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Arab Imperialism
Carl Ernst
Reli 180, Intro to Islamic civilization
A note on revisionist historians
Egger, page 32: Patricia Crone, John Wansborough, etc.
Questions speculating about traditional Muslim sources, the geographical location of Islam, and the codification of the Qur’an.
Debate cannot be dismissed, but documentary evidence is lacking for these theories
2
Arab Imperialism -- overview
Conquest of Persian and much of Byzantine Empire
Two empires exhaustedBattle over relic of “True Cross”
Conquered territories as a cash cow for exploitation rather than expansion of Islamic society
Amazingly swift conquests
Administration of Muslims and non-Muslims3
4
Arab conquests: Arabia and Fertile Crescent
Factions emerge to contest leadershipMuslim emigrants to Medina (Muhajirun)
Muslims in Medina (Ansar)
Last-minute Muslim converts in Mecca
Wars of Apostasy (ridda) afte Muhammad’s death, two major transitions
Subduing rebellious tribes, then all Arab communities
Conquering Arabian Peninsula, then invading Byzantine and Persian empires 5
Factors aiding the conquest
Expansion of Arabs’ geopolitical motives beyond securing borders
Inspiration of religion combined with the promise of loot
Nomadic reliance on raiding settlements, channeled outwards as Arabia is unified
Problem of handling new military recruits, need for further conquests
6
Byzantine weakness in Syria
Large Arab population
Defensive tactics
Byzantine troops were two thirds Arab
Monophysite Christians and Jews disliked Byzantine oppression
Damascus captured 636, becomes military and political center of caliphate
7
Conquest of Iraq and Egypt
Arab armies defeat Sasanian forces in North and South Iraq by 638
`Amr ibn al-`As conquers Egypt, 636-641, welcomed by Coptic Christians
Garrison cities (Kufah, Basrah; Fustat [Cairo]) established for Arab armies, keeping them separate from the locals
8
Iran
Conquest proceeds despite death of 2nd Caliph, `Umar (644)
Fars (Persian heartland) subjugated by 650, Khorasan (NE) by 654
Distractions of civil war after assassination of `3rd Caliph, `Uthman (656): 4th Caliph, `Ali, fights Mu`awiya ( Damascus) up to his murder in 661
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Other regions (rapid conquests learned about much after the fact)
North Africa: integration of Berber nomads into conquering army
Spain (711, at the request of Visigoths), Muslims welcomed by Jewish population
50,000 Arabs sent to colonize Central Asia (Merv, 671)
Non-Muslim Syrians and Iranians join army
Indus valley conquered in 711
10
Umayyad administration: the caliphate
Election of Abu Bakr as 1st Caliph ( 632-634), tribal form of succession and allegiance oath
Earliest title: khalifat Allah, “deputy of God” (up to Abbasids)—theological
Later changed to khalifat rasul Allah, “successor of the messenger of God”
Finally “Commander of the Faithful”, military and prayer leader
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Umayyad administration: administration of non-Muslims
Correction to Egger (47): while chronicles suggest violent campaigns, ceramic archaeological evidence indicates slower peaceful penetration of Arabs (Prof. Jodi Magness)
Arabs adopt Sasanian policy of recognizing other religious groups and leaders, rather than Byzantine orthodoxy model
Tax (jizya) on non-Muslims12
Umayyad administration: administration of Muslims
Controlling armies by settlement in garrison towns
Shift from loot to regular pay for soldiers, land revenue
Non-Arab converts adopted as clients of Arab tribes
Inequality and tension with non-Arab Muslims
Tax incentive to conversion13
Umayyad administration: administration of Muslims (2)
Gender and regulation of women’s rolesSocial rules of women in Arabia
Debated verses from Qur’an on polygamy, inheritance, dowry, divorce, modesty
Debated origins of veiling and seclusion – Sasanian and Byzantine upper-class women
Continuation of previous empires’ tax collectors, languages, coins
Imposition of Arabic as state language, construction of Dome of the Rock ( 691)14
Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem (691): imperial and religious
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Dome of the Rock
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Interior view
Dome of the Rock
Qur’an inscriptions the earliest dated version of the text; mostly about Qur’anic doctrine of Jesus as human prophet
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Dome of the Rock
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Royal motifs of crown and jewels, suggesting imperial tribute
An Umayyad Palace: Khirbat al-Mafjar (742-3, near Jericho)
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Painting behind the throne:the world-emperor
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To side of throne
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Salutations from the kings of the world, in Greek and Arabic
Paintings in the bath
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Greek zodiac on ceiling dome
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Dissolution of Arab Empire
Limits of conquest machine
Garrison cities fail to segregate Arabs from locals – ethnic and cultural mixing (Arabs learn Persian, non-Muslims Arabized)
Problem of maintaining Arab armies, limits of plunder as source of revenue
Rebellions among Iranians, also Berbers (740)
Instability, overthrow Umayyads in 75024
Conclusion
Umayyad Empire based on constant conquests, “the exploitation of non-Arabs for the benefit of Arabs”
Islamic and Arabic identity now spread beyond the Arabs through religion and language, tied to empire
Important cultural and administrative continuity with previous empires
25