of collocations among different linguists. What makes the issue unclear

is the fact that sometimes collocations are categorized as idioms, since it is often

thought that no clear distinction can be made between a collocation and an idiom


20

(e.g., Smith, 1947; Wallace, 1979; Sinclair, 1991; Pederson, 1986).

Smith (1947) considers collocations as idiomatic expressions, in which two words

are habitually combined together for the sake of emphasis. For example, far and

away(emphatic), over and over (emphatic repetition), part and parcel(emphasis

by alliteration), fair and square(emphasis by rhyme), heads or tails(emphasis by

the contrast of two words), now and then(emphasis by inclusive phrases).

Similarly, Wallace (1979) does not seem to differentiate between collocations,

proverbs and idioms. He perceives collocations (e.g., to be honest with) and

proverbs (e.g., don’t count your chickens before they are hatched) as

subcategories of idioms.

Sinclair (1991) also gives a very general definition of a collocation: “A

collocation is the occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each

other in a text” (1991:170). He suggests, as a measure of proximity, a maximum

of four words intervening together. Certainly, this definition suggests that all

occurrences of two or more words, including idioms, are considered to be

collocations. Again, this dissipates the technical usefulness of the notion of

collocation to the point where almost any fixed forms of expression can act as

such.

However, there are other linguists who draw a clear line between collocations and

idioms (e.g., Mitchell, 1971; Bolinger, 1976; Shakir & Farghal, 1992; Bahns,

1993; Fontenelle, 1994b). Bolinger’s (1976) criterion in distinguishing

collocations from idioms is based on whether the meaning of the whole


21

idiom can be derived from its components. For example, in the idiom spill the

beans, the meaning cannot be derived from its components. On the other hand, in

the collocation indelible ink, the meaning can be derived from its components.

Likewise, Fontenelle (1994b) states that collocations are ‘non-idiomatic

expressions’ on the one hand and ‘non-free combinations’ on the other. This gives

a more precise and useful definition of collocation. For example, sour + milk,

bad/addled/rotten + egg, and rancid + butter. Fontenelle argues that the

adjectives sour, bad, addled, rotten, and rancid can all be combined with nouns

denoting food items, but are by no means interchangeable. Therefore, the

collocations *rancid egg, *sour butter or *addled milk are unacceptable in

English, except that they could be used in slightly poetic forms to add emotive

meaning. Fontenelle also gives an example of the idiomatic expression to lick

somebody’s boots and suggests that what characterizes idiomatic expressions is

the fact that they constitute a single semantic entity, and the fact that their

meaning cannot be derived from the sum of the meanings of the words of which

they are made up. Thus, in the above example, there is no actual licking taking

place and the expression is not about boots either. Idioms sit at a greater distance

from the signified than collocations.

Following Benson et al. (1986), Bahns (1993) also argues that in order to obtain a

clearer understanding of collocations, it is helpful to try to distinguish them from

idioms on the one hand and from free combinations on the other. Free

combinations are the least cohesive type of word combination. The noun murder,

for example, may be used freely with many verbs (analyze, boast of, condemn,


22

discuss, investigate, etc.), and, of course, these verbs can combine freely with

other nouns as well. Moreover, idioms are relatively frozen expressions whose

meanings do not reflect the meanings of their component parts. To scream blue

murder (to complain very loudly) is an example of an idiom. Collocations come

somewhere between idioms and free combinations. They have a tendency to more

directly approximate the signified, i.e., they add explication rather than reduce it

to a less explicit stock phrase. They are loosely fixed combinations, as in to

commit murder. What makes collocations different from idioms is that their

meanings reflect the meaning of their constituent parts, and what makes them

different from free combinations is that they are used frequently, springing to

mind in such a way as to be said to be psychologically salient.

Collocation, according to Robins (1967:63), is the “habitual association of a word

in a language with other particular words in sentences”. He gives the following

examples: white coffee, green with jealousy and maiden speech, and makes a

distinction between collocations like bright day and dark night and word groups

like bright night and dark day. This shows that Robins does not use the term

‘collocation’ for all kinds of word combinations.

Aisenstadt (1979:71-2) distinguishes between idioms, restricted collocations and

free word combinations in the following manner:

Idioms: An idiom is ‘one semantic unit and its meaning is not composed

from the sum of the meanings of its constituents’ (e.g., face the music,

which means ‘display courage’ or ‘show no fear’).


23

Restricted collocations: They are ‘combinations of two or more words used

in one of their regular, non-idiomatic meanings, … and restricted in their

commutability’ (e.g., the verb face can collocate with four different nouns:

the fact, the truth, the problem, and the circumstances).

Free word combinations: They are different from restricted collocations ‘by

their commutability restrictions which are conditioned by usage’ (e.g., the

verb carry in its basic meaning of ‘supporting the weight of something’ can

collocate freely with almost any noun denoting the thing to be supported or

moved: carry a book/ bag/ chair/ torch/ table/ etc.) (Aisenstadt, 1979:71-2).

According to van der Wouden (1997:8-9), collocations are not the only fixed

expressions in languages. He suggests the following six categories:

Free combinations: Their components combine most freely with other

lexical items. For instance, the noun murder can be freely used with many

verbs, such as to analyze and to describe. These verbs combine with a large

number of other nouns.

Idioms: They are relatively frozen expressions. Their meanings do not

reflect the meaning of their component parts. For example, to kick the

bucket.

Proverbs/ sayings: These expressions are usually more frozen than idioms

and they are complete sentences (e.g., A friend in need is a friend indeed).

Collocations: They are loosely fixed combinations. Collocations fall


24

between idioms and free combinations. For example, to commit a murder.

Transitional combinations: These combinations appear to fall between

idioms and collocations. They are more frozen than ordinary collocations

and, unlike idioms, these combinations seem to have a meaning close to that

suggested by their component parts. For example, to catch one’s breath, all

dressed up, and to foot the bill.

Compounds: Compounds are totally frozen. With these combinations, no

variations are possible at all. They can consist of an adjective + noun (e.g.,

definite article), noun + noun (e.g., aptitude test) or verb + one or two

adverbs or prepositions (e.g., add up, put up with) (van der Wouden,

1997:8-9)

Another definition of collocation is given by Cruse (1986:40). He argues that

collocations are “sequences of lexical items which habitually co-occur, but which

are nonetheless fully transparent in the sense that each lexical constituent is also a

semantic constituent”, and suggests that the lexical items have semantic cohesion,

as the items are mutually selective to a varying degree. On the other hand, an

idiom is “an expression whose meaning cannot be inferred from the meaning of

its parts” (Cruse, 1986:37).

Cruse’s notion of mutual expectancy between the collocates is relevant to the

research undertaken in this thesis, because it mainly concerns the adjective + noun

and verb + object constructions. All examples of collocations used in this research

meet Cruse’s basic criterion of a collocation, that is, there must be a


25

syntagmatic association between the words.

2.5 English collocations in lexicography

In the last three decades, the interest in collocations and other fixed expressions

led lexicographers to compile specialized dictionaries. Among those

lexicographers was Hornby (1974), who includes a large number of collocations

in his dictionary entitled Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current

English. This dictionary was followed by that of Cowie, Mackin and McCaig

(1975), The Oxford Dictionary of Idiomatic English.

The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English (more commonly known as the BBI

Dictionary - the initials are those of its compilers: Benson, Benson and Ilson) was

released in 1986. A later revised edition was released in 1997. The BBI Dictionary

is completely devoted to English collocations. The compilers believe that even in

language learners’ dictionaries, the treatment of collocations is insufficient and

inconsistent. The dictionary contains 90,000 combinations and phrases under a

total of 18,000 entries. The introduction to the dictionary explains how these

entries have been organized and demonstrates the breakdown of word

combinations into lexical and grammatical collocations. The former comprise

verb + noun, or adjective + noun collocations, while the latter consist of a

‘dominant word’ + a preposition or grammatical construction. Users are advised

to look up the ‘dominant word’ in each case, or the second noun if the collocation

is noun + noun. For instance, the ‘dominant word’ in the BBI’s terminology is the

noun, verb, or adjective in the following grammatical collocations: acceptable to,


26

by accident, eager for. In lexical collocations such as, to put up resistance, a herd

of cattle, deeply absorbed, users are directed to find the word combination in the

dictionary by looking up, in the following order, the noun, the second noun (if

there are two), the adjective, and the verb.

Another dictionary that is fully dedicated to English collocations is Hill and

Lewis’ (1997) Dictionary of Selected Collocations. It is divided into an adverb

section, which lists verbs, adjectives, and their adverb collocates, and a substantial

section on nouns, where the headwords are all nouns. In the latter section, verb

collocates are listed according to whether they come before or after the noun. For

example:

CRISIS: cause__, __ escalated

Adjective collocates and phrasal collocates are also listed, for example:

CRISIS: dangerous __, in the wake of __

The shorter section on adverbs similarly is clear in layout. It suggests which

adverb goes with a particular verb or adjective; for example:

ABANDON: __completely, completely __.

2.6 English collocations in computational linguistics

The growing interest in the study of collocations as an important component of

language has made computational linguists think of using large corpora to


27

study collocations. It has also made lexicographers think of compiling dictionaries

of collocations.

In 1995, Sinclair led a project entitled Collins COBUILD English Collocations on

CD-Rom. It is regarded as the largest lexicographic analysis of a language in the

world. The collocations used in the database are extracted from the Bank of

English, a corpus of more than two hundred million words (and continually

expanding). The Bank of English is a unique computer database that monitors and

records the way in which the English language actually is used. This CD-Rom

gives the user access to 140,000 English collocations and 2,600,000 sentences

with these word combinations. A sample page from Collins COBUILD English

Collocations on CD-Rom is shown below:


28

Figure 2. 1 A sample page from Collins COBUILD English Collocations on CD-Rom

Using this programme is easy. The user types a word in the Node text box, or

selects a word from the list box by clicking once on the word. After that, the user

clicks on the <Show Collocates> button to view the list of collocates for the word

they selected. See below the collocates of the noun pact, for example:


29

Figure 2. 2 Results from Collins COBUILD English Collocations on CD-Rom showing the

collocates of the word "pact"

The user can select one of the collocates from the list by clicking on it and, then,

clicking on the button <Show Examples>. This will show a list of short examples,

showing the selected word and collocate in use from the Bank of English:


30

Figure 2. 3 A list of short examples from Collins COBUILD English Collocations on CD-Rom

of the word "pact" collocating with the word "made"

By double-clicking on any one of the example lines, the user can view the same

example with a more extensive context in a separate window. The expanded

example window also includes an indication of the genre of the text in which this

example occurs:


31

Figure 2. 4 A window from Collins COBUILD English Collocations on CD-Rom showing an

expanded example and an indication of the genre of the text

Another computer programme is WordPilot 2000 by Milton (2000). Milton

suggests that this programme is designed for English-as-a-Foreign/Second-

Language (EFL/ESL) students, English language teachers, researchers and

translators into English. The user of WordPilot 2000 can select a word or phrase

from word lists or can simply type a word or phrase, and the programme searches

for examples of these in nominated types of texts. A summary of common

collocates of the word or phrase is generated using the <Collocation> button. This

programme can also be used as a writer’s helper when drafting a document, using

Microsoft Word 7 or Microsoft Word 2000. When the programme is installed, a

new button <Examples> appears in the Microsoft Word menu bar. By selecting


32

a word or phrase from the opened Word document, and clicking on <Examples>,

a search for the selected items is launched. The programme is based on a corpus

that can be increased to 50,000,000 words.

2.7 Conclusion

Chapter two summarised the main theoretical studies on collocations that have

taken place since 1930’s. It also showed that there is a significant disagreement

and a lack of clarity in the definition of collocations among different linguists, as

some linguists make no clear distinction between a collocation and an idiom,

while others do. The interest in collocations by lexicographers was also discussed.

The chapter has also shown the importance of computational linguistics in

collocational research, and how it made the study of English collocations easier.

This chapter suggested that although a collocation is a combination of at least two

lexical items that demonstrate a level of frozenness/restrictedness and, like

idiomatic expressions, show a resistance to substitution of the constituents of the

combination. Nevertheless, collocations are semantically transparent, that is, one

can tell the meaning of the whole collocation from at least one of the constituent

parts of the combination. Therefore, collocations are not idiomatic expressions.

This chapter has examined the ways collocations have been treated by linguists in

the English language. The next chapter will discuss collocations in the Arabic

language.

Chapter Three: Collocations in Arabic

33

3 COLLOCATIONS IN ARABIC

3.1 Introduction

As was shown in the previous chapters, collocation is a lexical relationship

between words in a language. A collocation is the habitual co-occurrence of two

or more words together in a language, the meaning of which can be deduced from

at least one component of the combination. This lexical relationship is more the

co-occurrence of a word with other words than a series of extensive formalisable

rules. Arabic is one of the languages that are rich in collocations. However, not

many researchers discuss word combinations in the Arabic language in general,

nor collocations in particular. Some of the available literature is derived from

linguistic research, such as that by Emery (1988a, 1988b; 1991), Husamaddin

(1985), Ghazala (1993a), Hoogland (1993), and Hafiz (2002).

3.2 Collocations in the Arabic language

In a unique book totally devoted to fixed expressions and multi-word units in

Arabic, Husamaddin (1985) considers collocations ( اللغویة المصاحبة al-muSaaHabah

al-lugawiyyah) to be one simple form of idiomatic expression. He defines

collocations as:

.المصاحبة الاعتیادیة لكلمة ما في اللغة بكلمات أخرى معینة


34

al-muSaaHabatu al-i3tiyaadiyyatu li-kalimatin maa fiy al-lugati bi-

kalimaatin ?uxraa mu3ayyanah. (The normal occurrence of a word with

certain other words in a language) [Author’s translation] (Husamaddin,

1985:257).

Husamaddin (1985) argues that words do not appear together in a language just by

chance and that there are وابط娃娃娃娃 ض 娃娃 DawaabiT al-muSaaHabah صاحبةالم

(collocational restrictions) that govern their usage. These collocational

restrictions, according to Husamaddin (1985), are:

1- توافقیة المصاحبة tawaafuqiyyat al-muSaaHabah (Association agreement):

This means that there has to be an agreement between words that collocate

with each other. This agreement depends on one’s linguistic knowledge or

is constrained by the nature of the signified. For example, one could say

rajulun * رجل شاھق jabalun saahiq (a high mountain), but not جبل شاھق

saahiq (a high man). Rather, one would say رجل طویل rajulun Tawiyl (a

tall man) because the word شاھق saahiq (high) collocates with the word

رجل jabal (a mountain), but not with جبل rajul (a man), although the

words شاھق saahiq and طویل Tawiyl have almost the same meaning.

Another example illustrating this point is رجل وسیم rajulun wasiym (a

handsome man) and امرأة جمیلة imra?atun jamiylah (a beautiful woman),

but not vice versa.

2- مدى المصاحبة madaa al-muSaaHabah (Collocational range): A

collocational range is the number of collocates a word can have in order to

produce acceptable collocations. The verb مات maat (to die), for example,


35

has a wide collocational range. It can collocate with many different words.

It can be used with the noun إنسان ?insaan (a human being), حیوان

Hayawaan (an animal), and نبات nabaat (a plant).

3- تواتریة المصاحبة tawaaturiyyat al-muSaaHabah (Co-occurrence): By co-

occurrence we mean words that appear together regularly in a language.

This co-occurrence is not governed by grammatical rules. However, it

depends on convention and what speakers feel should be said

(Husamaddin, 1985:258-9).

Husamaddin (1985) later classifies examples of collocations in Arabic into a

number of categories, one of which is words representing different sounds made

by different animals or different objects. In Arabic, we call the sound made by a

lion زئیر الأسد za?iyr al-?asad (the roaring of a lion), the sound made by a horse

Sahiyl al-xayl (the neighing/whinnying of a horse), that of a donkey صھیل الخیل

خوار البقرة nahiiq al-Himaar (the braying of a donkey), that of a cow نھیق الحمار

xuwaar al-baqarah (the mooing of a cow), that of a sheep ثغاء الغنم tugaa? al-

ganam (the bleating of a sheep), that of a wolf عواء الذئب 3uwaa? al-di?b (the

howling of a wolf), that of a dog نباح الكلب nubaaH al-kalb (the barking of a dog),

that of a cat مواء القط muwaa? al-qiT (the meowing of a cat), that of a pigeon ھدیل

نعیق الغراب hadiyl al-Hamaamah (the cooing of a pigeon), that of a crow الحمامة

na3iyq al-guraab (the cawing of a crow), and that of an owl نعیب البوم na3iyb al-

buwm (the hooting of an owl). Examples of different sounds produced by

different objects are: ھزیم الرعد haziym al-ra3d (the rumbling of thunder), and حفیف

.Hafiyf al-sajar (the rustling of trees) الشجر


36

Another category of examples is that of different verbs related to the act of cutting

various objects, depending on the nouns with which they collocate: جز الصوف

jazza al-Suwf (to cut wool), قص الشعر qaSSa al-sa3ar (to cut hair), برى القلم baraa

al-qalam (to sharpen a pencil), قطف الزھرة qaTafa al-zahrah (to pick a flower),

and النباتحصد HaSada al-nabaat (to harvest plants). The following are examples

of collocations associated with cutting parts of the body: جدع أنفھ jada3a ?anfuh

(to cut one’s nose), حلم أذنھ Haluma ?udunah (to cut one’s ear), شرم شفتھ sarama

suffatah (to cut one’s lip), شتر جفنھ satara jifnah (to cut one’s eyelid), and جذم یده

jadama yadah (to cut one’s hand).

Husamaddin also gives examples of the names of places where animals or insects

are found: اصطبل خیل iSTabl xayl (a horse stable), حظیرة ماشیة HaZiyrat maasiyah

(a cattle pen), عرین أسد 3ariyn ?asad (a lion’s den), عش طیر 3us Tayr (a bird’s

nest), جحر ضب juHr Dab (a lizard’s hole), and خلیة نحل xaliyyat naHl (a beehive).

Another group of examples is related to a group of objects: باقة ورد baaqat ward

(a bouquet of flowers), 3 عنقود عنبunquwd 3inab (a bunch of grapes), حزمة حطب

Hizmat HaTab (a bundle of wood), and كومة حجارة kawmat Hijarah (a pile of

stones).

Another group of examples is related to parts of objects: كسرة من الخبز kisrah min

al-xubz (a piece/slice of bread), فدرة من اللحم fidrah min al-laHam (a piece of

meat), كتلة من التمر kutlah min al-tamur (a piece of a date), and نسفة من الدقیق nasfah

min al-daqiyq (a measure of flour).

Another group of examples is related to uncovering or exposing different parts of

the body: حسر عن رأسھ Hasara 3an ra?sih (to uncover one’s head), سفر من وجھھ


37

safara min wajhih (to uncover one’s face), كشف عن ساقھ kasafa 3an saaqih (to

uncover one’s leg), أبدى عن ذراعھ ?abdaa 3an diraa3ih (to uncover one’s arm),

and حاف من النعل Haafin min al-na3l (to be bare-footed).

Another group of examples is related to the movements of different parts of the

body: خفقان القلب xafaqaan al-qalb (the beating of the heart), إختلاج العین ?ixtilaaj

al-3ayn (the ticking of the eye), and ارتعاش الید irti3aas al-yad (the trembling of

the hand).

While Husamaddin (1985) classifies collocations in the Arabic language

according to meaning only, Ghazala (1993a) classifies المتلازمات اللفظیة al-

mutalaazimaat al-lafZiyyah (collocations) according to three different categories.

The first classification is made according to التركیب القواعدي للمتلازمات اللفظیة al-

tarkiyb al-qawaa3idiy lil-mutalaazimaat al-lafZiyyah (grammatical patterns), the

second according to مات اللفظیةالتركیب اللفظي للمتلاز al-tarkiyb al-lafZiy lil-

mutalaazimaat al-lafZiyyah (the relationship between the constituents of the

combination), and, finally, the third according to التركیب الأسلوبي للمتلازمات اللفظیة al-

tarkiyb al-?usluwbiy lil-mutalaazimaat al-lafZiyyah(stylistic patterns).

According to Ghazala (1993a), collocations in Arabic fall into twenty different

grammatical patterns:

1- noun + adjective, for example, قول سدید qawlun sadiyd (a right saying);

2- noun + noun (إضافة iDaafah or annexation), for example, ق الشمسشرو

suruwq al-sams (sun rise);


38

3- noun + conjunction + noun, for example, الخیر والشر al-xayr wa al-sar

(good and evil);

4- adjective + adjective, for example, جائر ظالم jaa?ir Zaalim (despotic and

oppressive);

5- verb + noun (non-figurative meaning), for example,سمع صوتا sami3a

Sawtan (to hear a sound);

6- verb + noun (figurative meaning) , for example, لقن درسا laqqana darsan

(to teach someone a lesson);

7- verb + verb root (verb echoing) , for example, على علوا 3alaa 3uluwan (to

rise high);

8- verb + adverb, for example, بات شبعانا baata sab3aanan (to sleep with a full

stomach);

9- verb + preposition + noun, for example, جھش بالبكاء jahasa bi al-bukaa? (to

burst into tears);

10- verb + relative pronoun + verb, for example, أعذر من أنذر ?a3dara man

?andar (he who warns is excused);

11- verb + conjunction + verb (antonym) , for example, أعطى ومنع ?a3Taa wa

mana3a (to give and prevent);

12- time/place adverbial + conjunction + time/place adverbial, for example,

أولا وأخیرا ?awwalan wa ?axiyran (first and last);


39

13- preposition + noun + noun, for example, بمحض الصدفة bi-maHD al-Sudfah

(by sheer coincidence);

14- negative particle + noun + noun + negative particle + noun, for example,

لا إفراط ولا تفریط laa ?ifraT wa-laa tafriyT (neither excess nor neglect);

15- noun + verb, for example, حي یرزق Hayyun yurzaq (alive and kicking);

16- noun + preposition + noun, for example, الكمال الله al-kamaal li-llah (only

God is perfect);

17- particle (functioning as a verb) + noun, for example, لیت شعري layta si3riy

(would God);

18- arbitrary grammatical patterns (oath), for example, والذي نفسي بیده wa

alladiy nafsiy bi-yadihi (I swear);

19- arbitrary grammatical (swearing/cursing), for example, علیك اللعنة 3alayk

al-la3nah (curse on you); and

20- arbitrary grammatical patterns (compliment) , for example, یداكسلمت

salimat yadaaka (thank you/ well done).

In Ghazala’s (1993a) grammatical classification of collocations in the Arabic

language, the last three grammatical patterns (18, 19, and 20), which he suggests

are arbitrary grammatical patterns, seem to elide meaning with grammar.


40

The second classification made by Ghazala (1993a) is according to the

relationship between the constituents of the combination. He classifies Arabic

collocations into ten different patterns:

1- homogeneous collocations, for example, لھ خاطرخطر xaTara lahu xaaTir

(an idea occurred to him), and بعد جھد جھید ba3da juhdin jahiyd (after a lot

of trouble);

2- non- homogeneous collocations, for example, استقبال حار istiqbaal Haar (a

warm reception);

3- emphatic collocations, for example, ھز ھزا hazza hazzan (to shake

strongly);

4- direct collocations, for example, حافي القدمین Haafiy al-qadamayn (bare-

footed);

5- figurative collocations, for example, طار صوابھ Taara Sawaabuh (to lose

one’s senses);

6- complimentary collocations, for example, نطري اللسا Tariy al-lisaan

(sweet-tongued);

7- uncomplimentary collocations, for example, غنم قاصیة ganamun qaaSiyah

(straying sheep);

8- neutral collocations, for example, سكرة الموت sakratu al-mawt (agony of

death);


41

9- uncertain or indecisive collocations, for example, حدیث طویل Hadiyt Tawiyl

(a lengthy talk);

10- ironical collocations, for example, بطل الأبطال baTal al-?abTaal (the hero

of heroes).

Ghazala (1993a) considers his second classification of collocations in the Arabic

language as categorized according to the relationship between the constituents of

the combination. However, it is difficult to differentiate between some of the

apparently dissimilar patterns. That is, some of his apparently differentiated

examples overlap even though classified as different patterns. Furthermore,

Ghazala does not give a detailed explanation for his different patterns of

collocations in Arabic. For instance, بعد جھد جھید ba3da juhdin jahiyd (after a lot of

trouble) is classified as a homogeneous collocation, while he later considers ھز ھزا

hazza hazzan (to shake strongly) to be an emphatic collocation.

Finally, the third classification by Ghazala (1993a) is made according to stylistic

patterns. Ghazala classifies Arabic collocations into five stylistic patterns. These

patterns are:

1- emphasis, for example, قلة قلیلة qillah qaliylah (very few);

2- exaggeration, for example, لذ وطاب lada wa Taab (delicious and delicate);

3- aestheticism, for example, في خضم fiy xiDam (in the course of);

4- euphemism, for example, ھزیمة مشرفة haziymah musarrifah (an honorable

defeat);


42

5- standard versus colloquial, for example, یعرف من أین تؤكل الكتف ya3rifu min

?ayna tu?kalu al-katif (to know how to seize opportunities).

Although Ghazala (1993a) makes an effort to classify Arabic collocations into

three different categories, some of his patterns are unclear. For example, the

pattern that he calls neutral collocations cannot be understood easily within the

classification based on the relationship between the constituents of the

combination that he gives. Ghazala does not explain the patterns in further detail.

Moreover, some of the examples provided by Ghazala are semantically

transparent and some are opaque, for example, یعرف من أین تؤكل الكتف ya3rifu min

?ayna tu?kalu al-katif (to know how to seize opportunities). In the present

study’s understanding of the definition of collocation, this example could not be

described as a collocation. Rather, it is an example of an idiom in Arabic. That is,

the meaning of the whole expression cannot be deduced from the meaning of the

constituent parts. It becomes apparent that Ghazala’s definition of collocation

does not differentiate between collocations and idioms.

Emery (1988a; 1991) makes a distinction between four types of word

combinations. The distinction is made according to the restrictedness between the

constituents of the combination. The four types of word combinations are:

1- Open collocations: These are characterized as being combinations of two

words that are freely re-combinable. In open collocations, each element is

used in a common literal sense (Cowie, 1983:xiii). For example, انتھت / بدأت

المعركة /الحرب+ bada?at/intahat + al-Harb/al-ma3rakah (the war/battle +

began/ended).


43

2- Restricted collocations: These are “combinations of two or more words

used in one of their regular, non-idiomatic meanings, following certain

structural patterns, and restricted in their commutability not only by

grammatical and semantic valency (like the components of so-called free

word combinations), but also by usage” (Aisenstadt, 1979:71). These types

of word combinations occur in Arabic, as in English, in various types of

syntactic configurations: a- verb + subject, for example, الحرب+ نشبت

nasabat + al-Harb (the war + broke out). b- verb + object, for example,

المعركة+ خاض xaaDa + al-ma3rakah (he engaged in + the battle). c-

adjective + noun, for example, طاحنة+ معركة ma3rakah + TaaHinah (a

damaging + battle).

3- Bound collocations: These are “a bridge category between collocations

and idioms” (Cowie, 1981:228). In this category, one of the components is

uniquely selective of the other. In such cases the adjective collocates

uniquely with a specific noun, for example, ضروس+ حرب Harb + Daruws

(vicious + war), and the verb collocates uniquely with a particular noun,

for example, رأسھ+ اطرق aTraqa + ra?sah (he bowed + his head), and شمر

ساعده+ عن + sammara 3an saa3idih (he bared + his forearm).

4- Idioms: In contrast to the previous three types, the constituent elements of

idioms are opaque, that is, they are used in ‘specialized’ senses, together

forming one single semantic unit. Illustrative examples are calques like:

الحرب الباردة al-Harb albaaridah (the Cold War), and حرب النجوم Harb al-

nujuum (Star Wars) (Emery, 1991:60-62).


44

Hoogland (1993:75) suggests that collocation is a lexical relationship that can be

defined as “two (or sometimes more) words appear in each other’s company

because the usage of a particular word (for example, a noun) limits the choice of

an adjective to a small number of adjectives that can combine with this particular

noun”. He gives an example of the English noun crime and states that the first

verb that would come to mind when mentioning it would be either commit or

perpetrate. He then argues that this applies to Arabic as well. With the noun جریمة

jariymah (crime), the first two verbs that would come to mind are اقترف iqtarafa

(commit) or ارتكب irtakaba (commit). He then uses the same classification of

word combinations made by Emery (1988a; 1991).

On the other hand, Hafiz (2002), in an attempt to compile a dictionary of Arabic

collocations, explains that collocations play a very important role in language. He

distinguishes between twelve different types of collocations in the Arabic

language. The distinction by Hafiz (2002) is made according to grammatical

patterns. The twelve types of collocations are as follows:

1- Verb + noun, where the noun can act as a subject, for example, ھدأ الموج

hada?a al-mawju (the waves subsided); an object, for example, ضرب الخیمة

Daraba al-xaymata (he pitched the tent); or a state (حال), for example,

istasaaTa gaDaban (he was inflamed with rage). This type of استشاط غضبا

collocation accounts for a large part of Arabic collocations, as almost

every single verb in the Arabic language has its own numerous noun

collocates.


45

2- Verb + prepositional noun phrase, where the noun is the indirect object,

for example, استقال من العمل istaqaala min al-3amal (he resigned from

work).

3- Verb + prepositional noun phrase, where the phrase acts as an adverb, for

example, نفّّذ بشدة naffada bi-siddah (he precisely implemented).

4- Verb + noun phrase, where the noun is in the form of an adverbial

condition, for example, ل ھاتفیااتص ittaSala haatifiyyan (he made a

telephone call).

5- Verb + conjunction + verb, usually with synonymous verbs, for example,

.Taara wa Hallaqa (he flew and soared) طار وحلق

6- Noun + noun in a construct state (إضافة iDaafah or annexation), for

example, مسرح الأحداث masraH al-a?Hdaat (the theatre of events).

7- Noun + conjunction + noun, for example, 3 عزم وإصرارazm wa ?iSraar

(intention and insistence).

8- Noun + adjective, for example, قوة عظمى quwwah 3uZmaa (a supreme

power).

9- Noun + prepositional noun phrase, for example, غایة في الأدب gaayah fiy al-

?adab (extremely polite).

10- Noun + preposition, for example, مقارنة بـ muqaaranah bi-(in comparison

with).


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11- Adjective + noun, حسن الأخلاق Hasan al-?aaxlaaq (having high morals).

12- Adjective + adverbial phrase, where the adverbial phrase consists of a

preposition + noun, for example, مستنكر بشدة mustankir bi-siddah (strongly

condemns).

The wide variety of Arabic lexical and grammatical combinations categorized by

Hafiz (2002) would benefit foreign language learners of Arabic and translators by

making the structure and word combinations of that language more apparent.

Apparently, all these collocational forms will be included in the dictionary of

Arabic collocations that Hafiz is compiling.

3.3 Arabic collocations in lexicography

Arabic is a language rich in lexical and derivational resources. It has collocations

in abundance. Emery (1988a, 1991) states that classical lexicographers, such as,

Al-Thaalibi1 (1986) and Ibn Sidah

2 (1996) were keenly aware of the phenomenon.

Another two early lexicographers were Ibn Qutaybah3 (1963) and Al-Iskafi

4

(1906). These lexicographers included a wealth of collocational information in

their “dictionaries of meaning”, or as described by Haywood (1965a) “general

classified vocabularies”. The arrangement of these dictionaries of meaning was

not in alphabetical order but according to meaning. Although the compilers of

such dictionaries of meanings arranged words under subject headings, those

dictionaries still cover the same ground as current ordinary dictionaries. These

1 Died in 1008.

2 Died in 1066.

3 Died in 889.

4 Died in 1030.


47

dictionaries of meaning, in their time, reached a peak of completeness and skill

with the al-muxaSSaS (the categorized or specialized) dictionary by Ibn Sidah

(1996). However, there were other earlier, but smaller-scale, efforts of this type,

such as, ?adab al-kaatib (the writer’s literature) by Ibn Qutaybah (1963), fiqh al-

lugah (philology) by Al-Thaalibi (1986), and mabaadi? al-lugah (principles of

language) by Al-Iskafi (1906). Haywood describes the aim of these Arabic

lexicographers as follows:

It is a remarkable fact that, almost from the start, the compilers of Arabic

dictionaries aimed at registering the complete vocabulary material of the

language. Indeed, they were obsessed by the copiousness of the language….

In this, they differed from earlier lexicographers of other nations, whose

chief aim was to explain rare and difficult words (Haywood, 1965a:2).

Arabic lexicographers, according to Haywood, were proud of the richness of their

language. They were proud of its many features, for which they revealed a clear

fondness. It may be supposed that this led them to produce such dictionaries of

meaning.

Ibn Qutaybah wrote books on different subjects: history, literary criticism,

grammar and philology. He compiled ?adab al-kaatib (the writer’s literature) as a

guide for the secretary (Haywood, 1965a). The arrangement of Ibn Qutaybah’s

dictionary of meaning is not in a clearly logical order. However, its logic appears

to be based on a mixture of word-measure and meaning (Haywood, 1965a).

Considerable sections are devoted to words that could be pronounced with


48

alternative short vowelling, for example, شق saqq (a crack) and شق siqq (half of

something).

Al-Thaalibi’s fiqh al-lugah (philology) is an important store of Arabic words and

expressions. It gives synonyms and differentiates between dissimilar meanings for

words that are roughly synonymous. The dictionary is classified into thirty

chapters. Each chapter contains a large number of related sections.

Haywood (1965a) suggests that mabaadi? al-lugah (principles of language) by

Al-Iskafi is arranged fairly logically. It begins with natural phenomena: stars,

constellation, time, night and day. It moves on to clothes, implements, food, drink

and weapons. Then it contains a large section on horses, shorter ones on camels,

lions, and other animals, then birds, agricultural implements, trees, plants, trade

and illnesses. Finally, it includes a few rare words from poetry and their

explanations.

Dictionaries of meaning, at that time, reached their peak in completeness, skill,

exactitude and authoritativeness with the al-muxaSSaS (the categorized or

specialized) dictionary by Ibn Sidah (Haywood, 1965a). Ibn Sidah gave precisely

the prior authority for nearly every word and meaning in his dictionary of

meaning. Though Ibn Sidah was blind, he was a very talented poet, lexicographer,

and grammarian. He compiled an exhaustive reference dictionary, which he called

al-muHkam wa al- muHiyT al-?a3Zam (the perfect and the greatest ocean). After

completing this dictionary, he rearranged its contents to form a large-scale

dictionary of meaning (seventeen volumes) for the use of writers and orators. This

was al-muxaSSaS (the categorized or specialized) dictionary. It was categorized


49

according to subject headings and was arranged according to the author’s own

logical system. He started with human beings and the things that concerned them,

including: clothes, food, sleep, weapons and fighting. Then he moved on to

animals and plants; then man in social life: travel, work and play. The last section

presented morphology and syntax, and several other linguistic matters.

Unfortunately, the arrangement of the material in all these dictionaries of meaning

– al-muxaSSaS (the categorized or specialized) dictionary by Ibn Sidah (1996),

?adab al-kaatib (the writer’s literature) by Ibn Qutaybah (1963), fiqh al-lugah

(philology) by Al-Thaalibi (1986), and mabaadi? al-lugah (principles of

language) by Al-Iskafi (1906) – is often idiosyncratic and, from a modern

linguistic point of view, unsystematic (Emery, 1991).

At the present time, translators and students of Arabic are in need of a dictionary

that provides lexical combinations in the Arabic language; a dictionary that is easy

to consult and is arranged in alphabetical order. Hafiz (2002) notes that he is in

the process of compiling a monolingual dictionary of Arabic collocations. He

argues that a dictionary of Arabic collocations would be of great benefit to foreign

learners of Arabic and even native speakers of Arabic. A dictionary of Arabic

collocations, according to Hafiz, would help learners and users avoid making

mistakes such as using 3 * عمل موقفاamila mawqifan instead of حدد موقفا Haddada

mawqifan (take a stand), and using موقف شدید * mawqifun sadiyd instead of موقف

حازم mawqifun Haazim (a strong stand). However, translators are still in need of a

bilingual dictionary of collocations.


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3.4 Arabic collocations in computational linguistics

The interest in studying and analyzing the Arabic language is growing. This is due

to the recent availability of Arabic corpora (Van Mol, 2000). However, Ditters &

Moussa (1995:123) argue that although a number of electronic Arabic text

corpora have been compiled, these corpora are raw, which means that the

exploration of these corpora is still problematic.

Van Mol (2000) states that analyzing Arabic corpora is more complex than that of

the corpora of some other languages. He gives three main reasons for this. First,

the Arabic language is very polysemic. New meanings for words are often given

by expanding the old meaning of an existing word to a new meaning. This means

that the external morphology of a word does not change. For example, the word

.miDaxxah (pump) does not only mean pump but also bicycle pump مضخة

A second reason for Arabic being more difficult to analyze than other languages is

that it is usually not vowelized when written, i.e. written without the short vowel

strokes (فتحة fatHa, kasrah). This means that there is a كسرة Dammah, and ضمة

higher degree of ambiguity in Arabic words than found in other languages such as

English. Words in their raw form in Arabic can belong to different grammatical

categories. For example, the word كتب has three meanings in Arabic based on the

vowelization; kataba (he wrote) as a verb in the past tense, kutiba (has been

written) as a verb in the passive voice, and kutub (book) as a plural noun. Another

example that illustrates the same point is given by Hasnah & Evens (2001:5). The

word علم could be pronounced in several ways: 3ilm (science or knowledge)

making a noun; 3alam (flag) again making a noun; 3alima (he knew) making a


51

verb in the past tense; and 3allama (he taught) also making a verb in the past

tense. This complicates the search for particular words and word types in an

Arabic corpus. Searching for the word كتب kataba (he wrote), will not only give

the other words mentioned above but also a lot of other words that have nothing to

do with the appropriate verb sought for. For example, the search for the verb كتب

kataba (he wrote) will end up with results including words like مكتب maktab

(office), and مكتبة maktabah (library or bookstore).

A third reason for the difficulty in analyzing Arabic text corpora, and therefore

making the search for words simpler, is that in Arabic a number of prefixes and

suffixes are directly linked to the words. This makes searching by computer even

more difficult. For example, the word فھم can have four different meanings:

fahima (he understood): a verb in the past tense; fahhama (he made someone

understand): also a verb in the past tense; fa-hum (and they): a prefix and a

pronoun; or fa-hamma (and he began): a prefix and a verb.

Khoja (2001) designed and trialed a corpus of 50,000 words (based on extracts

from the Saudi Arabian Al-Jazirah daily newspaper archives). She found that

because of the frequent occurrence of prefixes and suffixes in the Arabic language

it was difficult to look up words in the corpus. For example, الـ al (the), the

definite article in Arabic, is a two-letter prefix at the beginning of the noun.

Similarly, the conjunction و wa (and) appears in Arabic attached to a word. This

word could be a definite or indefinite noun, a verb, a particle, or a number.

Another problematic component discussed by Khoja is the common orthographic

mistakes that may occur in Arabic text. She gives an example of the placement of


52

the ھمزة hamzah (glottal stop) on the alif (first letter in the Arabic alphabet).

Sometimes the letter alif requires a hamzah and at other times it does not. Another

example of the same type given by Khoja is the placement of the two dots under

the letter ي ya (the last letter in the Arabic alphabet), which is regular when that

letter appears at the end of words. Another example that could be added to

Khoja’s is the common mistake of using the letter ھـ ha (letter 26 in the Arabic

alphabet) instead of ة ta marbuwTah at the end of a word and vice versa.

For the reasons above, a conclusion that can be reached is that Arabic text is

difficult to search and analyse in the form of a corpus. When searching for a word

in an Arabic text corpus, in our results we would find many words that are not

related to the word sought for. It would be a waste of time reading sentences in

which the wrong word was found. The development of more accurate software

that avoids the difficulties stated above would be essential.

3.5 Some Sources for Arabic Collocations

Arabic today uses collocations that have come from different sources. One of the

sources of collocations in Modern Standard Arabic is the Quran. Another way in

which collocations have become established in Arabic is through borrowed

collocations. The following subsection discusses collocations in the Quran as one

source of collocations in the Arabic language used today. This will be followed by

another subsection that discusses how borrowed collocations have become

established in the Arabic language.


53

3.5.1 Collocations in the Quran

Many expressions and phrases that are still used in Modern Standard Arabic today

come from the Quran. Collocations are one of those types of expressions. The

Quran has always been known for its richness of expression, including

collocations. This has continued to influence the use of language until nowadays.

The following examples of collocations are from the Quran and are still used in

Modern Standard Arabic today:

1- Verb + object collocations

a- عھدا عاھد 3aahada 3ahdan (to make a pact)

b- عھدا نقض naqaDa 3ahdan (to break a promise)

c- مثلا ضرب Daraba matalan (to give an example)

d- kaZama gayZan (to suppress rage) كظم غیظا

e- qaSSa qiSSatan (to tell a story) قص قصة

f- axada Hadaran (to exercise caution)? أخذ حذرا

2- Noun + adjective collocation

a- عرم سیل saylun 3arim (a raging flood)

b- كبیر خطأ xaTa?un kabiyr (a serious mistake)

c- حمیم صدیق Sadiyqun Hamiym (a close friend)

d- عزیز نصر naSrun 3aziyz (a great victory)

e- مبین عدو 3aduwwun mubiyn (a bitter enemy)

f- عظیم حظ HaZZun 3aZiym (good luck)


54

3.5.2 Borrowed Collocations

Borrowed words have always enriched languages and borrowed collocations have

enriched languages even more, especially with concepts that do not exist

originally in those languages or are new to them. An example that illustrates this

point is: al-Harb al-baaridah (the Cold War) (Emery, 1991). Arabic الحرب الباردة

had no equivalent collocation before the outbreak of the Cold War after World

War II. Therefore, borrowed collocations are a major source of Arabic

collocations that cannot be ignored.

Translation has played an important role in bringing new collocations into

Modern Standard Arabic. Some collocations transferred into the Arabic language

now form a standard part of the native speakers’ language repertoire. Aziz (cited

in Emery, 1988a:54) gives the following two examples: لعب دورا la3iba dawran

(to play a role) and غطى الأخبار gaTTaa al-?axbaar (to cover the news). He

suggests that these examples are now commonly found in journalistic style and

have become established in Arabic.

In the same way, Blau (1981b:60) states that widespread loan translations from

European languages have not only become part of the Modern Standard Arabic

vocabulary, but also phraseology. He suggests that European influence is strong in

journalistic style, especially when journalists translate from European languages

into Arabic. This journalistic style in return has influenced users of the language,

including authors (Blau, 1981b:61).

Blau (1981b) then gives a great number of examples of words and phrases that

represent this influence on Modern Standard Arabic. Among these unclassified


55

examples can be found collocations in different genres, such as: تیار الوعي tayyaaru

al-wa3iyi / الشعور تیار tayyaaru al-su3uwri (spiritual current), سیاسیة حركة Harakatun

siyaasiyyah (political movement), ھادئ جو jawwun haadi? (quiet atmosphere), مناخ

عاطفي munaaxun 3aaTifiy (emotional climate), أنقذ موقفا ?anqada mawqifan (to save

a situation), سادت الفوضى saadat al-fawDaa (anarchy prevailed), ساد الصمت saada

al-SamT (silence obtained), قتل الوقت qatala al-waqt (to kill time), حرب أعصاب

Harbu ?a3Saab (war of nerves), یوم ساخن yawmun saaxin (a hurtful day), تحیة حارة

taHiyyatun Haarrah (warm greetings), سلاح أبیض silaaHun ?abyaD (naked steel),

quwwatun Daaribah (striking قوة ضاربة ,damun baarid (cold-blooded) دم بارد

force), روضة أطفال rawDatu ?aTfaal (kindergarten), حدیقة حیوانات Hadiyqatu

Hayawaanaat (a zoo), حلقة وصل Halaqatu waSl / حلقة اتصال Halaqatu ittiSaal

(connecting link), ھجمة معاكسة hajmatun mu3aakisah (a counter-attack), خطوط النار

xuTuwT al-naar (fire lines), خطوط السیاسة xuTuwT al-siyaasah (lines of policy),

Haqlun حقل كھربائي ,siyaasatu al-taqriyb (policy of rapprochement) سیاسة التقریب

kahrubaa?iy (electric field), أیقض الضمیر ?ayqaDa al-Damiyr (to arouse

conscience), وخز الضمیر waxzu al-Damiyr (pricking of conscience), أبدى اھتمام

?abdaa ihtimaam (to show interest), الموضوعات الجاذبة al-mawDuw3aatu al-

jaadibah (attractive themes), العصر الذھبي al-3aSru al-dahabiy (golden age), العصر

الحجري al-3aSru al-Hajariy (stone age), امالمستوى الع al-mustawaa al-3aam

(general level), رفع المستوى rafa3a al-mustawaa (to raise the level), دان لھ بشكر

daana lahu bi-sukrin (he owed him thanks), النقاط الھامة al-niqaaTu al-haammah

(important points), نقطة تحویل nuqTatu taHwiyl (a turning point), ساعة الصفر

saa3atu al-Sifr (zero hour), وجھة نظر wujhatu naZar (point of view), عالم المال

3aalamu al-maal (the financial world), غرفة تجاریة gurfatun tujaariyyah (chamber

of commerce), مكتب سفر maktabu safar (a travel agency), وجھ أسئلة wajjaha


56

?as?ilah (to address questions), زیارة رسمیة ziyaaratun rasmiyyah (an official

visit), الظلم الاجتماعي al-Zulmu al-ijtimaa3iy (social injustice), طبقات المجتمع

Tabaqaatu al-mujtama3 (social levels), متوسطة طبقات Tabaqaat mutawasiTah

(middle class layers), طبقات ربح Harbu Tabaqaat(social class war), طبقات صراع

Siraa3u Tabaqaat (social class conflict), تمھیدیة مباحثات mubaaHataat

tamhiydiyyah (preliminary talks), مشتركة سوق suwqun mustarakah (a common

market), سوداء سوق suwqun sawdaa? (a black market), جرة استقبالح Hujratu

istiqbaal (a reception room), دكتوراة فخریة duktuwratun faxriyyah (honorary

doctorate), ابتسامة ھادئة ibtisaamatun haadi?ah (a calm smile), ضحّى بنفسھ DaHHaa

bi-nafsih (to sacrifice one’s self), كرّس وقتا karrasa waqtan (to devote time), التفرقة

taqliydun تقلید أعمى ,al-tafriqatu al-3unSuriyyah (racial discrimination) العنصریة

?a3maa (blind imitation), الأیدي العاملة al-?aydiy al-3aamilah (manpower), وحدة

rajulun naaDij رجل ناضج ,wiHdatun iqtiSaadiyyah (economic unity) اقتصادیة (a

mature man), مراقب حسابات muraaqibu Hisaabaat (a controller of accounts), تعزیز

rasama siyaasatan (to رسم سیاسة ,ta3ziyzu al-naqd (strengthening of currency) النقد

draw up a policy), كلل بالنجاح kullila bi-l-najaaH (crowned with success), تحسین

ضعالو taHsiynu al-waD3 (to improve the situation), وابل من الشتائم waabilun min

al-sataa?im (a torrent of abuses), نظرة متحجرة naZratun mutaHajjirah (a petrified

look), صندوق رسائل Sanduwqu rasaa?il (a letter box), خطاب تھدید xiTaabu tahdiyd

(a letter of intimidation), فتح آفاق جدیدة fataHu aafaaqin jadiydah (opening fresh

horizons), واسع الآفاق waasi3u al-aafaaq (broadminded), سفینة فضاء safiynatu

faDaa? (a spaceship), روایة بولیسیة riwaayatun buliysiyyah (a detective story), الحیاة

qaasa al-Haraarah قاس الحرارة ,al-Hayaatu al-fikriyyah (intellectual life) الفكریة

(to measure the temperature), الجنس اللطیف al-jinsu al-laTiyf (the fair sex), شاعر لامع

saa3irun laami3 (a brilliant poet), شكر قلبي sukrun qalbiyun (hearty thanks), الحیاد


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axada tadaabiyr (to? أخذ تدابیر ,al-Hiyaadu al-?ijaabiy (positive neutrality) الإیجابي

take measures), اتخذ قرارا ittaxada qaraaran (to make a resolution), أخذ جدیا

?axada jiddiyyan (to take seriously), تبنى مشروعا tabanna masru3an (to adopt a

plan), حیاةتأمین على ال ta?miyn 3ala al-Hayaat (life insurance), تصریح رسمي

taSriyhun rasmiy (an official declaration), مصدر رسمي maSdarun rasmiy (an

official source), وزارة المالیة wizaaratu al-maaliyyah (Ministry of Finance), وزارة

izdaharati al-tijaarah (trade ازدھرت التجارة ,wizaaratu Zil (shadow ministry) ظل

flourished), جرح شعور jaraHa su3uwr (to hurt someone’s feelings), كرة القدم kuratu

al-qadam (football), جمعیة عمومیة jam3iyyatun 3umuwmiyyah (general assembly),

جمعیة تشریعیة jam3iyyatun tasriy3iyyah (legislative assembly), مؤتمر المائدة المستدیرة

muw?tamaru al-maa?idati al-mustadiyrah (round-table conference), عاصفة من

tawaturun توتر سیاسي ,3aaSifah min al-taSfiyq (an outburst of applause) التصفیق

siyaasiy (political tension), آلة كاتبة aalatun kaatibah (a typewriter), صمام الأمان

Sammaamu al-?amaan (safety valve), and قدم استقالتھ qaddama istiqaalatahu (he

presented his resignation).

3.6 Conclusion

This study reveals that there has not been much research into the area of Arabic

collocations. It also shows how various researchers have categorized collocations

in the Arabic language. This study suggests that freely combined collocations in

Arabic do not deserve much attention because they do not pose much difficulty

for translation. However, semantically restricted collocations are the word

combinations that are most problematic in translation and, therefore, deserve

special attention. Idiomatic expressions should be studied separately, and are

beyond the scope of this research.


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The section on Arabic collocations in lexicography emphasizes that Arabic is rich

in collocations. It displays that Classical Arabic lexicographers were aware of the

phenomenon of collocations and included collocations in their dictionaries of

meaning.

The inspiration for the efforts made by Arabic linguists came from the need to

produce reference material that language learners and translators would find of

practical use. However, English-Arabic translators are still in need of a reliable

bilingual dictionary of collocations; a dictionary that would enable them to

produce Arabic collocations that would sound natural and native-like when read

by a native speaker.

The section on Arabic collocations in computational linguistics notes the

difficulty of processing Arabic on computers, which in turn led to a dearth of

searchable corpora. The development of more accurate software would be

essential to avoid the difficulties of searching for a word, resulting in

inappropriate lists of words.

The last section in this chapter discusses some of the sources of collocations in

Modern Standard Arabic. It states that the Arabic language used today includes

collocations that are derived from different sources, including the Quran and

borrowed collocations.

The next chapter, Chapter Four, will discuss the translation of collocations.

Chapter Four: Collocations and Translation

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4 COLLOCATIONS AND TRANSLATION

4.1 Introduction

Different languages distribute meaning across different semantic fields, have

different usages of words, and have different types of relationships between

words. Collocation is one type of relationship between words that tells us the

words that are likely to co-occur with certain other words in a language. The

interest in the translation of collocations emerges from their great importance in

language. Collocations play a vital role in the coherence and cohesion of texts

(Hatim & Mason, 1997; Al-Zahrani, 1998). They are present in all text types. On

the other hand, the translation of collocations is a constant problem — translators

find it difficult to match the appropriate verbs with the appropriate nouns, the

appropriate adjectives with the appropriate nouns, the appropriate nouns with the

appropriate nouns, and so on and so forth. What creates this problem is that

different languages configure collocations differently. Moreover, the equivalents

of words that collocate in one language do not necessarily collocate in another

(Zughoul, 1991). Therefore, some collocations may sound strange and be

misapplied when translated (Zughoul & Abdul-Fattah, 2003).


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4.2 Collocations: a translation problem

A translation problem is defined as “an objective problem, which every

translator… has to solve during a particular translation task” (Nord, 1991:151).

Several linguists have considered collocation to be a problematic area in

translation. They suggest that it is difficult to translate collocations from one

language into another and have emphasized the importance of collocations in

translation. Some of the most significant works on collocations as a problematic

area in translation are those by Newmark (1988), Emery (1988a; 1988b), Baker

(1992), Smadja (1993), Dollerup (1994), Beekman and Callow (1974), Hatim and

Mason (1990), Smadja et al (1996), Heliel (1990), and Chukwu (1997).

According to Newmark (1988:213), recognizing a collocation is one of the most

important problems in the process of translating. He states that:

Translation is sometimes a continual struggle to find appropriate

collocations, a process of connecting up appropriate nouns with

verbs and verbs with nouns, and, in the second instance, collocating

appropriate adjectives to the nouns, and adverbs or adverbial groups

to the verbs; in the third instance, collocating appropriate

connectives or conjunctions (the prepositions are already in the

adverbial groups) (Newmark, 1988:213).

He further emphasizes the importance of collocations by describing them as the

“nerves” of a text: “If grammar is the bones of a text, collocations are the


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nerves, more subtle and multiple and specific in denoting meaning, and lexis is

the flesh” (Newmark, 1988:213).

Beekman and Callow (1974) consider translating collocations to be a fascinating

aspect in the work of translators and a measure of their overall competence in

translation. Translating collocations takes a high degree of expertise because there

is often little or no equivalence between collocational ranges across languages,

just as there is a discrepancy in the collocational range of the equivalent words

within languages (1974:163).

Hatim and Mason (1990) also argue that one of the major problems that a

translator encounters is coming up with appropriate collocations in the target

language. They note that “there is always a danger that, even for experienced

translators, source language interference will occasionally escape unnoticed and

an unnatural collocation will flaw the target text” (Hatim & Mason, 1990:204).

There is evidence that even native speakers have difficulty with collocations in

formal written contexts (Benson, 1985; Baltova, 1994; Aghbar, 1990; Hussein,

1990; Chukwu, 1997), because they are not predictable on the basis of syntactic or

semantic rules.

Some linguists feel that it is advisable to see that ‘collocation rules are faithfully

applied’ in translation (Snell-Hornby, 1995:122). What they mean is that a

collocation should not be automatically transferred from the source language into

the target language. Barnwell (1980) suggests that transferring the source

language collocation into the target collocation will result in a collocation


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that is ‘unnatural and obscure’ (1980:56). However, unfortunate collocations may

be necessary when there is no other way to transfer the original collocation into

the target language, especially with concepts that do not exist or are new to the

target language. An example given by Izwaini (2000:28) that illustrates this point

is: the Cold War translated into Arabic by the calque -al-Harb al الحرب الباردة

baaridah (the Cold War). Before the outbreak of the Cold War after World War

II, neither English nor Arabic had a term for it.

Baker (1992:49) argues that the patterns of collocation are largely arbitrary and

independent across languages. She gives the following examples of translating

English collocations into Arabic. In English, the verb deliver collocates with a

number of nouns, each of which is translated into a different verb in Arabic. The

examples are illustrated in Table 4.1 below:


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English collocation Arabic equivalent

To deliver a letter/ telegram تیلیغرافاً/ یسلم خطابا yusallimu xiTaaban/tiiliigrafan

(literally: to deliver a letter/ telegram)

To deliver a speech/ lecture محاضرة/ یلقي خطبة yulqii xuTbatan/smuHaaDaratan

(literally: to throw a speech/ lecture)

To deliver news ینقل أخبارا yanqilu axbaaran

(literally: to transfer news)

To deliver a blow yuwajjihu Darbatan یوجھ ضربة

(literally: to guide a blow)

To deliver a verdict yuSdiru Hukman یصدر حكما

(literally: to issue a verdict)

To deliver a baby یولّد امرأة yuwallidu imra?atan

(literally: to deliver a woman)

Table 4. 1 Examples of translating English collocations into Arabic (Baker, 1992)

The Arabic collocation yuwallidu imra?atan (literally: to deliver a یولّد امرأة

woman), literally means to deliver a woman or to assist a woman in childbirth.

Baker (1992) notes that Arabic focuses on the woman in the process of childbirth,

whereas English prefers to focus on the baby. She then explains that it would be

unacceptable in Modern English to speak of delivering a woman. This suggests,

according to Baker, that differences in collocational patterning among languages

are not just a matter of using a different verb that collocates with a given noun.


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The differences are rather involved in the different ways of describing an event.

Heliel (1990:34) also considers collocations to be problematic in translation. He

gives the following examples of adjective + noun collocations in English

containing the adjective heavy. He then suggests that heavy is translated

differently into Arabic depending on the noun with which it collocates. See Table

4.2 below.

English collocation Arabic equivalent

Heavy rainfall matarun gaziir (literally: abundant rain) مطر غزیر

Heavy fog Dabaabun katiif (literally: dense fog) ضباب كثیف

Heavy sleep subaatun 3amiiq (literally: deep sleep) سبات عمیق

Heavy seas بحار ھائجة biHaarun haa?ijah

(literally: agitated seas)

Heavy meal wajbatun dasimah (literally: fat meal) وجبة دسمة

Heavy smoker مدخن مفرط mudaxinun mufriT

(literally: extravagant smoker)

Heavy industry صناعة ثقیلة Sinaa3ah taqiilah

(literally: heavy industry)

Table 4. 2 Examples of translating English collocations into Arabic (Heliel, 1990)

Heliel (1990:35) then gives an example of the adjective jaaf (dry) in Arabic جاف

and the way it is translated into English using different adjectives depending on

the noun with which it collocates. See Table 4.3 below.


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Arabic collocation English equivalent

استقبال جاف istiqbalun jaaf

(literally: dry reception)

cool reception

مناخ جاف manaaxun jaaf

(literally: dry weather)

dry weather

قلم حبر جاف qalam Hibr jaaf

(literally: dry ink pen)

ball-point pen

نبرة جافة nabrah jaafah

(literally: dry tone)

harsh tone

جلد جاف jildun jaaf (literally: dry skin) rough skin

Table 4. 3 Examples of translating Arabic collocations into English (Heliel, 1990)

Giving the examples above, Heliel argues that collocations are problematic in

translation. He states that, unlike free combinations such as

yabnii (fanaadiq/manaazil/jusuur/Turuq )طرق/جسور/منازل/فنادق(یبني ( ) build

hotels/houses/bridges/roads), collocations are considered a problem for translators

when they translate from English into Arabic and vice versa. Free combinations

could be looked up easily in general-purpose dictionaries, but collocations cannot.

The detailed examples given above show that words that collocate with several

other words are quite problematic for translators. The biggest problem for

translators would be to know the proper equivalent in the target language, which


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may not always be available in general-purpose bilingual dictionaries.

4.3 Translating English collocations into Arabic

There are several types and classifications of collocations in English. However,

the present study follows Newmark’s (1988:212) classification of collocations: 1-

Adjective plus noun, 2- Noun plus noun, and 3- Verb plus object. These are the

most common types of collocations in English (Newmark. 1988; Ghazala 1993b).

This study investigates the translation, from English into Arabic, of two of the

types of collocations suggested by Newmark, verb plus object and adjective plus

noun.

As for noun plus noun collocations, Ghazala (1995) argues that this type of

collocation in English usually has equivalents in Arabic, but with different

grammatical structures. He notes that noun plus noun collocations in English can

be translated into either one of the following grammatical structures in Arabic:

1- noun plus adjective, e.g., state university is translated into Arabic by جامعة

.jaami3ah Hukuumiyyah حكومیة

2- noun plus noun (genitive constructions), e.g., gas cylinder is translated into

Arabic by أسطوانة غاز ?usTuwaanat gaaz.

This type of collocation is less problematic than the other two types suggested by

Newmark. That is because nouns in collocations are usually less problematic in

translation (Ghazala, 1995). It is other words such as verbs and adjectives that


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can cause problems in translating collocations (Ghazala, 1995).

4.3.1 Translating English verb plus object collocations into Arabic

Ghazala (1993b) suggests that English verb plus object collocations are usually

translated into Arabic by equivalent collocations. These collocations have an

equivalent grammatical structure in Arabic, i.e., verb plus object. Some

collocations are usually easily translated into Arabic and others less so. The ones

that are usually easy to translate are the ones that have identical equivalents in the

target language of Arabic. For instance, the following examples in Table 4.4:

English verb + object collocation Arabic equivalent (verb + object)

To attend a lecture حضر محاضرة HaDara muHaDaratan

(literally: to attend a lecture)

To exert an effort badala juhdan بذل جھدا

(literally: to exert an effort)

To win confidence كسب ثقة kasaba tigatan

(literally: to win confidence)

Table 4. 4 Examples of English collocations that have identical equivalents in Arabic

(Ghazala, 1993b)

The examples presented in Table 4.4 illustrate how easy it could be to translate

English verb plus object collocations into Arabic on a one-to-one basis. In the first

example, the verb attend is translated into Arabic by the equivalent verb حضر

HaDara, which literally means attend. The verb exert, in the second example,


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is translated into the equivalent verb بذل badala in Arabic, which literally means

exert. In the third example, the verb win is translated into Arabic by the equivalent

verb ,kasaba كسب which literally means win.

However, it is not always that easy to translate English verb plus object

collocations into Arabic. English verb plus object collocations may be translated

into Arabic by an equivalent collocation, the verb of which is not a literal

translation of the verb into English. The examples in Table 4.5 below illustrate

this point:

English verb + object collocation Arabic equivalent (verb + object)

To pass a law سن قانونا sanna qaanuunan

(literally: to sharpen a law)

To run a company adaara sarikatan? أدار شركة

(literally: to rotate a company)

To teach a lesson لقن درسا laqqana darsan

(literally: to dictate a lesson)

Table 4. 5 Examples of English collocations that do not have identical equivalents in Arabic

(Ghazala, 1993b)

In the examples above, the three English verb plus object collocations are

translated into Arabic by an equivalent grammatical structure. However, the verbs

in all three examples in English were not translated literally into Arabic. In the

first example, the verb pass is transferred or literally translated into Arabic by the

verb مرر marrara (to pass), nevertheless, this verb in Arabic does


69

not collocate with the noun sanna سنّ qaanuwn (a law). Therefore, the verb قانون

(literally: to sharpen) is used in a collocation equivalent to the English collocation

to pass a law. Similarly, the verb run in the second example is literally translated

into Arabic by the verb جرى jaraa (to run), but it does not collocate with the

noun شركة sarikah (a company) in Arabic. Thus, it is translated into Arabic by

the verb أدار ?adaara (literally: to rotate). The same applies to the third example.

The verb teach, in the collocation to teach a lesson, is literally translated into

Arabic by the verb 3علّمallama, however, it does not collocate with the noun درس

dars (a lesson) in this sense. Therefore, the verb لقّن laqqana (literally: to dictate)

is used in translating the English collocation to teach a lesson into Arabic.

It is not always the case that English verb plus object collocations are translated

into Arabic by an equivalent grammatical structure. In some cases, English verb

plus object collocations can be translated into two other grammatical structures.

An English verb plus object can be translated into Arabic by verb plus preposition

plus noun or just by a verb. These cases, according to Ghazala, (1993b; 1995), are

only exceptions. He gives the following example of the collocation to pay a visit

in English:


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English verb + object collocation Arabic equivalent

To pay a visit قام بزیارة qaama bi-ziyaarat (verb + preposition

+ noun) (literally: to make a visit)

To pay a visit zaara (verb) (literally: to visit) زار

Table 4. 6 Examples of English verb + object collocations translated into Arabic (Ghazala,

1993b; 1995)

The collocation to pay a visit in English can either be translated into Arabic by the

collocation قام بزیارة qaama bi-ziyaarat (verb + preposition + noun) or just by

using the verb زار zaara (to visit) in place of the collocation. This is very similar

to English, where the meaning sometimes can either be expressed by a collocation

or just by a verb. Although Ghazala considers such examples to be exceptions,

one can think of many other examples of verb plus object collocations in English

that can be translated into Arabic by the use of a single verb. For example:

English verb + object collocation Arabic equivalent (verb)

To commit suicide انتحر intaHara (literally: to slaughter

oneself)

To wear a perfume تعطر ta3aTTara (literally: to perfume

oneself)

To tell a lie kadaba (literally: to lie) كذب

To take an initiative بادر baadara (literally: to take an

intiative)

Table 4. 7 Examples of English verb + object collocations translated into a verb in Arabic


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The above examples show very clearly that it is not necessarily a rule that a

collocation in the source language must be translated into a collocation in the

target language. In all four examples, the collocations in English can be expressed

in Arabic with a single verb and not only with a collocation.

English verb plus object collocations can be easy to translate into Arabic in some

cases and difficult to translate in others. They can be problematic in translation if

the translator does not know the appropriate verb that collocates with the noun in

Arabic.

4.3.2 Translating English adjective plus noun collocations into Arabic

According to Ghazala (1993b), English adjective plus noun collocations are

translated into Arabic by a noun plus adjective collocation. In Arabic, an adjective

that follows a noun is called, according to Al-Rajihi (1988:381), نعت حقیقي na3t

Haqiiqii (a real adjective). This type of English collocation can be translated by

identical Arabic collocations (Ghazala, 1995:109). The following examples

illustrate this structure:


72

English adjective + noun collocation Identical Arabic equivalent (noun +

adjective)

A smashing victory انتصار ساحق intiSaarun saaHiq

(literally: a smashing victory)

Straying sheep غنم قاصیة ganamun qaaSiyah

(literally: straying sheep)

Black market سوق سوداء suuqun sawdaa?

(literally: black market)

Table 4. 8 Examples of English collocations and their identical equivalents in Arabic

(Ghazala, 1995)

In the above examples, every adjective is translated into Arabic by an equivalent

adjective that has the same meaning. Thus, the adjective smashing in English is

translated into ساحق saahiq (smashing) in Arabic, the adjective straying is

translated into qaaSiyah (straying), and the adjective black is translated into قاصیة

sawdaa? (black). These examples suggest that some English adjective plus سوداء

noun collocations are not problematic in translation because they have identical

equivalents in Arabic.

However, there are other English adjective plus noun collocations that cannot be

translated by identical collocations in Arabic (Ghazala, 1995:109). In many cases,

the adjective in English adjective plus noun collocations is not translated literally

into Arabic. The following examples illustrate this point:


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English adjective + noun collocation Non-identical Arabic equivalent

(noun + adjective)

A good day یوم سعید yawmun sa3iyd (literally: a

happy day)

A warm reception استقبال حار istiqbaalun Haar (literally: a

hot reception)

Great pleasure سعادة غامرة sa3aadah gaamirah

(literally: covering pleasure)

Table 4. 9 Examples of English collocations and their non-identical equivalents in Arabic

(Ghazala, 1995)

The adjectives, in the above three examples of English adjective plus noun

collocations, are not translated literally into Arabic. The adjective good is

translated into Arabic by the adjective sa3iyd (happy) which literally means سعید

happy in English; the adjective warm is translated into حار Haar (hot) which

literally means hot in English; and the adjective great is translated into غامرة

gaamirah (covering) which literally means covering.

Another way to translate English adjective plus noun collocations into Arabic, not

mentioned by Ghazala, is by use of an equivalent collocation with a quite similar

grammatical structure. That is, an adjective plus noun structure in Arabic. In

Arabic, adjectives usually follow nouns they modify, however, they could also

precede nouns they modify. According to Al-Rajihi (1988:382), the adjective that

comes before the noun it modifies is called نعت سببي na3t sababiy (a


74

causative adjective). For example, the collocation rich imagination (adjective +

noun) in English could be translated into Arabic by either the collocation خیال واسع

xayaalun waasi3 (wide imagination) (noun + adjective) or by the collocation واسع

.waasi3 al-xayaal (wide imagination) (adjective + noun) الخیال

English adjective plus noun collocations that have identical equivalents in Arabic

are not problematic in translation. However, translating English adjective plus

noun collocations that do not have identical collocations in Arabic is problematic.

4.4 Empirical research into the translation of collocations

Collocation plays an important role in translation. Yet, there has been little

empirical research into the way collocations are dealt with in translation. Not

many studies have investigated the knowledge of collocations or the competence

of English-Arabic translation students or professional translators. For the purposes

of this study, the key piece of research examining the competence of student

translators/interpreters of collocations is that conducted by Shakir and Farghal

(1992), Collocations as an Index of L2 Competence in Arabic-English

Simultaneous Interpreting and Translation.

Shakir and Farghal (1992) suggest that collocations constitute an important

component in the lexicon of natural language. They note that translators and/or

interpreters should possess a high syntagmatic competence alongside their

paradigmatic competence. They conducted an empirical study to investigate the

competence of postgraduate student translators/interpreters in a Jordanian


75

university. The participants in their study were thirteen postgraduate students

enrolled in a Masters program in translation at the University of Yarmouk, Irbid,

Jordan. The purpose of the study was to answer the following three research

questions:

1-Does the time factor, inherent in the process of interpreting,

influence the quality and completeness of the target collocations

provided in the interpreting session?

2-What strategies do student interpreters adopt in their attempt to

overcome the influence of the time factor and fill in semantic gaps

when they come across an opaque collocation?

3-Do student interpreters and translators adopt the same strategies in

their attempts to compensate for a lack of equivalent target

collocations? (Shakir & Farghal 1992:232-3).

The study was based on the interpreting and translation of an Arabic newspaper

editorial. The participants first were asked to interpret simultaneously the

newspaper article from Arabic into English. After four months, the same

participants were provided with the same text, but this time, to translate it into

English instead of simultaneously interpreting it. Shakir and Farghal argue that

because of the long period intervening between the interpreting session and the

translation session, most of the respondents did not realize that they had

interpreted the same text previously. The respondents were not allowed to


76

use dictionaries in the translation session. The authors’ rationale for this research

procedure was to compel the respondents to rely on their memories in the process

of searching for equivalent collocations in the target language. The respondents’

native language was Arabic and the target language was English.

Shakir and Farghal selected twenty-four collocations in the editorial and noted the

renderings of the respondents in the interpreting and translation sessions. The

renderings of the collocations were noted, analyzed, and categorized. Their

analysis focused on the problems the respondents encountered in rendering Arabic

collocations into English when interpreting and translating the same text, as well

as the strategies used in the processes of interpreting and translating.

The results of the study showed that the performance of the respondents differed

significantly as they switched from interpreting to translation. The respondents

rendered only 33.2% of the collocations appropriately in interpreting, whereas

they rendered more than fifty percent (51.8%) of them appropriately in

translation. The difference in the percentage between the interpreting and

translation tests, according to the authors, was due to the following two reasons:

1-The time factor: the time lapse allowed in simultaneous interpreting

is usually short and the student interpreter has to perform more than

one operation during interpreting. S/he has to comprehend the

semantic unit at hand and simultaneously search for equivalents in the

target language. Unless equivalents are readily accessible and

retrievable from the memory bank, the interpreter will


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inevitably provide lexical items that may not do the intended job

appropriately, but that first come to his/her mind.

2-The insufficient interpreting experience of the students: The study

noted that the experiment was conducted during the first half of the

students’ interpreting course (Shakir & Farghal, 1992:233).

Shakir and Farghal argue that the respondents resorted to the same cognitive

strategies in their attempts to compensate because of a shortage of readily

accessible and, therefore, retrievable L2 collocational patterns. The strategies that

were used by the respondents in both the simultaneous interpreting and translation

tests were reduction, synonymy, compensation, paraphrasing, and

transferring/calquing. Each of these strategies is explored below.

Reduction

This strategy applies to cases where the respondents provide either an incomplete

or non-equivalent rendering of the target collocation. Reduction was used at a

higher frequency (23.8%) in the simultaneous interpreting test than in the

translation test (17.2%). Reduction included three sub-strategies: generalization,

deletion, and message abandonment. Table 4.10 and Table 4.11 below give the

details for the frequency with which each of these sub-strategies were used in the

simultaneous interpreting test and translation test.


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Strategy Frequency Percentage

Generalization 8.7%

Deletion 11.6%

Message Abandonment 3.5%

Table 4. 10 Responses provided via reduction strategies in simultaneous interpreting (Shakir

and Farghal’s study, 1992)

Strategy Frequency Percentage

Generalization 9.2%

Deletion 4.3%

Message Abandonment 3.7%

Table 4. 11 Responses provided via reduction strategies in translation (Shakir and Farghal’s

study, 1992)

The following examples illustrate this strategy: American forces (collocation

offered by the subject) used instead of military build-up (target collocation),

destructive war (collocation offered by the subject) instead of terrible

consequences (target collocation), and another embargo (collocation offered by

the subject) instead of economic embargo (target collocation). According to

Shakir and Farghal, the strategy of generalization was a persistent strategy in the

interpreting process and was based on semantic and schematic considerations

where the situational context and/or assumptions of shared knowledge tended to

play a decisive role in the process of searching for target equivalents. This


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strategy scored a frequency of 8.7% in interpreting and 9.2% in translation.

The strategy of deletion, on the other hand, refers to cases where one or more

elements of the target collocation were deleted. This was due to the failure of the

respondents to provide a complete collocation in the target language. Deletion

scored a frequency of 11.6% in interpreting and 4.3% in translation. The

following were examples of this strategy: objective instead of apparent objective

(target collocation), initiative instead of historic initiative (target collocation), and

policy instead of domestic and foreign policy (target collocation).

Message abandonment was resorted to in only a few cases. The respondents used

this strategy when they either failed to grasp the semantic unit in question or when

they failed to provide any of its constituent elements. This strategy was not

persistent in either the interpreting or the translation tests. It scored a frequency of

3.5% in interpreting and 3.7% in translation.

Synonymy

One major strategy respondents resorted to in the interpreting and translation tests

was the use of synonymy. This is the use of lexical items that are synonymous

with others in the target language. It scored a frequency of 18% in the interpreting

test and 18.2% in the translating test. Shakir and Farghal note that the deviant

collocates were the modifying elements in almost all cases in interpreting and

translation. Nouns, on the other hand, were rendered appropriately into the target

language. Examples of this strategy were as follows: popular/common


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support (received collocations) instead of public support (target collocation),

explicit/surface objective (received collocations) instead of apparent objective

(target collocation), and overwhelming/overall/general peace (received

collocations) instead of comprehensive peace (target collocation).

Compensation

The responses provided using the strategy of compensation represented all or

almost all of the items inappropriately combined to produce the target

collocations. Compensation scored a frequency of 12.2% in both the interpreting

and the translation tests. These examples illustrate the way the meaning was

distorted as a result of the respondents’ choice of lexical items whose occurrence

did not meet the anticipation of the L2 recipients of the discourse: military

gathering (received collocation) instead of military build-up (target collocation),

expected disaster (received collocation) instead of terrible consequences (target

collocation), social entertainment (received collocation) instead of social welfare

(target collocation), economic supply (received collocation) instead of economic

embargo (target collocation), and to destroy trends (received collocation) instead

of to thwart plans (target collocation).

Paraphrasing

The respondents seemed to have tried to avoid the strategy of paraphrasing in both

the interpreting and translation tests. Only 4.3% of the collocations were rendered

using this strategy in the translation test and 10.32% in the interpreting test. The


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following were examples of paraphrasing in Shakir and Farghal’s study:

settling all disputes in the Middle East/solving all problems and issues in the area

(paraphrasing) instead of comprehensive peace (target collocation).

to ban trading with Iraq/to use force to stop economic relations with Iraq

(paraphrasing) instead of to impose economic embargo (target collocation).

to hinder by force the implementation of such plans/to stop Iraq from carrying out

its plans (paraphrasing) instead of to thwart/abort such plans (target collocations).

Transferring/calquing

The reliance of the respondents on the strategy of calquing was minimal. The

scored frequency of calquing was justifiably negligible. This strategy scored a

frequency of 2.2% in simultaneous interpreting and 0.03% in translation. The

following were examples of transferred or calqued collocations: superficial goal

(received collocation) instead of apparent goal (target collocation), and to corrupt

plans (received collocation) instead of to thwart/abort plans (target collocations).

Shakir and Farghal’s conclusion has one major implication, which is that student

interpreters/translators need to enrich their knowledge of collocations in the target

language (in their case, English) for a translation to sound smooth and natural. In

order to achieve this, the authors suggest, the relevant translation study program

and other comparable ones should:


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1- Allot sufficient time for laboratory practice where authentic

recorded texts (lectures, seminars, speeches, etc.) are accessible to

student interpreters;

2- Encourage student interpreters to build up their text-type

dictionaries in which they record the collocations relevant to the

type of text with which they are dealing. Opaque collocations can

be disambiguated through consultation with the interpreting and

translation trainer, or by consulting specialized dictionaries;

3- Incorporate simulation sessions where one trainee is selected to act

in the role of an interpreter, for instance, at a press conference.

The trainer can take the role of the interviewee, while the second

trainee acts the role of the press reporter. The rest of the trainees

will be the audience and their job includes noting the weaknesses

of the interpreting provided. Immediate feedback from the trainer

and the trainees could be very helpful (Shakir & Farghal,

1992:242).

Shakir and Farghal’s (1992) study examined the collocational competence of

postgraduate students of interpreting and translation only and did not test

professional translators or interpreters. Their study involved an interpreting and

translation test from Arabic into English in one particular text type, which is

journalistic.


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4.5 Conclusion

As was shown in this and in previous chapters, this study arises from the fact that

there has not been much previous research that has investigated the translation of

English collocations into Arabic. By using an empirical study, it is hoped that new

insights into the strategies of translating English collocations into Arabic will be

achieved.

The next chapter, Chapter Five, presents an overview of the professional

translation environment in Australia.

Chapter five: An Overview of the Professional Translation Environment in Australia

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5 AN OVERVIEW OF THE PROFESSIONAL

TRANSLATION ENVIRONMENT IN AUSTRALIA

5.1 Introduction

This chapter will provide an overview of the professional translation environment in

Australia. It will start with a brief historical background of immigration to Australia.

This is followed by an overview of Australia’s multicultural policy and the need for

English-Arabic translation. The chapter will also look into translator accreditation

and translator training in Australia, as this study arises from an Australian setting and

one of the groups involved in this study is a group of professional translators

recruited in Australia (see Chapter six: Research Methodology).

5.2 Historical background of immigration to Australia

The Australian Federal Government’s assistance of mass immigration from 1964

onward helped to shape a new Australia (Softic, 1998:9), making Australia a country

characterized by high levels of immigration (Campbell, 1998; Ozolins, 1991, 1998;

Clyne, 1982, 1991a, 1991b).


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In the past, immigration provided Australia with manpower, development and

security. Nowadays, immigrants are accepted in Australia for social, humanitarian

and economic reasons (Softic, 1998:30). The Australian Department of Immigration

and Indigenous and Multicultural Affairs is responsible for the funding of migrant

and ethnic organisations and the planning and control of immigration.

More than 5.3 million migrants have settled in Australia since 1945 (Softic, 1998:30).

The number ranges from 50,000 to 180,000 a year. This large scale of immigration

from non-English-speaking countries started soon after the end World War II (Di

Biase, 1988:27; Collins, 1988). There was a need for workers and an increased

population to develop the country. Australia’s immigration policy has three main

categories: family, humanitarian and skilled.

The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimated in June 2001 that twenty-three percent

of Australia’s resident population was born overseas (The Australian Bureau of

Statistic, 2001 Census Count). Therefore, a significant percentage of the population

speaks a language other than English, which is Australia’s official language.

Both State and Federal Governments in Australia are committed to ensuring that

government services are available to all Australians. One barrier that might exist


86

is the language barrier. This barrier can possibly be overcome with a policy that

ensures access to professional interpreting and translation services (Campbell,

1998:23; Softic, 1998: 38).

5.3 Australia’s multicultural policy

Australia’s multicultural policy took shape in the 1970s (Campbell, 1998:23), after

the Galbally Report recommended the provision of government services to migrant

communities (Hale, 2004:20). Multiculturalism as an official policy began to have

clear effects on society by the early 1980s (Trinh, 2001: 32). The policy encourages

migrants to maintain their cultures and languages, as distinct from the earlier

assimilation policy (Campbell, 1998:23; Hale, 2004:15). This makes Australia a

multicultural and multilingual nation (Clyne & Kipp, 1999).

The National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia (Department of the Prime Minister

and Cabinet, Office of Multicultural Affairs, 1989) established the right of all

Australians, within carefully defined limits, to express and share their cultural

heritage, including their language and religion (Kipp et al, 1995:2; Campbell,

1998:23).


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Australia has unique institutional services devoted to multilingualism, such as

translating and interpreting services, television in community languages, ethnic and

multilingual access broadcasting, the multilingual municipal library holdings, a

number of languages taught in primary and secondary schools, and a large number of

languages examined at Year 12 of high school (as many as 38 in some States) (Kipp

et al, 1995:1).

5.4 The Need for English-Arabic translation in Australia

According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, an estimated twenty-three per cent

of Australia’s resident population was born overseas (The Australian Bureau of

Statistics, 2001 Census Count). In addition, more than one hundred languages other

than English are spoken in Australia today, apart from the one hundred and fifty

Aboriginal languages that are still in use (Kipp et al, 1995:1). Therefore, a significant

percentage of the population speaks a language other than English.

Kipp et al (1995:40) note that Arabic is one of the languages used extensively at

home among Australian residents. Arabic is used at home by 209372 Australian

residents (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 Census). Six percent of this number

do not speak English at all. This is an indication of a demand for English-Arabic


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translation services (Campbell et al, 1993).

Ginori (1982) notes that, according to a report entitled Participation by the Australian

Ethnic Affairs Commission of New South Wales (1978), Australia had a need for

qualified interpreters and translators (see also Hale, 2004:20-25). Ginori (1982:1)

quotes part of the report by the Ethnic Affairs Commission (1978):

…[In] a country which encourages substantial annual immigration, the

need for interpreters and translators to be readily available to help

newcomers remains constant….

Ginori (1982) lists some of the needs that make the role of translation important in

the Australian multicultural context:

1- Translation of personal documents.

2- General information material (both government and private).

3- Subtitling of films and documentaries.


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4- Translation of specialist material: legal, medical, scientific, technical, literary,

etc.

In Australia, interpreting and translation services have developed in the post-war

years in an ad hoc manner in response to the urgent needs of migrants accessing

different areas, such as settlement issues, health, law, housing, transport, welfare and

public administration, and due to the inadequacy and inappropriateness of using

friends, relatives and other untrained people to bridge the English language barrier

(Kipp et al, 1995:13; Hale, 2004:15-16). As a consequence, most Australian states

had language services agencies by the end of the 1970s (Campbell, 1998; Hale,

2004:16).

Interpreting and translation services received a boost in standards with the

establishment of the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters

Ltd. (NAATI) in 1977 (Hale, 2004:20).

5.5 Translator accreditation in Australia

The National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters Ltd. (NAATI)

is a national standards body half-funded by the Commonwealth, State and


90

Territory Governments of Australia and half self-funded as a company. NAATI was

established in 1977.

NAATI sets and regulates standards of translation and interpreting in Australia by

accrediting translators and interpreters at a number of levels.

5.5.1 NAATI accreditation

In Australia, NAATI is considered the only authority with the power to provide

accreditation to translators/interpreters and tertiary institutions wishing to offer

formal training in the area of translation and/or interpreting. Therefore, NAATI

accreditation is the only official qualification accepted for the profession of

translation and interpreting in Australia. Moreover, all government translation and

interpreting services require translators and interpreters to be NAATI accredited.

NAATI accreditation has been instrumental in providing quality assurance for

recipients of translation and interpreting services and giving credibility to agencies

that employ accredited practitioners (NAATI, 2003).

5.5.2 Obtaining NAATI accreditation

NAATI accreditation may be obtained in any one of three ways: 1- The


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accreditation may be obtained either through sitting for and passing a NAATI test

(the pass mark is 70%); 2- by successfully completing a NAATI approved course of

study (tertiary based and offered in certain languages as a diploma course,

undergraduate course, graduate course, and postgraduate course); or 3- by providing

evidence of specialised qualification in translating and/or interpreting obtained from a

recognised training institution outside Australia (NAATI, 2003).

5.5.3 NAATI levels

In July 1993, NAATI implemented a modified system of accreditation. The revised

system includes four levels at which interpreters and translators may be accredited.

The four levels are as follows:

1- Para-professional Interpreter (formerly known as ‘level two’)

Para-professional Translator (formerly known as ‘level two’):

This accreditation represents a level of competence in interpreting general

conversation with no level of specialization or complexity. In translating, it represents

the ability to translate uncomplicated and basic information.


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2- Interpreter (formerly known as ‘level three’)

Translator (formerly known as ‘level three’):

This accreditation represents the minimum level of competence for professional

interpreting and translating across a wide range of subjects involving dialogue and

translation in special areas. Translators are qualified to translate into one language

only or into both languages, depending on their accreditation to translate from or into

English.

3- Conference Interpreter and Advanced Translator (formerly known as ‘level four’):

This accreditation represents advanced professional levels where a demonstrated

competence exists to handle complex, technical and sophisticated interpreting and

translating. Advanced translators are qualified to translate into one language only or

into both languages, depending on their accreditation. However, it is most common

for them to translate from their second or third language into their first language.

4- Conference Senior Interpreter and Advanced Senior Translator (formerly known

as ‘level five’):


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This accreditation represents the senior level of conference interpreters and advanced

translators with a level of excellence in their field, recognized through demonstrated

extensive experience and leadership (Softic, 1998:40).

5.5.4 NAATI tests

Since its commencement, NAATI has tested translators and interpreters in a number

of languages at different levels of competency. The tests are reviewed regularly

taking into consideration the comments made by NAATI examiners on tests held

since the beginning of NAATI testing accreditation in 1979. These reviews have

resulted in substantial changes to the format of the tests. This is to achieve the fairest

and most accurate means of assessment of the standards of competence and skills

appropriate to each translation or interpreting level and category being tested. The

pass mark for all NAATI tests is 70%, except for the Advanced Translator test and

the Conference Interpreter test for which the pass mark is 80% (NAATI, 2002:20).

The translation tests for the Para-professional Translator Level consist of two

passages of 120-140 words each, one of which is selected and translated from English

(45 marks); then another two passages of the same length are provided and one is

selected to be translated into English (45 marks); and, finally, three questions are

provided on ethical issues, two of which are to be answered by the candidate (10


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marks). The duration for both directions, from and into English, is 120 minutes plus

ten minutes reading time. As for the Professional Translator Level, candidates choose

two of three passages of approximately 250 words to translate either from or into

English (45 + 45= 90 marks), depending on the direction for which they seek

accreditation, and three questions on ethical issues, two of which are to be answered

by the candidate (10 marks). The allocated time for this test is two-and-a-half hours

plus twenty minutes reading time. As for the Advanced Translator Level, the

candidate will be required to translate three texts of 400 words each. The time

allocated for this level is eight hours in order to produce their three translations.

In all levels of accreditation, the use of dictionaries, glossaries and thesauruses is

permitted.

5.5.5 Translator training

One of the ways of obtaining NAATI accreditation is by successfully completing a

NAATI approved course of study (NAATI, 2003). Various tertiary institutions in

Australia offer the following NAATI approved courses:

1- Diploma of Interpreting


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2- Advanced Diploma of Interpreting and/ or Translation

3- Bachelor of Arts in Translation and Interpreting

4- Graduate Diploma in Translation and Interpreting

5- Masters of Art in Translation and Interpreting

NAATI (2003) has approved the following courses in English-Arabic interpreting

and/or translation:

1- TAFE (Technical and Further Education): Granville TAFE in New South

Wales offers a Diploma in English-Arabic Interpreting and an Advanced

Diploma of English-Arabic Interpreting. Adelaide Institute of TAFE in South

Australia offers a Diploma in English-Arabic Interpreting. Finally, Perth

Central TAFE in Western Australia offers a Diploma in English-Arabic

Interpreting and an Advanced Diploma of English-Arabic Interpreting.

2- The Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology: The Royal


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Melbourne Institute of Technology in Victoria offers a Diploma in English-

Arabic Interpreting and an Advanced Diploma of English-Arabic Interpreting

and Translation.

3- The University of Western Sydney: The University of Western Sydney in

New South Wales offers a range of English-Arabic interpreting and

translation courses. It offers a Bachelor of Arts degree in Interpreting and

Translation, a Graduate Certificate in Interpreting and Translation, a Graduate

Diploma in Interpreting and Translation, a Masters of Arts degree in

Linguistics and Interpreting, and a Masters of Arts degree in Linguistics and

Translation (NAATI, 2003).

Of the above courses at the University of Western Sydney, only the Bachelor of Arts

degree in Interpreting and Translation and the Graduate Diploma in Interpreting and

Translation are approved by NAATI. That makes the University of Western Sydney

the only university approved to offer a post-graduate course in Arabic interpreting

and translation (Hale, 2004:26). These are not the only institutions that provide

interpreter/translator training in Australia, however, for the purposes of this thesis

information has only been provided on those courses offered for Arabic translation

and approved by NAATI.


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5.6 Conclusion

This chapter provides an overview of the professional translation environment in

Australia. The first section introduces a brief historical background of immigration to

Australia. The second section presents an overview of Australia’s multicultural

policy. The third section discusses the need for English-Arabic translation. The last

section looks into translator and interpreter accreditation and translator/interpreter

training in Australia, where this study took place.

Chapter Six: Research Methodology

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6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

6.1 Introduction

The three main purposes of this study are to point out the characteristics of

collocations in the Arabic language, to produce a semantic patterning of

collocations in the Arabic language, and to examine the problems encountered in

translating English verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic.

This Chapter discusses the research design, the setting of the study, the

participants, the instruments, and the data collection procedures.

6.2 Research Design

6.2.1 Research questions

The general questions addressed in this study are concerned with the knowledge

of Arabic collocations among professional and student translators in Australia.

There being no baseline data on collocation performance in Arabic, a control

group of monolingual native speakers in Saudi Arabia was used to elicit such a

data set by way of a specially designed questionnaire. The questionnaire was also


99

administered to the professional and student translators. A translation test of

English collocations into Arabic was also constructed and administered to the

professional and student translators.

The main issues of the study could be summarized in nine research questions.

Questions 1-3 basically focus on differences in collocational knowledge between

the three groups involved in the study. Questions 4 and 5 focus on the

characteristics and semantic patterning of collocations in the Arabic language.

Questions 6-9 focus on the translation of English collocations into Arabic. The

research questions are listed below.

1- What is the difference between the control group’s knowledge and the

professional translators group’s knowledge of Arabic verb + object and

noun + adjective collocations? (refer to Chapter Seven)

2- What is the difference between the control group’s knowledge and the

student translators group’s knowledge of Arabic verb + object and noun +

adjective collocations? (refer to Chapter Seven)

3- What is the difference between the professional translators group’s

knowledge and the student translators group’s knowledge of Arabic verb +

object and noun + adjective collocations? (refer to Chapter Seven)


100

4- What are the semantic characteristics of Arabic verb + object and noun +

adjective collocations? (refer to Chapter Seven)

5- What are the semantic and distributional patterns into which Arabic verb +

object and noun + adjective collocations fall? (refer to Chapter Seven)

6- What are the translation outcomes observed in the Student Translators’

Group when rendering English verb + object and adjective + noun

collocations into Arabic? (refer to Chapter Eight)

7- What are the translation outcomes observed in the Professional

Translators’ Group when rendering English verb + object and adjective +

noun collocations into Arabic? (refer to Chapter Eight)

8- What are the most common outcomes in the translations of the English

verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic?, and how

frequently did the Student Translators’ Group and Professional Group

resort to each one of the translation outcomes? (refer to Chapter Eight)


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6.3 Setting of and participants in the study

The research undertaken for this thesis consisted of four parts. Part one: a

questionnaire of Arabic collocations given to an Arabic control group. Part two: a

translation test of English collocations into Arabic given to a professional

translators’ group. Part three: the same translation test of English collocations into

Arabic given to a student translators’ group. Part four: the same questionnaire of

Arabic collocations given to the same professional translators’ group and the same

student translators’ group.

6.3.1 Part one: The Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations (Arabic Control

Group)

This part of the study was conducted at the College of Arabic Language and

Literature at Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Umm Al-Qura

University has a reputation as one of the best and larger universities in Saudi

Arabia. It attracts students from all over the country and from other Arab

countries. Umm Al-Qura University was established in 1981. It started as a

College of Islamic Law and Education in 1949 with only three departments: the

Department of Islamic Law, the Department of Arabic Language and the

Department of Judiciary. This was the first College in the Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia.


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The university has experienced a constant process of expansion. Several colleges,

institutes and even new campuses have been opened. It now consists of five

campuses: three in Makkah and two in Taif, with a total of ten Colleges. One of

these Colleges is the College of Arabic Language and Literature, established in

1989.

The aim of this part of the study was to recruit a control group of postgraduate

students, majoring in Arabic, who had minimal or no experience in translation or

other language mediation activities, and who do not speak English fluently. This

was to avoid language interference. This information was obtained by means of a

demographic questionnaire (see Appendix A) attached to the main questionnaire

of Arabic collocations. In addition to fluency in a language other than Arabic, the

demographic questionnaire also asked for information about the respondents’

general background such as, age, sex, degree, occupation, and translation

experience.

The students from Umm Al-Qura University were expected to be from different

regions of the country, in addition to international students from other Arab states,

to add more reliability and generalisability to the research.

The questionnaire of Arabic collocations given to the control group was used to

judge the frequency of usage and restrictedness of some verb + object and noun +

adjective collocations in the Arabic language as baseline data that is uninfluenced

by translation practice or second language knowledge (see Appendix B).


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6.3.1.1 Respondents to part one

The respondents to the Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations were twenty-one

postgraduate students (PhD and MA) at the College of Arabic Language and

Literature of Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Nineteen of

these respondents were male students (90.5%) and two were female students

(9.5%). The low number of female respondents was due to the researcher being

granted access to the men’s campus only (being a male himself), while he only

sent the questionnaire to the women’s campus to be administered by the secretary

of Graduate Studies in the College of Arabic Language and Literature. The

majority were either school teachers or university lecturers of Arabic language

(71.4%). Eight were school teachers (38%) and seven were university lecturers

(33.3%). One of the respondents was a journalist (4.7%), another respondent was

a librarian (4.7%), and the remaining four respondents were full-time continuing

students in Arabic language studies (19%). Ten of the respondents were Ph.D.

students (47.6%) and eleven were M.A. students (52.4%). Eight of them were

majoring in Arabic linguistics (38.1%) and thirteen in Arabic literature (61.9%).

All respondents were native speakers of Arabic and their knowledge of English

was either fair (19%), poor (38.1%) or very poor (42.9%). None of them was

fluent or proficient in English. None of the respondents had ever translated from

English into Arabic or vice versa.


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6.3.2 Part two: The Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic

(Professional Translators’ Group)

The Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic was given to

professional English-Arabic translators (Professional Translators’ Group)

accredited by the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and

Interpreters Ltd. (NAATI) in Australia.

Before the translation test, the professional translators were asked to fill out a one-

page demographic questionnaire (see Appendix C). The test comprised one

hundred relatively short English sentences to be translated into Arabic. The test

was used to find out how frequent and, therefore, how serious were some of the

problems of translating English verb + object and adjective + noun collocations

into Arabic. The test results were also used to observe the translation outcomes

adopted by the professional translators in their attempts to translate English

collocations into Arabic.

6.3.2.1 Respondents to part two

The respondents to the Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic

(Professional Translators’ Group) were sixteen professional English-Arabic

translators accredited by NAATI in Australia. Six of them were females (37.5%)

and ten were males (62.5%). Their ages ranged from thirty to seventy-three years.

Three of the respondents held a Masters of Arts (18.75%), eight a Bachelor of

Arts (50%) and five a diploma (31.25%). Twelve (75%) of the professional

translators held their degrees in translation and four (25%) in other fields of study.


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The majority had a level three accreditation in English-Arabic translation from

NAATI (93.75%) and one had a level two accreditation (6.25%). Most of the

respondents’ native language was Arabic (87.5%), one spoke Chaldean as his

native language (6.25%), and another spoke Greek as her native language

(6.25%). Six respondents spoke Arabic at home (37.5%), two respondents spoke

English at home (12.5%), six spoke Arabic and English (37.5%), one spoke

Chaldean (6.25%), and one spoke Arabic, English and French at home (6.25%).

6.3.3 Part three: The Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic

(Student Translators’ Group)

The same Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic that was given to

the Professional Translators’ Group also was given to the postgraduate English-

Arabic translation students (Student Translators’ Group). These students were

enrolled in the Graduate Diploma (English-Arabic Interpreting and Translation) or

Masters of Arts (Translation and Linguistics) programs at the School of

Languages and Linguistics of the University of Western Sydney, Australia. This

university is one of the leading universities in teaching translation in Australia. In

addition, the Graduate Diploma leads to a NAATI accreditation in translation and/

or interpreting at the professional level. The students were given a demographic

questionnaire (see Appendix D) followed by the Translation Test of English

Collocations into Arabic. The aims of the test were: to pinpoint problems in

translating English verb+ object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic and

compare the strategies used in translating English collocations into Arabic by the

student translators with the strategies used by the professional translators

(Professional Translators’ Group).


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6.3.3.1 Respondents to part three

The respondents to the Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic

(Student Translators’ Group) were eight postgraduate students from the Graduate

Diploma (English-Arabic Interpreting and Translation) or Masters of Arts

(Translation and Linguistics) programs at the School of Languages and

Linguistics of the University of Western Sydney, Australia. Four of them were

females (50%) and four were males (50%). Their ages ranged from twenty four to

fifty seven years. Four of the respondents were enrolled in the Graduate Diploma

in interpreting and translation (50%), while the rest were enrolled in the Masters

of Arts in translation and linguistics (50%). Most students spoke Arabic as their

first language (87.5%), except one student who mentioned that she spoke both

English and Arabic equally as her first languages (12.5%). Seven of the

respondents spoke Arabic at home (87.5%). One spoke both Arabic and English at

home (12.5%).

6.3.4 Part four: The Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations (Professional

Translators’ Group) and (Student Translators’ Group)

The same Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations given to the Arabic Control

Group (Part one) was also given to the Professional Translators’ Group (Part two)

and the Student Translators’ Group (Part three) after the Translation Test of

English Collocations into Arabic was administered to them. The aim of this part

was to confirm the Arabic Control Group’s knowledge of some Arabic verb +

object and noun + adjective collocations. That is, the aim was to see to what


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extent the choice of professional translators and student translators of Arabic

collocations was close to that of the Arabic Control Group.

6.4 Data Collection

This selection of data collection tools is dependent on the kind of research

questions and hypotheses that have been set up for this research project. Because

many of the hypotheses set up in this study were based on a comparison of

specific responses among an Arabic control group, postgraduate students of

translation, and professional translators, it seemed natural to use elicited

competence and performance data. This section discusses the two instruments

used for the collection of the data, as well as the pilot studies used to evaluate the

instruments.

6.4.1 Instruments

The data collection instruments were designed with the research questions and

hypotheses presented earlier in mind. The instruments used to collect the data of

the present study were a Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations and a Translation

Test of English Collocations into Arabic.


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6.4.1.1 Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations

The questionnaire presented here was designed partly along the lines followed by

Shei (2000; 2002). The questionnaire designed for this study differed from Shei’s

in the following ways:

Firstly, the questionnaire in Shei’s study was a questionnaire of English

collocations. Secondly, the respondents in Shei’s study were a control group of

native speakers of English, a Chinese learners’ group, and a European language

speakers’ group.

The aim of this Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations was to judge the frequency

and restrictedness of usage of some verb + object and noun + adjective

collocations in the Arabic language. Carter states:

Collocational acceptability can be analysed using techniques of

informant analysis in which the intersubject intuitions of groups of

native-language speakers are statistically measured and a line drawn

between what can be generally allowed and what cannot. (1987:55)

The questionnaire consisted of one hundred items. Each item consisted of a noun

in a stem sentence with four verb or adjective alternatives (four verbs for the first

fifty items and four adjectives for the second fifty items). There was a total of four

hundred Arabic collocations in the questionnaire (see Appendix B). Part one of


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the questionnaire consisted of two hundred verb + object collocations (four

alternative verbs in a table for each noun in a stem sentence), and part two

consisted of two hundred noun + adjective collocations (four alternative

adjectives in a table for each noun in a stem sentence).

In the first part of the questionnaire, the respondents were given sentences with

the verbs missing, while the adjectives were missing in the second part. For each

item, the respondents were provided with four alternatives (four verbs in part one

and four adjectives in part two). They were asked to rank all four alternatives

according to the frequency of their collocability with the noun in the stem (see

Table 6.1). That is, they were asked to determine how often, in their opinion, did

each verb or adjective in the tables collocate with the noun in each sentence. The

scale used in this questionnaire was as follows:

Item example: stem sentence with noun, missing verb (1st fifty items) or adjective (2nd fifty items).

Never

collocates

Seldom Occasionally Always collocates

a- (alternative 1)

b- (alternative 2)

c- (alternative 3)

d- (alternative 4)

e- (a blank)

Table 6. 1 Item example of the questionnaire of Arabic collocations


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The respondents were asked to choose how often they thought each alternative

collocated with the noun in the sentence. They were asked to indicate the

frequency level. They were also given a blank space (e) to suggest a verb (1st fifty

items) or an adjective (2nd

fifty items), if they thought that there was one that

would also possibly collocate with the noun in each stem and give the same

meaning as the four alternatives when collocated with the noun in the sentence.

They were also asked to rank the alternative they suggested on the scale of

frequency (see Table 6.1). It was believed that this test would avoid some of the

disadvantages of both open- and closed-question tests. It gives the respondents

four alternatives, as well as the chance to suggest a fifth alternative whenever they

thought there was one.

The main objective of the test was to establish the expert usage of some Arabic

collocations obtained from the control group, therefore, the researcher had to go

through two steps in designing it. The first step was to gather the collocations. The

major source for this step was Arabic monolingual dictionaries, including, but not

limited to, مختار الصحاح ,lisaan al-3arab by Ibn Mazuur لسان العرب لابن منظور

للرازي muxtaar al-SiHaaH by Al-Raazii, and المنجد للیسوعي al-munjid by Al-

Yasuu3ii. Bilingual dictionaries were also consulted. Other sources included

newspapers, television and radio broadcasts, and books.

The second step was selecting the alternatives for each item. This was the most

challenging part in constructing the questionnaire. In this step, synonymy was the

main criterion for selecting the alternatives, therefore, synonyms were most used.

Monolingual and bilingual dictionaries were used in the selection of synonyms.


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Another major source was Arabic dictionaries of meaning, such as, فقھ اللغة للثعالبي

fiqhu al-lugah by Al-Thaalibi (1981), أدب الكاتب لابن قتیبة ?adab al-kaatib by Ibn

Qutaybah (1963), and المخصص لابن سیدة al-muxaSSaS by Ibn Sidah (1996).

Thesauri of Arabic synonyms, such as, ف كتاب نجعة الرائد وشرعة الوارد في المتراد

kitaab nuj3at al-ra?id wa-sir3atu al-waarid fiy al-mutraadif wa والمتوارد للیازجي

al-mutawaarid by El-Yaziji (1985) were also utilized. Other less significant

sources included الترادف في القرآن الكریم للمنجد al-taraaduf fiy l-qur’aan al-kariym

by Al-Munjid (1997), and -al-mu3jam al المعجم المفھرس لألفاظ القرآن الكریم لعبدالباقي

mufahras li-?alfaZ al-qur’aan al-kariym by Abdulbaqi (1996). The pilot studies

were also very helpful in giving suggestions for alternatives (see Pilot Studies

section below).

6.4.1.2 The Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic

In designing the Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic for the

present study, the researcher used the Collins COBUILD English Collocations on

CD-ROM. This was the first test to be designed and Arabic equivalents of these

English collocations were used for the questionnaire of Arabic collocations

mentioned in the previous section. The test consisted of one hundred relatively

short English sentences. The first fifty sentences contained verb + object

collocations and the other fifty contained adjective + noun collocations. Each

sentence contained one collocation (see Appendix E). This test was given to two

different groups: Professional Translators’ Group and Student Translators’ Group.

The respondents were asked to translate the one hundred English sentences into

Arabic. The aims of this test were to locate the problems that professional

translators and student translators face when translating English verb + object and


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adjective + noun collocations into Arabic and to determine the strategies adopted

by both in translating those two types of English lexical collocations into Arabic.

6.4.2 Pilot Studies

6.4.2.1 Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations

Before collecting the data, the Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations was piloted

twice: to ensure reliability, to assess the familiarity level of the test items, and to

determine the approximate time it would take the respondents to answer the

questionnaire. It took the respondents approximately forty five minutes to

complete the pilot study questionnaire. The first version was given to an Arabic

teacher working at Al-Faisal College in Sydney, Australia. He held a Bachelor of

Arts in Arabic Linguistics and taught Arabic for ten years. He was a native

speaker of Arabic and had limited knowledge of English.

After revising the pilot questionnaire with this respondent, the researcher

conducted another pilot. The second version of the questionnaire was given to

another Arabic teacher also working in the same school. He held a Bachelor of

Arts in Arabic Linguistics and was a native speaker of Arabic. He taught Arabic

for twelve years and had a limited knowledge of English.

The responses obtained from the two pilot studies were carefully reviewed. It was

noted, from the responses given, that some collocations were unfamiliar to Arabic

native speakers. For example, both participants suggested the removal of the verb


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+ object collocation كشف البخت kasafa al-baxt (to tell fortunes). Consequently,

such items were either removed or changed.

The questionnaire was also discussed with one of the Arabic lecturers at the

School of Languages and Linguistics at the University of Western Sydney. They

were very helpful in providing alternatives for questionnaire items.

6.4.2.2 The Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic

The Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic was piloted twice to

determine the approximate time it would take the respondents to translate the one

hundred English sentences into Arabic. The test was given to a professional

translator and interpreter in Sydney, Australia. It was also given to a postgraduate

student completing a Graduate Diploma in English-Arabic interpreting and

translation at the School of Languages and Linguistics, University of Western

Sydney. It took both respondents approximately one-and-a-half hours to complete.

Both suggested that some sentences were a bit long and should be changed. Those

sentences that were long were replaced by other shorter sentences from the same

source, the Collins COBUILD English Collocations on CD-Rom.

6.4.3 Administrative Procedures

6.4.3.1 Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations (Arabic Control Group)

The questionnaire was first given to twenty-one postgraduate students at the

College of Arabic Language and Literature of Umm Al-Qura University in


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Makkah, Saudi Arabia in September 2002. The researcher contacted the Dean of

the College of Arabic Language and Literature and obtained approval to conduct

the study. The researcher travelled to Saudi Arabia and met with Head of the

Graduate Studies in the College, as well as meeting some of the faculty members

and discussing the study with them in detail, and the necessary steps to be taken to

conduct the research. The researcher visited all postgraduate classes in the College

at the men’s campus for approximately fifteen minutes each and introduced

himself as a doctoral student at the University of Western Sydney, Australia, who

was conducting research to fulfil the requirements of a Doctoral degree in

translation and linguistics. In each classroom, the researcher wrote on the board

the title of the study with some examples of Arabic collocations to ensure that the

students understood the task. After explaining the intended study to all the

students, the researcher asked for their voluntary participation, assuring them that

confidentiality would be maintained. However, the researcher could not visit the

women’s campus in person, only send copies of the questionnaire to be

administered by the secretary of Graduate Studies. Each volunteer was given an

Information Sheet (see Appendix A) as well as a Consent Form to be filled out

and signed. For the sake of confidentiality, the students were given code numbers

in lieu of their names. Furthermore, they were told that the information collected

would be safely stored at the University of Western Sydney and only the

researcher would be permitted to use it. When they decided to participate in the

study, students were asked to bring the questionnaires to the Graduate Studies

secretary where the researcher could collect them.


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6.4.3.2 The Translation Test of English Collocations (Professional

Translators’ Group):

The Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic was given first to

professional translators accredited by NAATI in Australia. The researcher initially

obtained the names of the English-Arabic professional translators from the

NAATI directory. He then sent them a written invitation asking them whether

they would be prepared to participate in the study. The Information Sheet (see

Appendix C) explained the intended research and what they were to do. Along

with the invitation, they were sent the actual test so that they could see the kind of

participation in which they would be involved. They were also sent a Consent

Form to fill out and sign. For the sake of confidentiality, the respondents were

given code numbers. Furthermore, the respondents were told that the information

collected would be safely stored at the University of Western Sydney and used

only by the researcher. A postage-paid return envelope was included with the test.

The researcher asked the translators to return the blank form to him if they had

decided not to participate. That is, it would indicate the approximate number of

translators who actually received the invitation. After two months, the researcher

sent a reminder to those who had not replied to the initial invitation.


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6.4.3.3 The Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic (Student

Translators’ Group):

The same Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic given to the

Professional Translators’ Group was also given to another group of respondents;

postgraduate English-Arabic translation students at the School of Languages and

Linguistics at the University of Western Sydney. The students were enrolled in a

Graduate Diploma (English-Arabic Interpreting and Translation) or Masters of

Arts (Translation and Linguistics) programs. The researcher contacted the Head of

the School and obtained permission to conduct this study. The researcher then met

with one of the English-Arabic translation lecturers to fix a date to visit one of

their classes. Later, the researcher visited the class for approximately fifteen

minutes and explained to the students the intended study. After explaining to the

students the tasks they would be required to perform, the researcher asked them

whether they wanted to participate in the study, assuring them that confidentiality

would be maintained. Each student was then given an Information Sheet (see

Appendix C) and a Consent Form to sign and bring back to the researcher along

with the Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic.

6.4.3.4 Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations (Professional Translators’

Group):

After receiving the Translation Test of English Collocations into Arabic from the

professional translators, the researcher sent them the Questionnaire of Arabic


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Collocations, the second part of this study. The second part was sent to them

separately after they completed the Translation Test of English Collocations into

Arabic, because they were not supposed to see the Arabic equivalents of the

English collocations in the translation test. They were also sent postage-paid

return envelopes.

6.4.3.5 Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations (Student Translators’ Group):

Before giving the student translators the Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations, the

researcher waited for them to return the Translation Test of English Collocations

into Arabic. After they returned the tests to the researcher, they were visited again

in their classroom and had the second part explained to them. They were then

given the Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations and were asked to return them to

the researcher or the School secretary after completion.

Chapter Seven: Results & discussion: Questionnaire of Arabic collocations

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7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: QUESTIONNAIRE OF

ARABIC COLLOCATIONS, CHARACTERISTICS

AND SEMANTIC & DISTRIBUTIONAL

PATTERNING OF ARABIC COLLOCATIONS

7.1 Introduction

This chapter has three major sections. The first section presents the results of the

questionnaire of Arabic collocations given to all three groups involved in the study:

the Arabic Control Group, the Professional Translators’ Group, and the Student

Translators’ Group. Utilizing descriptive statistics, it discusses the findings of the

questionnaire of Arabic collocations in relation to the first three research questions of

the study. These are:

What is the difference between the Arabic Control Group’s knowledge

and the Professional Translators Group’s knowledge of Arabic verb +

object and noun + adjective collocations?


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What is the difference between the Arabic Control Group’s knowledge

and the Student Translators Group’s knowledge of Arabic verb + object

and noun + adjective collocations?

What is the difference between the Professional Translators Group’s

knowledge and the Student Translators Group’s knowledge of Arabic verb

+ object and noun + adjective collocations?

The aim of section one is to establish clear collocational knowledge differences

among the three groups involved in the study. It will also determine the range of

decisiveness across the three groups.

The second section of this chapter attempts to answer the fourth research question of

this study, which is:

What are the characteristics of Arabic verb + object and noun + adjective

collocations?

The aim of this section is to point out what characteristics a collocation has according

to this study in light of the definition of collocation proposed in the introductory

chapter.


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Finally, the third section of this chapter discusses the semantic and distributional

patterning of collocations in the Arabic language. It attempts to answer the fifth

research question of this study, which is:

What are the semantic and distributional patterns into which Arabic verb +

object and noun + adjective collocations fall?

The aim here is to classify collocations into different semantic and distributional

patterns according to the results of the study. The collocations are categorized into

five semantic and distributional patterns. The classification is made according to the

restrictedness between the components of the examples of collocations used in this

study. The semantic and distributional patterns that Arabic verb + object and noun +

adjective collocations fall into are: strong collocations, acceptable collocations, weak

collocations, unacceptable collocations, unique collocations, metaphorical

collocations, and idiomatic extensions of collocations.

7.2 Section one: Results of the questionnaire of Arabic collocations

This section presents the results of the questionnaire of Arabic collocations given to

the three groups involved in the study. The results of the Arabic examples of verb +

object and noun + adjective collocations have been classified into three categories

depending on the number of clear preferences among the four alternatives. A clear

preference of a strong collocation was when the respondents gave the alternative of


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‘always’ collocating with the head noun in the sentence a frequency of 80 percent or

more. The analysis was made by running the data through a frequency test using the

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. This method of classification

was carried out in order to observe the different categories that the examples of

collocations fell into according to the three different groups in the study. The three

categories in the classification were:

1- No strong collocation: Where there was no clear preference of a verb (1st fifty

examples) or an adjective (2nd

fifty examples) collocating with the head noun

in the sentence.

2- One strong collocation: Where there was one clear preference of a verb (1st

fifty examples) or an adjective (2nd

fifty examples) collocating with the head

noun in the sentence.

3- Two strong collocations: Where there were two clear preferences of verbs (1st

fifty examples) or adjectives (2nd

fifty examples) collocating with the head

noun in the sentence.

This classification of the examples of Arabic collocations clearly determined the

range of decisiveness across the three groups involved in the study, as the main


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concern of this section, and probably most research in this linguistic area, is

collocations of high frequency, strong collocations.

7.2.1 Arabic Control Group (21 respondents)

According to the Arabic Control Group, seven (14%) of the fifty examples of verb +

object collocations in the first part of the questionnaire appeared to have no clear

preference, thirty nine (78%) had one clear preference and four (8%) had two clear

preferences (see Table 7.1).


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Verb + ObjectCollocations

No Clear Preference One Clear Preference

Two Clear Preferences

1-…..3ahdana)3aahada b)?axadac) qaDaa d) qaTa3a

d) qaTa3a (85.7%)

2- …..3ahdana) xaana b) nakatac) naqaDa d) nabada

c) naqaDa (85.7%)

3- ….. jawaadana) rakiba b) Sa3idac) imtaTaa d) I3talaa

c) imtaTaa (100%)

4-….. sayfana) istalla b) saharac) jarra d) ?axraja

a) istalla (95.2%)

5- …..jadalana) 3amila b) fataHac) ?as3ala d) ?ataara

d) ?ataara (100%)

6-….. ?amrana) ?amlaa b) ?a3Taac) ?aSdara d) manaHa

c) ?aSdara (95.2%)

7-.... ta3liymaata) naffada b) ittaba3ac) ?aTaa3a d) Tabbaqa

X

8-….. sirrana) ?adaa3a b) ?a3lanac) kasafa d) ?afsaa

d) ?afsaa (100%)

9-..... ittifaaqiyyaha) 3aqada b) ?abramac) ?ajraa d) 3amila

b) ?abrama (90.5%)

10-….. dumuw3ana) darafa b) sakabac) ?awqa3a d) ?anzala

a) darafa (95.2%)

11-….. xaTa?ana) qaddama b) iqtarafac) 3amila d) Irtakaba

b) iqtarafa (85.7%)

d) Irtakaba (85.7%)

12-….. jariymatana) Irtakaba b) 3amilac) iqtarafa d) qaddama

a) Irtakaba (85.7%)

13-….. juhdana) 3amila b) badalac) qaddama d) ?addaa

b) badala (100%)

14-….qaanuwnana) kasara b) naaqaDac) tajaawaza d) xaalafa

d) xaalafa (100%)

15-…..?atarana) ta3aqqaba b) tabi3ac) iqtafaa d) Taarada

c) iqtafaa (95.2%)

16-….. matalana) ?a3Taa b) Darabac) qaddama d) ?alqaa

b) Daraba (100%)

17-..... ma3rakatana) xaaDa b) Haarabac) qaatala d) gazaa

a) xaaDa (100%)

18-….. Hariyqana) ?awqada b) ?as3ala

b) ?as3ala (85.7%)


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c) ?ansa?a d) ?aDrama19-….. Tariyqana) banaa b) ?ansa?ac) 3abbada d) sayyada

c) 3abbada (95.2%)

20-….. hadafana) ?aHraza b) Haqqaqac) ?anjaza d) balaga

b) Haqqaqa (95.2%)

21-….. natiyjatana) naala b) ?aHrazac) iktasaba d) ?anjaza

X

22-….. gayZana) kabata b) kaZamac) katama d) qama3a

b) kaZama (100%)

23-….. qiSSatana) qaSSa b) ?ansada c) rawaa d) Hakaa

a) qaSSa (81%)

24-…..liHyatana) waffara b) ?asdalac) ?aTlaqa d) Tawwala

c) ?aTlaqa (90.5%)

25-…..waqtana) ?aDaa3a b) ?ahdarac) Sarafa d) xasira

a) ?aDaa3a (81%)

b) ?ahdara (85.7%)

26-…..Taaqatana) xasira b) ?ahdarac) Sarafa d) ?aDaa3a

b) ?ahdara (95.2%)

27-..... ijtimaa3ana) rattaba b) sakkala c) 3aqada d) ?ajraa

c) 3aqada (100%)

28-….. muw?tamarana) rattaba b) sakkala c) 3aqada d) ?ajraa

c) 3aqada (90.5%)

29-...... xidmatana) 3amila b) ?a3Taac) ?asdaa d) qaddama

c) ?asdaa (81%)

30-….. Harbana) sanna b) ?as3alac) sa33ara d) ?aHdata

a) sanna (100%)

31-….. xilaafana) ?aSlaHa b) fakkac) sawwaa d) faDDa

X

32-…..Hadarana) ?axada b) maarasac) tawaxxaa d) raafaqa

c) tawaxxaa (90.5%)

33-….. qaraarana) ?axada b) ittaxadac) 3amila d) ?anjaza

X

34-…..mas?uwliyatana) ?axada b) ra3aac) HafiZa d) taHammala

d) taHammala (100%)

35-…..furSatana) igtanama b) intahazac) istagalla d) ihtaballa

a) igtanama (85.7%)

b) intahaza (100%)

36-…..Daw?ana) ?anzala b) rakkazac) sallaTa d) ?alqaa

c) sallaTa (100%)


125

37-…..?ijraa?ana) Saaga b) 3amilac) ittaxada d) qaddama

c) ittaxada (90.5%)

38-….. manSibana) sagila b) iHtallac) tabawwa?a d) balaga

a) sagila (85.7%)

39-….. Dararana) sabbabab) kawwanac) sakkala d) ?alHaqa

d) ?alHaqa (100%)

40-….. xitaabana) ?a3Taa b) naqalac) ?alqaa d) qaddama

c) ?alqaa (100%)

41-…… ittiSaalana) 3amila b) ?addaac) qaddama d) ?ajraa

d) ?ajraa (100%)

42-….. tajribatana) ?ajraa b) qaddamac) ?addaa d) 3amila

a) ?ajraa (95.2%)

43-….. qaanuwnana) sanna b) waDa3ac) sara3a d) ?aqaama

a) sanna (81%)

44-….. sarikatana) qaada b) tara?asac) Hakama d) ?adaara

b) tara?asa (81%)

d) ?adaara (85.7%)

45-..... darsana) 3allama b) fahhamac) laqqana d) ?a3Taa

c) laqqana (100%)

46-….. tiqatana) naala b) kasibac) Haaza d) rabiHa

X

47-….. intiSaarana) Haqqaqa b) ?anjazac) 3amila d) ?aHraza

d) ?aHraza (81%)

48-….. intibaahana) ?a3Taa b) qaddamac) ?a3ara d) ?abdaa

X

49-….. hadafana) waDDaHa b) bayyanac) qarrara d) Haddada

d) Haddada (100%)

50-….. wa3yana) faqada b) gaabac) zaala d) ixtafaa

X

Table 7. 1 Verb + object Arabic collocations' results: Arabic Control Group (n=21)

In the second part of the questionnaire, eight (16%) of the fifty examples of noun +

adjective collocations appeared to have no clear preference for the Arabic Control

Group, forty-one (82%) had one clear preference and one (2%) had two clear

preferences (see Table 7.2).


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Noun + Adjective Collocations

No Clear Preference One Clear Preference Two Clear Preferences

1- sifaa? un…..

a) naajiz b) taamc) xaaliS d) kulliy

b) taam (100%)

2- maTarun…..a) gaziyr b) sadiydc) waabil d) katiyr

a) gaziyr (100%)

3- raa?iHatun.....a) jamiylah b) raa?i3ahc) zakiyyah d) Tayyibah

c) zakiyyah (100%)

4- raa?iHatun.....a) sayyi?ah b) natinahc) 3afinah d) kariyhah

d) kariyhah (95.2%)

5- 3aDalaatun…..a) maftuwlah b) matiynahc) galiyZah d) Salbah

a) maftuwlah (90.5%)

6- daakiratun…..a) Hayyah b) qawiyyahc) HaafiZah d) laaqiTah

b) qawiyyah (95.2%)

7- masaa3irun…..a) jayyasah b) raqiqahc) nabiylah d) murhafah

X

8- silaaHun…..a) mumiyt b) qaatilc) mudammir d) fattaak

d) fattaak (85.7%)

9- xaTa?un…..a) faaHis b) jasiymc) faadiH d) 3aZiym

c) faadiH (85.7%)

10- faqrun…..a) mur b) qaatilc) mudqi3 d) muDniy

c) mudqi3 (100%)

11- xayaalun…..a) mubdi3 b) waasi3c) xallaaq d) xiSb

b) waasi3 (85.7%)

d) xiSb (90.5%)

12- jawaabun…..a) saafiy b) murDiyc) muqni3 d) qaati3

a) saafiy (100%)

13- sababun…..a) jayyid b) wajiyhc) muqni3 d) murDiy

b) wajiyh (100%)

14- Sadiyqun…..a) Saduwq b) qariybc) Hamiym d) Haq

X

15- Hayaatun.....a) haniy?ah b) Tayyibahc) sa3iydah d) ragdah

c) sa3iydah (85.7%)

16- jam3un…..a) gafiyr b) kabiyrc) waasi3d) waafir

a) gafiyr (100%)

17- su?aalun…..a) jayyid b) murDiyc) wajiyh d) qawiy

c) wajiyh (95.2%)

18- ginaan…..a) kabiyr b) faaHis

b) faaHis(90.5%)


127

c) muTgiy d) 3aZiym19- Harbun......a) Daruws b) 3aniyfahc) TaHinah d) sarisah

a) Daruws (95.2%)

20- naSrun…..a) 3aZiym b) mu?azzarc) saaHiq d) mubiyn

b) mu?azzar (85.7%)

21-3awaaqibun…..a) waxiymah b) xaTiyrahc) sayyi?ah d) muqiytah

a) waxiymah (95.2%)

22-3uTlatun…..a) 3aammah b) Hukuwmiyyahc) rasmiyyah d)3umuwmiyyah

c) rasmiyyah (85.7%)

23- riyaaHun......a) 3aaSifah b) 3aatiyahc) SarSar d) hawjaa?

X

24- jaysun…..a) 3aramram b) kabiyrc) Daxm d) jarraar

d) jiraar (90.5%)

25- saylun…..a) haa?ij b) gaziyrc) 3arim d) haddaar

c) 3arim (85.7%)

26- Haajatun.....a) maassah b) muliHHahc) Harijah d) sadiydah

a) maassah (100%)

27- najaaHun…..a) marmuwq b) saaHiqc) baliyg d) baahir

d) baahir (90.5%)

28- fasalun…..a) dariy3 b) kabiyrc) muHadiq d) 3aZiym

a) dariy3 (100%)

29- ragbatun……a) muliHHah b) jaamiHahc) 3aarimah d) sadiydah

X

30- jabalun……a) ?asam b) saahiqc) 3aaliy d) saamix

b) saahiq (90.5%)

31- hawaa?un…..a) xaarijiy b) Hurc) Talq d) maksuwf

c) Talq (95.2%)

32- daliylun…..a) bayyin b) saaTi3c) qawiy d) qaaTi3

d) qaaTi3 (95.2%)

33- diqqatun.....a) kabiyrah b) mutanaahiyahc) quSwaa d) baaligah

b) mutanaahiyah (90.5%)

34- nismatun…..a) 3aliylah b) laTiyfahc) xafiyfah d) raxaa?

a) 3aliylah (100%)

35- xabarun…..a) maymuun b) sa3iidc) saar d) mufriH

c) saar (90.5%)

36- saayun…..a) mu3attaq b) murakkazc) mukattaf d) taqiyl

d) taqiyl (100%)

37-?awaamirun….. b) Saarimah (90.5%)


128

a) sadiydah b) Saarimahc) SariyHah d) baaligah38- taklufatun.....a) baahiZah b) 3aaliyahc) gaaliyah d) faaHisah

a) baahiZah (100%)

39- xidmatun.....a) sadiydah b) saamiyahc) nabiylah d) jaliylah

X

40-3uquwbatun…...a) zaajirah b) raadi3ahc) munakkilah d) maani3ah

b) raadi3ah (100%)

41-3aduwun…..a) mubiyn b) sadiydc) laduwd d) ?atiym

c) laduwd (95.2%)

42-?a3daarun…..a) waahiyah b) muxtalaqahc) 3ankabuwtiyah d)3urquwbiyyah

a) waahiyah (100%)

43-Dararun…..a) faadiH b)baaligc) xaTiyr d) jasiym

d) jasiym (95.2%)

44-3aaSifatun…..a) 3aatiyah b) qawiyyahc) hawjaa? d) sadiydah

X

45- fikratun…..a) nayyirah b) sadiydahc) jayyidah d) 3aZiymah

X

46-3ilaajun.....a) saafiy b) naaji3c) mufiyd d) mutmir

b) naaji3 (90.5%)

47- ma3rakatun…..a) 3aniyfah b) TaaHinahc) Daruws d) jabbaarah

b) TaaHinah (90.5%)

48- HaZZun…..a) sa3iyd b) waafirc) jayyid d) 3aZiym

a) sa3iyd (95.2%)

49- Hiqdun…..a) qadiym b) 3atiyqc) dafiyn d) mutagalgil

c) dafiyn (100%)

50- biHaarun…..a) sadiydah b) 3aniyfahc) haa?ijah d) taa?irah

X

Table 7. 2 Noun + adjective Arabic collocations’ results: Arabic Control Group (n=21)


129

7.2.2 Professional Translators’ Group (16 respondents)

The results of the Professional Translators’ Group showed that twelve (24%) of the

fifty examples of verb + object collocations in the first part of the questionnaire

appeared to have no clear preference, thirty eight (76%) had one clear preference and

none (0%) had two clear preferences (see Table 7.3).


130





X


b) nakata (93.8%)


c) imtaTaa (87.5%)


a) istalla (93.8%)


d) ?ataara (100%)


c) ?aSdara (81.3%)


a) naffada (81.3%)


d) ?afsaa (100%)


b) ?abrama (87.5%)


a) darafa (100%)


X


a) Irtakaba (87.5%)


b) badala (100%)


d) xaalafa (100%)


c) iqtafaa (93.8%)


b) Daraba (93.8%)


a) xaaDa (93.8%)


X


131


X


X


X


b) kaZama (81.3%)


X


c) ?aTlaqa (93.8%)


X


b) ?ahdara (93.8%)


c) 3aqada (93.8%)


c) 3aqada (87.5%)


c) ?asdaa (81.3%)


a) sanna (81.3%)


X


c) tawaxxaa (100%)


b) ittaxada (100%)


d) taHammala (100%)


b) intahaza (81.3%)


c) sallaTa (100%)


132

37-….. ?ijraa?ana) Saaga b) 3amilac) ittaxada d) qaddama

c) ittaxada (93.8%)


X

39-….. Dararana) sabbaba b) kawwanac) sakkala d) ?alHaqa

d) ?alHaqa (100%)


c) ?alqaa (100%)


d) ?ajraa (100%)


a) ?ajraa (87.5%)


a) sanna (81.3%)


d) ?adaara (81.3%)


c) laqqana (100%)


X


d) ?aHraza (81.3%)


X


d) Haddada (100%)


a) faqada (100%)

Table 7. 3 Verb + object Arabic collocations’ results: Professional Translators’ Group (n=16)

As for the second part of the questionnaire, thirteen (26%) of the fifty examples of

noun + adjective collocations appeared to have no clear preference, thirty six (72%)

had one clear preference and one (2%) had two clear preferences (see Table 7.4).


133



1- sifaa? un…..


b) taam (100%)


a) gaziyr (100%)


c) zakiyyah (93.8%)


d) kariyhah (93.8%)


a) maftuwlah (100%)


b) qawiyyah (93.8%)


X


d) fattaak (87.5%)


c) faadiH (81.3%)


c) mudqi3 (93.8%)


X


c) muqni3 (81.3%)


b) wajiyh (100%)

14- Sadiiqun…..a) Saduuq b) qariibc) Hamiim d) Haq

X


X


a) gafiyr (100%)


c) wajiyh (100%)


b) faaHis(93.8%)


134


a) Daruws (81.3%)

c) TaHinah (81.3%)


c) saaHiq (87.5%)


a) waxiimah (100%)




X


X


X


a) maassah (87.5%)


d) baahir (81.3%)


a) dariy3 (100%)


X


b) saahiq (87.5%)


c) Talq (100%)


d) qaaTi3 (100%)


b) mutanaahiyah (100%)


a) 3aliylah (93.8%)

35- xabarun…..a) maymuwn b) sa3iydc) saar d) mufriH

c) saar (87.5%)


X

37-?awaamirun….. b) Saarimah (100%)


135


a) baahiZah (100%)


X

40-3uquwbatun…...a) zaajyrah b) raadi3ahc) munakkilah d) maani3ah

b) raadi3ah (93.8%)


c) laduwd (100%)

42-?a3daarun…..a) waahiyah b) muxtalaqahc) 3ankabuutiyah d)3urquubiyyah

a) waahiyah (100%)


d) jasiym (87.5%)

44-3aaSifatun…..a) 3aatiyah b) qawiyyahc) hawjaa? d) sadiidah

X


X


X


b) TaaHinah (81.3%)


a) sa3iyd (100%)


c) dafiyn (100%)


c) haa?ijah (87.5%)

Table 7. 4 Noun + adjective Arabic collocations’ results: Professional Translators’ Group (n=16)


136

7.2.3 Student Translators’ Group (8 respondents)

According to the Student Translators’ Group, twenty seven (54%) of the fifty

examples of verb + object collocations in the first part of the questionnaire appeared

to have no clear preference, twenty three (46%) had one clear preference and none

(0%) had two clear preferences (see Table 7.5).


137





X


X


c) imtaTaa (87.5%)


a) istalla (87.5%)


d) ?ataara (87.5%)


b) ?a3Taa (87.5%)


a) naffada (100%)


d) ?afsaa (87.5%)


a) 3aqada (87.5%)


a) darafa (87.5%)


X


a) Irtakaba (87.5%)


X


d) xaalafa (100%)


X


X


a) xaaDa (87.5%)


X


138


X


X


X


X


X

24-…..liHyaha) waffara b) ?asdalac) ?aTlaqa d) Tawwala

c) ?aTlaqa (87.5%)


X


b) ?ahdara (87.5%)


c) 3aqada (87.5%)


X


X


a) sanna (87.5%)


X


X


b) ittaxada (100%)


d) taHammala (100%)


X


X


139

37-….. ?ijraa?ana) Saaga b) 3amilac) ittaxada d) qaddama

X


X


X


c) ?alqaa (87.5%)


d) ?ajraa (87.5%)


a) ?ajraa (87.5%)


X


d) ?adaara (87.5%)


X


X


X


X


d) Haddada (87.5%)


a) faqada (87.5%)

Table 7. 5 Verb + object Arabic collocations’ results: Student Translators’ Group (n=8)

Twenty-nine (58%) of the fifty examples in the second part of the questionnaire of

noun + adjective collocations appeared to have no clear preference, twenty-one (42%)

had one clear preference and none (0%) had two clear preferences (see Table 7.6).


140



1- sifaa? un…..


b) taam (100%)


a) gaziyr (100%)


c) zakiyyah (87.5%)


d) kariyhah (87.5%)


a) maftuwlah (87.5%)


b) qawiyyah (100%)


X


X


X


X


X


X


X


X


a) haniy?ah (87.5%)


X


X


X


141


X


X


a) waxiymah (87.5%)




X


X


X


a) maassah (100%)


d) baahir (100%)


a) dariy3 (87.5%)


X


X


c) Talq (100%)


X


b) mutanaahiyah (87.5%)


a) 3aliylah (87.5%)

35- xabarun…..a) maymuwn b) sa3iydc) saar d) mufriH

X


X

37-?awaamirun….. b) Saarimah (100%)


142


a) baahiZah (87.5%)


X


X


c) laduwd (100%)


a) waahiyah (87.5%)


X


X


X

46-3ilaajun.....a) saafiy b) naajy3c) mufiyd d) mutmir

X


X


a) sa3iyd (87.5%)

49- Hiqdun…..a) qadiym b) 3atiyqc) dafiin d) mutagalgil

X


c) haa?ijah (100%)

Table 7. 6 Noun + adjective Arabic collocations’ results: Student Translators’ Group (n=8)


143

7.2.4 Decisiveness versus Indecisiveness

This section distinguishes between the three groups involved in the study in terms of

what they strongly accepted as a collocation in the Arabic language. The main

concern of this study, and probably most research conducted in this area, is

collocations of high frequency, strong collocations. That is, those collocations that

are chosen by each of the three different groups in this study as ‘always’ collocating.

This section concentrates on strong collocations by looking at the results of the three

groups in relation to their preference for strong collocations. A strong collocation in

this study, that is, one that the respondents chose as ‘always’ collocating, has a

collocation frequency of 80 per cent or more. The two tables below summarize the

results of the three different groups.


Arabic Control Group (n=21)


(n=16)

Student Translators’ Group (n=8)


d) qaTa3a (85.7%) X X


c) naqaDa (85.7%) b) nakata (93.8%) X


c) imtaTaa (100%) c) imtaTaa (87.5%) c) imtaTaa (87.5%)


a) istalla (95.2%) a) istalla (93.8%) a) istalla (87.5%)


d) ?ataara (100%) d) ?ataara (100%) d) ?ataara (87.5%)


c) ?aSdara (95.2%) c) ?aSdara (81.3%) b) ?a3Taa (87.5%)


X a) naffada (81.3%) a) naffada (100%)

8-….. sirrana) ?adaa3a b) ?a3lana

d) ?afsaa (100%) d) ?afsaa (100%) d) ?afsaa (87.5%)


144

c) kasafa d) ?afsaa9-..... ittifaaqiyyaha) 3aqada b) ?abramac) ?ajraa d) 3amila

b) ?abrama (90.5%) b) ?abrama (87.5%) a) 3aqada (87.5%)


a) darafa (95.2%) a) darafa (100%) a) darafa (87.5%)


b) iqtarafa (85.7%)

d) Irtakaba (85.7%)X X


a) Irtakaba (85.7%) a) Irtakaba (87.5%) a) Irtakaba (87.5%)


b) badala (100%) b) badala (100%) X


d) xaalafa (100%) d) xaalafa (100%) d) xaalafa (100%)


c) iqtafaa (95.2%) c) iqtafaa (93.8%) X


b) Daraba (100%) b) Daraba (93.8%) X


a) xaaDa (100%) a) xaaDa (93.8%) a) xaaDa (87.5%)

18-….. Hariyqana) ?awqada b) ?as3alac) ?ansa?a d) ?aDrama

b) ?as3ala (85.7%) X X

19-….. Tariyqana) banaa b) ?ansa?ac) 3abbada d) sayyada

c) 3abbada (95.2%) X X


b) Haqqaqa (95.2%) X X


X X X


b) kaZama (100%) b) kaZama (81.3%)


a) qaSSa (81%) X X


c) ?aTlaqa (90.5%) c) ?aTlaqa (93.8%) c) ?aTlaqa (87.5%)


a) ?aDaa3a (81%)

b) ?ahdara (85.7%)X X


b) ?ahdara (95.2%) b) ?ahdara (93.8%) b) ?ahdara (87.5%)


145


c) 3aqada (100%) c) 3aqada (93.8%) c) 3aqada (87.5%)


c) 3aqada (90.5%) c) 3aqada (87.5%) X


c) ?asdaa (81%) c) ?asdaa (81.3%) X


a) sanna (100%) a) sanna (81.3%) a) sanna (87.5%)


X X X


c) tawaxxaa (90.5%) c) tawaxxaa (100%) X


X b) ittaxada (100%) b) ittaxada (100%)


d) taHammala (100%) d) taHammala (100%) d) taHammala (100%)


a) igtanama (85.7%)

b) intahaza (100%)

b) intahaza (81.3%) X


c) sallaTa (100%) c) sallaTa (100%) X

37-…..?ijraa?ana) Saaga b) 3amilac) ittaxada d) qaddama

c) ittaxada (90.5%) c) ittaxada (93.8%) X


a) sagila (85.7%) X X


d) ?alHaqa (100%) d) ?alHaqa (100%) X


c) ?alqaa (100%) c) ?alqaa (100%) c) ?alqaa (87.5%)


d) ?ajraa (100%) d) ?ajraa (100%) d) ?ajraa (87.5%)


a) ?ajraa (95.2%) a) ?ajraa (87.5%) a) ?ajraa (87.5%)


a) sanna (81%) a) sanna (81.3%) X


b) tara?asa (81%)

d) ?adaara (85.7%)

d) ?adaara (81.3%) d) ?adaara (87.5%)

45-..... darsan c) laqqana (100%) c) laqqana (100%) X


146

a) 3allama b) fahhamac) laqqana d) ?a3Taa46-….. tiqatana) naala b) kasibac) Haaza d) rabiHa

X X X


d) ?aHraza (81%) d) ?aHraza (81.3%) X


X X X


d) Haddada (100%) d) Haddada (100%) d) Haddada (87.5%)


X a) faqada (100%) a) faqada (87.5%)

Table 7. 7 Results of the questionnaire of Arabic collocations (part one: verb + object collocations)


147


Arabic Control Group (n=21)


(n=16)

Student Translators’ Group (n=8)

1- sifaa? un…..


b) taam (100%) b) taam (100%) b) taam (100%)


a) gaziyr (100%) a) gaziyr (100%) a) gaziyr (100%)


c) zakiyyah (100%) c) zakiyyah (93.8%) c) zakiyyah (87.5%)


d) kariyhah (95.2%) d) kariyhah (93.8%) d) kariyhah (87.5%)


a) maftuwlah (90.5%) a) maftuwlah (100%) a) maftuwlah (87.5%)


b) qawiyyah (95.2%) b) qawiyyah (93.8%) b) qawiyyah (100%)


X X X


d) fattaak (85.7%) d) fattaak (87.5%) X


c) faadiH (85.7%) c) faadiH (81.3%) X


c) mudqi3 (100%) c) mudqi3 (93.8%) X


b) waasi3 (85.7%)

d) xiSb (90.5%)X X


a) saafiy (100%) c) muqni3 (81.3%) X


b) wajiyh (100%) b) wajiyh (100%) X


XX X


c) sa3iydah (85.7%) X a) haniy?ah (87.5%)


a) gafiyr (100%) a) gafiyr (100%) X


c) wajiyh (95.2%) c) wajiyh (100%) X

18- ginaan….. b) faaHis(90.5%) b) faaHis(93.8%) X


148

a) kabiyr b) faaHisc) muTgiy d) 3aZiym19- Harbun......a) Daruws b) 3aniyfahc) TaHinah d) sarisah

a) Daruws (95.2%) a) Daruws (81.3%)

c) TaHinah (81.3%)X


b) mu?azzar (85.7%) c) saaHiq (87.5%) X


a) waxiymah (95.2%) a) waxiimah (100%) a) waxiymah (87.5%)


c) rasmiyyah (85.7%) c) rasmiyyah (93.8%) c) rasmiyyah (87.5%)


X X X


d) jiraar (90.5%) X X


c) 3arim (85.7%) X X


a) maassah (100%) a) maassah (87.5%) a) maassah (100%)


d) baahir (90.5%) d) baahir (81.3%) d) baahir (100%)


a) dariy3 (100%) a) dariy3 (100%) a) dariy3 (87.5%)


XX X


b) saahiq (90.5%) b) saahiq (87.5%) X


c) Talq (95.2%) c) Talq (100%) c) Talq (100%)


d) qaaTi3 (95.2%) d) qaaTi3 (100%) X


b) mutanaahiyah(90.5%) b) mutanaahiyah (100%) b) mutanaahiyah (87.5%)


a) 3aliylah (100%) a) 3aliylah (93.8%) a) 3aliylah (87.5%)

35- xabarun…..a) maymuun b) sa3iidc) saar d) mufriH

c) saar (90.5%) c) saar (87.5%) X


d) taqiyl (100%) X X


149

37-?awaamirun…..a) sadiydah b) Saarimahc) SariyHah d) baaligah

b) Saarimah (90.5%) b) Saarimah (100%) b) Saarimah (100%)

38- taklufatun.....a) baahiZah b) 3aaliyahc) gaaliyah d) faaHisah

a) baahiZah (100%) a) baahiZah (100%) a) baahiZah (87.5%)


X X X


b) raadi3ah (100%) b) raadi3ah (93.8%) X


c) laduwd (95.2%) c) laduwd (100%) c) laduwd (100%)


a) waahiyah (100%) a) waahiyah (100%) a) waahiyah (87.5%)


d) jasiym (95.2%) d) jasiym (87.5%) X


X X X


XX X


b) naaji3 (90.5%) X X


b) TaaHinah (90.5%) b) TaaHinah (81.3%)


a) sa3iyd (95.2%) a) sa3iyd(100%) a) sa3iyd (87.5%)


c) dafiyn (100%) c) dafiyn (100%) X


X c) haa?ijah (87.5%) c) haa?ijah (100%)

Table 7. 8 Results of the questionnaire of Arabic collocations (part two: noun + adjective collocations)


150

The results of the questionnaiare of Arabic collocations, as shown in the two previous

tables, obviously show that there was a significant difference in the level of

decisiveness and, therefore, knowledge of Arabic verb + object and noun + adjective

collocations between the three groups involved in the study. The greatest significant

difference was found between the Arabic Control Group and the Student Translators’

Group, followed by the difference between the Professional Translators’ Group and

the Student Translators’ Group, and, finally, the difference between the Arabic

Control Group and the Professional Translators’ Group. The following two tables

summarize the results of the three different groups in terms of their decisiveness.

Group No ClearPreference

One Clear Preference


Arabic Control Group7/50 (14%) 39/50 (78%) 4/50 (8%)

Professional Translators

12/50 (24%) 38/50 (76%) 0/50 (0%)

Student Translators 27/50 (54%) 23/50 (46%) 0/50 (0%)

Table 7. 9 Part one: verb + object collocations. Summary table of numbers and percentages of preferences among the three groups

Group No Clear Preference

One Clear Preference


Arabic Control Group8/50 (16%) 41/50 (82%) 1/50 (2%)

Professional Translators

13/50 (26%) 36/50 (72%) 1/50 (2%)

Student Translators 29/50 (58%) 21/50 (42%) 0/50 (0%)

Table 7. 10 Part two: noun + adjective collocations. Summary table of numbers and percentages of preferences among the three groups


151

7.2.4.1 Arabic Control Group

The Arabic Control Group was more decisive than the Professional Translators’

Group and much more decisive than the Student Translators’ Group. In the first part

of the questionnaire, the verb + object collocations, they were decisive in forty-three

examples of fifty (86%), and only indecisive in the remaining seven examples (14%).

As for the second part of the questionnaire, the noun + adjective collocations, the

Arabic Control Group were decisive in forty-two examples of fifty (84%), and only

indecisive in the remaining eight examples (16%).

7.2.4.2 Professional Translators’ Group

The Professional Translators’ Group was less decisive than the Arabic Control

Group, but much more decisive than the Student Translators’ Group. In the first part

of the questionnaire, the verb + object collocations, they were decisive in thirty-eight

examples of fifty (76%) and indecisive in the other twelve examples (24%).

As for part two of the questionnaire, the noun + adjective collocations, the

Professional Translators’ Group were decisive in thirty-seven examples of fifty (74%)

and indecisive in the other thirteen examples (26%).


152

7.2.4.3 Student Translators’ Group

The Student Translators’ Group was considered indecisive. They were much less

decisive than both the Arabic Control Group and the Professional Translators’ Group.

In addition, they were indecisive in the majority of examples in both parts of the

questionnaire. In the first part of the questionnaire, the verb + object collocations,

they were decisive in only twenty-three examples of fifty (46%) and indecisive in the

other twenty-seven examples (54%).

As for the second part of the questionnaire, the noun + adjective collocations, the

Student Translators’ Group were decisive in only twenty-one examples of fifty (42%)

and indecisive in the other twenty-nine examples (58%).

7.2.4.4 Discussion

The results of the questionnaire of Arabic collocations show the range of decisiveness

among the three different groups involved in this study. The Arabic Control Group,

as expected, was the most decisive group; the Professional Translators’ Group was

less decisive; and, finally, the Student Translators’ Group was indecisive.

A question that follows from this finding is, “why should there be such differences

between the three groups involved in this study?” All professional and student

translators as a basic requirement for being translators or trainee translators should be

equally fluent in both languages, English and Arabic, not to mention that (87.5%) of


153

the professional translators and (100%) of the student translators were native speakers

of Arabic. Yet their abilities in making collocation judgments still fell behind those of

the Arabic Control Group. The professional translators were more decisive than the

student translators, however, there was still a difference between their collocational

knowledge and those of the Arabic Control Group. Even when disregarding their

general performance in English-Arabic translation, the Professional Translators’

Group and the Student Translators’ Group were still not on the same scale as the

Arabic Control Group, at least in terms of collocational knowledge.

There are many possible reasons to explain the differences between the Arabic

Control Group and the two other groups. The following reasons may, at least, partly

account for these differences. For example, the Arabic Control Group respondents

may have been quite confident in selecting their preferences. One definite reason

would be that all the respondents were native speakers of Arabic and were

postgraduate students of either Arabic linguistics or literature, which was not

necessarily the case with the other two groups. Besides this, all the respondents in the

Arabic Control Group did not speak English fluently nor did they speak any other

language. They also knew, from the information sheet, that the researcher was using

them as a control group for the study and that the results from the two other groups

would be compared against theirs, which may have given them more confidence in

filling out the questionnaire. The respondents of the Professional Translators’ Group

were less decisive, probably because of the influence of the English collocations that

were given to them in the translation test prior to the questionnaire of Arabic


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collocations. The same could apply to the respondents of the Student Translators’

Group, only that the student translators were indecisive. The differences between the

Arabic Control Group and the two other groups could be the result of the latter

groups’ learning Arabic without an emphasis on collocations, but rather simply

learning words in isolation. Another possible reason might be that some professional

and student translators were not aware of the phenomenon of collocation at all.

As for the difference between professional and student translators, there may be many

other possible reasons to account for this. The Professional Translators’ Group may

have studied Arabic longer than the Student Translators’ Group (which was a factor

the questionnaire did not consider). It might be that the professional translators, as

full-time practitioners, were more exposed to Arabic texts than the student translators.

Therefore, the more frequently a person is exposed to a particular collocation in

Arabic (or in any other language), the more likely they are to know it and, therefore,

produce it appropriately.

Finally, it may be assumed that the professional and student translators’ knowledge of

Arabic verb + object and noun + adjective collocations may not have been reflected

accurately by the questionnaire of Arabic collocations, and thus such differences

between those two groups and the Arabic Control Group could have been due to

factors such as the questionnaire’s complexity and the test conditions. The impact of

educational and language exposure variation between the groups, as well as the

influence of a myriad of other factors, would require further research and


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investigation beyond the scope of this thesis to ascertain their relative weight and

would appear to have relatively little effect on the respondents’ specific knowledge-

base examined in this study.

The conclusion that can be drawn, therefore, is that the Arabic Control Group’s

knowledge of Arabic verb + object and noun + adjective collocations is better than

the Professional Translators’ Group and much better than the Student Translators’

Group. This conclusion becomes even more significant when we consider that

collocations are not taught explicitly in translation schools, which probably suggests

that collocations may be acquired unconsciously.


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7.3 Section two: Characteristics of Arabic collocations

Collocation was defined in the introductory chapter as the tendency of certain words

in a language to combine with one another, as against others that do not have this

tendency, and the meaning of which can be deduced from at least one of the

components of the collocation. This section attempts to discuss the characteristics of

Arabic verb + object and noun + adjective collocations. In this section, this author

distinguishes collocations from other multi-word expressions that may have a similar

grammatical structure but that are of dissimilar semantic types such as idiomatic

expressions.

The following are the most significant thirteen characteristics identified by this author

of Arabic verb + object and noun + adjective collocations: 1- Collocations consist of

two or more words. 2- Semantic transparency. 3- Arbitrariness. 4- Unpredictability.

5- Language-specificity. 6- Flexibility of word order. 7- Cannot be replaced by a

synonym. 8- Formality. 9- Possibility of addition. 10- Possibility of a change in tense.

11-Possibilty of passivization. 12- Possibility of pluralization. 13- Possibility of

collocational range expansion.

These characteristics are now presented and explained in more detail below.


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7.3.1 Collocations consist of two or more words

A collocation consists of two or more words in the Arabic language. It contains at

least a ‘base’ and a ‘collocate’ (Nicolas, 1995:234). A collocation cannot consist of

one word only, otherwise it would not be considered a collocation. This applies even

to components of unique collocations (see 6.4.1 below), where one word in a

collocation is restrictedly used with only one other word. For example, عقدم رقف

faqrun mudqi3 (abject poverty). Although the adjective عقدم mudqi3 (abject)

uniquely collocates with the noun رقف faqr (poverty), the adjective cannot just be

used separately and called a collocation. Both the noun and adjective have to be used.

7.3.2 Semantic transparency

Collocations are characterized as semantically transparent. That is, the meaning of a

collocation can clearly be deduced from at least one of its constituent parts. At least

one of the words in a collocation should be used in its literal, non-figurative sense. If

the meaning of an expression was semantically opaque, it could not be considered a

collocation. Thus, the meaning of the whole collocation can be clearly understood

from at least one of the constituent parts of the combination.

For example, ادهع عطق qaTa3a 3ahdan(He made a pact.) (literally: He cut a pact.).

Although the word عطق qaTa3a(to cut) is used figuratively, the meaning of the

expression can still be predicted from the other component of the collocation, دهع

3ahd(a pact), which is used in its literal, transparent sense.


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7.3.3 Arbitrariness

A collocation is said to be arbitrary (Benson et al., 1986). That is, the words are

joined together arbitrarily to form a collocation. There is no logical or semantic

reason why word X would collocate with word Y. Take for example the noun +

adjective collocation ديعس ظح HaZZun sa3iyd (good luck). The noun ظح HaZZ

(luck) in Arabic arbitrarily collocates with the adjective ديعس sa3iyd (happy), which

literally means happy. There is no reason why it should collocate with this particular

word and not with another. It could be asked why it would not collocate with the

adjective ديج jayyid (good), which means good, as in English. This question cannot

be answered from a semantic basis. It is simply a matter of convention.

7.3.4 Unpredictability

The association between the components of a collocation is unpredictable (Benson et

al, 1986). Collocations are not predictable on the basis of syntactic or semantic rules.

This characteristic especially applies to non-native speakers of Arabic, as a native

speaker of Arabic should be able to predict collocations. However, this

unpredictability feature depends on several factors. One factor would be education,

because written Arabic differs from spoken in terms of collocation. In spoken Arabic,

speakers tend to use generic or neutral verbs such as, لعف fa3ala (to do), لمع

3amila (to make), or ـب ماق qaama bi (to perform), and generic or neutral adjectives

such as, ريبك kabiyr (big), or ريثك katiyr (plenty). These generic or neutral

words are interesting, because these verbs or adjectives could be used with almost


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any noun in Arabic. These generic or neutral verbs and adjectives are characterised

generally by their high frequency and universality of meaning. The more educated the

speaker is the more they would be able to predict collocations and the less educated

the less able to predict. Thus, the more the speaker is exposed to Modern Standard

Arabic through reading and listening the more they would be able to predict and,

therefore, demonstrate acceptable collocations.

Another factor in unpredictability arises from the speaker being multilingual or even

bilingual. If a person speaks another language(s) they may not be able easily to

predict collocations. There could be the possibility of language interference from the

other language(s).

7.3.5 Language-specificity

What collocates with a word in one language does not necessarily collocate with the

same word in another language. In other words, a collocation in one language may be

totally different in another. For example, in English the noun news collocates with the

adjective good, however, the same noun in Arabic, رابخأ ?axbaar (news), collocates

with a different adjective, which is ةراس saarrah(happy).


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7.3.6 Flexibility of word order

Another characteristic of collocations in the Arabic language is the flexibility of word

order. One can possibly change the order of words in a collocation. The following

examples illustrate this feature:

1.a- xayaalun waasi3 (rich imagination); or [noun + adjective] خیال واسع

1.b- .waasi3u al-xayaal (rich imagination) [adjective + noun] لايخلا عساو

2.a- raa?iHatun zakiyyah (a good smell); or [noun + adjective] ةيكز ةحئار

2.b- zakiyyi al-raa?iHah (a good smell) [adjective + noun] ةحئارلا يكز

In example 1.a, the collocation عساو لايخ xayaalun waasi3 (rich imagination) is a

noun + adjective collocation. It is possible to change the word order of this

collocation. The collocation can be, as in example 1.b, an adjective + noun

collocation, waasi3u al-xayaal (rich imagination). The same applies to لايخلا عساو

examples 2.a and 2.b. In Arabic, one could say ةيكز ةحئار raa?iHatun zakiyyah (a

good smell), a noun + adjective collocation. One could also say زكي الرائحة zakiyyi al-

raa?iHah (a good smell), an adjective + noun collocation.


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7.3.7 Cannot be replaced by a synonym

Arabic is a language that is rich in synonyms (Blau, 1981:95). Nevertheless, it has

been generally argued in semantics that true or real synonymy does not exist in

language and that no two words have exactly the same meaning (Zughoul, 1991:48;

Nilsen & Nilsen, 1975:154-5). Palmer (1981) states that it is unlikely that two

different words with exactly the same meaning would both survive in a language. In

some respects, there is a difference in meaning between synonyms. Nilsen and Nilsen

(1975) state that this difference in meaning between synonyms may be a difference in

collocation.

Substituting a synonym for one of the words of a collocation usually results in an

unacceptable collocation. Take for instance the collocation افيس لتسا istalla

sayfan (he drew a sword). Although the verbs لتسا istalla (to draw) and رج jarra

(to draw) are synonyms, the latter cannot substitute for the former.

7.3.8 Formality

Most, but not all, collocations are formal in usage. In idiomatically extended

collocations (see idiomatic extensions of collocations section below), for example,

where all the components of a collocation are not used in their literal sense, the

collocation can be substituted by formal words to express the same meaning. That is

unlike other semantic patterns of collocations, where a collocation cannot usually be

substituted by other better words in order to express the same meaning. The


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idiomatically extended collocation ذرف دموعا darafa dumuw3an (he shed tears), for

example, can be used in its literal non-idiomatic sense and be called a collocation,

and can also be used in a non-literal idiomatic sense meaning to show sadness.

Therefore, an idiomatically extended collocation in its non-literal idiomatic sense can

be substituted by formal words used in their literal sense.

7.3.9 Possibility of addition

Addition is another characteristic of collocation. It is possible to add a word to the

components of a collocation. For example, ةميرج بكترا irtakaba jariymah (he

committed a crime) is a collocation. If we add an adjective to modify the noun in the

previous collocation, it will still remain a collocation; ةضماغ ةميرج بكترا irtakaba

jariymah gaamiDah (he committed a mysterious crime).

7.3.10 Possibility of a change in tense

One can possibly change the tense of a verb in a collocation. For example, أطخ فرتقا

iqtarafa xaTa?an (he made a mistake) in the past tense is a collocation, and فرتقي

yaqtarifu xaTa?an(he makes a mistake) in the present tense is also definitely a أطخ

collocation. Changing the tense of a verb in a collocation will not change other

features of collocability.


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7.3.11 Possibility of passivization

The formation of the passive voice in a collocation is possible in most cases. The

choice between using the active or passive voice in Arabic is a matter of style, not

correctness. However, the active voice is described as more natural, direct, lively and

succinct. Furthermore, Arabic passives rarely include an agent clause (Carroll, 1993).

For example, 3 عقد اجتماعاaqada ijtimaa3an (he held a meeting) is active, and عقد اجتماع

3uqida ijtimaa3un (a meeting was held) is passive. Thus, a verb in a collocation could

be active or passive. Another example is بذل جھدا badala juhdan (he exerted an effort)

where the verb is in the active voice, and بذل جھد budila juhdun (an effort was

exerted).

7.3.12 Possibility of pluralization

Another characteristic of collocations in the Arabic language is the possibility of

using the plural form of a noun in a collocation. Consequently, if the plural form is

possible in some collocations in Arabic, then the singular form is possible in others.

The examples below illustrate this point.

1.a- Singular noun: ريزغ رطم maTarun gaziyr (heavy rain)

1.b- Plural noun: ةريزغ راطمأ ?amTaarun gaziyrah (heavy rains)


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2.a- Singular noun: ارمأ ردصأ ?aSdara ?amran (he gave an order)

2.b- Plural noun: ارماوأ ردصأ ?aSdara ?awaamiran (he gave orders)

In example 1.a, the singular noun رطم maTar (rain) collocates with the adjective

gaziyr (literally: abundant). At the same time, the plural form of the same ريزغ

noun is also possible. In example 1.b, the plural noun راطمأ ?amTaar (rains) also

collocates with the same adjective, which is ةريزغ gaziyrah (literally: abundant).

The same applies to verb + object collocations. In example 2.a, the verb ردصأ

?aSdara (literally: to issue) collocates with the singular noun رمأ ?amr(an order). The

same verb can also collocate with the plural form of the same noun. Therefore, in

example 2.b, the verb ردصأ ?aSdara (literally: to issue) can also collocate with the

plural noun رماوأ ?awaamir (orders).

7.3.13 Possibility of collocational range expansion

A collocational range of a word is, according to Lyons (1995:62), “the set of contexts

in which it can occur”. Gully (1993) states that certain words in modern Arabic may

possibly expand their collocational range (although classified by Gully as a semantic

feature of modern Arabic). That is, a word over time may gain new collocates. The

examples below illustrate this point.


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1- indala3at al-Harb (war broke out) اندلعت الحرب

2- indala3at al-iDTiraabaat (disturbances broke out) اندلعت الاضطرابات

3- indala3at al-taZaahuraat (demonstrations broke out) اندلعت التظاھرات

Gully (1993) points out that although the verb اندلع indala3a (to break out) usually

collocates with حرب Harb (war), its collocational range has expanded. Examples 2

and 3 above show that the verb اندلع indala3a (to break out) may possibly collocate

with other nouns in modern Arabic. Gully (1993:51) further explains that the

expansion of the collocational range of a word in modern Arabic refers to “a certain

similarity of meaning”. Therefore, all of the examples above reflect some kind of

intensification of hostility, probably with the idea of some force involved, and

demonstrate a generally negative sense.


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7.4 Section three: Semantic and distributional patterning of Arabic

collocations

This section discusses the semantic and distributional patterning of collocations in the

Arabic language. It answers the questions, do the components of collocations differ in

their tendency to collocate with one another, and, if they do differ, into what semantic

patterns do they fall? It partly follows a classification of English collocations by Hill

(2000). This classificatory system is based on the strength of the attraction between

the components of the particular collocation. Unfortunately, his classification is not

based on empirical data.

The semantic and distributional classification in this section accords with the

restrictedness between the components of the examples of collocations used in this

study. This classification is based on the results of the questionnaire of Arabic

collocations given to the Arabic Control Group. The questionnaire used in this study

is based on a scale of frequency of collocability. The scale is as follows: always

collocating (strong collocations), occasionally collocating (acceptable collocations),

seldom collocating (weak collocations), and never collocating (unacceptable

collocations). Since the respondents of the Arabic Control Group did not achieve

what this author set as the threshold level of frequency (80% or more) for denoting

acceptable or weak collocations, then these two patterns will not be examined below.


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The lexical relationship of collocations can be ascertained by their frequency, but also

by the semantic relationship between the components. In addition to the four patterns

proposed above, there are three further specifically semantic patterns of collocations

proposed by this author for this study. These semantic patterns are: unique

collocations, metaphorical collocations, and idiomatic extensions of collocations.

These three categories represent patterns of meaning, whereas the previous four

patterns (strong collocations, acceptable collocations, weak collocations, and

unacceptable collocations) represent the range of frequency with which they were

identified as collocations (their strength of attraction) by the respondents in the

Arabic Control Group. Meaning and frequency are simply two sides, qualitative and

quantitative, of the semantic and distributional patterning presented in this study.

7.4.1 Strong collocations

A strong collocation was when the respondents in the Arabic Control group gave a

frequency of 80 percent or more to the alternative of ‘always’ collocating with the

head noun in the sentence. This pattern will, hopefully, help to clearly establish in the

field of Arabic linguistics examples of strong collocations in the Arabic language

according to the Arabic Control Group in the study.

Below are examples of strong collocations and their frequencies drawn from of the

data of this study.

1- Verb + object strong collocations


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Verb + object collocation English equivalent Frequencyقطع عھدا qata3a 3ahdan

To make a pact 85.7%

انقض عھدnaqaDa 3ahdan

To break a promise 85.7%

امتطى جواداimtaTaa jawaadan

To ride a horse 100%

افيس لتساistalla sayfan

To draw a sword 95.2%

جدلا أثار?ataara jadalan

To open a debate 100%

أمرا أصدر?aSdara ?amran

To give an order 95.2%

أفشى سرا?afsaa sirran

To reveal a secret 100%

أبرم اتفاقیة?abrama ittifaaqiyyah

To make a deal 90.5%

دموعا ذرفDarafa dumuw3an

To shed tears 95.2%

خطأ اقترفiqtarafa xaTa?an

To make a mistake 85.7%

خطأ ارتكبirtakaba xaTa?an

To make a mistake 85.7%

ارتكب جریمةirtakaba jariymatan

To commit a crime 85.7%

بذل جھداBadala juhdan

To make an effort 100%

خالف قانوناXaalafa qaanuwnan

To violate a law 100%

اقتفى أثراIqtafaa ?ataran

To keep track 95.2%

مثلا ضربDaraba matalan

To give an example 100%

معركة خاضXaaDa ma3rakatan

To fight a battle 100%

حریقا أشعل?as3ala Hariyqan

To start a fire 85.7%

عبد طریقا3abbada Tariyqan

To build a road 95.2%

حقق ھدفاHaqqaqa hadafan

To achieve a goal 95.2%

كظم غیظاkaZama gayZan

To suppress rage 100%

قصة قصqaSSa qiSSatan

To tell a story 81%

لحیة أطلق To grow a beard 90.5%


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?aTlaqa liHyahوقتا أضاع

?aDaa3a waqtanTo waste time 81%

أھدر وقتا?ahdara waqtan

To waste time 85.7%

عقد اجتماعا3aqada ijtimaa3an

To hold a meeting 100%

عقد مؤتمرا3aqada muw?tamaran

To hold a conference 90.5

أسدى خدمة?asdaa xidmatan

To do a favour 81%

حربا شنsanna Harban

To wage a war 100%

حذرا توخىtawaxxaa Hadaran

To exercise caution 90.5%

ةمسؤولی تحملtaHammala mas?uwliyyah

To take responsibility 100%

اغتنم فرصةigtanama furSatan

To seize an opportunity 85.7%

انتھز فرصةintahaza furSatan

To seize an opportunity 100%

سلط ضوءاsallaTa Daw?an

To shed light 100%

اتخذ إجراءاittaxada ?ijraa?an

To adopt a measure 90.5%

شغل منصباsagila maSiban

To hold a position 85.7%

ألحق ضررا?alHaqa Dararan

To cause damage 100%

ألقى خطابا?alqaa xiTaaban

To make a speech 100%

أجرى اتصالا?ajraa ittiSaalan

To make a call 100%

أجرى تجربة?ajraa tajribatan

To conduct an experiment 95.2%

سن قانوناsanna qaanuwnan

To pass a law 81%

شركة ترأسTara?asa sarikatan

To run a company 81%

شركة أدار?adaara sarikatan

To run a company 85.7%

درسا لقنlaqqana darsan

To teach a lesson 100%

أحرز انتصارا?aHraza intiSaaran

To score a victory 81%

اھدف حدد To set a goal 100%


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Haddada hadafan

Table 7. 11 Verb + object strong collocations in Arabic

2- Noun + adjective strong collocations

Noun + adjectivecollocation

English equivalent Frequency

تام شفاءsifaa? Taam

A full recovery 100%

مطر غزیرmaTarun gaziyr

Heavy rain 100%

رائحة زكیةraa?iHatun zakiyyah

A sweet smell 100%

رائحة كریھةraa?iHatun kariyha

A bad smell 95.2%

عضلات مفتولة3aDalaatun maftuwlah

Strong muscles 90.5%

ذاكرة قویةdaakiratun qawiyyah

A good memory 95.2%

سلاح فتاكsilaaHun fattaak

A deadly weapon 85.7%

خطأ فادحxaTa?un faadiH

A serious mistake 85.7%

فقر مدقعFaqrun mudqi3

Great poverty 100%

واسع خیالxayaalun waasi3

Great imagination 85.7%

خصب خیالxayaalun xiSb

Great imagination 90.5%

شافي جوابjawaabun saafiy

A satisfactory answer 100%

سبب وجیھsababun wajiyh

A good reason 100%

حیاة سعیدةHayaatun sa3iydah

A good life 85.7%

جمع غفیرjam3un gafiyr

A large crowd 100%

سؤال وجیھSuw?aalun wajiyh

A good question 95.2%

غنى فاحشginaan faaHis

Great wealth 90.5%

حرب ضروسHarbun Daruws

A vicious war 95.2%


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مؤزرنصر naSrun muw?azar

A great victory 85.7%

عواقب وخیمة3awaaqibun waxiymah

Serious consequences 95.2%

عطلة رسمیة3uTlatun rasmiyyah

A public holiday 85.7%

جیش جرارjaysun jarraar

A large army 90.5%

سیل عرمsaylun 3arim

A raging flood 85.7%

حاجة ماسةHaajatun maassah

An urgent need 100%

نجاح باھرnajaaHun baahir

A great success 90.5%

فشل ذریعfasalun dariy3

A complete failure 100%

جبل شاھقjabalun saahiq

A high mountain 90.5%

ھواء طلقhawaa?un Talq

Open air 95.2%

دلیل قاطعdaliylun qaaTi3

Hard evidence 95.2%

دقة متناھیةdiqqatun mutanaahiyah

Great accuracy 90.5%

نسمة علیلةnismatun 3aliylah

A gentle breeze 100%

خبر سارxabarun saar

Good news 90.5%

شاي ثقیلsaayun taqiyl

Strong tea 100%

أوامر صارمة?awaamirun Saarimah

Strict orders 90.5%

باھظةتكلفة taklufatun baahiZah

A high cost 100%

عقوبة رادعة3uquwbatun raadi3ah

A severe punishment 100%

عدو لدود3aduwun laduwd

A bitter enemy 95.2%

أعذار واھیة?a3daarun waahiyah

Lame excuses 100%

ضرر جسیمDararun jasiym

Serious damage 95.2%

علاج ناجع3ilaajun naaji3

An effective treatment 90.5%

معركة طاحنةMa3rakatun TaaHinah

A fierce battle 90.5%


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حظ سعیدHaZZun sa3iyd

Good luck 95.2%

حقد دفینHiqdun dafiyn

Deep hostility 100%

Table 7. 12 Noun + adjective strong collocations in Arabic

In the first part of the questionnaire (the verb + object collocations), the Arabic

Control Group managed to confirm that forty-three examples of fifty (86%) were

strong collocations. However, they failed to identify the remaining seven examples

(14%).

As for the second part of the questionnaire (the noun + adjective collocations), the

Arabic Control Group managed to confirm that forty-two examples of fifty (84%)

were strong collocations, while they failed to identify the remaining eight examples

(16%).

There are two reasons that could possibly account for the Arabic Control Group’s

failure in identifying strong collocations in seven of fifty (14%) of the items in the

first part of the questionnaire (the verb + object collocations), and eight of fifty (16%)

of the items in the second part (the noun + adjective collocations). The first reason

could be that there might be more than one alternative of the four that, in the

respondents’ opinion, could make a strong collocation if combined with the head

noun in the sentence. Therefore, the distribution of the results shows that there was

not even one single strong collocation identified by the respondents. Another possible


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reason could be that there are actually no strong collocations for those particular

items. That is, there is no strong association between any of the four alternatives

provided for each of those items and the head noun. For example, in item 31 in the

first part of the questionnaire, the noun خلاف xilaaf (a dispute) did not prove to have

a strong association with any of the four verbs provided in the questionnaire (to

resolve: أصلح ?aSlaHa, فك fakka, سوى sawwaa, and فض faDDa), nor did any of the

respondents suggest a verb that could possibly collocate with the head noun and carry

the same meaning.

7.4.2 Unique collocations

When one of the constituents of a collocation is uniquely used with another, one can

call this lexical relationship collocational uniqueness. However, Emery (1988a) uses

the term bound collocations in his classification of collocations to present this

phenomenon. In Arabic, this constituent can only be a verb in a verb + object

collocation and can only be an adjective in a noun + adjective collocation. Cowie

(1981:228) describes this type of word combination as a ‘bridge’ form between other

types of collocations and idioms. The tendency for a word to be used with only one

other word is an indication of its contextual uniqueness. Emery (1988a:29-30) states

that this type of relation is relatively uncommon in English. Exceptional examples

would be to foot the bill and to curry favour. However, the derivational richness of

the Arabic language frequently allows a particular word (in this study a verb or an

adjective) to be reserved for a specific collocate (in this study the noun). This applies


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to both types of collocations involved in this study, that is, verb + object and noun +

adjective.

For this pattern of collocation, Arabic monolingual dictionaries and dictionaries of

meaning were consulted to check the collocability of the verbs and adjectives with

other nouns. Internet search-engines were also used as sources for the examples used

here of occurrences of verbs and adjectives collocating (forming unique collocations)

with other nouns, and to determine how frequently they co-occurred. The author,

being a native speaker, also used his knowledge of Arabic to identify unique

collocations in the examples for this study. Two monolingual teachers of Arabic, very

recent arrivals in Australia, were consulted too. They both confirmed that the

examples below represent collocational uniqueness.

In this semantic pattern, according to the Arabic Control Group, the components of

the unique collocations scored a frequency of 80 percent or more as ‘always’

collocating with each other. It was found that all the examples of unique collocations

as determined by this author were selected by the Arabic Control Group to be strong

collocations. The tabulated examples below of verb + object collocations illustrate

collocational uniqueness.

1- Verb + object unique collocations


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Verb + object collocation English equivalent Frequency

a-اداوج ىطتما

imtaTaa jawaadan

To ride a horse 100%

b- افيس لتسا

istalla sayfan

To draw a sword 95.2%

c- ارس ىشفأ

?afsaa sirran

To reveal a secret 100%

d- اعومد فرذ

darafa dumuw3an

To shed tears 95.2%

e- ارثأ ىفتقا

iqtafa ?ataran

To keep track 95.2%

f- اقيرط دبع

3abbada Tariyqan

To build a road 95.2%

g- ةمدخ ىدسأ

?asdaa xidmatan

To do a favour 81%

h- ارذح ىخوت

tawaxxaa Hadaran

To exercise caution 90.5%

i- ةصرف زهتنا

intahaza furSatan

To seize an opportunity 100%

Table 7. 13 Verb + object unique collocations in Arabic

In each of the cases above of verb + object unique collocations, the verb collocates

uniquely with a certain noun and is not likely to be used with any other noun in

Arabic. For example, the verb امتطى imtaTaa (to ride) in Arabic is restricted in

denotation or applicability to riding on horseback. Therefore, it can only collocate

with the noun جواد jawaad (a horse).


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If any of the examples of the verbs above were given to native speakers of Arabic, the

listener or reader very likely would know what the following noun should be. In other

words, the verb in each of the above examples is restricted to that sense and

invariably cannot be used in any other sense or with any other noun in Arabic. Nine

examples of fifty (18%) verb + object collocations in this study illustrate


The other group of examples that illustrates collocational uniqueness containing noun

+ adjective collocations were as follows.

2- Noun + adjective unique collocations

Noun +adjective collocation English equivalent Frequency

a- ةيكز ةحئار

raa?iHatun zakiyyah

A sweet smell 100%

b- ةلوتفم تالضع

3aDalaatun maftuwlah

strong muscles 90.5%

c- حداف أطخ

xaTa?un faadiH

A serious mistake 85.7%

d- عقدم رقف

faqrun mudqi3

great poverty 100%

e- ريفغ عمج

jam3un gafiyr

A large crowd 100%

f- شحاف ىنغ

ginan faaHis

great wealth 90.5%

g- A vicious war سورض برح 95.2%


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Harbun Daruws

h- رزؤم رصن

naSrun muw?azar

A great victory 85.7%

i- ةميخو بقاوع

3awaaqibun waxiymah

serious consequences 95.2%

j- رارج شيج

jaysun jarraar

A large army 90.5%

k- مرع ليس

saylun 3arim

A raging flood 85.7%

l- ةسام ةجاح

Haajatun maassah

An urgent need 100%

m- رهاب حاجن

najaaHun baahir

great success 90.5%

n- عيرذ لشف

fasalun dariy3

complete failure 100%

o- قهاش لبج

jabalun saahiq

A high mountain 90.5%

p- ةليلع ةمسن

nismatun 3aliylah

A gentle breeze 100%

q- ةظهاب ةفلكت

taklufatun baahiZah

A high cost 100%

r- ةعدار ةبوقع

3uquwbatun raadi3ah

A severe punishment 100%

s- دودل ودع

3aduwun laduwd

A bitter enemy 95.2%

t- ةيهاو راذعأ

?a3daarun waahiyah

lame excuses 100%

u- ميسج ررض

Dararun jasiym

serious damage 95.2%

v- عجان جالع

3ilaajun naaji3

An effective treatment 90.5%


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w- ةنحاط ةكرعم

ma3rakatun TaaHinah

A fierce battle 90.5%

Table 7. 14 Noun + adjective unique collocations in Arabic

In each example above of noun + adjective unique collocations, the adjective

uniquely collocates with a particular noun and is not likely to collocate with any other

noun in Arabic. For example, the adjective زكي zakiy (nice) in Arabic is restricted in

denotation or applicability to smells. Therefore, it can only collocate with the noun

.raa?iHah (a smell) رائحة

The adjective in each of the above examples is restricted to that sense and invariably

cannot be used in any other sense or with any other noun in Arabic. Twenty-three

examples of fifty (46%) noun + adjective collocations in this study illustrate


The number of noun + adjective collocations (23/50 = 46%) that illustrate

collocational uniqueness appears to be more than the number of verb + object

collocations (9/50 = 18%). This shows that the phenomenon of collocational

uniqueness is generally more common in attributive structures than in verbal

structures in the Arabic language.


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7.4.3 Metaphorical collocations

A metaphor is a figurative usage of language largely for aesthetic emotive and

expressive purposes. This follows Ullmann’s (1962:136) definition of a metaphor as

“an implicit use of figurative language which is used for emotive and expressive

purposes”. A metaphor has, in addition to its literal sense or meaning, another sense

or meaning, which is figurative.

Many collocations in languages can be metaphorical. These collocations can be called

metaphorical collocations. Only metaphorical collocations of a frequency of 80

percent or more as ‘always’ collocating according to the Arabic Control Group were

considered in this study. That is, all the examples of metaphorical collocations are

strong collocations at the same time.

Below are examples of metaphorical collocations drawn from the data of this study.


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1- Verb + object metaphorical collocations

Verb + object metaphorical collocation English equivalent Literal translation

a- ادهع عطق

qaTa3a 3ahdan

to make a pact to cut a pact

b- الثم برض

Daraba matalan

to give an example to hit an example

c- اعامتجا دقع

3aqada ijtimaa3an

to hold a meeting to tie a meeting

d- اباطخ ىقلأ

?alqaa xiTaaban

to make a speech to throw a speech

Table 7. 15 Verb + object metaphorical collocations in Arabic

The first example above, the collocation قطع عھدا qaTa3a 3ahdan (to make a pact), is

an example of metaphorical collocation, because the verb قطع qaTa3a (literally: to

cut) is used metaphorically. The same applies to the other three examples of verb +

object metaphorical collocations in the table above. The verb ضرب Daraba

(literally: to hit) in example (b) is used metaphorically in the metaphorical

collocation ضرب مثلا Daraba matalan (to give an example). In the third example,

example (c), the verb 3 عقدaqada (literally: to tie) is also used metaphorically in the

metaphorical collocation 3 عقد اجتماعاaqada ijtimaa3an (to hold a meeting).

Similarly, in example (d) the verb ألقى ?alqaa (literally: to throw) is used

metaphorically in the metaphorical collocation ألقى خطابا ?alqaa xiTaaban (to make a

speech).


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2- Noun + adjective metaphorical collocations

Noun + adjective metaphorical

collocation

English equivalent Literal

translation

a- بصخ لايخ

xayaalun xiSb

great imagination fertile imagination

b- يفاش باوج

jawaabun saafiy

A satisfactory answer a healing answer

c- عطاق ليلد

daliylun qaaTi3

hard evidence cutting evidence

d- ليقث ياش

saayun taqiyl

strong tea heavy tea

Table 7. 16 Noun + adjective metaphorical collocations in Arabic

The first example above, the collocation خیال خصب xayaalun xiSb (great

imagination), is an example of metaphorical collocation, because the adjective خصب

xiSb (literally: fertile) is used metaphorically. The same applies to the other three

examples of noun + adjective metaphorical collocations in the table above. The

adjective شافي saafiy (literally: healing) in example (b) is used metaphorically in the

metaphorical collocation جواب شافي jawaabun saafiy (a satisfactory answer). In the

third example, example (c), the adjective قاطع qaaTi3 (literally: cutting) is also used

metaphorically in the metaphorical collocation دلیل قاطع daliylun qaati3 (hard

evidence). Similarly, in example (d) the adjective ثقیل taqiyl (literally: heavy) is used

metaphorically in the metaphorical collocationشاي ثقیل saayun taqiyl (strong tea).


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As can be seen from the results, some of the examples in this study fall into the

pattern of metaphorical collocations. This may indicate that metaphor plays an

important role in constructing collocations in the Arabic language.

7.4.4 Idiomatic extensions of collocations

An idiom, in contrast with a collocation, is a fixed expression, the meaning of which

“cannot be predicted from the normal meaning of its component words” (Healey et

al., 1998:75). The meaning of a collocation, on the other hand, can be predicted from

at least one of its constituent words. However, some collocations can be used in an

idiomatic non-literal sense, and thus can be called idiomatic extensions of

collocations, so that the meaning of the whole can no longer be derived from the

meaning of the parts. These collocations, in addition to their literal non-idiomatic

sense or meaning (making them appropriate for inclusion in this study), have another

meaning, which is idiomatic and non-literal. The examples of Arabic collocations

presented in this study are not used in an idiomatic non-literal sense.

An idiomatically extended collocation would be one getting a frequency of 80 percent

or more as ‘always’ collocating according to the Arabic Control Group. That is, all

the examples of idiomatically extended collocations are strong collocations at the

same time.

The examples of idiomatic extensions of collocations below illustrate this point.


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Idiomatically

extended collocation

Literal non-Idiomatic

Meaning

Non-literal

Idiomatic meaning

a- اعومد فرذ

darafa dumuw3an

To shed tears To show sadness

b- اءوض طلس

SallaTa Daw?an

To shed light To focus

c- اقيرح لعشأ

?as3ala Hariyqan

To start a fire To cause trouble

Table 7. 17 Examples of idiomatic extensions of collocations

In the first example above, اعومد فرذ darafa dumuw3an (literally: to shed tears) can

be used in its literal non-idiomatic sense and called a collocation. It can also be used

in a non-literal idiomatic sense (and thus be called an idiom), meaning to show

sadness. Similarly, the second example, اءوض طلس sallaTa Daw?an (literally: to

shed light), can also be used in its literal non-idiomatic sense, meaning to shed light.

Another meaning can be added to it, which is non-literal and idiomatic (forming an

idiom), meaning to focus. Again the third example, حریقا أشعل ?as3ala Hariyqan

(literally: to start a fire) can be used in its literal non-idiomatic sense, meaning to start

a fire (and thus be a true collocation), and can also be used, in another context, in a

non-literal idiomatic sense meaning to cause trouble (as an idiom).

This brings us to the conclusion that Arabic collocations may gain an idiomatic

meaning depending on their usage. This tentatively confirms Emery’s (1988a:31)

view that collocation may be one of the routes towards idiomaticity.


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7.4.5 Unacceptable collocations

An unacceptable collocation, or as termed by Healey et al. (1998) a collocational

clash, is simply to “put words together which sound unnatural to a native speaker”

(Healey et al, 1998:72). Baker (1992:54) gives the following example of an

unacceptable collocation in the Arabic language: القانون كسر kasara al-qaanuwn (to

break the law). She states that the common collocation in Arabic would be فلاخ

xaalafa al-qaanuwn (literally: to contradict the law). In this study, an نوناقلا

unacceptable collocation would be where the Arabic Control Group gave a frequency

of response in the questionnaire to an alternative verb or adjective collocating with

the head noun in the sentence of 80 percent or more as ‘never’ collocating.

The following are examples of unacceptable collocations according to the Arabic

Control Group in this study.

1- Verb + object unacceptable collocations


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Unacceptable verb + object

collocation

English equivalent Strong Arabic collocation(s)

according to Arabic Control

Group

a- *اداوج دعص

Sa3ida jawaadan

To ride a horse اداوج ىطتما

imtaTaa jawaadan

b- افيس رج*

jara sayfan

To draw a sword افيس لتساistalla sayfan

c-*ارماوأ حنم

manaHa ?awaamiran

To give orders در أوامراأص?aSdara ?awaamiran

d- اعومد عقوأ*

?awqa3a dumuu3an

To shed tears اعومد فرذ

darafa dumuu3an

e- أطخ مدق*

qaddama xaTa?an

To make a mistake أطخ بكترا/فرتقاiqtarafa/irtakaba xaTa?an

f- ةميرج مدق*

qaddama jariymatan

To commit a crime جریمةارتكب

irtakaba jariymatan

g- رثأ دراط*

Taarada ?ataran

To keep track ارثأ ىفتقا

iqtafaa ?ataran

h- الثم ىقلأ*

?alqaa matalan

To give an example الثم برض

Daraba matalan

i- ةكرعم ازغ*

gazaa ma3rakatan

To fight a battle ةكرعم ضاخ

xaaDa ma3rakatan

j- شیّّد طریقا*

sayyada Tariiqan

To build a road اقيرط دبع

3abbada Tariiqan

k- اظيغ عمق*

qama3a gayZan

To suppress rage اظيغ مظك

kaZama gayZan

l- ةصق دشنأ*

?ansada qiSSatan

To tell a story ةصق صق

qaSSa qiSSatan

m- ارذح سرام*

maarasa Hadaran

To exercise caution ارذح ىخوت

tawaxxaa Hadaran

n- ارذح قفار*

raafaqa Hadaran

To exercise caution ارذح ىخوت

tawaxxaa Hadaran


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o-*ارارق لمع

3amila qaraaran

To make a decision -----------

p- ارارق زجنأ*

?anjaza qaraaran

To make a decision -----------

q- اءوض لزنأ*

?anzala Daw?an

To shed light طلس اءوض

sallaTa Daw?an

r- اباطخ ىطعأ*

?a3Taa xiTaaban

To make a speech اباطخ ىقلأ

?alqaa xiTaaban

s- اباطخ لقن*

naqala xiTaaban

To make a speech اباطخ ىقلأ

?alqaa xiTaaban

t- الاصتا ىدأ*

?addaa ittiSaalan

To make a call الاصتا ىرجأ

?ajraa ittiSaalan

u- الاصتا مدق*

qaddama ittiSaalan

To make a call الاصتا ىرجأ

?ajraa ittiSaalan

v- ةكرش مكح*

Hakama sarikatan

To run a company ةكرش سأرت/رادأ

?adaara/tara?asa sarikatan

w- اراصتنا لمع*

3amila intiSaaran

To score a victory اراصتنا زرحأ

?aHraza intiSaaran

x- اهابتنا مدق*

qaddama intibaahan

To pay attention -------

Table 7. 18 Unacceptable verb + object collocations in Arabic


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2- Noun + adjective unacceptable collocations

Unacceptable noun + adjective

collocation

English

equivalent

Strong Arabic collocation

according to Arabic Control

Group

a- *زجان ءافش

sifaa?un naajiz

full recovery مات ءافش

sifaa?un taam

b- عساو عمج*

jam3un waasi3

a large crowd ريفغ عمج

jam3un gafiyr

c-*قدحم لشف

fasalun muHadiq

complete failure عيرذ لشف

fasalun dariy3

d- فثكم ياش*

saayun mukattaf

strong tea ليقث ياش

saayun taqiyl

Table 7. 19 Unacceptable noun + adjective collocations in Arabic

All of the examples above, according to the Arabic Control Group in this study,

represent examples of unacceptable collocations. That is, collocations that would

sound unnatural or non-native-like when read or heard by a native speaker of Arabic.

The Arabic Control Group in this study confirmed that twenty-four verb + object

collocations in the first part of the questionnaire (the verb + object collocations) were

unacceptable. However, they only confirmed that four noun + adjective collocations

in the second part of the questionnaire (the noun + adjective collocations) were

unacceptable. That is, there were much more unacceptable verb + object collocations

than noun + adjective collocations. Importantly for the findings of this thesis, this

may suggest that verb + object collocations are more restricted in the Arabic language

than noun + adjective collocations.


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7.5 Conclusion

The first section of this chapter presented the results of the questionnaire of Arabic

collocations. The most important finding was the degree of relative decisiveness

shown by the three different respondent groups in selecting the range of acceptable

collocations. The section showed that the Arabic Control Group was the most

decisive group; the Professional Translators’ Group was less decisive; and, finally,

the Student Translators’ Group was indecisive.

In the second section, by drawing on the Arabic equivalents of the random sample of

collocations found in the translation test of English collocations into Arabic, it

became apparent that there were thirteen significant characteristics relating to the

semantics of Arabic collocations, especially when focusing on verb + object and noun

+ adjective collocations. Most importantly, a pioneering distinction by this author is

the characterising of collocations as separate from other semantic types that have

similar grammatical structures but which are of a dissimilar semantic type (such as

idioms).

The chapter also discussed the semantic and distributional patterning of collocations

in the Arabic language. In this study, a major contribution would be that the Arabic

Control Group helped to ascertain the frequency of usage of some strong

collocations, and denoted unacceptable collocations in the Arabic language. This was

used, along with several other sources, to test other findings relating to semantic


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propositions regarding collocations. It was also found that all the examples of unique

collocations as determined by this author were proven, at the same time, to be strong

collocations by the Arabic Control Group. From the results, it can be seen that some

of the examples in this study fall into the metaphorical collocation pattern. This may

suggest that metaphor plays an important role in forming collocations in the Arabic

language and has significant implications for translation. This study also suggests that

Arabic collocations may gain an idiomatic meaning depending on their usage, which

could lead to the conclusion that collocation may be one of the routes towards

idiomaticity. From the results, this study also indicates importantly that verb + object

collocations are more restricted in usage than noun + adjective collocations in the

Arabic language.

The next chapter will discuss the results of the other data collection tool used, the

translation test of English collocations into Arabic, and relate these to the results of

the questionnaire of Arabic collocations in the current chapter. This will be done in

terms of the respondents’ competence with Arabic collocations and their performance

in translating English collocations into Arabic.

Chapter eight: Results & discussion: Translation test of English collocations into Arabic

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8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: TRANSLATION

TEST OF ENGLISH COLLOCATIONS INTO

ARABIC

8.1 Introduction

As defined earlier in this thesis, a collocation is the tendency for certain words in a

language to combine with one another, as against others that do not have this

tendency of combining together, and the meaning of which can be deduced from at

least one of the components of the collocation. Collocations are a source of difficulty

for translators. The reason for this difficulty is that collocations, in most cases,

“cannot be translated on a word-by-word basis” (Smadja et al., 1996:5). The

translator should know the meaning of the collocation as a whole in the source

language and then render it into an acceptable equivalent collocation typically used in

the target language. Therefore, in order to produce a fluent translation of a full

sentence, “it is necessary to know the specific translation for each of the source

collocations” (Smadja et al., 1996:6). Furthermore, the equivalents of words that

collocate in one language do not necessarily collocate in another (Zughoul, 1991). As

a consequence, some collocations may sound odd and be misapplied when translated


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(Zughoul & Abdul-Fattah, 2003).

This chapter has two main sections. The first section in this chapter presents the

results of the Translation Test of English Verb + Object and Adjective + Noun

Collocations into Arabic given to the two translation groups involved in this study,

the Student Translators’ Group and the Professional Translators’ Group. This section

presents the findings of the translation test in relation to the following research

questions of this study.

What are the translation outcomes observed in the Student Translators’ Group

when rendering English verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into

Arabic?

What are the translation outcomes observed in the Professional Translators’


collocations into Arabic?

The aim of the first section is to point out all the acceptable and unacceptable

translation outcomes from the student and professional translators’ attempts to render

the one hundred examples of English verb + object and adjective + noun


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collocations into Arabic. Another aim of section one is to try to account for the errors

apparent in the translation of the English collocations into Arabic. It also aims to

point out the differences and similarities between the translation outcomes of the

Student Translators’ Group and the Professional Translators’ Group.

The second section of this chapter discusses the translation outcomes established by

the Student Translators’ Group and the Professional Translators’ Group for rendering

English verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic. The outcomes

will be discussed in detail using examples from the data. The second section of this

chapter attempts to answer the following research questions:

What are the most common outcomes in the translations of the English verb +

object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic?, how frequently did the

Student Translators’ Group and Professional Group resort to each one of the

translation outcomes?

One objective of this section is to define and discuss the outcomes of translating

English verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic. Another

objective is to state how frequently the Student Translators’ Group and the

Professional Translators’ group resorted to each of the translation outcomes.


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8.2 Section one: Results of the translation test of English

collocations into Arabic

The Translation Test of English Collocation into Arabic was given to two different

groups: the Student Translators’ Group and the Professional Translators’ Group. The

test consisted of one hundred relatively short English sentences each of which was to

be translated into Arabic. Each one of the one hundred sentences contained an

example of an English collocation. The first fifty examples contained verb + object

collocations, while the second fifty contained adjective + noun collocations. This

section presents the results of the translation test of English collocations into Arabic.

The results of the Translation Test of English collocations into Arabic given to the

Student Translators’ Group and the Professional Translators’ Group are presented

below.


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8.2.1 The outcomes of translating the English verb + object collocations

into Arabic

Tables 8.1 and 8.2 below demonstrate the differing results of the student and

professional translators’ attempts to produce Arabic equivalents of the fifty English

examples of verb + object collocations. The variety of translations is evident in the

differing renditions of the source language collocations. Such attempts are referred to

in this study as translation outcomes.

The two tables below, Tables 8.1 and 8.2, present the examples of English verb +

object collocations, the translation outcomes of each example, and the frequency of

each outcome. Table 8.1 presents the results of the Student Translators’ Group, while

Table 8.2 presents the results of the Professional Translators’ Group.


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Translation Outcomes

Verb + object collocationStrong

collocation Encapsulating Neutralizing Paraphrasing Malapropism Calquing Mistranslating Omitting

Unacceptable

collocation

1- to make a pact 8/8

2- to break a promise 1/8 5/8 2/8

3- to ride a horse 3/8 5/8

4- to draw a sword 3/8 4/8 1/8

5- to open a debate 5/8 3/8

6- to give orders 1/8 1/8 6/8

7- to follow instructions 8/8

8- to reveal a secret 3/8 5/8

9- to make a deal 1/8 6/8 1/8

10- to shed tears 7/8 1/8

11- to make a mistake 5/8 2/8 1/8

12- to commit a crime 6/8 2/8

13- to make an effort 5/8 1/8 2/8

14- to violate law 2/8 5/8 1/8

15- to keep track 2/8 2/8 3/8 1/8

16- to give an example 3/8 5/8

17- to fight a battle 5/8 1/8 2/8

18- to start a fire 7/8 1/8

19- to build a road 8/8

20- to achieve a goal 7/8 1/8

21- to get a score 4/8 4/8

22- to suppress rage 1/8 6/8 1/8

23- to tell a story 2/8 5/8 1/8

24- to grow a beard 4/8 2/8 2/8

25- to waste time 8/8


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26- to waste energy 6/8 2/8

27- to hold a meeting 6/8 2/8

28- to hold a conference 8/8

29- to do a favour 1/8 3/8 4/8

30- to wage a war 5/8 2/8 1/8

31- to resolve a dispute 8/8

32- to exercise caution 4/8 2/8 1/8 1/8

33- to make a decision 1/8 7/8

34- to take responsibility 6/8 2/8

35- to seize an opportunity 4/8 4/8

36- to shed light 1/8 1/8 6/8

37- to adopt measures 3/8 2/8 3/8

38- to hold a position 4/8 2/8 2/8

39- to cause damage 4/8 4/8

40- to make a speech 8/8

41- to make a call 4/8 1/8 2/8 1/8

42- to conduct an experiment 6/8 2/8

43- to pass a law 1/8 7/8

44- to run a company 8/8

45- to teach a lesson 6/8 2/8

46- to win confidence 1/8 5/8 1/8 1/8

47- to score victory 1/8 5/8 2/8

48- to pay attention 4/8 1/8 3/8

49- to set a goal 2/8 4/8 1/8 1/8

50- to lose consciousness 8/8

Total

152/400

(38%) 18/400 (4.5%)

151/400

(37.75%) 4/400 (1%) 2/400 (.5%)

31/400

(7.75%) 39/400 (9.75%)

3/400

(.75%) 0/400 (0%)

Table 8. 1 Translation outcomes of verb + object Collocations: Student Translators' Group (n= 8)


197

Translation Outcomes

Verb + object collocationStrong

collocation Encapsulating Neutralizing Paraphrasing Malapropism Calquing Mistranslating Omitting

Unacceptable

collocation

1- to make a pact 1/16 10/16 3/16 1/16 1/16

2- to break a promise 1/16 13/16 2/16

3- to ride a horse 8/16 8/16

4- to draw a sword 9/16 6/16 1/16

5- to open a debate 14/16 2/16

6- to give orders 6/16 1/16 9/16

7- to follow instructions 16/16

8- to reveal a secret 1/16 15/16

9- to make a deal 3/16 13/16

10- to shed tears 15/16 1/16

11- to make a mistake 14/16 2/16

12- to commit a crime 12/16 4/16

13- to make an effort 8/16 2/16 5/16 1/16

14- to violate law 3/16 4/16 8/16 1/16

15- to keep track 6/16 5/16 4/16 1/16

16- to give an example 3/16 13/16

17- to fight a battle 11/16 1/16 1/16 3/16

18- to start a fire 12/16 3/16 1/16

19- to build a road 15/16 1/16

20- to achieve a goal 13/16 1/16 2/16

21- to get a score 13/16 3/16

22- to suppress rage 5/16 11/16

23- to tell a story 2/16 11/16 3/16

24- to grow a beard 6/16 9/16 1/16

25- to waste time 16/16


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26- to waste energy 13/16 1/16 2/16

27- to hold a meeting 14/16 2/16

28- to hold a conference 13/16 1/16 2/16

29- to do a favour 7/16 6/16 3/16

30- to wage a war 12/16 4/16

31- to resolve a dispute 16/16

32- to exercise caution 6/16 1/16 3/16 2/16 1/16 3/16

33- to make a decision 15/16 1/16

34- to take responsibility 13/16 2/16 1/16

35- to seize an opportunity 10/16 4/16 2/16

36- to shed light 3/16 12/16 1/16

37- to adopt measures 6/16 1/16 8/16 1/16

38- to hold a position 6/16 6/16 4/16

39- to cause damage 1/16 14/16 1/16

40- to make a speech 7/16 3/16 2/16 1/16 3/16

41- to make a call 10/16 2/16 3/16 1/16

42- to conduct an experiment 10/16 5/16 1/16

43- to pass a law 2/16 9/16 3/16 2/16

44- to run a company 14/16 2/16

45- to teach a lesson 15/16 1/16

46- to win confidence 2/16 14/16

47- to score victory 5/16 6/16 4/16 1/16

48- to pay attention 8/16 6/16 2/16

49- to set a goal 11/16 4/16 1/16

50- to lose consciousness 15/16 1/16

Total

313/800

(39.125%)

29/800

(3.625%)

309/800

(38.625%) 8/800 (1%) 6/800 (.75%)

78/800

(9.75%) 48/800 (6%)

5/800

(.625%) 4/800 (.5%)

Table 8. 2 Translation outcomes of verb + object Collocations: Professional Translators' Group (n= 16)


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8.2.2 The outcomes of translating the English adjective + noun

collocations into Arabic

Tables 8.3 and 8.4 below demonstrate the different types of student and

professional translators’ attempts to produce Arabic equivalents of the other fifty

examples of English collocations, adjective + noun collocations.

The two tables below, Tables 8.3 and 8.4, present the examples of English

adjective + noun collocations, the translation outcomes of each example, and the

frequency of each outcome. Table 8.3 presents the results of the Student

Translators’ Group, while Table 8.4 presents the results of the Professional

Translators’ Group.


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Translation OutcomesAdjective + Noun Collocation

Strong collocation Neutralising Paraphrasing Missing adjective Calquing Mistranslating Omitting

1- a full recovery 1/8 2/8 3/8 2/8

2- heavy rain 5/8 2/8 1/8

3- a sweet smell 5/8 1/8 1/8 1/8

4- a bad smell 5/8 2/8 1/8

5- strong muscles 8/8

6- a good memory 4/8 4/8

7- tender feelings 7/8 1/8

8- a deadly weapon 1/8 1/8 6/8

9- a serious mistake 4/8 2/8 2/8

10- great poverty 5/8 2/8 1/8

11- great imagination 5/8 2/8 1/8

12- a satisfactory answer 4/8 4/8

13- a good reason 2/8 3/8 3/8

14- a close friend 6/8 2/8

15- a good life 1/8 3/8 1/8 3/8

16- a large crowd 1/8 1/8 5/8 1/8

17- a good question 3/8 5/8

18- great wealth 3/8 1/8 2/8 2/8

19- a vicious war 1/8 7/8

20- a great victory 1/8 1/8 6/8

21- serious consequences 2/8 4/8 1/8 1/8

22- a public holiday 6/8 1/8 1/8

23- heavy winds 7/8 1/8

24- a large army 2/8 2/8 3/8 1/8

25- a raging flood 2/8 3/8 1/8 2/8


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26- an urgent need 2/8 6/8

27- a great success 3/8 1/8 2/8 1/8 1/8

28- a complete failure 4/8 3/8 1/8

29- a great desire 7/8 1/8

30- a high mountain 2/8 1/8 5/8

31- open air 7/8 1/8

32- hard evidence 2/8 6/8

33- great accuracy 3/8 4/8 1/8

34- a gentle breeze 3/8 2/8 3/8

35- good news 1/8 7/8

36- strong tea 3/8 3/8 1/8 1/8

37- strict orders 2/8 4/8 1/8 1/8

38- a high cost 7/8 1/8

39- a big favour 3/8 5/8

40- a severe punishment 7/8 1/8

41- bitter enemies 7/8 1/8

42- lame excuses 4/8 2/8 2/8

43- a serious damage 2/8 3/8 3/8

44- a heavy storm 6/8 2/8

45- a great idea 5/8 3/8

46- an effective treatment 1/8 7/8

47- a fierce battle 5/8 3/8

48- good luck 5/8 1/8 2/8

49- deep hostility 1/8 4/8 2/8 1/8

50- heavy seas 4/8 1/8 3/8

Total 108/400 (27%)

134/400

(33.5%)

9/400

(2.25%) 18/400 (4.5%) 101/400 (25.25%) 29/400 (7.25%) 1/400 (.25%)

Table 8. 3 Translation outcomes of adjective + noun Collocations: Student Translators' Group (n= 8)


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Translation OutcomesAdjective + Noun Collocation

Strong collocation Neutralising Paraphrasing Missing adjective Calquing Mistranslating Omitting

1- a full recovery 5/16 6/16 5/16

2- heavy rain 13/16 1/16 2/16

3- a sweet smell 6/16 8/16 1/16 1/16

4- a bad smell 10/16 3/16 3/16

5- strong muscles 1/16 15/16

6- a good memory 11/16 5/16

7- tender feelings 13/16 2/16 1/16

8- a deadly weapon 4/16 11/16 1/16

9- a serious mistake 7/16 4/16 1/16 4/16

10- great poverty 8/16 5/16 2/16 1/16

11- great imagination 10/16 6/16

12- a satisfactory answer 1/16 7/16 8/16

13- a good reason 8/16 8/16

14- a close friend 12/16 4/16

15- a good life 1/16 9/16 2/16 3/16 1/16

16- a large crowd 1/16 1/16 8/16 4/16 2/16

17- a good question 3/16 2/16 11/16

18- great wealth 14/16 1/16 1/16

19- a vicious war 1/16 15/16

20- a great victory 4/16 12/16

21- serious consequences 8/16 6/16 1/16 1/16

22- a public holiday 13/16 2/16 1/16

23- heavy winds 16/16

24- a large army 1/16 6/16 9/16

25- a raging flood 2/16 12/16 2/16


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26- an urgent need 1/16 9/16 2/16 4/16

27- a great success 4/16 2/16 4/16 1/16 4/16 1/16

28- a complete failure 9/16 7/16

29- a great desire 13/16 2/16 1/16

30- a high mountain 2/16 3/16 11/16

31- open air 14/16 2/16

32- hard evidence 2/16 14/16

33- great accuracy 7/16 7/16 2/16

34- a gentle breeze 4/16 1/16 10/16 1/16

35- good news 7/16 9/16

36- strong tea 7/16 2/16 1/16 6/16

37- strict orders 9/16 3/16 4/16

38- a high cost 10/16 6/16

39- a big favour 1/16 1/16 11/16 3/16

40- a severe punishment 13/16 3/16

41- bitter enemies 15/16 1/16

42- lame excuses 13/16 1/16 1/16 1/16

43- a serious damage 5/16 9/16 1/16 1/16

44- a heavy storm 12/16 2/16 2/16

45- a great idea 12/16 4/16

46- an effective treatment 1/16 15/16

47- a fierce battle 3/16 6/16 5/16 2/16

48- good luck 13/16 1/16 1/16 1/16

49- deep hostility 10/16 2/16 3/16 1/16

50- heavy seas 10/16 2/16 4/16

Total 229/800 (28.625%)

269/800

(33.625%) 24/800 (3%) 30/800 (3.75%)

197/800

(24.625%)

47/800

(5.875%) 4/800 (.5%)

Table 8. 4 Translation outcomes of adjective + noun Collocations: Professional Translators' Group (n= 16)


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8.2.3 Acceptable versus unacceptable translation outcomes

In this analysis, the concern is with what translation outcomes there are and the

frequencies of each outcome. Thus, the first step was to inspect the unacceptable

collocations, those conforming to the Arabic Control Group’s choices or

preferences of unacceptable collocations (see Chapter Seven). The next step was

to point out the strong collocations, those conforming to the Arabic Control

Group’s choices of strong collocations (see Chapter Seven). Therefore, the

choices made by the Arabic Control Group judge the legitimacy of the Arabic

collocations. The rest of the translation outcomes were classified by the

researcher. Finally, all translation outcomes were further classified into two

categories, acceptable and unacceptable translation outcomes. An acceptable

translation outcome would be one where a student or professional translator

rendered the English collocation into Arabic correctly, while an unacceptable

translation outcome would be one where a student or professional translator

rendered the English collocation into Arabic incorrectly. Acceptable and

unacceptable translation outcomes are illustrated in the tables below.


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Translating English Verb + Object Collocations into ArabicAcceptable Translation Outcomes Unacceptable Translation Outcomes Student Translators(n=8)

Professional Translators(n=16)

Student Translators(n=8)


Strong collocation 38% Strong collocation 39.125% Malapropism 0.5% Malapropism 0.75%

Encapsulating 4.5% Encapsulating 3.625% Calquing 7.75% Calquing 9.75%

Neutralising 37.75% Neutralising 38.625% Mistranslating 9.75% Mistranslating 6%

Paraphrasing 4% Paraphrasing 1% Omitting 0.75% Omitting 0.625%

-------------------------- -------------------------------- Unacceptable collocation 0% Unacceptable collocation 0.5%

Total 81.25% Total 82.375% Total 18.75% Total 17.625%

Table 8. 5 Outcomes of translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic

Table 8.5 above presents a summary of the results of the first part of the

translation test of English collocation into Arabic. That is, the part that contained

English verb + object collocations to be translated into Arabic.

Translating English Adjective + Noun Collocations into ArabicAcceptable Translation Outcomes Unacceptable Translation Outcomes Student Translators(n=8)


Student Translators(n=8)


Strong collocation 27% Strong collocation 28.625% Missing adjective 4.5% Missing adjective 3.75%

Neutralising 33.5% Neutralising 33.625% Calquing 25.25% Calquing 24.625%

Paraphrasing 2.25% Paraphrasing 3% Mistranslating 7.25% Mistranslating 5.875%

----------------------------- ------------------------------------ Omitting 0.25% Omitting 0.5%

Total 62.75% Total 65.25% Total 37.25% Total 34.75%

Table 8. 6 Outcomes of translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic

As for Table 8.6 above, it presents a summary of the results of the second part of

the translation test of English collocations into Arabic. That is, the part that

contained English adjective + noun collocations to be translated into Arabic.

The following analysis will discuss both acceptable and unacceptable translation

outcomes. However, more focus will be on the unacceptable translation outcomes.

A question that has to be asked here is, “what are the sources of errors that


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provoke the production of unacceptable translation outcomes when translating

English verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic?”

The inspection of the results of the Student Translators’ Group yielded a

frequency of 18.75% of instances of unacceptable translation outcomes when

translating the English verb + object collocations, and a frequency of 37.25%

when translating the English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic.

As for the Professional Translators’ Group, they yielded 17.625% of unacceptable

translation outcomes when translating the English verb + object collocations, and

34.75% when translating the English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic.

There are several possible reasons to account for the production of these errors.

Firstly, the influence from the source language, which is English. This resulted

mainly in transferring the source language collocation directly into Arabic

(calquing). Secondly, the misunderstanding of the meaning of the source language

collocation. This resulted in either mistranslating the English collocation, omitting

part of the collocation, or even not translating the collocation at all.

Another possible reason to account for the production of errors in translating

English verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic is time

constraint, as neither the student translators nor the professional


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translators were paid to participate in this study. This probably led the student and

professional translators to translate the sentences hurriedly and without revising

them when completed. Moreover, there were one hundred relatively short

sentences to be translated, which in a situation of time constraint would be

considered to be a large number of sentences.

It should also be pointed out that the production of unacceptable translation

outcomes could possibly be attributed to the use of general-purpose bilingual

dictionaries. The use of such dictionaries with their lists of context-free words

without any detailed explanations or examples of collocations could be another

source of producing unacceptable translation outcomes.

8.3 Section two: Translation outcomes

Data analysis demonstrated nine different translation outcomes employed by the

student and professional translators when translating the English verb + object

examples of collocations into Arabic and seven outcomes when translating the

adjective + noun examples of collocations into Arabic. Some of these outcomes,

although referred to as ‘strategies’ by some other researchers, were identified in

the literature proposed by Shakir and Farghal (1992) (for details of Shakir and

Farghal’s study see Chapter Four).


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The nine different translation outcomes of translating the English verb + object

collocations into Arabic were: strong collocation, encapsulating, neutralizing,

paraphrasing, malapropism, calquing, mistranslating, omitting, and unacceptable

collocation. The seven different outcomes of translating the English adjective +

noun collocations into Arabic were: strong collocation, neutralizing, paraphrasing,

missing adjective, calquing, mistranslating, and omitting.

Below is a definition of each and discussion of each of the translation outcomes

found in the study.

8.3.1 Translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic

The translation of the English verb + object collocations into Arabic resulted in

nine different outcomes, four of which were considered to be acceptable

translation outcomes, while the rest of the five were considered to be unacceptable

translation outcomes. The acceptable translation outcomes provided by the

Student Translators’ Group and the Professional Translators’ Group were: strong

collocation, encapsulating, neutralizing, and paraphrasing. The unacceptable

translation outcomes were: malapropism, calquing, mistranslating, omitting, and

unacceptable collocation. Each translation outcome is defined and discussed in

detail below.


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8.3.1.1 Strong collocation

“Strong collocation” indicates that the example was translated into Arabic by a

collocation suggested as a strong collocation by the Arabic Control Group in the

previous chapter, Chapter Seven. Needless to say, this is the most accurate

translation outcome that student or professional translators could achieve, because

whenever there is an equivalent strong collocation in the target language,

translators should use it.

In translating the examples of English verb + object collocations into Arabic, this

outcome scored a frequency of 38% with the student translators’ group and

39.125% with the professional translators’ group. Fortunately, this percentage is

the highest for both groups.

Producing a strong collocation in the target language indicated that the student or

professional translator knew the best equivalent target collocation for the source

collocation and then applied it.

Examples of strong collocation outcomes from the two groups are presented

below.


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Source language collocation Strong collocation providedTo break a promise naqaDa 3ahdan نقض عھداTo ride a horse imtaTaa jawaadan امتطى جواداTo draw a sword istalla sayfan استل سیفاTo give an order aSdara ?amran? أصدر أمراTo reveal a secret afsaa sirran? أفشى سراTo make a deal abrama ittifaaqiyyatan? أبرم اتفاقیةTo shed tears darafa dumuw3an ذرف دموعاTo make a mistake ب خطأارتك irtakaba xaTa?anTo commit a crime irtakaba jariymatan ارتكب جریمةTo make an effort badala juhdan بذل جھداTo violate a law xaalafa qaanuwnan خالف قانوناTo give an example Daraba matalan ضرب مثلاTo fight a battle xaaDa ma3rakatan خاض معركةTo start a fire as3ala Hariyqan? أشعل حریقاTo achieve a goal Haqaqa hadafan حقق ھدفاTo suppress rage kaZama gayZan كظم غیظاTo tell a story qaSSa qiSSatan قص قصةTo grow a beard أطلق لحیة ?aTlaqa liHyatanTo waste time aDaa3a waqtan? أضاع وقتاTo hold a meeting 3aqada ijtimaa3an عقد اجتماعاTo hold a conference 3aqada muw?tamaran عقد مؤتمراTo do a favour asdaa xidmatan? أسدى خدمةTo wage war sanna Harban شن حرباTo exercise caution tawaxxaa Hadaran توخى حذراTo take responsibility taHammala mas?uwliyyatan تحمل مسؤولیةTo seize an opportunity intahaza furSatan انتھز فرصةTo seize an opportunity igtanama furSatan اغتنم فرصةTo shed light سلط ضوءا sallaTa Daw?anTo adopt a measure ittaxada ?ijraa?an اتخذ إجراءاTo hold a position sagila manSiban شغل منصباTo make a speech ألقى خطابا ?alqaa xiTaabanTo make a call ajraa ittiSaalan? أجرى اتصالاTo conduct an experiment ajraa tajrubatan? أجرى تجربةTo pass a law sanna qaanuwnan سن قانوناTo run a company adaara sarikatan? أدار شركةTo score victory aHraza intiSaaran? أحرز انتصاراTo set a goal حدد ھدفا Haddada hadafan

Table 8. 7 Examples of the strong collocation translation outcome (Translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic)

The above table presents the equivalent strong collocations in Arabic for those in

the source language. The table illustrates the examples of English verb + object


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collocations and their equivalent strong collocations in target language, Arabic.

8.3.1.2 Encapsulating

Lyons (1978) was first to introduce the term “encapsulation” in linguistics. By

encapsulation, he meant that an expression in one language could be represented

by “a single lexeme with roughly the same meaning” (Lyons, 1978:262).

Encapsulation is one of the acceptable translation outcomes in the translation of

English verb + object collocations into Arabic. By resorting to this outcome, the

student or professional translator encapsulated the verb + object collocation in

English into a single verb in Arabic, which gave almost the same meaning. While

encapsulation was one of the translation outcomes of translating English verb +

object collocations into Arabic, it is not possible to encapsulate an English

adjective + noun collocation into just a single word in Arabic. By doing so, the

result would be a mistranslation.

Encapsulation accounted for a frequency of 4.5% of the instances in the Student

Translators’ Group and 3.625% in the Professional Translators’ Group.

Examples of encapsulation are presented below.


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Source language collocation Encapsulation examplesTo make a pact تعاھد ta3aahadaTo give an order amara? أمر To keep track tatabba3a تتبعTo keep track ta3aqqaba تعقبTo keep track taaba3a تابعTo fight a battle Haaraba حاربTo make a decision qarrara قررTo make a call ittaSala اتصلTo pay attention تبھان intabaha

Table 8. 8 Examples of encapsulation (Translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic)

Encapsulation was possible with only a few number of examples. It is not possible

to render all English verb + object collocations into only a verb in Arabic. This

outcome shows that translators do not have to follow the English verb + object

collocation word-for-word. Alternatively, they can resort to encapsulation as long

as the meaning is not affected.

8.3.1.3 Neutralising

This is when the student or professional translator could not recall a specific verb

in the target language to describe an action and resorted to using a neutral or

generic verb such as, لعف fa3ala (to do), 3 لمعamila (to make), or ـب ماق

qaama bi (to perform). Although neutralising is considered an acceptable

translation outcome in this study, it is not recommended that translators neutralise

a collocation, especially if an equivalent strong collocation is available.

These generic or neutral verbs used when neutralising in translation could be used

with almost any noun in Arabic. They are characterised generally by their


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frequent usage and universality of meaning.

The translation outcome of neutralising accounted for 37.75% of the instances in

the Student Translators’ Group and 38.625% in the Professional Translators’

Group. This was the second highest percentage in both groups involved in the

study.

Below are some of the examples of neutralizing.

Source language collocation Neutral equivalent providedTo make a pact 3amila ittifaaqan عمل اتفاقاTo draw a sword أخرج سیفا ?axraja sayfanTo follow instructions ittaba3a ta3liymaatin اتبع تعلیماتTo reveal a secret kasafa sirran كشف سراTo make a deal 3amila ittifaaqiyyatan عمل اتفاقیةTo make a mistake فعل خطأ fa3ala xaTa?anTo make a mistake 3amila xaTa?an عمل خطأTo make an effort 3amila juhdan عمل جھداTo give an example أعطى مثلا ?a3Taa matalanTo fight a battle ب معركةحار Haaraba ma3rakatanTo build a road ansa?a Tariyqan? أنشأ طریقاTo achieve a goal anjaza hadafan? أنجز ھدفاTo achieve a goal balaga hadafan بلغ ھدفاTo suppress anger axfaa gaDaban? أخفى غضباTo tell a story Hakaa qiSSatan حكى قصةTo grow a beard taraka liHyatan ترك لحیةTo hold a conference aqaama muw?tamaran? أقام مؤتمراTo do a favour 3amila xidmatan عمل خدمةTo do a favour addaa xidmatan? أدى خدمةTo wage a war aqaama harban? أقام حرباTo resolve a dispute حل خلافا Halla xilaafanTo make a decision waSala ?ila qaraarin وصل إلى قرارTo make a speech qadama xiTaaban قدم خطاباTo conduct an experiment 3amila tajrubatan عمل تجربةTo set a goal waDa3a hadafan وضع ھدفا

Table 8. 9 Examples of neutralising verb + object collocations

The above table presents examples of English verb + object collocations and


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the way they were neutralised by the use of a generic or neutral verb in Arabic.

For example, the verb 3 لمعamila (to do) is very popular in Arabic. It was used

by the translators many times to describe different nouns.

8.3.1.4 Paraphrasing

Newmark (1988:90) defines a paraphrase as “an amplification or explanation of

the meaning of a segment of the text.” Paraphrasing is a translation outcome that

student or professional translators employ when they are short of exact target

language collocations. Paraphrasing a source language collocation is considered

an acceptable translation outcome when used as a strategy to overcome the

shortage of exact target collocations. However, paraphrasing a source language

collocation in translation does not make comprehension easy, nor does it facilitate

production of the target text because it sometimes complicates sentence structure

to a point where the student or professional translator may have to use more words

than in the source language to express the same concept in the target language.

Paraphrasing scored a low frequency with both groups in the study. It accounted

for 4% of the instances with the Student Translators’ Group, and only 1% with the

Professional Translators’ Group.

Below are examples from the data of this study representing this translation


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outcome.

Source language collocations Paraphrase provided

To break a promise lam yuwfi bi-wa3din لم یوف بوعد

To achieve a goal waSala ?ila hadafin وصل إلى ھدف

Not to waste energy waffara Taaqatan وفر طاقة

To exercise caution baqiya Hadiran بقي حذرا

To exercise caution taSarrafa bi-Hadarin تصرف بحذر

Table 8. 10 Examples of paraphrasing verb + object collocations

In each of the examples in Table 8.10 above, the student or professional translator

tried to explain the meaning of the English collocation in Arabic instead of

providing a target language collocation.

8.3.1.5 Malapropism

Malapropism is defined, according to the Collins English Dictionary and

Thesaurus, as “the unintentional misuse of a word by confusion with one of

similar sound, especially when creating a ridiculous effect.” That is, the student or

professional translator uses a word similar to the one that collocates with the noun

in the collocation. The similarity in this case is phonetic.

This translation outcome accounted for 0.5% with Student Translators’ Group,

and 0.75% with Professional Translators’ Group. Examples of this type of error


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are presented below.

Source language collocations Examples of malapropism

To make a pact 3aqada 3ahdan عقد عھدا

To break a promise حنث عھدا Hanita 3ahdan

To suppress rage kabaHa gaZan كبح غیظا

To suppress rage kamida gayZan كمد غیظا

To exercise caution tawaqqaa Hadaran توقى حذرا

Table 8. 11 Examples of malapropism (Translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic)

In the first example in Table 8.11, the verb 3 دقعaqada (to tie) was mistaken for

the verb عطق qata3a (to cut), which does not collocate with the noun 3 دهعahd (a

pact) in Arabic. Similarly, the verb ثنح Hanita (to perjure) was mistaken for the

verb ثكن nakata (to cancel), which does not collocate with the noun 3 دهعahd (a

promise) in Arabic. The same applies to the rest of the three examples in Table

8.11, where a verb was mistaken for another one that does not collocate with the

noun in the collocation.

8.3.1.6 Calquing

A calque is the literal or word-for-word translation of a source language

collocation. To avoid calquing, translators should not attempt to transfer certain

collocations into the target language no matter how much the temptation may be

to follow the source language collocation word-for-word.


217

Therefore, in certain cases a translator assuming word-for-word correspondence

between English and Arabic will most likely produce an unacceptable collocation

in the target language. This will result in a negative transfer, which will in turn

result in translations that do not sound natural or native-like.

This translation outcome, being one of the sources of error in translation,

accounted for 7.75% with Student Translators’ Group, and 9.75% with

Professional Translators’ Group.

Below are some examples of calques.

Source language collocation CalquesTo open a debate fataHa mujaadalatan فتح مناظرةTo tell a story axbara qiSSatan? أخبر قصةTo take responsibility axada mas?uwliyyatan? أخذ مسؤولیةTo adopt measures tabannaa ?ijraa?aatin تبنى إجراءاتTo cause damage sababa Dararan سبب ضرراTo make a speech یثاعمل حد 3amila HadiytanTo make a call 3amila mukaalamatan عمل مكالمةTo pass a law marrara qaanuwnan مرر قانوناTo score a victory sajjala intiSaaran سجل انتصارا

Table 8. 12 Examples of the translation outcome of calquing (Translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic)

The choice to calque or transfer an English collocation into Arabic can be

attributed to more than one factor. One would be the lack of extensive reading of

texts in the target language. Another factor would be the literal or word-for-word

translation of the source language collocations. A third factor possibly could be

the reliance on general-purpose English-Arabic dictionaries that offer


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meanings of words out of context and, while providing many cases, do so without

illustrating examples.

8.3.1.7 Mistranslating

Mistranslating is a translation outcome where the student or professional

translator has produced an incorrect translation of the source language collocation.

The outcome of mistranslating scored a frequency of 9.75% with the Student

Translators’ Group, and 6% with the Professional Translators’ Group.

The following examples illustrate the way meanings were distorted as a result of

the respondents’ mistranslation into Arabic of some of the English verb + object

collocations.

Source language collocation MistranslationsTo make a pact waSala ?ilaa ittifaaqin (to reach an agreement) وصل إلى اتفاق

To draw a sword رمحا استل istalla rumHan (to draw a spear)

To open a debate iftataHa jalsatan(to open a session) افتتح جلسة

To open a debate iftataHa Hadiytan (to open a talk) افتتح حدیثا

To make a deal ta3aaqada (to contract) تعاقد

To make an effort Haawala (to try) حاول

To make an effort sa3aa (to attempt) سعى

To keep track حاول رصد Haawala raSda (to try to observe)

To fight a battle naaDala niDaalan (to struggle a struggle) ناضل نضالا

To fight a battle Haaraba Harban (to fight a war) حارب حربا

To fight a battle daafa3a (to defend) دافع

To get a score حصل على صوت HaSala 3alaa Sawtin (to get a vote

To get a score أحرز تحصیلا ?aHraza taHSiylan (to obtain an achievement)

To grow a beard rabbaa diqnan (to grow a chin) ربى ذقنا

To grow a beard barraza liHyatan (to show a beard) برز لحیة

To grow a beard aTlaqa diqnan (to grow a chin)? أطلق ذقنا

To waste energy istahlaka taqatan (to consume energy) استھلك طاقة

To hold a meeting عقد جلسة 3aqada jalsatan (to hold a session)


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To hold a conference 3aqada nadwatan (to hold a symposium) عقد ندوة

To hold a conference 3aqada ijtimaa3an (to hold a meeting) عقد اجتماعا

To wage a war taHammala Harban (to bear a war) تحمل حربا

To make a decision أصدر قرارا ?aSdara qaraaran(to issue a decision)

To take responsibility jaazafa (to risk) جازف

To seize an opportunity istafaada min furSatin (to benefit from an استفاد من فرصة

opportunity)

To seize an opportunity توصل إلى فرصة tawaSSala ?ilaa furSatin (to reach an

opportunity)

To adopt measures قیاسات تبنى tabannaa qiyaasatin (to adopt measurements)

To adopt measures tabanna ma3aayiyir (to adopt standards) تبنى معاییر

To hold a position tasallama muhimmatan (to receive a duty) تسلم مھمة

To hold a position taqalaba fiy waZiyfatin (to move in a job) تقلب في وظیفة

To hold a position tanaqqala fiy waZiyfatin (to move to a job) تنقل في وظیفة

To hold a position qaama bi-sugulin (to perform a job) قام بشغل

To cause damage sabbaba ?iSaabatan (to cause an injury) سبب إصابة

To cause damage sabbaba 3aahatan (to cause a deformity) سبب عاھة

To cause damage sabbaba 3uTlan (to cause a breakdown) سبب عطلا

To pass a law waafaqa (to agree) وافق

To run a company أدار مصنعا ?adaara maSna3an (to run a factory)

To score victory sajjala najaaHan (to score success) سجل نجاحا

To set a goal aSaaba hadafan (to score a goal)? أصاب ھدفا

To lose consciousness faqada Sawaaban (to lose mind) فقد صوابا

Table 8. 13 Examples of mistranslation (Translating English verb + object collocations into Arabic)

In each of the examples above, the meaning of the source collocation was

distorted in one way or another. In some cases, the meaning of the verb was

distorted. For example, the mistranslating of the verb in the English collocation to

seize an opportunity into Arabic by the verb + preposition استفاد من istafaada min

(to benefit from). In some other cases, the meaning of the noun was distorted. The

noun in the English collocation to hold a conference, for example, was

mistranslated into Arabic by the noun اجتماع ijtimaa3 (a meeting). In only a few

cases, the meaning of both the verb and noun was distorted. For instance, the

English collocation to take responsibility was mistranslated into Arabic by the

verb جازف jaazafa (to risk).


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8.3.1.8 Omitting

Another translation outcome observed by the researcher was that of omitting. This

outcome refers to items where no translation was offered at all by a student or

professional translator. This outcome scored a frequency of 0.75% with the

Student Translators’ Group, and 0.625% with the Professional Translators’ Group.

The respondents’ impatience and probably unwillingness to continue translating

for about an hour and a half could possibly account for this particular outcome in

translating English verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic.

8.3.1.9 Unacceptable collocation

“Unacceptable collocation” indicates that the example was translated into Arabic

by a collocation that was suggested to be an unacceptable collocation by the

Arabic Control Group, as described in the previous chapter, Chapter Seven.

Fortunately, this unacceptable translation outcome did not account for any of the

instances from the Student Translators’ Group, and accounted for only 0.5% of

the instances from the Professional Translators’ Group.

Examples of this type of error are presented in the table below.


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Source language collocation Unacceptable collocation provided

To build a road sayyada Tariyqan شید طریقا

To exercise caution maarasa Hadaran مارس حذرا

Table 8. 14 Examples of unacceptable collocations in Arabic (Translating English verb +object collocations into Arabic)

In Arabic, we cannot say شید طریقا sayyada Tariyqan (to build a road), nor can we

say مارس حذرا marasa Hadaran (to exercise caution). Instead, we could possibly

say 3 عبد طریقاabbada Tariyqan (to build a road) and حذراتوخى tawaxxaa

Hadaran (to exercise caution).

8.3.2 Translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic

The translation of the English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic resulted

in seven different outcomes, three of which were considered to be acceptable

translation outcomes, while the rest of the four were considered to be

unacceptable translation outcomes. The acceptable translation outcomes provided

by the Student Translators’ Group and the Professional Translators’ Group were:

strong collocation, neutralizing, and paraphrasing. The unacceptable translation

outcomes were: missing adjective, calquing, mistranslating, and omitting. Each

translation outcome is defined and then discussed in detail below.


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8.3.2.1 Strong collocation

“Strong collocation”, as explained previously in 8.3.1.1, indicates that the

example was translated into Arabic by a collocation suggested as a strong

collocation by the Arabic Control Group, as set out in the previous chapter,

Chapter Seven.

In translating into Arabic the examples of English adjective + noun collocations,

this outcome scored a frequency of 27% with the student translators’ group and

28.625% with the professional translators’ group.

Examples of strong collocation translations from the two groups are presented

below.

Source language collocation Strong collocation providedFull recovery sifaa?un taamun شفاء تامHeavy rain amTaarun gaziyratun? أمطار غزیرةA sweet smell raa?iHatun zakiyyatun رائحة زكیةA bad smell raa?iHatun kariyhatun رائحة كریھةA good memory daakiratun qawiyyatun ذاكرة قویةA deadly weapon silaaHun fattaakun سلاح فتاكA serious mistake xaTa?un faadiHun خطأ فادحGreat poverty faqrun mudqi3un فقر مدقعGreat imagination xayaalun waasi3un خیال واسعGreat imagination xayaalyun xiSbun خیال خصبA satisfactory answer jawaabun saafin جواب شافA good reason sababun wajiyhun سبب وجیھA good life Hayaatun sa3iydatun حیاة سعیدةA large crowd jam3un gafiyrun جمع غفیرA good question su?aalun wajiyhun سؤال وجیھA vicious war وسحرب ضر Harbun DaruwsunA great victory naSrun muw?azarun نصر مؤزرSerious consequences 3awaaqibun waxiymatun عواقب وخیمة


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A public holiday 3uTlatun rasmiyyatun عطلة رسمیةA large army jaysun jarraarun جیش جرارA raging flood saylun 3arimun سیل عرمAn urgent need Haajatun maassatun حاجة ماسةA great success najaaHun baahirun نجاح باھرA complete failure fasalun dariy3un فشل ذریعA high mountain jabalun saahiqun جبل شاھقOpen air hawaa?un Talqun ھواء طلقHard evidence daliylun qaaTi3un دلیل قاطعGreat accuracy diqqatun mutanaahiyatun دقة متناھیةA gentle breeze nismatun 3aliylatun نسمة علیلةGood news axbaarun saarratun? أخبار سارةStrong tea saayyun taqiylun شاي ثقیلStrict orders awaamirun Saarimatun? أوامر صارمةA bitter enemy دو لدودع 3aduwun laduwdunLame excuses a3daarun waahiyatun? أعذار واھیةSerious damage Dararun jasiymun ضرر جسیمAn effective treatment 3ilaajun naaji3un علاج ناجعA fierce battle ma3rakatun TaaHinatun معركة طاحنةGood luck HaZZun sa3iydun حظ سعیدDeep hostility Hiqdun dafiynun حقد دفین

Table 8. 15 Examples of strong collocations (Translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic)

The above table presents the equivalent strong collocation in Arabic as indicated

by the Student and Professional Translators’ Groups for those in the source

language. The table illustrates the examples of English adjective + noun

collocations and their equivalent strong collocations in the target language,

Arabic.

8.3.2.2 Neutralising

This translation outcome is observed when the student or professional translator

could not recall a specific adjective used to modify a noun and resorted to using a

neutral or generic adjective such as, ريبك kabiyr (big), or ريثك katiyr


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(plenty).

These generic or neutral adjectives could be used to modify almost any noun in

Arabic. They are characterised generally by their frequent usage and universality

of meaning.

The translation outcome of neutralising scored a frequency of 33.5% with the

Student Translators’ Group, and 33.625% with the Professional Translators’

Group. For both groups involved in the study, this percentage was the highest

among all the translation outcomes for rendering the examples of English

adjective + noun collocations into Arabic.

Below are some of the examples of neutralizing.

Source language collocation Neutral equivalent providedFull recovery sifaa?un kaamilun شفاء كاملHeavy rain matarun katiyfun مطر كثیفA sweet smell raa?iHatun jamiylatun رائحة جمیلةA sweet smell raa?iHatun Tayyibatun رائحة طیبةA bad smell raa?iHatun natinatun رائحة نتنةA bad smell raa?iHatun qadiratun رائحة قذرةTender feelings masaa3irun jamiylatun مشاعر جمیلةA serious mistake xaTa?un faZiy3un خطأ فظیعGreat poverty faqrun sadiydun فقر شدیدGreat poverty faqrun kabiyrun فقر كبیرGreat imagination xataalun saahibun خیال ساھبGreat imagination امحخیال ج xayaalun jaamiHunA satisfactory answer jawaabun muqni3un جواب مقنعA good reason sababun qawiyyun سبب قويA good reason sababun muqni3un سبب مقنعA good reason sababun kaafin سبب كافA good reason sababun ma3quwlun سبب معقول


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A close friend Sadiyqun Hamiymun صدیق حمیمA good life Hayaatun Tayyibatun حیاة طیبةA good life Hayaatun ragdatun حیاة رغدةA good life Hayaatun kariymatun حیاة كریمةA good life Hayaatun Hasanatun حیاة حسنةA large crowd jamhuwrun Daxmun جمھور ضخمA large crowd jamhuwrun wafiyrun جمھور وفیرGreat wealth tarwatun kabiyratun ثروة كبیرةA vicious war Harbun sarisatun حرب شرسةA vicious war Harbun sirriyratun حرب شریرةA vicious war Harbun qaasiyatun حرب قاسیةA great victory naSrun kabiyrun نصر كبیرSerious consequences 3awaaqibun xaTiyratun عواقب خطیرةA public holiday 3uTlatun Hukuwmiyyatun عطلة حكومیةHeavy winds riyaaHun qawiyyatun ریاح قویةHeavy winds riyaaHun katiyfatun ریاح كثیفةHeavy winds riyaaHun sadiydatun ریاح شدیدةA large army jaysun Daxmun جیش ضخمA large army jaysun jabbaarun جیش جبارA raging flood saylun sadiydun سیل شدیدA raging flood saylun 3aniyfun سیل عنیفAn urgent need Haajatun sadiydatun حاجة شدیدةAn urgent need Haajatun baaligatun حاجة بالغةA great success najaaHun kabiyrun نجاح كبیرA great desire ragbatun sadiydatun رغبة شدیدةHard evidence daliylun qawiyyun دلیل قويHard evidence daliylun waaDiHun دلیل واضحGreat accuracy دقة شدیدة diqqatun sadiydatunGreat accuracy diqqatun 3aaliyatun دقة عالیةGreat accuracy diqqatun kabiyratun دقة كبیرةStrong tea saayyun murakkazun شاي مركزStrict orders awaamirun musaddadatun? أوامر مشددةA big favour xidmatun jaliylatun خدمة جلیلةSevere punishment 3 عقوبة قاسیةuquwbatun qaasiyatunSevere punishment 3uquwbatun sadiydatun عقوبة شدیدةLame excuses a3daarun Da3iyfatun? أعذار ضعیفةSerious damage Dararun sadiydun ضرر شدیدSerious damage Dararun xaTiyrun ضرر خطیرA heavy storm 3aaSifatun qawiyyatun عاصفة قویةA heavy storm یرةعاصفة كب 3aaSifatun kabiyratunA heavy storm 3aaSifatun sadiydatun عاصفة شدیدةA great idea fikratun raa?i3atun فكرة رائعةA great idea fikratun Tayyibatun فكرة طیبةA great idea fikratun mumtaazatun فكرة ممتازةA fierce battle ma3rakatun 3aniyfatun معركة عنیفةA fierce battle ma3rakatun sadiydatun معركة شدیدةGood luck حظ وفیر HaZZun wafiyrunGood luck HaZZun muwaffaqun حظ موفقDeep hostility Hiqdun sadiydun حقد شدیدDeep hostility Hiqdun Haaddun حقد حادHeavy seas biHaarun sadiydatun بحار شدیدة

Table 8. 16 Examples of neutral collocations (Translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic)


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The table above presents examples of English adjective + noun collocations and

the way they were neutralized by using a generic or neutral adjective in Arabic.

Adjectives such as, كبیر kabiyr (big), and شدید sadiyd (strong) were used many

times to modify different nouns in Arabic.

8.3.2.3 Paraphrasing

As seen earlier in this chapter, paraphrasing is a translation outcome where the

student or professional translator resorts to using several words to explain the

source language collocation instead of providing an exact collocation in the target

language. It is often employed when a student or professional translator is short of

exact target language collocations.

This translation outcome accounts for a low percentage of instances for both

groups in the study. It accounted for 2.25% of the instances with the Student

Translators’ Group, and only 3% with the Professional Translators’ Group.

Below are examples from the data representing the translation outcome of

paraphrasing.


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Source language collocation Paraphrase provided

A bad smell raa?iHatun gayru mustaHabah رائحة غیر مستحبة

Great wealth maalun katiyrun مال كثیر

Serious consequences 3awaaqibun laa tasurru Sadiyq عواقب لا تسر صدیق

A big favour Talabun haammun طلب ھام

Table 8. 17 Examples of the translation outcome of paraphrasing (Translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic)

As can be seen in Table 8.17 above, the student or professional translator tried to

explain the meaning of the English collocation in Arabic.

8.3.2.4 Missing adjective

The student or professional producing this translation outcome rendered the

source language collocation incompletely. That is, they translated an English

adjective + noun collocation into only a noun in Arabic. By doing so, the student

or professional translator produced only part of the meaning of the source

language collocation. This, of course, leads to the production of an incomplete

message.

This translation outcome accounts for 4.5% with the Student Translators’ Group,

and 3.75% with the Professional Translators’ Group.

The student or professional translators may have resorted to this translation


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outcome when they failed to grasp the semantic unit in question. Therefore, they

decided to omit the adjective from the translation.

8.3.2.5 Calquing

A calque, as defined earlier in this chapter, is the literal or word-for-word

translation of a source language collocation. This translation outcome, being one

of the major sources of error in translating the examples of English adjective +

noun collocations into Arabic, accounted for a high percentage of the instances. It

accounted for 25.25% with Student Translators’ Group, and 24.625% with

Professional Translators’ Group. This would result in translations not meeting the

anticipation of the target language reader. That is, this negative transfer from the

source language collocations would lead to the production of unnatural

collocations in Arabic.

Below are examples from the data of this unacceptable translation outcome.

Source language collocation Calques providedHeavy rain أمطار ثقیلة ?amTaarun taqiylatunA good memory daakiratun Hasanatun ذاكرة حسنةA deadly weapon سلاح ممیت silaaHun mumiytunGreat imagination مخیال عظی xayaalun 3aZiymunA satisfactory answer jawaabun murDin جواب مرضA close friend Sadiyqun qariybun صدیق قریبA close friend Sadiyqun muqarabun صدیق مقربA good life Hayaatun jayyidatun حیاة جیدةA large crowd jam3un kabiyrun جمع كبیرA good question suw?aalun Hasanun سؤال حسنSerious consequences 3awaaqibun jiddiyyatun عواقب جدیة


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A public holiday 3uTlatun 3aammatun عطلة عامةA complete failure fasalun kaamilun فشل كاملA great desire ragbatun 3aZiymatun رغبة عظیمةGreat accuracy ظیمةدقة ع diqqatun 3aZiymatunA gentle breeze nismatun naa3imatun نسمة ناعمةA gentle breeze nismatun Tariyyatun نسمة طریةStrong tea شاي قوي sayyun qawiyyunLame excuses a3daarun 3arjaa?un? أعذار عرجاءDeep hostility hiqdun 3amiyqun حقد عمیق

Table 8. 18 Examples of calques (Translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic)

As explained earlier under subheading 8.3.1.6, there is more than one reason to

account for the choice to calque or to transfer directly an English collocation into

Arabic. The first could be the lack of extensive reading of texts in the target

language, which is in our case Arabic. The second reason possibly for resorting to

this translation outcome would be the assumption by the student or professional

translator that there is word-for-word correspondence between the source and

target languages. A third reason possibly could be the reliance on general-purpose

English-Arabic dictionaries that offer meanings of words out of context and, in

many cases, without giving illustrative examples.

8.3.2.6 Mistranslating

As explained under subheading 8.3.1.7 above, mistranslating is a translation

outcome where the student or professional translator has produced an incorrect

translation of the source language collocation. The translation outcome of

mistranslating scored a frequency of 7.25% with the Student Translators’ Group,

and 5.875% with the Professional Translators’ Group.


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The following examples illustrate the way the meaning was distorted as a result of

the respondents’ mistranslations.

Source language collocation MistranslationsA sweet smell raa?iHatun mun3isatun (a refreshing smell) رائحة منعشة

A sweet smell raa?iHatu 3araqin (sweat smell) رائحة عرق

A serious mistake xaTa?un mumiytun (a deadly mistake) خطأ ممیت

A serious mistake danbun 3aZiymun (a great sin) ذنب عظیم

A good life منعمةحیاة Hayaatun muna33amatun (a luxurious life)

A large crowd 3adadun kabiyrun (a large number) عدد كبیر

Serious consequences 3awaaqibun salbiyyatun (passive consequences) عواقب سلبیة

A raging flood saylun mudammirun (a destroying flood) سیل مدمر

An urgent need ragbatun muliHHatun (an urgent desire) رغبة ملحة

An urgent need ragbatun sadiydatun (a strong desire) رغبة شدیدة

An urgent need su3uwrun muliHHun (an urgent feeling) شعور ملح

Great success fawzun 3aZiymun (a great victory) فوز عظیم

A gentle breeze hawaa?un naa3imun (soft air) ھواء ناعم

A high cost nafaqatun 3aaliyatun (a high expense) نفقة عالیة

A severe punishment 3uquwbatun quSwaa (a maximum punishment) عقوبة قصوى

Lame excuses asbaabun Da3iyfatun (weak reasons)? أسباب ضعیفة

Serious damage damaarun kabiyrun (big destruction) دمار كبیر

Serious damage iSaabatin xatiyrah (dangerous injuries)? إصابات خطیرة

A heavy storm دإعصار شدی ?i3Saarun sadiydun (a strong hurricane)

A fierce battle Harbun Daruwsun (a vicious war) حرب ضروس

Heavy seas biHaarun 3amiyqatun (deep seas) بحار عمیقة

Heavy seas amwaajun 3aatiyatun (strong waves)? أمواج عاتیة

Heavy seas أمواج ثقیلة ?amwaajun taqiylatun (heavy waves)

Heavy seas miyaahun 3amiyqatun (deep waters) میاه عمیقة

Table 8. 19 Examples of mistranslations (Translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic)

In each of the examples above, the meaning of the source collocation was

distorted in one way or another. In some cases, the meaning of the adjective was

distorted. For example, the mistranslating of the adjective in the English

collocation a serious mistake into Arabic by the adjective ممیت mumiyt (deadly).

In some other cases, the meaning of the noun was distorted. The noun in the

English collocation a great success, for example, was mistranslated into Arabic

by the noun فوز fawz (victory). In only a few cases, the meaning of both the

adjective and noun was distorted. For instance, the English collocation lame


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excuses was mistranslated into Arabic by the collocation أسباب ضعیفة ?asbaabun

Da3iyfatun (weak reasons).

8.3.2.7 Omitting

Another outcome of translating the English examples of adjective + noun

collocations into Arabic is that of omitting. This translation outcome applies to

cases where the respondents did not translate the whole sentence containing the

collocation or just omitted the collocation. Omitting was resorted to in only a few

cases. The translation outcome of omitting scored a frequency of 0.25% for the

instances in the Student Translators’ Group, and 0.5% for the Professional

Translators’ Group.

The respondents’ impatience and probably unwillingness to continue translating

for about an hour and a half could possibly account for this particular outcome. In

addition, it may have resulted from a failure to comprehend the source language

collocation.

8.4 Conclusion

In summary, what do these observations of a small group of student translators

and professional translators suggest? It seems that both student and

professional translators tend to have some specific problems in translating


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English collocations into Arabic. These problems appear to be worse when

translating English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic. This tendency can

be observed when the student and professional translators produce unacceptable

translation outcomes. The errors may be attributed to the influence from the

source language, which is English, the misunderstanding of the meaning of the

source language collocation, time constraint, and to the use of general-purpose

bilingual dictionaries that do not provide the translators with detailed explanations

or examples of collocations. This would require further investigation, which is

beyond the scope of this study.

Translation practice requires a whole group of competences in the source and

target languages. One of these competences that is importantly required by

translators is what is termed ‘collocational competence’ (Hill, 2000).

Collocational competence is the translators’ knowledge of collocations in the

source language and the way they are rendered into the target language.

Collocational competence involves several factors. These factors could be

summarized in the following points.

1- Translators should be aware of the meaning and, therefore, the

significance of collocation.

2- They should realize that different languages do not


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necessarily have the same collocates for equivalent words.

Unless translators completely separate the source language collocations from the

target language, they may not be able to retrieve equivalent target language

collocations from their memories.

It is hoped that this study raises an interest in collocations in general for those

researchers working in the field of linguistics and specifically those interested in

the translation of collocations in particular. Of special interest to translation

schools is how to apply the observations of this particular study in order to

improve the teaching of translation. As far as teaching is concerned, it would be

wise to conclude that those translation outcomes found in this study to be

acceptable and those found to be unacceptable must be addressed in any practical

translation course. Such translation outcomes may help give student translators,

who in turn will become professional translators, insights into how to possibly

render a collocation. This study, therefore, recommends testing the possibility of

teaching translation students how to employ acceptable translation outcomes for

collocations. This possibly could be a useful teaching strategy for dealing with

translation in general.

It may be that other acceptable translation outcomes still need to be identified by

researchers in order to devise strategies for teaching the translation of the


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particular linguistic aspect of collocation to enhance such outcomes. In addition,

and most importantly, more attention should be given to collocations in

developing and enhancing translators’ performance.

Thus, the more the translator is exposed to Modern Standard Arabic through

reading and listening the more they should be able to demonstrate acceptable

collocations in their translations, as it is not open for translators to misuse and

misinterpret the collocations. Misuse and misinterpretation possibly could arise

from the translator being multilingual or even bilingual, because there could be

the possibility of language interference from the other language(s). However, this

study is not suggesting that it is against borrowed collocations in the Arabic

language. In fact, they have been discussed in Chapter Three and have been

considered to be one source of collocations in the Arabic language. However, for

the purpose of acceptable translations, these collocations have to be first

established in the Arabic language and, second, have to be recognised in the

language by monolingual native speakers.

Chapter nine: Conclusion

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9 CONCLUSION

9.1 Introduction

The main questions addressed in the present study were concerned with the

characteristics and semantic patterns of Arabic collocations, the student and

professional translators’ knowledge of Arabic collocations, and how they rendered

English collocations into Arabic. Answers to certain interesting questions were

sought by using elicited competence and performance data among English-Arabic

student and professional translators. The general purpose of the thesis was thus to

make a general contribution to the understanding of Arabic collocations and of the

translating of English collocations into Arabic.

More explicitly, the following general aims were established for the study. This study

aimed at characterising collocations in the Arabic language, devising a classification

of the semantic and distributional patterns of collocations in the Arabic language, and

examining the problems encountered in translating English collocations into Arabic.

The study required an analysis of the collocational patterns in both English and

Arabic, a classification of the translation outcomes, and, therefore, the types of errors

made by translators in terms of indicating the frequency and significance of each

error and analysing the causes of each error.


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9.2 Summary

The present study attempted to answer the following research questions:

1. What is the difference between the Arabic Control Group’s knowledge and

the Professional Translators Group’s knowledge of Arabic verb + object and

noun + adjective collocations?

2. What is the difference between the Arabic Control Group’s knowledge and

the Student Translators Group’s knowledge of Arabic verb + object and noun

+ adjective collocations?

3. What is the difference between the Professional Translators Group’s

knowledge and the Student Translators Group’s knowledge of Arabic verb +

object and noun + adjective collocations?

4. What are the semantic characteristics of Arabic verb + object and noun +

adjective collocations?


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5. What are the semantic and distributional patterns into which Arabic verb +

object and noun + adjective collocations fall?

6. What are the translation outcomes observed in the Student Translators’ Group

when rendering English verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into

Arabic?

7. What are the translation outcomes observed in the Professional Translators’


collocations into Arabic?

8. What are the most common outcomes in the translations of the English verb +

object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic?, and how frequently did

the Student Translators’ Group and Professional Group resort to each one of

the translation outcomes?

Chapter One was an introductory chapter that gave a definition of collocations. Then

it discussed the rationale behind the study. It also presented the aims of the thesis.

This was followed by an explanation of the type of Arabic language used in the study,

being Modern Standard Arabic. The chapter also illustrated the method of


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presenting Arabic examples in the thesis and a transliteration guide to Arabic vowels

and consonants. The reasons for choosing particular types of collocations for this

study were discussed as well. Finally, the chapter included a brief presentation of the

structure of the thesis.

Chapter Two presented the scholarly work on collocations since the 1930’s. It

showed the significant disagreement and the lack of clarity in defining collocations

among different linguists. The chapter also discussed the interest shown in

collocations by lexicographers, the importance of computational linguistics in

collocational research, and how electronic collocational dictionaries have contributed

to the study of English collocations.

Chapter Three showed that collocations in the Arabic language have not been

comprehensively explored. It presented the classifications of Arabic collocations

offered by different studies. The chapter also proved that Classical Arabic

lexicographers were aware of the phenomenon of collocations and included

collocations in their dictionaries of meaning. The difficulty of processing Arabic on

computers was also noted in this chapter, and it was suggested that more accurate

software could be developed to cope with such difficulties. Finally, the chapter

presented some of the sources for collocations in Modern Standard Arabic. It showed

Modern Standard Arabic includes collocations that are derived from


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different sources, including the Quran and borrowed collocations.

Chapter Four showed that there was little previous research that investigated the

translation of English collocations into Arabic. It also considered collocation to be a

translation problem. The chapter explained the different ways of translating English

verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic.

Chapter Five gave a brief overview of the translation profession in Australia with the

understanding that this had been shaped in the context of the history of immigration

to Australia and by Australia’s multicultural policy in order to throw light on the

subjects of the study. Both the history and policy were presented. Following from

this, the chapter discussed the imperative for English-Arabic translation in Australia.

Finally, the chapter explained translator and interpreter accreditation and

translator/interpreter training in Australia.

Chapter Six presented the research methodology. It discussed the research design, the

setting of the study, the participants, the instruments, and the data collection

procedures.

Chapter Seven presented the results of the questionnaire of Arabic collocations.


240

One of the findings was the variation in the degree of relative decisiveness shown by

the three groups in selecting the range of acceptable collocations. The results proved

that the Arabic Control Group was the most decisive group; the Professional

Translators’ Group was less decisive; and, finally, the Student Translators’ Group

was indecisive. Most importantly, the chapter presented thirteen significant

characteristics of collocations in the Arabic language to separate them from other

semantic types that have similar grammatical structures but which are of a dissimilar

semantic type. Another major finding of the chapter was a semantic and distributional

classification of different patterns of collocations in the Arabic language.

Finally, Chapter Eight presented and discussed the results of the Translation Test of

English Collocations into Arabic. The chapter proved that both the Student

Translators’ Group and the Professional Translators’ Group tend to have some

specific problems in translating English verb + object and adjective + noun

collocations into Arabic. These problems appear to be worse for both groups when

they translate English adjective + noun collocations into Arabic. This was observed

when the student and professional translators produced unacceptable translation

outcomes. It was suggested that these errors may be attributed to following reasons:

the influence of the source language, which is English; the misunderstanding of the

meaning of the source language collocation; time constraint; and, finally, the

translators’ consultation of general- purpose bilingual dictionaries that did


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not provide the translators with detailed explanations or examples of collocations.

9.3 Implications for translation

The present study suggests eight implications for translating collocations in general.

These can be applied as a generic framework or model for translating all collocations.

The seven implications are:

1- Translators should identify collocations in the source text at the same time as

they identify difficult words.

2- They should understand that the production of collocations in translated texts

can be influenced by source language collocations.

3- They should be aware of the limitations of general-purpose bilingual

dictionaries in terms of dealing with collocations.

4- They should realize the translation problem of trying to make collocations in

the source language match ones in the target language word-for-word. That is,


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it is not always the case that there is a word-for-word equivalent in the target

language.

5- They should also understand that when a target language collocation(s) exists,

there might not be much room for creativity. Therefore, creating new

collocations can be risky.

6- They should make their own lists of collocations they encounter in all

languages they deal with.

7- Finally, translators should try to expand their collocational repertoire in all

languages with which they deal. One way to achieve this is probably through

reading from and listening to the widest variety of sources of the target

language, in this case, Modern Standard Arabic.

What makes translators perform appropriately with regard to collocations is their

overall collocational competence. A near-perfect knowledge of source language

collocations and their equivalents in the target language is a basic requirement for,

what this study terms, collocational performance in translation. This includes the

awareness of the differences between the source and target languages in terms of


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the formation of collocations, which may be only partially reflected in general-

purpose bilingual dictionaries. Collocational competence in both source and target

languages is part and parcel of overall translation competence and this may explain

why unacceptable translation outcomes result in linguistically ill-formed expressions.

However, collocational competence may not necessarily reflect collocational

performance in translation.

One way to judge translation performance is through the translators’ collocational

performance. Effective collocational performance demands effective collocational

competence. Furthermore, translating collocations is one of the measures by which

overall performance of translators can be assessed (Izwaini, 2000). Therefore, if a

translator lacks collocational competence, the translated text will be affected in one

way or another. Collocational competence can be conceived to be a factor enabling

translators to perform their translation task appropriately with regard to collocational

performance.

9.4 Contributions made by this study

This study provided five main contributions to the research into linguistics and

translation. The first contribution was the thesis’ addition to the very limited studies

into collocations in the Arabic language and was the first to conduct an empirical


244

investigation into Arabic collocation, from which the author provided a semantic

characterisation and a semantic and distributional classification of collocations in the

Arabic language. The semantic and distributional classification of Arabic collocations

was used to propose a determination of a set of strong verb + object and noun +

adjective collocations in the Arabic language. The study, therefore, provides

principles for a framework for the study of Arabic collocations.

The second contribution of this piece of research is that it undertook a thorough

presentation of the characteristics of collocations. From this it offered an

unprecedented characterization of collocations. This characterization will lead to a

better understanding of collocations in general and collocations in Arabic in

particular. This contribution of characterizing collocations in a specific way provided

firm definitions that should enhance the method for studying collocations.

The third contribution of this study derives from the fact that it was the only study

that tested student and professional translators’ performance with regard to translating

English collocations into Arabic. Therefore, the study provides a practical approach

to the translation of collocations. Although the study focused on translating English

verb + object and adjective + noun collocations into Arabic, translators can apply the

suggested model in the following ways: translating other types of collocation;


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translating from Arabic into English; and translating between any two language pairs.

The fourth contribution of this thesis lies in the large quantity of items and the design

of the Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations with its unique categories for its scale of

frequency. The questionnaire that was designed specifically for this study included

one hundred items: fifty items with four verb + object collocations, and fifty further

items with four noun + adjective collocations, which resulted in a total of four

hundred collocations. This would be considered to be amongst the largest number of

items used in questionnaires for similar studies. It was also unique in that the

questionnaire was the first to be applied to Arabic collocations.

The fifth contribution of the present study was the formulation of seven implications

for translating collocations in general. As a result, these can be applied as a generic

framework or model for translating all collocations. This is extremely significant for

the teaching of translation.

9.5 Final remarks and directions for further research

One conclusion must be a call for more research into the area of Arabic collocation in

general and the area of translating collocations into Arabic in particular,


246

especially those collocations that show a high frequency of usage. Future studies may

possibly consider using the same design of the Questionnaire of Arabic Collocations

proposed by this study.

With regard to dictionaries, the compiling of bilingual dictionaries of collocations

should be considered urgently (the author of this thesis is currently undertaking a

project of compiling an English-Arabic dictionary of collocations). The noted

researcher into the area of collocations, Hasan Ghazala (personal communication), is

in the process of compiling a bilingual dictionary of collocations. However,

Ghazala’s dictionary will include, in addition to collocations, what this study

considers to be idiomatic expressions. Such specialized dictionaries would be more

practical than general-purpose dictionaries, which are concerned more with meaning

than with word combinations. Also, general-purpose dictionaries do not include most

collocations in a language, perhaps because of space limitation. Unfortunately,

collocations as opposed to idioms are still not given appropriate and singular attention

by bilingual dictionary compilers. Cowie (1981:225) states that this may be because

“it is doubtful whether, in the face of continuing user conservatism, lexicographers

will undertake an ambitious treatment of collocations in general pedagogical

dictionaries”.

A bilingual collocational dictionary would act as a reference book and help


247

both the language learner and the translator. Such specialized dictionaries would have

to be comprehensive in covering the different usages of each word in the source

language and their closest equivalent(s) in the target language. Moreover, these

dictionaries would help their users to identify source language collocations and find

quickly their target language equivalents.

This study suggests that for the best outcomes a translation product should be

‘polished’ in a post-translation task by being given to an editor who is a monolingual

native speaker of the target language. Alternatively, translators can do the final post-

translation editing themselves by reading the target language text without referring to

the original source language text (Newmark, 1988:222). In addition, translators

should not create their own collocations when an equivalent target collocation exists,

because the resulting collocation may be misinterpreted. In order to produce

acceptable target language collocations, translators must completely separate the

source language collocations from the target language. That will help translators

retrieve equivalent target language collocations from their memories or other sources.

Translators should produce target language collocations that sound natural and

native-like when read by a monolingual native speaker. As Abu-Ssaydeh (1991:66)

points out, “ideally, a translation will be lexically judged as a good rendition of the

text in the source language if the vocabulary used by the translator is qualitatively and


248

quantitatively similar to what an educated native speaker would use in a similar

context”.

It is hoped that the insights presented in this study may inspire more research into

translators’ collocational performance, which is of crucial importance to overall

translation performance.

Finally, it is worth mentioning that this study, because it was conducted in

multicultural Australia, could be used as an example for those multilingual societies

where English-Arabic translation is needed. Therefore, it might be a good idea to

conduct similar studies in other multicultural and multilingual countries, such as the

United Kingdom, the United States of America, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa

and others.

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APPENDICIES

271

APPENDIX A

Information sheet and demographic questionnaire: Arabic Control Group

أخي المشارك في البحث الموقر

:السلام علیكم ورحمة االله وبركاتھ وبعد

المتلازمات "یل درجة الدكتوراه في اللغویات والترجمة تحت عنوان في إطار إجراء دراسة لن

أرجو التكرم بالإجابة عن جمیع الفقرات مع العلم .أقدم لك ھذا الاختبار" اللفظیة في اللغة العربیة

.أنھ لیست ھناك إجابة صحیحة وأخرى خاطئة وإنما لكل شخص رأیھ فیما یفكر فیھ

تعریف لھ، ھو تكرر استخدام كلمتین أو أكثر مع بعضھا البعض في إن التلازم اللفظي، في أبسط

فھذا البحث یھدف إلى تصنیف المتلازمات اللفظیة . لغة ما فتعوّد أھل اللغة على استخدامھا كذلك

كما یھدف إلى استكشاف الطرق التي یستخدمھا بعض المترجمین . دلالیا في اللغة العربیة

.نقل المتلازمات اللفظیة الإنجلیزیة إلى العربیةالمحترفین وطلاب الترجمة في

إن الاختبار التالي ھو جزء من ھذه الدراسة والذي یعتزم الباحث إجراءه على عینة من طلاب

الدراسات العلیا بكلیة اللغة العربیة بجامعة أم القرى وذلك بھدف تحدید استخدام بعض المتلازمات

النتائج بعد ذلك كمرجع لتقییم بعض المترجمین المحترفین اللفظیة في اللغة العربیة لتستخدم

.وطلاب الترجمة في نقلھم لبعض المتلازمات اللفظیة الإنجلیزیة إلى العربیة

شكرا لكم سلفا على المشاركة وعلى وقتكم الثمین،،،

من البیانات الواردة في ھذا الاختبار سریة ولن تستخدم في غیر أغراض البحث العلمي :ملحوظة

.قبل الباحث

الباحث

272

معلومات شخصیة وأكادیمیة ولغویة: أولا

أمام الاختیار المناسب لكل ) X(أجب عن الأسئلة التالیة إما كتابة أو بوضع علامة :فقرة

: الجنس) 1

أنثى -2 ) ( ذكر -1( )

....................:العمر) 2

: المرحلة الدراسیة) 3

دكتوراه-2( ) ماجستیر -1 ( )

: التخصص) 4

أدب-2( ) علم لغة -1( )

...................:المعدل التراكمي) 5

.................... :المھنة) 6

.................... : عدد سنوات الخبرة في العمل) 7

ما مدى إلمامك باللغة الإنجلیزیة؟ ) 8

متوسط -3( ) قوي -2( ) قوي جدا -1( )

ضعیف جدا-5( ) ضعیف -4( )

بین اللغتین العربیة والإنجلیزیة؟ھل سبق وأن قمت بالترجمة ) 9

لا-2( ) نعم -1 ( )

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APPENDIX BQuestionnaire of Arabic Collocations

:القسم الأولوحدد درجة تلازم ) د(إلى ) أ(اقرأ كل عبارة من العبارات التالیة قراءة جیدة، ثم اقرأ الأفعال من

تحت ما یناسبھ ) X(كل فعل من الأفعال مع الاسم الذي تحتھ خط في العبارة وذلك بوضع علامة في الجدول فقد وضع لك لتقترح فعلا آخر ) ھـ(أما بالنسبة للفراغ . الجدولمن درجة تلازم في

إن كان ھناك فعل آخر (یمكن أن یستخدم مع الاسم الذي تحتھ خط في العبارة معطیا نفس المعنى .ثم حدد درجة تلازمھ مع الاسم بنفس الطریقة) في اعتقادك

1) ________ عھداً على نفسھ بأن لا یفعل ذلك مرة أخرى.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعاھدأأخذبقضىجقطعد...............ھـ

2) ________ العھد الذي بیني وبینھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداخانأنكثبنقضجنبذد...............ھـ

3) ________ جواداً في السباق.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداركبأصعدبامتطىجاعتلىد...............ھـ

4) ________ سیفا للمبارزة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدااستلّأشھربجرّجأخرجد...............ھـ

274

5) ________ جدلاً حول القضیة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعملأفتحبأشعلجأثارد...............ھـ

6) ________ أوامر لموظفیھ.

یتلازم دائمااأحیاننادرالا یتلازم أبداأملىأأعطىبأصدرجمنحد...............ھـ

7) ________ تعلیمات مدیره.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدانفذأاتبعبأطاعجطبّقد...............ھـ

8) ________ سراً في غایة الأھمیة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداأذاعأأعلنبكشفجأفشىد...............ھـ

9) ________ اتفاقیة مع الشركة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعقدأأبرمبأجرىجعملد...............ھـ

275

10) ________ الدموع من عینیھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداذرفأسكببأوقعجأنزلد...............ھـ

11) ________ خطأ بحق الجمیع.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداقدمأاقترفبعملجارتكبد...............ھـ

12) ________ جریمة لا تغتفر.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداارتكبأعملباقترفجقدمد...............ھـ

13) ________ جھداً لا یستھان بھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعملأبذلبقدمجأدىد...............ھـ

14) ________ القانون بتصرفاتھ الخاطئة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداكسرأ

ناقضبتجاوزجخالفد

...............ھـ

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15) ________ أثر الطریدة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداتعقبأ

تبعباقتفىجطاردد

...............ھـ

16) ________ مثلاً في التضحیة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداأعطىأ

ضرببقدمجألقىد

...............ھـ

17) ________ معركة في شبابھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداخاضأ

حارببقاتلجغزاد

...............ھـ

18) ________ حریقاً في الغابة.

یتلازم دائمااأحیاننادرالا یتلازم أبداأوقدأ

أشعلبأنشأجأضرمد

...............ھـ

19) ________ طریقاً بین المدینتین.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدابنىأ

أنشأبعبّدجشیّد د

...............ھـ

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20) ________ ھدفاً في التربیة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداأحرزأ

حققبأنجزجبلغد

...............ھـ

21) ________ نتیجة في الامتحان النھائي.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدانالأ

أحرزباكتسبجأنجزد

...............ھـ

22) ________ غیظاً في نفسھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداكبتأ

كظمبكتمجقمعد

...............ھـ

23) ________ قصة عن قریتھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرا یتلازم أبدالاقصأ

أنشدبروىجحكىد

...............ھـ

24) ________ اللحیة لمدة طویلة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداوفّرأ

أسدلبأطلقجطوّلد

...............ھـ

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25) ________ الوقت بدون فائدة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداأضاعأ

أھدربصرفجخسرد

...............ھـ

26) ________ الطاقة لجھلھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداخسرأ

أھدربصرفجأضاعد

...............ھـ

27) ________ اجتماعا في صالة مغلقة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدارتبأ

شكّلبعقدجأجرىد

...............ھـ

28) ________ مؤتمراً لمناقشة الوضع.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدارتبأ

شكّلبعقدجأجرىد

...............ھـ

29) ________ خدمة لا تنسى.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعملأ

أعطىبأسدىجقدمد

...............ھـ

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30) ________ حرباً مع دولة مجاورة.

زم دائما یتلاأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداشنّأ

أشعلبسعّرجأحدثد

...............ھـ

31) ________ خلافاً وقع بین صدیقیھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداأصلحأ

فكّبسوىجفضّد

...............ھـ

32) ________ الحذر في كل أموره.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداأخذأ

مارسبتوخىجرافقد

...............ھـ

33) ________ قراراً بعدم العودة إلى التدخین.


اتخذبعملجأنجزد

...............ھـ

34) ________ المسؤولیة بعد وفاة أبیھ.


رعىبحفظجتحمّلد

...............ھـ

280

35) ________ الفرصة بدون تردد.

یتلازم دائما أحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدااغتنمأ

انتھزباستغلجاھتبلد

...............ھـ

36) ________ الضوء على القضیة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداأنزلأ

ركزّبسلّطجألقىد

...............ھـ

37) ________ إجراءات لتطویر المؤسسة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداصاغأ

عملباتخذجقدمد

...............ھـ

38) ________ منصباً في الحكومة الجدیدة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداشغلأ

احتلبتبوأجبلغ د

...............ھـ

39) ________ ضرراً بالبیئة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداسببأ

كوّنبشكلجألحقد

...............ھـ

281

40) ________ خطاباً في البرلمان.


نقلبألقىجقدمد

...............ھـ

41) ________ اتصالاً بقسم الطوارئ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعملأ

أدىبقدمجأجرىد

...............ھـ

42) ________ تجربة في معامل الكلیة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداأجرىأ

قدمبأدىجعملد

...............ھـ

43) ________ قانوناً یحكم الھجرة إلى البلد.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداسنّأ

وضعبشرعجأقامد

...............ھـ

44) ________ شركة للمقاولات.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداقادأ

ترأسبحكمجأدارد

...............ھـ

295

APPENDIX C

Information sheet and demographic questionnaire: Professional Translators’

Group

Dear research participant,

This is a research conducted by Abbas Brashi, a PhD student at the School of Languages

& Linguistics, College of Arts, Education & Social Sciences, University of Western

Sydney.

The present study aims to devise a classification of types of collocations in the Arabic

language and examine the strategies adopted by professional and student translators in

translating English collocations into Arabic.

A collocation, in its simplest definition, is the co-occurrence of two or more words

together in a language, the meaning of which can be deduced from at least one the

components of the collocation.

The value and benefits of this study will be to suggest teaching strategies in translating

English collocations into Arabic and to come up with a classification of collocations in

Arabic.

If you agree to participate, you will be given one hundred English sentences to translate

into Arabic. The test will approximately take one hour. After that, you will be given a

test of Arabic collocations and this test will also take approximately one hour. If you

decide not to participate, please return the material in the postage paid envelope.

For the sake of confidentiality, the participants will be given code numbers to replace

their names, so that their real names will not appear in our records. Furthermore,

UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN SYDNEY

College of Arts, Education and Social Sciences

School of Languages and Linguistics

296

the information collected will be safely stored at the University of Western Sydney.

Only the researcher, Abbas Brashi, will be permitted to use the information. The

information will be destroyed after seven years.

As a participant in this research, you may withdraw from the test at any time without

having to give us any reasons. There will be no penalty or disadvantage to participants

who decide to terminate or not participate in the research.

We will not pay you anything for your participation. However, as a token of

appreciation, you will receive a letter from the School of Languages & Linguistics

acknowledging your participation.

Your participation will be highly appreciated.

NOTE:

This study has been approved by the University of Western Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee.

If you have any complaints or reservations about the ethical conduct of this research, you may contact the

Ethics Committee through the Research Ethics Officers (tel: 02 4570 1136). Any issues you raise will be

treated in confidence and investigated fully, and you will be informed of the outcome.

Yours sincerely,

A Brashi

Phone: (02) 9772 6214

297

Please answer the following questions:

1- Name: …………………………………………..

2- Gender: 1- Male ( ) 2- Female ( )

3- Age: …………..

4- Qualification: 1- Diploma ( ) 2- B.A. ( ) 3- M.A. ( ) 4- Ph.D. ( )

5- Major: ………………………

6- Accreditation level: ………………………………

7- Length of translation experience: ……………………………

8- First language: 1- Arabic ( ) 2- English ( ) 3- other (please specify)

……………………..

9- How long have you been in Australia? ……………………….

10- What language(s) do you speak at home? ……………………….

11- What language(s) do you speak other than Arabic and English?

…………………………………….

282

45) ________ درساً للمسيء.

ما یتلازم دائأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعلّمأ

فھّمبلقّنجأعطىد

...............ھـ

46) ________ ثقة الجمھور.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدانالأ

كسببحازجربحد

...............ھـ

47) ________ انتصارا في كرة السلة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداحققأ

أنجزبعملجأحرزد

...............ھـ

48) ________ انتباھاً للمحاضر.


قدمبأعارجأبدىد

...............ھـ

49) ________ ھدفا للمشروع.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداوضّحأ

بیّنبقررجحددد

...............ھـ

283

50) ________ وعیھ لمدة قصیرة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرادالا یتلازم أبفقدأ

غاببزالجاختفىد

...............ھـ

284

القسم الثاني: اقرأ كل عبارة من العبارات التالیة قراءة جیدة، ثم اقرأ الصفات من (أ) إلى (د) خط في العبارة وذلك بوضع علامة وحدد درجة تلازم كل صفة من الصفات مع الاسم الذي تحتھ

)X فقد وضع لك لتقترح ) ھـ(أما بالنسبة للفراغ . تحت ما یناسبھا من درجة تلازم في الجدول) إن كانت (صفة أخرى یمكن أن تستخدم مع الاسم الذي تحتھ خط في العبارة وتعطي نفس المعنى

.فس الطریقةثم حدد درجة تلازمھا مع الاسم بن) ھناك صفة أخرى في اعتقادك

1) شفي المریض شفاء ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداناجزاأ

تامابخالصاجكلیاد

...............ھـ

2) ھطل مطر ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداغزیرأ

دشدیبوابلجكثیرد

...............ھـ

3) شممت رائحة _______ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداجمیلةأ

رائعةبزكیھجطیبةد

...............ھـ

4) ظھرت منھ رائحة ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانادرانالا یتلازم أبداسیئةأ

نتنةبعفنةجكریھةد

...............ھـ

285

5) ھذا الملاكم لدیھ عضلات ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدامفتولةأ

متینةبغلیظةجصلبةد

...............ھـ

6) لدیھ ذاكرة ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداحیّةأ

قویةبحافظةجلاقطةد

...............ھـ

7) للأم مشاعر ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداجیاشةأ

رقیقةبیلةنبجمرھفةد

...............ھـ

8) استخدم الجیش سلاحا ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداممیتاأ

قاتلابمدمراجفتاكاد

...............ھـ

9) كان خطأ ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرا یتلازم أبدالافاحشاأ

جسیمابفادحاجعظیماد

...............ھـ

286

10) عانت الدولة من فقر ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدامرأ

قاتلبمدقعجمضنٍد

...............ھـ

11) یحتاج الشاعر خیالا ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدامبدعاأ

واسعابخلاقاجخصباد

...............ھـ

12) أجاب المعلم على سؤال التلمیذ جوابا ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداشافیاأ

مرضیابمقنعاجقاطعاد

...............ھـ

13) - أبدى سببا ________ لتصرفھ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداجیداأ

وجیھابمقنعاجمرضیاد

...............ھـ

14) في وقت المحن یظھر الصدیق ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداالصدوقأ

القریببالحمیمجالحقد

...............ھـ

287

15) القناعة تمنحك حیاة ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداھنیئةأ

طیبةبسعیدةجرغدهد

...............ھـ

16) حضر الاحتفال جمع ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداغفیرأ

كبیربواسعجوافرد

...............ھـ

17) طرح الصحفي سؤالا ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالازم أبدالا یتجیداأ

مرضیابوجیھاجقویاد

...............ھـ

18) عاش الثري في غنى ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداكبیرأ

فاحشبمطغجعظیمد

...............ھـ

19) دارت بین الفریقین حرب ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداضروسأ

عنیفةبطاحنةجشرسةد

...............ھـ

288

20) حقق المرشح نصرا ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعظیماأ

مؤزرابساحقاجمبیناد

...............ھـ

21) للجھل عواقب ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداوخیمةأ

خطیرةبسیئةجمقیتةد

...............ھـ

22) سافرنا إلى أسترالیا في العطلة ________ .

یتلازم دائماناأحیانادرالا یتلازم أبداالعامةأ

الحكومیةبالرسمیةجالعمومیةد

...............ھـ

23) ھبت ریاح ________ في فصل الصیف .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعاصفةأ

عاتیةبصرصرجھوجاءد

...............ھـ

24) دخلت الدولة المعركة بجیش ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعرمرمأ

كبیربضخمججرارد

...............ھـ

289

25) اكتسح الوادي سیل ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداھائجأ

غزیربعرمجھدّارد

...............ھـ

26) كان المریض في حاجة ________ للدواء .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداماسةأ

ملحةبحرجةجشدیدةد

...............ھـ

27) حقق الباحث نجاحا ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدامرموقاأ

ساحقاببلیغاجباھراد

...............ھـ

28) فشلت المحادثات فشلا ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداذریعاأ

كبیرابمحدقاجعظیماد

...............ھـ

29) وجد في نفسھ رغبة ________ في السفر .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداملحّةأ

جامحةبعارمةجشدیدةد

...............ھـ

290

30) یطل جبل ________ على المدینة.

یتلازم دائمااناأحینادرالا یتلازم أبداأشمأ

شاھقبعالجشامخد

...............ھـ

31) خرج الأولاد لیلعبوا في الھواء ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداالخارجيأ

الحربالطلقجالمكشوفد

...............ھـ

32) وجدت الشرطة دلیلا ________ على إدانتھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدابیّناأ

ساطعابقویاجقاطعاد

...............ھـ

33) یحتاج الجراح إلى دقة ________ في عملھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرا یتلازم أبدالاكبیرةأ

متناھیةبقصوىجبالغةد

...............ھـ

34) ھبت نسمة ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعلیلةأ

لطیفةبخفیفةجرخاءد

...............ھـ

291

35) فرحت عند سماع الخبر ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداالمیمونأ

السعیدبالسارجالمفرحد

...............ھـ

36) شرب شایا ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدامعتقاأ

مركزابمكثفاجثقیلا د

...............ھـ

37) تلقى الجنود أوامر ________ من الضابط.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداشدیدةأ

صارمةبصریحةجبالغةد

...............ھـ

38) لم أتوقع ھذه التكلفة ________ .

ئما یتلازم داأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداالباھظةأ

العالیةبالغالیةجالفاحشةد

...............ھـ

39) شكرا على ھذه الخدمة ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداالسدیدةأ

السامیةبالنبیلةجلة الجلید

...............ھـ

292

40) نال المجرم عقوبة ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدازاجرةأ

رادعةبمنكلةجمانعةد

...............ھـ

41) كان لھ عدو ________ في كل مكان.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدامبینأ

شدیدبلدودجأثیمد

...............ھـ

42) كان یقدم أعذارا ________ لغیابھ.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداواھیةأ

مختلقةبعنكبوتیةجعرقوبیةد

...............ھـ

43) تسبب الحادث في أضرار ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدافادحةأ

بالغةبخطیرةججسیمةد

...............ھـ

44) ھبت على المنطقة عاصفة ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعاتیةأ

قویةبھوجاءجشدیدةد

...............ھـ

293

45) تحضرني فكرة ________ لحل المشكلة.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبدانیرةأ

سدیدةبجیدةجعظیمةد

...............ھـ

46) ھناك علاج ________ للمرض .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداشافٍأ

ناجعبمفیدجمثمرد

...............ھـ

47) دارت بین الخصمین معركة ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداعنیفةأ

طاحنةبضروسججبارةد

...............ھـ

48) أتمنى لكم حظا ________ .

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداسعیداأ

وافرابجیداجعظیماد

...............ھـ

49) یجب أن ینسى الطرفان الحقد ________ الذي بینھما.

یتلازم دائماأحیاناانادرلا یتلازم أبداالقدیمأ

العتیقبالدفینجالمتغلغلد

...............ھـ

294

50) الغوص في البحار ________ خطیر.

یتلازم دائماأحیانانادرالا یتلازم أبداالشدیدةأ

العنیفةبالھائجةجالثائرةد

...............ھـ

298

APPENDIX DDemographic questionnaire: Student Translators’ Group

Please answer the following questions:

1- Name: …………………………………………..

2- Gender: 1- Male ( ) 2- Female ( )

3- Age: …………..

4- Degree: 1- Graduate Diploma ( ) 2- M.A. ( )

5- Grade Point Average (GPA): ………………………….

6- First language: 1- Arabic ( ) 2- English ( ) 3- other (please specify)

……………………..

7- How long have you been in Australia? ……………………….

8- What language(s) do you speak at home? ……………………….

9- What language(s) do you speak other than Arabic and English?

……………………………………..

299

APPENDIX ETranslation Test of English Collocations into Arabic

Translate the following English sentences into Arabic:

1- The couple made a pact not to talk about each other.

……………………………………………………………………………

2- They are breaking the promise they made before the election.

……………………………………………………………………………

3- The last time I went anywhere near Peckham Rye, I believe I saw a

girl riding a horse.

……………………………………………………………………………

4- By the time Lord John had drawn his sword and touched his spurs to

his horse’s flanks, the French had pulled back leaving a dozen dead.

……………………………………………………………………………

5- Mrs. Thatcher’s refusal to open today’s debate will be exploited by

Neil Kinnock, the Labour leader.

……………………………………………………………………………

6- He doesn’t like to tell people what to do or give orders.

……………………………………………………………………………

7- Make sure you follow instructions carefully.

……………………………………………………………………………

8- In other words, if a woman asks you to reveal your secrets, she may

really be asking you to tell her that you have no secrets to reveal.

……………………………………………………………………………

9- Hong Kong government is under pressure from liberals who fear that

Britain will again make a secret deal with China.

……………………………………………………………………………

300

10- On the final day of filming we both shed a few tears.

……………………………………………………………………………

11- Now, looking back on it, I don't know how we could have

made such a mistake.

……………………………………………………………………………

12- In his mind, Robertson had committed a crime which was

unforgivable.

………………………………………………………………………………

13- Make an effort to keep in touch with your friends, even if it’s just a

quick phone call.

……………………………………………………………………………

14- Mr. Bush said the embassy must stay open and stressed that

President Saddam was violating international law by attempting to

force its closure.

……………………………………………………………………………

15- As Andrew approached the coast, forecasters tried to keep

track of the hurricane eye as it constantly changed direction.

……………………………………………………………………………

16- I can give you an example.

……………………………………………………………………………

17- But David Castle, of the council's Tenant's Advice Bureau, has

fought a long battle for thousands of people like Karin and Nigel

Harris.

……………………………………………………………………………

18- I poured petrol on them and started a fire.

……………………………………………………………………………

301

19- It attaches more importance to avoiding building new roads

near protected areas.

……………………………………………………………………………

20- New Zealand’s central bank looks well on track to achieve its

goal of reducing inflation to 0-2% by the end of 1993.

……………………………………………………………………………

21- He got the highest score in the whole state.

……………………………………………………………………………

22- She suppressed her rage and humiliation that night, driving

him home at the end of the evening.

……………………………………………………………………………

23- On the journey, as is the custom, they each tell a story.

……………………………………………………………………………

24- At 49 he will grow a beard.

……………………………………………………………………………

25- Generals, after all, did not waste their time with captains, and

especially in active service conditions.

……………………………………………………………………………

26- Only operate when full so you don't waste energy.

……………………………………………………………………………

27- The UN Security Council held an informal meeting on the

matter.

……………………………………………………………………………

28- The prime minister, who's also Kuwait's crown prince, held his

first news conference since returning to the country.

……………………………………………………………………………

29- She said she thought she was doing everybody a favour.

……………………………………………………………………………

302

30- But the Kurds cannot wage a civil war on the streets of

Baghdad.

……………………………………………………………………………

31- Kuwait has appealed to Iraq to co-operate in efforts to resolve

a dispute between Gulf oil-producers.

……………………………………………………………………………

32- Until then you will have to exercise caution in all your

financial dealings.

……………………………………………………………………………

33- He wanted to think it out himself, and he didn't want to talk

about it until he made his decision.

……………………………………………………………………………

34- He wanted to know what Italy was going to do, she said, and

didn't want to take responsibility for sending her to France until he

knew she’d be safe.

……………………………………………………………………………

35- He said he hoped Greece and Turkey would seize the

opportunity to resolve their disputes.

……………………………………………………………………………

36- The discovery could also shed light on other degenerative

nerve diseases such as Parkinson’s and Huntington’s diseases.

……………………………………………………………………………

37- The Russian Parliament issued a warning that it would adopt

measures of its own if Gorbachev took any steps to undermine its

sovereignty.

……………………………………………………………………………

303

38- He started as a factory worker and held various positions on

the work floor.

……………………………………………………………………………

39- This sort of incident can cause permanent damage.

……………………………………………………………………………

40- The Foreign Secretary, Mr Douglas Hurd, has made his first

major speech on Britain's relations with the European Community.

……………………………………………………………………………

41- All those who had apparently made an emergency call denied

it.

……………………………………………………………………………

42- But no one had yet conducted an experiment to demonstrate

the facts.

……………………………………………………………………………

43- The Supreme Soviet passed a new emigration law on May

20th.

……………………………………………………………………………

44- Because if they agree with you, it would be very hard for me

to run the company.

……………………………………………………………………………

45- He felt so angry for her that he wanted to go out and find

Kevin and teach him a lesson.

……………………………………………………………………………

46- If the Commissioner is serious about challenging racism and

winning the confidence of the public and the Black community, then

justice has to prevail.

……………………………………………………………………………

304

47- John Patten scored his first victory as Education Secretary.

……………………………………………………………………………

48- He’s got to get them to listen to others, to pay attention, to

learn how to work.

……………………………………………………………………………

49- What counts is to set a goal, to concentrate one's psychic

energy, to pay attention to the feedback, and to make certain that the

challenge is appropriate to one’s skill.

……………………………………………………………………………

50- Taken completely by surprise, I lost consciousness.

……………………………………………………………………………

51- A United States spokesman said all the injured are expected to

make a full recovery.

……………………………………………………………………………

52- More heavy rain affected South-East China on Friday and

Saturday.

……………………………………………………………………………

53- The candle will heat the water, evaporating the oil, giving off

a sweet smell and, at the same time, provide a friendly glow.

……………………………………………………………………………

54- It wasn't a bad smell; it was just the smell of being closed up.

……………………………………………………………………………

55- Exercise is essential to build strong muscles.

……………………………………………………………………………

56- His good memory helped in remembering all the loose threads

in that tangle.

……………………………………………………………………………

305

57- They bring out tender feelings in warm-hearted people.

……………………………………………………………………………

58- King now faces an assault with a deadly weapon charge.

……………………………………………………………………………

59- I think they have made a serious mistake.

……………………………………………………………………………

60- We cannot honestly say that people living in great poverty are

free, whatever legal rights they may have.

……………………………………………………………………………

61- Maxwell was a man of great imagination, of wide reading and

deep learning, and a scholar as well as a scientist.

……………………………………………………………………………

62- They complained that they hadn't been given satisfactory

answers by the Iraqi authorities.

……………………………………………………………………………

63- Ike and her husband have good reason to be concerned about

their economic future.

……………………………………………………………………………

64- I lived with a close friend when I was at college.

……………………………………………………………………………

65- They want the good life.

……………………………………………………………………………

66- When the results were announced, a large crowd of Walesa

supporters gathered outside his campaign office.

……………………………………………………………………………

67- This is also a good question.

……………………………………………………………………………

306

68- Even those who attain great wealth complain that, instead of

feeling happier, they feel their lives have been a complete waste.

……………………………………………………………………………

69- The vicious war in the former Yugoslavia was by no means

the only ethnic conflict unleashed.

……………………………………………………………………………

70- I'm happy and proud because it was a great victory.

……………………………………………………………………………

71- If I’d let it go on, there could have been serious consequences.

……………………………………………………………………………

72- Banks close at noon on the nearest working day before a

public holiday.

……………………………………………………………………………

73- Heavy winds swept my tent away.

……………………………………………………………………………

74- Both countries have large armies.

……………………………………………………………………………

75- At least 15 people died in raging floods in Americus, Georgia.

……………………………………………………………………………

76- He felt an urgent need to wash his hands, but he wasn't sure

why.

……………………………………………………………………………

77- Luckily the ball was a great success and helped raise over

100,000.

……………………………………………………………………………

78- But should it be described as a complete failure?

……………………………………………………………………………

307

79- She was still living at Tewkesbury and had a great desire to

see the Duke's hounds.

……………………………………………………………………………

80- You jump off a high mountain or bridge or whatever.

……………………………………………………………………………

81- So when you went through the back door you walked out into

open air.

……………………………………………………………………………

82- But there was still no hard evidence.

……………………………………………………………………………

83- Computers copy information from one place to another with

great accuracy.

……………………………………………………………………………

84- He remained motionless for almost a minute, the gentle breeze

fanning his sweating body, before he opened his eyes and looked at

his knee.

……………………………………………………………………………

85- We soon realised that it was in fact rather good news.

……………………………………………………………………………

86- Avoid stimulants like coffee, strong tea and alcohol.

……………………………………………………………………………

87- They were met by a huge police presence, which had

obviously received strict orders to ensure that no one reached the

mosque again.

……………………………………………………………………………

308

88- One reason for the high cost is said to be to deter `those who

are not serious.

……………………………………………………………………………

89- I think I've said enough but I have a very big favour to ask

you.

……………………………………………………………………………

90- And the press received many letters from members of the

public calling for severe punishment.

……………………………………………………………………………

91- And Gamsakhurdia and Shevardnadze have been bitter

enemies in the past.

……………………………………………………………………………

92- I found myself making lame excuses about how I really

needed this book for my exams.

……………………………………………………………………………

93- It appears there were no casualties or serious damage.

……………………………………………………………………………

94- But that estimate was made before another heavy storm hit the

Shetland Islands.

……………………………………………………………………………

95- It's a great idea, but I'm afraid somebody has already beaten

you to it, Ron.

……………………………………………………………………………

96- This is an effective treatment for nasal congestion.

……………………………………………………………………………

309

97- Nova Kasaba was the scene of a fierce battle two weeks ago.

……………………………………………………………………………

98- He wished Obree good luck.

……………………………………………………………………………

99- Yet there is still an atmosphere of deep hostility.

……………………………………………………………………………

100- The following day found the ship in heavy seas and dense fog.

……………………………………………………………………………

249

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