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AQA Geography
Reaching the top grades at AS/A2
David Redfern
June 2010
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AQA Geography – Reaching the top grades
Programme
10.00am What is the A*?
Developing a clear understanding of how it will be awarded
How can students be prepared within their AS year?
What do we mean by ‘depth’, ‘breadth’, ‘synopticity’ and ‘stretch and
challenge’?
11.15am Morning coffee
11.30am Developing skills of extended prose and essay writing
The importance of command words
The importance of key words
The use of case studies
Golden rules for success in essay writing
Examples from AS extended prose
12.45pm Lunch
1.45pm Unit 3: Preparing students for the synoptic essays
A* candidates will be required to achieve a high mark on Unit 3:
Contemporary Geographical Issues. A key part of this will be a structured
and thorough approach to the synoptic essays. This session will examine the
nature of these essays, and how they will be assessed.
2.50pm Afternoon tea
3.00pm Unit 4: developing stretch and challenge in 4A and 4B
Candidates also have a choice of either Unit 4A or 4B. As these both are A2
papers, the scores in these units will also have a bearing on the award of A*.
This session will examine how stretch and challenge will be assessed, and how
they can be addressed, for each of these units.
4.00pm Day ends
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Developing progression from AS to A2
Progression involves:
Range of content: breadth v depth
Use of case studies
Stretch and challenge and synopticity
Integration of skills
Greater levels of personal study and research
The research framework encourages the use of new technologies including GIS, GPS and
electronic maps. These are central to a modern approach to carrying out research, including
fieldwork.
What is research?
Research is the overall process of investigation which is undertaken on particular issues,
problems, phenomena etc. The ambition is to generate findings which can be evaluated to
provide conclusions and usually for the whole exercise to be reported to interested audiences
either in writing, pictures or verbally.
What is data?
Data comprises numerous bits of information which can be distilled from the world around
us.
Primary data is generally regarded as data generated by the researcher, or yet to be
interpreted, distilled or processed by the researcher.
Secondary data is that generated by someone else, or agency, and as been interpreted,
distilled or processed by someone else.
In most cases a balance should be struck between these two.
Students could also be encouraged to use innovative and interesting ways of following up
fieldwork and/or research. Statistics can be used for quantitative data (eg river based work),
but other qualitative approaches should also be used: annotated photographs, personalised
maps, videos, powerpoints etc.. This may also involve different audiences to share the
outcomes.
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The collection of resources.
Collect information and material over a period of time from:
Initial sources (hours/week)
Newspapers
News websites – BBC, SKY
Television and radio
Internet blogs
Huge range of websites – see RU Webwise at the GA / SLN
ONS
Weekly/Monthly sources
New Scientist
Economist
Time
Timesonline
Newsweek
Sunday newspapers
Specialist magazines (provide digests)
Geofile Online
Geo Factsheet
Geography Review
Geographical Magazine
NGO reports (can be huge)
World Bank
Oxfam
UN
WHO
International Red Cross
Action Aid
Textbooks and Journals
Various texts – many are board-based these days; though some are generic
Support materials – Teacher Guides, Student Guides
Teaching Geography
Transactions of the IBG
Issues:
Too much information; Bias; Real facts and figures are not always easy to extract
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Exam technique
Good exam technique is vital. You should not be short of time in the exams, as the exam
papers have been designed to fit the allocated time. However, you should still be careful not
to waste precious minutes. Use revision and exam practice to develop your exam skills, so
that you spend all the available time in the exam producing quality answers to the questions
set.
Good exam technique is rather like a jigsaw of skills, as shown in Figure 1. Each skill needs
to be developed so that they all fit together perfectly in the exam itself.
Command words.
Command words are instructions that tell you how to answer a question. Examples are
‘describe’ and ‘explain’. A common cause of under-performance in exams is misinterpreting
a command word. One of the most frequent errors is explaining something when the question
has asked you to describe it — in other words, saying why, when you should have been
saying what. This also happens in reverse — i.e. describing when you should have been
explaining.
Here is a summary of the meaning of the main command words used in AS and A2 exams.
AS Command
word
Meaning
Define, What is
meant by
State the precise meaning of the idea or concept. There is usually a low
tariff of marks for this – you should give as many ideas as there are
marks.
Describe Provide a picture in words of a feature, a pattern or a process. For
example, if describing a landform say what it looks like, give some
indication of size or scale, what it is made of, and where it is in relation
to something else.
Explain, Why,
Suggest reasons
Provide the causes of a feature, phenomenon or pattern. This usually
requires an understanding of processes. Explanation is a higher-level
skill than description and this is reflected in its greater mark weighting.
Outline,
Summarise
Provide a brief overview of all the relevant information
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Compare Describe the similarities and differences of at least two features, events,
patterns and processes.
Contrast Point out the differences between at least two features, events, patterns
and processes
Comment on Examine the stimulus material provided and then make statements that
arise from the material that are relevant, appropriate and geographical,
but not directly evident. You are being invited to ‘think like a
geographer’
Justify (at AS) Give reasons why something should be done, and why other options
should not.
Consider Describe (as above) and then give your views on a subject
Examine Investigate and describe in detail
Annotate Label a diagram, image or graphic. The labels should describe and/or
explain features, rather than just identify them (which is labelling). You
should use a number of words for each annotation.
A2 Command
word
Meaning
Discuss Give both sides of an argument (for and against), and come to a
conclusion.
Analyse Break down the content of a topic, or issue, into its constituent parts in
order to provide an in-depth account
Assess Weigh up several options or arguments and come to a conclusion about
their effectiveness
Evaluate Weigh up several options or arguments and come to a conclusion about
their importance/success
To what extent
do you agree
Say ‘how far’ you agree with a statement option after examining both
sides of the argument
Critically Often occurs before ‘Assess’ or ‘Evaluate’ and invites you to examine an
issue from the point of view of a critic – what strengths and weaknesses
are there in the points of view being expressed?
Justify (at A2) Give reasons why something should be done, and why other options
should not. However, at this level, each of the options available will have
positives and negatives. For the outcome chosen, the positives outweigh
the negatives; for the outcome(s) rejected the negatives outweigh the
positives. You should be able to explain all of this selection process.
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Key words.
Key words are instructions that tell you what to write your answer about. They provide you
with the focus of the question. They are often common words, but it is important to
understand their meaning. Some key words that are used are defined below.
Key word Meaning
Appropriate Whether solutions are fit for purpose and realistic.
Benefits The advantages/positive impacts of something (social, economic,
environmental).
Causes The reasons why something happens.
Challenges Difficult, large-scale problems that require solutions.
Characteristics The key features of something.
Concerns Aspects of an issue or problem that are worrying.
Conflicts Issues over which two or more groups disagree
Consequences The results of a change or process; they can be positive or negative.
Costs The disadvantages/negative impacts of something (social, economic,
environmental).
Distribution The geographical pattern, most often on a map. Look for areas with a
high amount, a low amount, and anomalies within each of these areas.
Economic To do with money, work, industry, jobs and prospects
Effects The results of a process, or an event
Environmental To do with the environment, plants, animals, water, air and resources
Factors The underlying causes of a problem or process.
Impacts The results of a process or change on people and the environment. They
can be positive or negative.
Interrelationships Links between two or more features, such that changing one feature leads
to changes in the others.
Issues These are the views or concerns that some people may have regarding a
feature or event, which may be beneficial as well as problematic
Lifestyle The way in which people live their lives
Management Using policies and strategies to minimise or reduce impacts or problems.
Patterns The distribution of something; where things are in a general sense —
most often on a map.
Political To do with power, different viewpoints and policy, and the decisions to
which these lead
Problems Issues that worry people; the negative results of a process or change.
Process A sequence of events that causes a change to take place.
Responses The ways in which people react to an event – some may be as an
individual, some may be as groups; some are planned, some are
unplanned.
Scale An area of study - local, regional, national, global.
Social To do with people, their quality of life, health, education and prosperity
Strategies Methods used to manage a problem.
Sustainable Being able to continue to do something without damaging the basis for
its existence
Trends The general direction of a change — rising, falling, fluctuating.
Variations How far something differs from the norm or the average.
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Several key words operate in tandem, and examination questions often use more than one key
word. For example, many topics, when linked to key words such as problems, challenges,
consequences, impacts, effects and issues, have social, economic and environmental aspects.
A further way to help you understand key words is to examine the geographical process.
Many of the topics you study fit into a sequence as shown below.
Locational knowledge
It is important that you approach the exams as a geographer, and try to give a ‘sense of place’
especially when asked for reference(s) to examples or case studies. Exam questions often ask
for locational knowledge’. This could be about scale:
global (world,worldwide)
national (country or countries)
local (small area)
It could be about levels of development:
the developed world, or
the developing world
It could also be about type of place:
an urban area, or
a rural area.
On this specification there are some compulsory case studies, so you should expect exam
questions specifically about these. These are made clear for each option in this book.
Extended prose questions that require the comparative use of case studies are popular. Much
of the challenge of such questions hinges on selecting appropriate case studies. Make sure
you do not rehash each study in turn. In planning effective answers to this type of question, it
is often necessary to interweave references to your chosen case studies.
A successful response to a question that starts ‘With reference to a named....’ requires:
Choice of an appropriate example
Detailed knowledge of that example in relation to the question asked
Resisting the temptation to set down ‘all I know’ type responses – you should harness
only those aspects that are directly relevant.
Watch out for questions that do not specifically ask for examples, but nonetheless expect
them. The front of the exam paper usually says you should illustrate your answers with
references to examples and case studies. Finally, it is worth noting that, especially at A2, the
more contemporary examples that you can include in your answer, the more you are likely to
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convince and impress the examiner that you have a sound knowledge and understanding of
today’s world.
Key geographical terms.
Key geographical terms are defined for you in textbooks – examples include the terminology
used for landforms and the processes that create them. You should learn these and be
prepared to use them.
Key terms are important for two reasons:
If your geographical vocabulary is poor, there is a danger that you will not understand
some questions.
If you do not use geographical terminology, your answers may be imprecise and
poorly expressed.
Use of resources
You must take a structured and careful approach when using the resources you are asked to
study in the exam. They contain key information that you will need to use to answer fully the
questions linked to them.
Resources are used in two main ways — as data response resources or as data stimulus
resources:
Data response resources should be used directly in your answer. Usually, this means
taking information from the resource and incorporating it into your answer. Short
questions are often data response questions. Data response command words include
‘describe’, ‘state’ and ‘outline’.
Data stimulus resources can be used more indirectly. You might use the resource to
get some ideas, or to provide a structure for your answer. Data stimulus command
words are more open, for example ‘comment on’, ‘examine’ or ‘discuss’.
The range of resources you could be asked to interpret and use is large:
Photographs
Maps
Graphs
Tables
Diagrams
Timing
You should have enough time in the exams, but you can get into difficulties and be forced to
rush if you do not follow some guidelines:
Use past papers to practise timed exams. It is vital you understand fully the exam
format and have some experience of working under exam conditions.
If there is a choice of questions (as there is in Unit 3, Section C), read all the questions
before you choose which one to answer.
Be guided by the number of marks available for each question and the number of lines
you have to write on. Do not spend 10 minutes on a question worth 3 marks, or 3
minutes on a question worth 10 marks.
As a guide, in Unit 1 there are 120 marks available, and you have 120 minutes in the
exam. This translates as 1 minute per mark. In Unit 3 there are 90 marks available and
150 minutes in the exam - a little more than 1 minute per mark.
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Suggestions for preparing and using case studies focusing on Rivers, floods
and management and Population change.
1. Re-evaluating the flood risk in the UK (MEDC)
Recent years have seen an apparent increase in flood events in the UK and Europe. The ‘risk’
of flooding can be considered as the product of the probability of a flood occurring and the
consequences of the flood affecting people. Approximately 5% of the UK population live in
flood prone areas. River flooding is a natural hydrological process. Has the risk of river
flooding increased or is it that we perceive it to have increased because more people and
property are affected?
What is risk?
A flooding hazard can only occur where there are people. It only becomes a true disaster if
there is a loss of life rather than property or possessions. Discussion of risk should also take
into account vulnerability. Vulnerability is greatest where there is both a high risk of a flood
and the inability of people to cope. Any assessment of risk should also include resilience, the
capacity of a population to receive and absorb a hazardous event and to recover from that
event. To be able to manage flood risk we must understand that people perceive risk. Risk
perception can be voluntary, accepting the risk that a river overtops its banks onto an
agricultural flood plain or involuntary where the risk is perceived to be inevitable or
uncontrollable such as the fact that the Severn will flood again.
The media tend to portray flooding as a disaster more often than is the case. They do this to
sell their product and disaster sells more! In our capitalist society we put great value on
property and possessions; we judge each other by our homes, cars and artefacts. Therefore, it
is understandable that a disaster to the popular press and TV might involve damage to homes
and cars yet no deaths. The total assets at risk from flooding in the UK amount to
£238billion. No wonder that the insurance industry is concerned that the risk is increasing.
Sources of the Flood Hazard in the UK
Climatic (a) Storms leading to flash floods, (b) prolonged rainfall over days or even
months over the whole catchment area or a large part of the catchment leads to a
large volume of surface and pluvial water. (c) Climate change is increasing the risk of
storm events.
Geological. Impervious rocks such as clays reduce infiltration and increase surface
water flow. Porous rocks such as chalk enable water to infiltrate and the water table
to rise, and lead to a slower flood onset. Chalk has the largest seasonal changes in
groundwater levels.
Morphological. Size of the catchment, types of slope, valley width can all have an
impact. Small steep catchments lead to the most rapid onset of flash flooding.
Human factors.
(i) Sewers – overwhelmed sewers are the most common form of flooding in the
UK.
(ii) Culverting restricts the flow and prevents overtopping and ponds waters back.
In small streams culverts get blocked by fallen vegetation and rubbish.
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(iii) Bridges can also restrict flow especially if there are embankments taking
roads or railways to the bridge.
(iv) Impermeable surfaces increase runoff unless surface is a modern permeable
one. Increased creation of paved driveways in front gardens has increased the
problem. Flooding is exacerbated if the impervious area increases.
(v) Roofs leading to drains into the sewers rather than soakaways have increased
run off as urban areas have spread.
(vi) Local development plans that permit building on slopes without adequate
highway drainage will intensify velocity of the water.
(vii) Agricultural practices such as ploughing up and down slopes can increase
surface runoff and gulley erosion carrying volumes of silt into the swollen
streams. Polytunnel farming and glasshouses can cause velocities to increase
as water is concentrated in runnels.
(viii) Deforestation has been proven to increase flood frequency and risk.
Of all of these sources of flood hazards the physical have always been there. The natural
environment had coping mechanisms such as functional floodplains. Nevertheless, the chance
of several days' downpour has more than doubled since 1960. Between 1961 and 2000 there
was an increase in the number of days of heavy winter rainfall, and a decrease in summer.
The floods in autumn 2000 were the product of heavy rainfall particularly on 3 or more days
in a row. There has been only a very small change in the number of wet winter days. Now it
is 50-60% more likely than in 1960 that there will be 5 or more days in a row of heavy winter
rain. Summer rain intensity has remained about the same, though the average rainfall is
decreasing. Changes to the circulation of the North Atlantic and higher temperatures are
leading to more evaporation and increased rainfall.
Impacts of flooding
Have the impacts of flooding changed? Some impacts depend on the rarity of the event, the
speed of the event, the duration of the event, the depth and temperature of the water and these
have always been variables. However, impacts do depend on the presence or lack of warnings
and the weather warnings and flood warnings that are issued have increased and become
more detailed and accurate as technology has advanced, witness the warnings on the Severn
in 2007.
Impacts are also dependent on the presence of contaminants in the water resulting from the
sewage and drainage system being overwhelmed. In addition, we use more water and that is
entering the sewage system. We have C19th sewers dealing with C21st life and its hazards.
Impacts are exacerbated by building technologies. In parts of Europe electric plugs are raised
well above floor level yet in the UK plugs are still installed at about the height many floods
can reach. Large public utility installations such as electricity sub stations, water processing
plants and sewage farms have been constructed on flood plains and are under threat when
waters rise. In Sheffield leisure centres were intended to be hazard evacuation centres yet
they were in the course of a potential flood. In Hull schools had been planned to be
evacuation centres yet in 2007, 91 of the 98 schools were flooded. Only recently have
sustainable drainage systems been introduced.
Conclusion
The flood risk has increased mainly because the natural causes of flooding have changed.
However, the human causes have served to exacerbate the risks. People want the human
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factors mitigated by a series of policies and plans for the worst affected areas. However, they
resist mitigation if it draws attention to the fact that their house is liable to flood.
Questions on the case study (UK)
1. What are the various forms that risk takes?
2. Explain the difference between the causes of rapid onset flash flooding and
flooding over a prolonged period.
3. What risks and impacts of flooding are the product of agricultural practices.
4. With reference to the impact of a river flood event in the UK, assess the role of
natural and human factors affecting its severity.
Answer plan:
This question expects you to show your knowledge of a single flood event. It must
be named and dated, e.g. River Severn, June/July 2007.
Climatic factors such as prolonged wet weather over Wales leading to the gradual
saturation of ground, high water table and gradually increasing flow out of the
upper basin of the River Severn. Rainfall double average for June the culmination
of wettest May-July since 1776. Just to say global warming without a causal link
will no gain much credit.
Why? Meteorological circumstances of a high pressure system north of the UK
pushing very deep unseasonable lows along a track across the UK.
The size of the Severn catchment that subsequent rains in the Midlands area began
to swell the tributary, River Avon, whose waters met the swollen Severn flow at
Tewkesbury.
The human factors should include the presence of towns where the river has been
partially culverted. Bridges that hold back the flow. Loss of the floodplain to
various developments – water works (Mythe), electricity sub stations (Walham
and Castle Meads) and housing in Tewkesbury, Worcester and Gloucester.
5. ‘Flood risk is not a water problem but a people problem’. Discuss.
Answer plan:
You should define risk and qualify it as in the article.
People perceive risk as a result of their home location and the influence of the
media.
Water will always flood naturally as a mechanism to cope with excessive volumes
of water along a stream course. You need to indicate the climatic, meteorological,
geological and morphological factors that cause flooding.
People exacerbate the problem unintentionally perhaps when knowledge of the
process of flooding was less. People have not intentionally caused the risk but
their activities when put together have increased the risk.
Answers which try and place all blame on people will get mid-range marks
whereas those that discuss and appreciate the issue will gain higher marks.
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A specific flood event: Morpeth September 2008
Read the information below about the flooding in Morpeth in September 2008. Outline and
comment on the economic and social issues that arose.
The streets of Morpeth are buzzing with activity as clearing up continues after the worst
flooding in Northumberland for 50 years. Rescue and damage stories can be heard on every
corner, while many shops and homes still bear the scars of the weekend's downpour.
More than 1,000 properties were affected, and about 400 people were moved to safety when
the River Wansbeck burst its banks on Saturday. The area experienced one month's rain in
just 12 hours. The river returned to its traditional boundaries on Sunday and the town's
residents have since been dealing with the aftermath.
The torrent of water was indiscriminate in the victims it chose, with "closed due to flooding"
signs littering the windows of charity shops, restaurants, hairdressers and estate agents. One
store owner, unaffected by the flooding, is reporting a boom in sales of mops and brushes.
Council officials in fluorescent jackets buzz between the businesses, quickly followed by
clip-board-carrying insurance assessors. Carolyn Fisher, 49, owner of Road Runner Sports, is
facing up to the possibility of losing three months trade in tough economic times. She said:
"We opened the shop door to a scene of devastation when we returned for the clear-up. All
the stock and metal racks were pushed up to the front door and the laminate flooring had
cracked and buckled. The more we cleared the more we realised the extent of the damage.
The floor was covered in brown sludge and it still really stinks, there must have been sewage
in the water."
Gardens and skips on the residential streets near the River Wansbeck are stacked with
mattresses, electrical goods and other household items ruined by water. Evelyn Chapman, 82,
Challoner's Gardens, escaped the floods on a raft after being carried out of her home by
firefighters. Her bungalow has now been stripped of its waterlogged carpets, furniture and
white goods. "We managed to save my television, DVD and some personal things but it feels
like I have lost everything", she said. "I don't have insurance, so it looks like I will just have
to try and save some money up to buy more things. As rain begins to fall again on Tuesday
thoughts naturally turn to the prospect of further flooding. However, Mrs Chapman's 49-year-
old daughter Eileen responds to the idea of another flood in good humour. "Why worry, she
has nothing more to lose," she quips.
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Bangladesh – A flooding hotspot (LEDC)
Bangladesh lies between two quite different regions. To the north lie the Himalayas, where
the monsoon rainfall is intensified by the height of the land to make it one of the rainiest
places in the world. To the south lies the Bay of Bengal, the origin of many tropical cyclones
and their associated storm surges. Most of the country in between is a low-lying delta area.
Approximately 20% of the country’s land area is less than one metre above sea level – with
much of the most densely populated land consisting of ‘chars’ or islands made of mud
deposited by the distributaries of the area’s major rivers.
The fact that just over 150 million people live crowded in this country makes it one of the
most vulnerable hazard hot spots in the world.
1988 – floods – about two thirds of the country flooded
1991 – cyclone – 138 000
1998 – floods – 1000 people and 135 000 cattle dead, 30 million made homeless with
two thirds of the country under water
2004 – floods – 40% of Dacca under water and 30 million people affected
August 2007 – floods – 298 dead, 10 million forced to move
November 2007 – cyclone Sidr and accompanying storm surge.
Cyclone Sidr struck when farmers were still trying to recover from the monsoon floods
earlier in the year. Some farmers had lost one crop in July, then replanted as the floods
retreated, only to see that crop destroyed by a second river flood in late August. Then these
same farmers had a third late-season crop destroyed by the storm surge floods that followed
the cyclone. Sidr had winds of 250 kph when it struck and the storm surge caused sea level to
rise by four metres in places. It caused:
● waves to travel up to 50 km inland
● destruction or serious damage to over 1.4 million homes
● deaths of over 1.25 million livestock
● almost 1 million ha of cropland damaged with salt water
● many kilometres of roads and coastal embankments destroyed
● over 200 human deaths
But check that list again. Why were there so few deaths when previous cyclones had killed
hundreds of thousands? Aid experts say that a cyclone of similar strength would have killed
at least 100 000 had it struck 20 years ago. The reductions in the death toll are due to a
combination of measures from the national government, multi-national aid schemes and the
work of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as ActionAid. The measures put in
place include:
● tens of thousands of volunteers trained to provide warnings and to supervise
evacuations
● warnings broadcast over the loudspeakers from the mosques
● several thousand concrete cyclone shelters have been built, with all new schools
now doubling as shelters
● all hospitals and clinics are also built to be cyclone proof
● huge advances in meteorology with satellite monitoring linked to a network of local
radio stations to send warnings to danger areas
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Unfortunately this reduction in the death toll has not been matched by a reduction in the other
problems caused by the multi-hazard nature of Bangladesh’s geography.
The river floods
Bangladesh receives enormous amounts of rain from four major rivers, the Ganges,
Brahmaputra, Jamuna and Meghna. These rivers always flood after the monsoon rains.
Without the floods the production of rice would be severely reduced. However, some years
the floods rise higher and devastate the communities that are built on the flood plain to take
advantage of the water and the alluvial soils that are kept fertile by the silt that the floods
deposit. The serious floods used to come every 20 years or so but their frequency has been
increasing and now they recur on a 10-year or even a 7-year cycle.
Reasons for this increase include deforestation in the foothills of the Himalayas, which
reduces transpiration and allows water to reach the rivers more quickly either as through flow
or as overland flow. The deforestation has also increased soil erosion in the foothills and this,
in turn, increases deposition lower downstream. This can cause blockages but its more
serious effect is to raise river beds and reduce their capacity.
Also attempts to control the water of the rivers for irrigation in India and northern
Bangladesh are leading to the deposition of more silt than used to occur. This is due to the
reduced speed of flow of the water in the irrigation channels. This builds up the land inland
but reduces sediment deposition in the lower lying areas of the delta. Indeed the water
flowing out from these irrigated areas carries a much reduced sediment load….which may
well be speeding up the rate of erosion of the banks in the most vulnerable areas of the delta -
on the chars.
Global warming may be partly to blame for the increased river floods. Warmer temperatures
are increasing the melt-rate of snow and glaciers in the Himalayas. It may also be increasing
the quantity and the intensity of the monsoon rainfall. Climatologists believe that total rainfall
in the area could increase by 10 – 15% by 2030, which would cause a devastating increase in
flood risk.
The quantity of water in the rivers obviously presents a hazard. The hazard can be turned into
a disaster by other factors which include:
● the density of the population and the fact that, despite recent improvements, they
are poor and ill-prepared to cope with the floods
● the gentle slopes that are naturally found on a deltaic flood plain, which mean that
the floods can spread easily over huge areas
● the unconsolidated nature of the material on the flood plain, which makes erosion of
the banks easy and which also allows homes, roads, fields, etc. to be washed away
very easily
● Bangladesh has 58 rivers that flow into its territory from India (with many of them
rising in a third country), meaning that water issues are politically complicated to
resolve
● the pollution of many of the rivers, meaning that the flood waters are sources of
disease such as typhus, cholera and other gastro-intestinal problems
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Floods from the sea Cyclones are tropical storms that form over the Bay of Bengal and blow northwards towards
the coast of Bangladesh. As they travel north the storm surges that form due to the force of
the wind and the low pressure air of the storm, are channelled by the shape of the coastline.
This funnels them towards the coast, increasing the height of the storm surges and
multiplying the threat to the coastal communities.
These floods present a serious threat to agriculture, food and water security, human health
and shelter. Although preparedness for cyclones has increased enormously over the last 20
years there is little that can be done to protect housing, infrastructure or crops and livestock.
The land is just too low and flat to provide protection for anything or anyone who cannot get
into the concrete cyclone shelters. Moreover, in the largely subsistence economy, there is
little opportunity to stockpile food so hunger and malnutrition tend to follow closely after
cyclones have struck.
In addition to the immediate and medium-term effects of the cyclones there is an increased
long-term effect of salt water inundation spreading inland, reducing the fertility of the land.
This has destroyed many of the coastal rice fields that used to form the basis of the way of
life. A lot of this land is now used for shrimp farming. Unfortunately this commercial
agriculture brings good profits for large land owners but provides less employment than the
rice farming did; and it has replaced a cheap food source that was an ideal subsistence crop
with an expensive food source that few locals can afford.
Climate change will only make the situation worse. Rises in temperature will increase the
heat source powering the cyclones. It is likely to make them more intense and more frequent.
Increased intensity alone will increase the height of storm surges. However, rises in sea level
will make the problem even worse. Estimates suggest that average temperatures in the Bay of
Bengal are likely to rise by 2 – 4 °C over the next 40 years. This would lead to a sea level
increase of 50 – 100 cm. A 50 cm rise would reduce Bangladesh’s land area by about 11%
and force 5.5 million people to leave the land; a 100 cm rise would flood 20% of the country
and create over 15 million climate refugees.
17
Questions on the case study (Bangladesh)
1. Outline the main physical causes of the river floods that affect Bangladesh.
2. Explain how human activity has contributed to increasing the severity of these
floods.
3. Why is Bangladesh one of the countries of the world that is most susceptible to
floods?
Answer plan:
Bangladesh largely consists of a deltaic plain that lies between the Himalayas and the
Bay of Bengal
Monsoon rainfall and snow melt combine to cause river floods from June onwards
These floods work down four major rivers which meet in Bangladesh
Human activity (deforestation, building irrigation channels, etc.) has helped to make
the floods more severe
High temperatures over the Bay of Bengal cause cyclones, mainly in late summer
As these head north the winds and storm surges are channelled by the shape of the
coast, so that they are concentrated on the delta
This is low-lying and flat and is easily inundated
The delta land is fertile and, as there is a shortage of land in Bangladesh, it is densely
populated
Much of the population is very poor and unable to protect their land and housing from
flooding
Floods are becoming more severe and more common due to climate change
4. How has the loss of life from floods and cyclones been reduced? Why have
people not been able to reduce the loss of housing and farmland at the same
time?
Answer plan:
Volunteers have been trained to provide warnings
Warnings broadcast from mosques’ loudspeakers
Several thousand cyclone shelters have been built
All newly constructed schools can double as cyclone shelters
All new hospitals and clinics have to be built to be cyclone proof
Satellites launched to spot cyclones developing over Bay of Bengal
Linked to network of local radio stations
but……..
The land is so low-lying that it cannot be protected
Bangladesh is a poor country and cannot afford hard engineering defences
The delta sediments are unconsolidated and easily eroded
The number of trans-border rivers makes river basin planning difficult
Initially it was most important to save lives
18
Examples of the use of case studies in extended prose questions at AS.
1. Outline and comment on the economic and political consequences of population
change. 15 marks
Level 1: describes economic and/or political; simple points 1-6
Level 2: specific and precise; both econ/political; some support; tentative/implicit comment
7-12
Level 3: clear purposeful; clear exemplification; clear explicit comment. 13-15
Candidate A
There are many economic and political consequences of population change. If the population
increase then the results could be good or bad. It will provide a large workforce which can
sustain economic growth and it could increase urbanisation too as rural areas are unlikely to
be able to support larger numbers of people. However, population increases can have
negative effects too. In Iran, 18 million children were born between 1981 and 1984. These
were originally planned to help the Iranian economy and war effort but now Iran is suffering
consequences. The unemployment rate for under 30 year olds is 28% and around 150000
college educated workers leave the country each year in search of work.
China also had to deal with a dangerous population increase – 94% of its 1.25 billion strong
population lived on 40% of its land. The country’s natural resources were rapidly being used
up and it put the government under a lot of pressure. As a result the political consequence
was that in 1979 the one child policy was started which made people get a permit to have a
child and only one was permitted per couple. China’s fertility rate decreased from 5.1% to
1.7% but it is now facing many other issues.
A decreasing population can also cause many problems. In France the fertility rate has been
below replacement levels for a few years and problems are beginning to arise. The % of
retired people has now increased to be almost double of those under the age of 16. As a
result the government is receiving much less taxes than it used to – reducing France’s
economic power. More money has to be spent on services and the health care system as well
to deal with the ageing population. France is also being affected politically too – the older
people (who make up the majority of voters) vote for right wing parties who won’t change
France too much. Both of France’s presidents for the last few years have been right wing
traditionalists.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of hard engineering as a flood management
strategy. 15 marks
Level 1 (1 – 6 marks)
Defines hard engineering. Describes how floods may be managed using hard engineering.
Information likely to be generic.
Some use of appropriate terminology present at the higher end.
Level 2 (7 – 12 marks)
Describes hard engineering strategy/ies.
Description of how floods may be managed using hard engineering is more specific and
precise. Begins to link to advantages and/or disadvantages, which may be general. May
19
relate to case studies. Accept general advs. But to gain top 2, there must be ref to flooding.
Appropriate geographical terminology is used. Begins to discuss.
Level 3 (13 – 15 marks)
Precise description of strategy/ies linked to both advantages and disadvantages.
Case studies likely to be used in support. Clear focus on flooding.
Specific terminology is used throughout. Purposeful.
Candidate A
Hard engineering is a very controversial strategy to be put into place, even if put into place
to help the environment/population. It will always have knock-on consequences.
This has been proved in the building of the Three Gorges dam in China, built with the
purpose of aiding the villages and towns downstream, trying to avoid any more flooding
affecting these settlements and at the same time providing power to supply millions of homes.
The dam has been very effective as it has reduced all flooding of these lower settlements
which has improved lifestyle for the residents and allowed them to stop worrying about the
possibility of a flood. It has also provided a renewable energy source to millions of people
requiring electricity which in turn has offered the Chinese government an example of
combating climate change. It has also created an area that can be turned into a spot for
recreation (behind the dam) where water sports and such can be enjoyed on the man made
lake that has formed behind where the water has been blocked up. In addition, lower down
the dam in the valley ample space has been created where the river levels have subsided
providing building space etc.
However, with the advantages have come disadvantages. The flooding of all the land behind
the dam has required people to have to move out of their homes and villages have been
completely destroyed and submerged. Along with this, habitats for thousands of different
types of wildlife are/have been destroyed. Another environmental impact the dam has had is
on the river itself. Sediment that would normally be carried down the river has been
completely blocked by the dam where it just builds up. This starves the lower river of its
normal sediment which has dramatic effects. Any levees/meanders formed/in formation are
stopped due to there being nothing to deposit. Deltas are washed away as there is nothing to
build on top of etc.
3. For any two of inner city, suburban area, rural urban fringe and an area of rural
settlement, summarise the contrasts between them and explain the implications of these
contrasts for social welfare. 15 marks
Level 1 (1 – 6 marks)
Describes the characteristics of the two areas.
These are separate.
General statements – applicable to any area.
Points made are simple and random.
Level 2 (7 – 12 marks)
Description is more specific and precise.
Contrasts are drawn between the two areas and the summary is clear.
Points are supported in places.
Begins to make links to social welfare.
20
Level 3 (13 – 15 marks)
Clear, purposeful summary of contrasts.
An organised account that is purposeful in responding to the question.
Exemplification is used to support answers – case studies are effectively used.
Clear, explicit links to social welfare and contrasts between areas.
Candidate B
Inner City and Rural settlement
In the inner city of Fishwick in Preston there is usually 19th century housing such as terraces
with no gardens and no driveways. This is in contrast to rural areas such as Longton where
the housing is mainly detached homes with large gardens and driveways meaning that
people’s cars are safer and so there may be less crime.
In addition to this the ethnicity of peoples changes. In the inner city there is more ethnic
minorities eg in Fishwick only 67% of the population are ‘white’ whereas in Longton 92%
are ‘white’. This may mean that in areas such as Fishwick there is less social cohesion as
there are many different ethnic groups who all want to instil their own values. However, it
may be more of an issue in rural areas as the minority group may want to open a store eg a
Caribbean food shop which is less common and may be less accepted there.
Also the wealth of the people in these areas is very different. In the inner city many people
are unemployed or do low-skilled jobs as they have few qualifications, 45% of people in
Fishwick over 18 years have none. This would result in a lower paid job and so the qualities
of products bought may be less than somebody in Longton where only 10% have no
qualifications. It may also lead to higher crime rate as people can’t afford things so steal
them instead.
In addition to the above, the inner city is occupied mainly by younger people such as students
and first time home buyers. This would mean that the local services are more suited to this eg
more bars and clubs, whereas in the rural areas there is mainly retired people or people with
families and also there are more nursing homes. This may impact on social welfare as if
young families move into the area then there may be a lack of school choice and a lack of
night life which may lead to depression or other health issues.
Also the public services in an area such as shops differ with area. In the inner city there are
many convenience stores and no shopping parades. This differs in rural areas such as
Longton where there are only a few village shops and a non-frequent bus service. However,
this may be due to commuters doing shopping elsewhere in the city centre and this may lead
to closure of local shops, impacting on the economy.
21
The mark scheme for the essay questions
Assessment
criteria
Level 1
1-10
Level 2
11-20
Level 3
21-30
Level 4
31-40
Knowledge Basic grasp of
concepts and
ideas; points
lack
development
or depth.
The answer is
relevant and
accurate.
Reasonable
knowledge.
Imbalanced
theories
Sound and frequent
evidence of
thorough, detailed
and accurate
knowledge
Strong evidence of
thorough, detailed
and accurate
knowledge
Understanding Incomplete,
basic.
Reasonable
critical
understanding of
concepts and
principles with
some use of
specialist
vocabulary.
Sound and frequent
evidence of critical
understanding of
concepts and
principles, and of
specialist
vocabulary.
Strong evidence of
critical understanding
of concepts and
principles and of
specialist vocabulary.
Use of
examples/ case
studies
Maps/Diagrams
Superficial
None
Examples show
imbalances.
Ineffective
Examples are
developed and
balanced.
Effective
Examples are well
developed and
integrated.
Fully integrated
Evidence of
synopticity:
Connections
between
different
aspects of the
subject
‘Thinking like a
geographer’
No evidence Limited.
Some ability to
identify, interpret
and synthesise
some of the
material.
Limited ability to
understand the
roles of values,
attitudes and
decision-making
processes.
Strong
Some ability to
identify, interpret
and synthesise a
range of material.
Some ability to
understand the
roles of values,
attitudes and
decision-making
processes.
Full
There is a high level
of insight, and an
ability to identify,
interpret and
synthesise a wide
range of material with
creativity.
Evidence of maturity
in understanding the
role of values,
attitudes and
decision-making
processes.
Quality of
argument
Language is
basic;
arguments are
partial, over
simplified and
lacking
clarity.
Arguments are
not fully
developed nor
expressed clearly,
and the
organisation of
ideas shows
imbalances.
Explanations,
arguments and
assessments or
evaluations are
accurate, direct,
logical, purposeful,
expressed with
clarity and
generally balanced.
Explanations,
arguments and
assessments or
evaluations are direct,
logical, perceptive,
mature, purposeful,
and are expressed
coherently and
confidently, and show
both balance and flair.
22
Discuss the view that poverty is the real killer in earthquake disasters.
Answer 1.
Earthquake disasters produce devastating effects on the lives of everyone involved. However
it is often said that LEDCs suffer much more from the effects of earthquakes than MEDCs.
Whilst this is a generalisation it is probably true, at least in terms of the human cost. Poverty
is the condition of lacking basic human needs such as nutrition, clean water, health care,
clothing, and shelter because of the inability to afford them. There are several levels of
poverty from an individual to national level and earthquake disasters impact at all levels.
The primary earthquake hazard directly responsible for mortality is surface seismic waves
which cause ground shaking. This poses a huge hazard as buildings and other structures
collapse, killing or injuring their occupants. This was the case in Sichuan, China in 2008
where severe ground shaking was the direct cause of death, injury and the catastrophic
destruction of hospitals, roads and other infrastructure. An estimated 5.4 million buildings
collapsed and a further 21 million were damaged. The reason behind such high figures was
due to poor design and cost-cutting construction. Older buildings were mainly low-rise
masonry constructions without steel reinforcement. Concentrated mainly in poorer rural
areas, these buildings were the most vulnerable and simply collapsed in the quake.
In poorer areas such as rural China, buildings are compromised despite strict regulations due
to poor quality construction work and corruption meaning the correct materials are not used.
In Sichuan, building failure was due to a combination of severe ground shaking, poor design
lacking in steel reinforcement and the use of inadequate construction material, including
inferior concrete. Another example of where limited funds resulted in inadequate building
design occurred in Turkey in 1998 where some of the 20 000 buildings that collapsed killing
14 500 people were found to have seashells instead of pebbles in the concrete mix. This
shows how poverty leaves individuals and society more vulnerable because of a lack of
resources to construct earthquake-resistant buildings. The 1976 Guatemalan earthquake was
even described by a journalist as a “class quake” since it killed 22 000 people living in unsafe
housing in the rural highlands, and those in squatter settlements and older housing. The
middle and upper class were little affected as they could afford safe housing built to the
correct standards.
In wealthy areas where earthquakes are common, building materials and aseismic design can
minimise loss of life. They are particularly important for public buildings and utilities such as
hospitals, roads and power stations. Many MEDCs have had buildings retro-fitted with base
isolators to withstand movement of up to 30 cm in any horizontal direction; this has been
done in the New Zealand Houses of Parliament which should now be protected to withstand
an earthquake of up to 7.5 on the Richter Scale. In comparison buildings in poorer parts of
the world are at a disadvantage as aseismic design is expensive and offer little prospect of
reducing the vulnerability of the large number of poor people living in squatter settlements
and older housing.
23
Afghanistan is one of the poorest countries in the world, with a GDP of only $416, and recent
droughts and wars have left it without the resources needed to cope with the aftermath of an
earthquake. Despite the earthquake being a moderate 6.1 on the Richter scale, when the
Hindu Kush was struck on 25th March 2002 many of the houses collapsed, burying their
occupants. This was because the houses were inappropriate to withstand ground shaking and
had heavy roofs for insulation. The Taiwan earthquake was significantly more powerful
measuring 7.1 yet caused far less loss of life as Taiwan is significantly wealthier than
Afghanistan, Taiwan’s GDP is $16998, and the modern buildings coped well with the ground
shaking.
On the other hand even countries that are more economically developed can have districts
that are more seriously affected. In Kobe, Japan 1995 most of the 6,000 deaths and 35,000
injuries occurred in the poor districts such as the Nagata ward where there were a large
number of timber framed houses with heavily tiled roofs which collapsed on their occupants.
These older houses were designed to withstand heavy rains and typhoons, but became death-
traps during the 7.2 earthquake. As more wealthy residents could afford more modern,
earthquake-resistant buildings it was the older and poorer people of Kobe concentrated in
these areas. Over 60 per cent of the deaths were people aged over 60 who had a harder time
getting to safety.
Further hazards resulting from ground shaking include underground pipes and power lines
which may be severed by the ground motion, resulting in fires and explosions, in particularly
from escaping gas and ruptured water pipes meaning that there is often a problem
extinguishing such fires. How individuals and the emergency services react during and
immediately after such hazards can play a big role in reducing the death toll. Affluent nations
put a lot of time and money into preparing their people and in Japan much is done to prepare
for inevitable earthquakes.
All schoolchildren are put through emergency earthquake and fire drills four times a year.
People are informed about the danger associated and how to respond should they find
themselves in an earthquake. The emergency services practice their response procedures and
supplies of food, water, medicines and shelter are stored in recognised safe areas and
earthquake kits can be bought in department stores or made up at home so that essential items
are easily accessible when needed. Community preparedness depends very much on financial
backing to make sure that everyone is aware and the issue stays in the spotlight through TV
campaigns and other media. Poverty creates problems in educating people about the best
ways to respond to disasters, the people of Sichuan were extremely vulnerable to earthquake
hazards. Vulnerability concerns preparedness and the human response to the hazard. Before
the earthquake the mountainous areas of Sichuan were characterised by poor healthcare
facilities; poor preparation meant that many of these healthcare centres were destroyed
leaving few facilities to care for the victims.
24
Secondary hazards can prove just as fatal and include landslides and soil liquefaction. The
result of liquefaction is that building foundations become unstable and slopes become
vulnerable to mass movement. As people living in poverty cannot afford the materials to
build homes with high quality foundations and many live in squatter settlements or slums
they are particularly vulnerable. The 1988 Armenian earthquake killed 25 000 as the
buildings had been built on soft sediments and were incredibly vulnerable. Compare this with
the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in San Francisco, where 1.5 million live within a 50 km
radius of the epicentre. The Californian earthquake was twice as powerful, with a magnitude
of 7.1, and affected more than twice the population yet only killed 0.1% as many people. This
was because building design and construction meant ground shaking caused less building
collapse and displacement.
The location of buildings is often determined by the funds available when planning takes
place. In LEDCs where there is civil strife governments are more open to corruption and
allow building on areas of land that are unsuitable. Slums often develop on land that is
unsuitable for building due to ground composition or an unsafe location such as at the base of
steep slopes, putting people living in poverty in further danger.
In rural areas in developing countries, poverty may contribute to the isolation of communities
as roads and electronic communications are disrupted. Landslides can result from earth
movement and in the Sichuan mountains the quake triggered mass movement and slope
failure. The town of Beichuan was partly buried by landslides. Landslides also blocked
access roads, further slowing down an already struggling rescue effort. Whereas MEDCs
often have all the equipment and technology necessary to move large boulders and search
through rubble the images we see on TV of the poor scrabbling through collapsed buildings
with their bare hands show us what those in LEDCs must resort to.
National poverty limits the amount of aid survivors and refugees have access to, and the
existence of disaster planning. In terms of modifying the loss LEDCs are heavily reliant on
international aid, making them more vulnerable as aid rarely arrives straight away and lack of
clean water and medication means disease can spread easily in the aftermath, killing many.
Insurance covering individuals against earthquakes is largely associated with MEDCs.
However even in Kobe only 7% of people were covered by earthquake insurance, which is
extremely expensive in Japan. As those covered are unlikely to be the poorer members of the
community who lost their homes, poverty is once again the real killer. Citizen groups in Kobe
claim that there have been a further 2900 deaths from suicide or neglect as poverty at an
individual level means that following the disaster people without food and shelter have few
entitlements to fall back on.
The view that poverty is the real killer when it comes to an earthquake disaster can be argued
due to the lack of money to invest in preparedness, materials and education programmes in
LEDCs but is also because, in a society facing daily struggles for survival of a much more
mundane nature, earthquakes are often perceived as infrequent problems unlikely to affect the
current population and what little money there is, is spent elsewhere.
25
Answer 2.
Poverty can be defined in many ways; however, I believe it is when people do not earn a
sufficient income to support their basic needs. It could also be looked at relative to current
average standards of living. Therefore, it can be looked at and compared in terms of local,
regional and national levels, so can be perceived in different ways worldwide. In sub-Saharan
African countries people in poverty literally live in squalor and often have no access to clean
water. However, in Kobe, Japan the elderly who lived in timber framed houses with tiled
roofs could also be considered as poverty stricken.
Earthquakes instigate primary hazards – ground movement and shaking; if it is a
shallow focus earthquake the damage caused by these primary hazards is worse. An example
of this is the Iran 1990 earthquake. A country ridden with poverty and a shallow focus
earthquake at nineteen kilometres led to a total of 35000 deaths. Secondary hazards include
soil liquefaction, landslides, avalanches and tsunamis. The vulnerability of people to these
secondary hazards is related mainly to social, economic, political and historical factors.
Factors such as these could indicate that poverty is the real killer in earthquake disasters.
There are many techniques that can be used to ‘earthquake proof’ areas. The newest
ways are to create buildings with aseismic designs. The most common way is to place large
rubber shock absorbers, also known as base isolators, in the foundations of buildings. This
method has been introduced in the earthquake prone Wellington, New Zealand. The Houses
of Parliament here have been retrofitted with base isolators allowing these buildings to move
thirty centimetres in any horizontal directions; thus providing protection from earthquakes up
to 7.5 on the Richter scale. However, aseismic design is very expensive so areas suffering
from poverty cannot install such preventions.
Guatemala lies on the destructive (subduction) boundary between a part of the North
American and Caribbean plates; it is very vulnerable to earthquake hazards due to its status as
an LEDC and a large percentage of its population living in squatter settlements. These
settlements are unstable in the rural highlands so when an earthquake hit in 1976 at 7.5 on the
Richter scale and at a depth of just five kilometres, twenty two thousand people living in the
squatter settlements and older housing were killed, while the middle and upper classes were
almost unaffected. This indicates that poverty may be the real killer due to the inability for
the poorer to install such prevention measures like aseismic designs; or even build safe
enough housing to withstand any form of shaking.
However, there have been many earthquakes in MEDCs such as Japan which have
also caused great destruction due to the high magnitude – 7.3 on the Richter Scale of the
earthquake, shallow focus (16km) and a short distance between settlements and the epicentre
in the case of the Kobe, Japan 17th January 1995 earthquake. Even though Japan had tried to
manage earthquake hazards by using methods such as community preparedness and
prediction and warning, six-thousand three hundred deaths and thirty-five thousand injuries
still occurred despite the country’s status as an MEDC. Japan is one of the richest most
technologically advanced countries in the world but their emergency response measures have
been called into question after this 1995 earthquake. The elevated Hanshin expressway
collapsed in several places including a six hundred and thirty metre stretch and in the central
business district over twenty percent of the buildings collapsed. This illustrates that Japan as
26
an MEDC would appear to contradict the view that poverty is the real killer in earthquake
disasters but once evaluated further they do not. There were one hundred and three thousand
five hundred destroyed buildings, the majority of which along with deaths and injuries
occurred in the Nagata ward one of the poorest wards in Kobe. On a regional level this area
would be considered a deprived and therefore poverty ridden area. The buildings here are
timber framed and have heavy tiled roofs to withstand typhoons. Although preventative in
terms of one natural disaster they appear to be the worst type of housing for earthquakes. The
poor and elderly that lived in these areas accounted for most of the injuries and deaths as the
roofs collapsed on them; while more wealthy citizens of Kobe had earthquake – resistant
buildings that were also very modern they were therefore protected and were not killed. Only
7% had earthquake insurance, these people were also the wealthy citizens. All of this leads to
the conclusion that poverty does lead to deaths in earthquakes.
Another earthquake that occurred in a relatively poor area was the 12th May 2008
Sichuan, China earthquake. Lying on a collision zone between the south Asian and Eurasian
tectonic plates, the Sichuan province is earthquake prone, yet is one of the most densely
populated areas of China. The area suffers from a high level of precipitation and is built on
unconsolidated materials which will have added to the death toll of an estimated seventy
thousand. This earthquake was also another shallow focus ‘quake at a depth of nineteen
kilometres. Due to the rapid population growth in China, together with rapid economic
development (China is classed as a NIC), building structures were constructed quickly using
poor building techniques which did not meet the Chinese seismic design code. Corruption
and subsequent substandard housing meant that in Beichuan, over eighty percent of the
housing collapsed. A new found industrial potential and the ability to progress rapidly meant
that corners were being cut to build and create infrastructure quickly.
As previously stated, the death toll for this earthquake was seventy thousand, but a
further nineteen thousand were missing, five million people rendered homeless and two
hundred and forty five thousand suffering from injuries. Due to the area being poor, nothing
could be done to prevent hazards such as landslides; in this particular case landslides
overwhelmed three villages killing more than one thousand people. Although China had the
ability to call on trained rescue workers, infrastructure such as roads and rail networks were
not earthquake proof, so with rail networks severed and roads blocked it was difficult for
rescue workers to get to the devastated area. In fact a mudflow initiated by heavy rainfall
killed one hundred and fifty eight rescue staff.
This earthquake has a massive death toll, and so it would appear to illustrate that
poverty is the real killer in earthquakes. Although the 1975 Haicheng China earthquake
disaster was predicted five and half hours before the event due to the monitoring of unusual
animal behaviour, this method of managing earthquake hazards is not always successful and
did not work in this case. China is simply not a wealthy enough country to install earthquake
prevention measures in all areas so methods such as aseismic design and land-use planning
cannot always be installed. Land-use planning, when open space away from potential fires or
aftershock damage is designated for evacuation is another important method of hazard
mitigation. However, due to China’s dense population, space is at a premium in some areas
and this type of prevention is also too expensive as areas would need to be cleared. This again
points to the fact that in this earthquake, poverty is the real killer.
27
The depth and strength of earthquakes are what causes damage to occur due to ground
shaking and movement, loosening materials – both of infrastructure and land formations.
However, the view that poverty is the real killer in earthquake disasters appears to be
factually correct. All earthquakes discussed are of shallow depth and of a similar magnitude;
though all have suffered significantly from loss of life the LEDCs have suffered most, in
particular Sichuan, China with approximately seventy thousand deaths. Even in Japan – an
MEDC – the most damage in terms of death were in the poor, or even poverty stricken wards
in comparison to the rest of Kobe. Further evaluation of both LEDCs and MEDCs leads to
the conclusion that poverty is indeed the real killer in earthquake disasters.
This is largely due to the inability in poorer areas to provide even the simplest
methods of earthquake prevention such as community preparedness. This could be partially
due to either an insecure, ineffective, political presence in the poorer countries to install such
measures; or a government dealing with other issues like warfare so an unlikely event such as
an earthquake is not at the top of their priorities. Methods such as building houses from light
timber frames and woven cane walls could be implemented within squatter settlements, but
this method is relatively new and in some areas would still cost a lot as previous housing
would have to be demolished and then rebuilt in this way. However, it is much more low cost
than other types of aseismic design and is being used in parts of Latin America where it was
developed to avoid materials like breeze block which can prove a death trap in earthquake
disasters. However, I overall agree with the view that poverty is the real killer in earthquake
disasters, due to unsafe housing and a lack of governmental intervention to install earthquake
hazard management methods.
28
With reference to examples, discuss the overall effectiveness of urban regeneration
schemes.
Urban regeneration schemes have been a common feature of most towns and cities in the UK
in the last 20 years. Various governments have tried to regenerate cities over this time in a
variety of ways. I am going to write about 3 such schemes, in London, Bradford and
Southampton over this time period and discuss their overall effectiveness.
UDCs (Urban Development Corporations) are a form of property-led regeneration
established in the 1980s under Margaret Thatcher which were run by an executive board and
were given money by central government to spend in the best way for the local area although
their aim was always to improve the area in such as way as businesses would see it as a good
business opportunity. They were market led and property led because they made physical
changes, for example they improved infrastructure to attract businesses (property led) and it
was market forces not planners, that decided the ultimate layout of the area – they wanted
businesses to lead the way (market led).
An example of an urban development corporation (UDC) is the London Docklands UDC
(includes such as Wapping, Tower Hamlets and Lime House). They aimed to improve the
area in such a way so as to attract any business (such as financial and media based) and they
did this by improving the infrastructure (eg with the river bus and 90km of new roads) and
the environmental image of the area. In a way the UDC was very effective. It had a leverage
ratio (in billions of pounds 1 to 8.5) and it created a second CBD on the Isle of Dogs (100%
of which is let) which many newspapers, eg the Telegraph, located on. The area looked a lot
better with new waterfront walks and parks and an ecology site at East India Dock basin.
However, the social aspect of regeneration wasn’t looked at and the lives of local people
were not improved eg the new river bus and Jubilee line were too expensive, and the jobs
created were either relocated from elsewhere or management jobs, unsuited to unemployed
manual labourers from the former docks (only 17000 were totally new).
With a population of over 450,000, Bradford (Yorkshire) is one of the 10 largest cities in
Britain. Its early growth was as a centre of the wool and textile trade. The city is famous for
its links with the Bronte sisters and the artist David Hockney. It is also renowned for the race
riots of 2001. The city has naturally been keen to shake off this latter image by embarking on
a multi-million pound regeneration scheme.
The city’s social and economic base has completely changed following the collapse of textile
manufacturing. The symptoms of social deprivation are all too evident. Parts of Bradford are
among the poorest areas in England, being sixth worst for unemployment (4.6% compared
with the national average of 2.8%) and fifth-worst for low incomes (44% of children live in
low-income households compared with the national average of 27%). In 2000, only 34% of
pupils achieved five or more GCSEs at A* to C grades compared with the national average of
50%. A large Muslim population plays a significant part in the city’s business and cultural
life. Immigrants from south Asia were attracted here in the 1970s by jobs in the textile
industry. Pakistani and Bangladeshi communities make up a fifth of the city's population. A
large proportion of the old housing stock is substandard.
Bradford is trying to erase its negative image and to exploit a number of its positive
attributes: multiculturalism, and services and tourism. Heritage tourism is being encouraged.
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Many factories of the Industrial Revolution have become museums, craft centres and
galleries, or have been subdivided to provide small business units. Warehouse conversions
are increasingly popular. Saltaire, famous as a Victorian model village created by Titus Salt
for his factory workers, has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage, giving it the same
status as the Taj Mahal and the Pyramids of Egypt. A scheme called ‘Vision of Bradford in
2020’ has recently been implemented. It is based on a ‘park in the city’ concept that offers
open green and leisure spaces, re-introduces water into the city centre and highlights much
of the city’s heritage of listed buildings. The scheme involves four regenerated quarters
within the heart of the city. Each will create new spaces for commerce, education and leisure,
as well as incorporating the natural feature of the River Aire, long buried under the city.
However, in the recent Credit Crunch, this scheme seems to have been put on hold. There is
also the National Museum of Photography, Film and Television and a range of annual
festivals.
The issue is whether all this regeneration can really tackle the fundamental problems of
Bradford’s historical legacy. Regeneration is about more than bricks and mortar. The goals
for any successful regeneration project are to breathe new life into a city and create an
environment that supports the people who live and work there.
Southampton has a worldwide reputation as a port city. This fame was founded on the great
ocean liners that carried huge numbers of passengers across the Atlantic and to and from the
British colonies in Africa, Asia and Australasia during the 19th and first half of the 20th
centuries. In order to remain in business as a port, the city has had to make regular changes
to its port traffic. When air transport reduced ocean-going passenger traffic, the port turned
first to the cross-Channel ferry business and then to containerised cargo. Competition from
nearby Portsmouth meant that there was little success with the passenger ferry business, but
the container side has boomed. However, this is now under threat because the port has run
out of waterfront space.
Like many other cities, Southampton has tried to regenerate its central area and maintain a
strong retail centre. This has been successfully undertaken. This has involved three flagship
developments: Ocean Village – a large marina development with housing and leisure
facilities, Southampton Oceanographic Centre – a world-leading ocean research institution,
West Quay Retail Park – one of the largest projects of its kind in Europe. On the other side of
the River Itchen, another flagship scheme, called Woolston Riverside, has just been set up.
This development will be built on a 12-hectare brownfield site. It will transform a redundant
shipbuilding area into a mixed-use waterfront area, with a marine business park, high-
quality housing, and retail, leisure and community facilities.
In conclusion, it is clear that there comes a time in the history of most towns and cities when
deliberate attempts have to be made to revive flagging fortunes. Following London’s lead
Bradford and Southampton have both needed to invest heavily in regeneration - Bradford as
a consequence of deindustrialisation and Southampton in order to boost its status as a
leading port and regional shopping centre. It is clear that in each case there has been
significant improvement in the social, economic and physical environment, yet at the same
time issues remain.
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‘The global economy has moved on from the Asian Tigers, the future lies elsewhere.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement?
Flourishing Asian economies are referred to as the Asian Tigers. These economies are
growing at high speeds and are gaining power as they grow. For example, Thailand,
Singapore, Philippines and South Korea are all Asian Tigers, and their growth was substantial
in the 1990’s due to large amounts of foreign investment capital. However, these economies
then experienced a huge financial crisis in 1997/98 as a result of large amounts of debt. Since
the late 1990’s these economies’ have begun to recover and become more active; but has the
global economy moved on since their financial crisis?
The Rapid growth of new economies like the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and
China) has directed attention away from the Asian Tigers. China currently has the largest
growth rate in the world at 10% and is one of the world’s largest exporters of manufactured
goods including 50% of computers and 20% clothing. Within the global economy China is
referred to as the ‘new workshop of the world,’ reflecting the countries rapid increase in
exports by 21% between 1997 and 2002. India is largely renowned for its service industry,
particularly call centres. The nations computer services and software industry is now worth
over £6 billion, and the range of services India handles vary from processing student loans to
booking for British Airways. Brazil has the most productive industrial base in the southern
hemisphere, including motor vehicles, steel, petrochemicals, computers and aircraft. Low-
value added primary products make up a significant proportion of the country’s exports,
predominantly on products such as soya and iron ore. These strong export levels, plus
Brazil’s emerging status in the global economy turned its trade deficit into a surplus and
contributed to the 5% growth the country experienced in 2004. Russia’s reserves expanded
from basically nothing in 1998 to becoming worth £242 billion presently, adding to Russia’s
huge growth rate of 8.1%, recorded in 2007. Russia overtook Saudi Arabia as world’s largest
crude exporter, but, retail sales are also on the increase by 13% a year- one of the reasons
why leading TNC’s are now piling into the country. The huge increase in exports and growth
rates in these leading economies demonstrate that they are in the forefront of the global
economy.
The global economy has redirected its interest to emerging nations like India and China due
to cheap labour, advances in infrastructure/telecommunications, and cheaper transport. Both
India and China offer much cheaper labour than western countries such as UK or USA. The
transnational corporation Nike moved a huge number (137) of factories to China in order to
exploit the country for its labour opportunities. An average worker in a Chinese factory for
Nike earns $1.75 a day compared to an hourly wage of £5-6 in the UK, demonstrating just
how much money can be saved by relocating to emerging economies like China. Similarly,
many call centres relocated to India to experience the benefits of a well-educated, cheap
labour force. Once a call centre was up and running in India the workers were on around
£1,200 a year- less than a tenth of the near £12,000 starting salary of a worker in Britain. But,
cheap labour alone did not attract large companies overseas: there was a need for high quality
infrastructure and telecommunications. The cost of high speed bandwidth communications
fell as a result of 46,000 km of undersea fibre optic cable, which connects South East Asia,
Middle East and Western Europe. Fibre optic cables resulted in the cost of
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email/telephone/internet being around 1% of what it was 40 years ago. These substantially
lower costs meant that companies could relocate to China and India as digital work could
electronically shipped faster and cheaper. Similarly, sea transport is 50% of the cost it was
40 years ago and so it is reasonable for companies to have heavy manufactured goods
shipped long distances from China’s seaports. These three vital factors have resulted in
thriving economies of china and India becoming the future of the global economy.
However, there are still some Asian Tigers that are recovering well from the financial crisis,
rebuilding their position in the global economy as a response to the growth of China and
India. South Korea and the Philippines have begun to specialise in high technology
industries, becoming more desirable in the global economy. Manufactured goods provide
90% of South Korea’s exports, and are the core of the country’s economic growth. The
electronic and motor industry is at the heart of their developing economy; well known
conglomerates such as Hyundai, Samsung and LG all grew from nothing to world scale
organisations in 30 years. In order to find a way to attract attention away from India and
China, South Korea’s government created free economic zones which offered relaxed taxes
in order to encourage foreign investment. FDI hit around $5,000 a year in 2006 which
contributed to the development of the country and helped to increase trade. Similarly, the
Philippines established a number of special economic zones including Subic Bay and Fort
Bonifacio. By 1997 Subic Bay had attracted 200 companies, representing £680 million of
investment, and even after the financial crisis the special economic zone managed to recover
its momentum. Both countries experienced a huge increase in exports: South Korea’s reached
a massive $371.8 billion by 2007 and the Philippines electronic exports increased from $3
billion in 1992 to $26 billion in 1997 (including electronics from large foreign multinationals
such as Intel, Fujitsu, Epson and Phillips). The increasing activity in these Asian Tigers
illustrates how the global economy has not completely moved on.
Rapidly emerging economies like the BRIC countries do account for a large proportion of the
future global economy. However, Asian Tigers have not been completely forgotten; several
are still specialising in order to recover their position globally, and though they are not
developing at the same rate their momentum is constantly building.
32
Unit 4 A January 2010
All your answers should relate to the geographical fieldwork investigation that you
undertook in preparation for this examination.
State the aim(s) of your investigation.
Candidate A
The aim of the investigation was to study how changing channel characteristics affect the
fluvial environment as the river flows downstream with specific reference to variables eg
discharge.
1 Describe the location of your fieldwork investigation and explain its relevance to the
aim(s).
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1 - 5 marks)
The candidate is unable to set out the aim(s) in full; much confusion may be apparent at the
lower end of the band. The approach will be descriptive, with a limited attempt to link to
aims. Towards the upper end of the band, there may be appropriate background to the
location, with some links to the aim(s). Alternatively, the aim(s) may be relevant but there
may be a descriptive, rather than explanatory, reference to the location. There will be the odd,
simplistic reference to the candidate’s own fieldwork investigation at the upper end, whilst
this may be absent at the lower end of the mark band.
Level 2 (6 - 10 marks)
Explanation will be present. There will be clear reference to both location and aim(s), but
there is likely to be an imbalance. There may be only tentative links to the aims. This will be
very marked at the lower end, perhaps with linked reference to the aim(s), whereas, at the
upper end, the imbalance will be less and there will be reference to the appropriateness of the
location, relevant to the aim(s). There will be reference to the fieldwork investigation
undertaken, increasing up through the band.
Level 3 (11 - 12 marks)
There will be detailed reference to both location and its relevance to the aim(s) and this will
be consistently explained. The explanation will be integrated to show the relevance of the
aim(s) to the appropriateness of the location for the investigation. There will be detailed and
increasingly convincing reference to the candidate’s fieldwork undertaken. There will be
thorough and consistent links to aims.
Candidate A
Our investigation was located at the Cowside Beck river in the North Yorkshire Dales. A
geographical fieldwork centre was located nearby and served as a base for the investigation.
The aims were to investigate changing river characteristics making specific reference to the
Bradshaw model. Our aims were summarised in hypotheses such as that the hydraulic radius
would increase downstream and that the bedload size would decrease as the velocity
increased. Where Bradshaw did not cover certain variables eg hydraulic radius, our aims
were informed by using a selection of textbooks to find agreed theory. The Cowside Beck is
an upland stream and exhibits the majority of the features that one expected to be found from
source to confluence, for example V-shaped valleys in the upper course and a recently
formed oxbow lake near the confluence with the river Skirfare at Arncliffe. We could access
the river in enough points to permit a method of stratified sampling to be used in obtaining
our sites. Access points were also safe which meant our aims could be effectively met and
33
without danger. The area was relatively untouched by settlement and thus the river had not
been made into an artificial water course on a large scale. Agricultural uses predominated
and did affect the river via straightening at Darnbrook which was considered when aims
regarding velocity and discharge were being analysed. Being in an upland area, scree slopes
were a common feature of the location and affected aims pertaining to the bedload size and
shape. There were three tributaries to the Cowside Beck, notably the Darnbrook Beck and
these factors had an impact on channel variables such as discharge. In a wider context, rare
habitats for example the alkaline Malham Tarn showed that the area as a whole was worthy
of study.
Location map also given.
2 (a) Explain how one method of data collection that you used was suitable for the
investigation.
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1 - 4 marks)
There is likely to be a description of the method selected. This will be basic at the lower end,
more structured at the upper end of the band. There will be no reference to the fieldwork
undertaken at the lower end, with some, perhaps basic, reference at the upper end of the band.
There will be little, if any, attempt to explain the relevance of the method selected.
Level 2 (5 - 6 marks)
There will be a clear explanation of the relevance of the method selected, increasing up
through the band. There will be increasingly clear and convincing reference to the fieldwork
undertaken.
Candidate A
The method used to collect data for discharge had several strengths. The components are
width and depth (for cross-sectional area) and velocity. Width was measured using a tape
measure for precision and was taken at a modal point as there was little variation around the
mean width. Depth was measured as ten systematic intervals across the width and involved
placing a metre ruler below the surface until it hit the bed at which point the depth was
recorded. This was suitable as the river’s depth was shallow enough to permit such
measurements. For velocity a hydroprop was placed at three locations at the sample site and
a stopwatch used to record how long the impellor took to travel along the thread – a value
from which velocity could then be calculated. The small size and relatively slow velocity
meant that equipment such as hydroprop was appropriate and could give a precise result.
Taken as a whole, the method for discharge is thus one that was suitable for an investigation
on the Cowside Beck.
(b) As a result of your experience in the field, justify one or more improvements that
you would make to a method of data collection that you used.
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1 - 5 marks)
There will be a basic reference to one or more improvements to the method(s). There is likely
to be a descriptive approach, with a straightforward use of expression. The improvements are
likely to be theoretical, rather than based on experience. The candidate’s own fieldwork
experience is unlikely to be mentioned. Piloting or pre-testing may be mentioned.
Limitations only to max 3.
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Level 2 (6 - 10 marks)
There will be a clear reference to one or more improvements to the method(s). There will be a
clear attempt at justification, with appropriate expression. References to fieldwork are
implicit rather than explicit. Theoretical and changes based on experience may be present.
Piloting and pre-testing may be clearly covered.
Level 3 (11 - 12 marks)
There will be a detailed reference to one or more improvements to the method. Justification
will be detailed, with relevant expression. There will be detailed reference to the fieldwork
experience undertaken. Changes may be based on fieldwork experience. Piloting and/or pre-
testing may be covered in some detail.
Candidate A
After having carried out the fieldwork several improvements could have been made to the
method of data collection used for discharge. One measurement of width is clearly not
enough. More should have been taken so that an average could have been calculated. For
both width and depth an advanced method such as a sonar or a laser could be used to work
out a very accurate result and one that would be virtually free of human error. Indeed water
resistant putty could have been placed on the bed, left to set and brought up to give a visual
representation of the bed that was reliable could penetrate bedload and show width as it
really was. A more precise method of measuring depth would also have been useful as one
wrong value could have showed the entire data set. A severe limitation in measuring velocity
was that there was potentially a large degree of human subjectivity and error involved in
timing the impellor. A simple way to counteract this would be to have two people timing each
impellor so that our results could be averaged and thus improve the reliability of the
investigation ensuring that the aims were suitably met. More than three measurements of
velocity should have been taken, as the velocity can change dramatically over one sample
point eg due to pools and riffles. A tool such as a flowmeter could have helped evaluate and
validate results. Furthermore a systematic method of placing sample sites would have
negated some of the validation problems possible with a random method of sampling. These
are improvements that could have been made when collecting data for discharge.
3 Evaluate the usefulness of the conclusions reached in your investigation and consider
their potential implications.
There will be reference to the conclusions and their implications in the light of the fieldwork
experience. For example, the results of a river study could be of use to geographers, town
planners, farmers, hydrologists and politicians. Further extensions may be suggested.
Practical experience will be essential for developing the implications. Implications with
reference to existing theory are acceptable.
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1 - 4 marks)
There will be basic, probably descriptive, awareness of the conclusions gained from the
investigation. There is likely to be a strong focus on the conclusions, rather than any
assessment of the implications. Reference to the fieldwork experience will be limited, if
present.
Level 2 (5 - 8 marks)
There will be clear reference to the conclusions and there will be some evaluation of the
conclusions, and some consideration of the implications, but there is likely to be an
35
imbalance. This will be more apparent at the lower end, perhaps with implicit links, whereas,
at the upper end, the imbalance will be less and there will be clear reference to the
conclusions and the implications. A clear reference to the fieldwork experience undertaken,
increasing up through the band, is expected.
Level 3 (9 - 10 marks)
There will be detailed reference to the conclusions and there will be a meaningful evaluative
theme. This will be consistently referenced to the aims of the investigation and the
underpinning geographical theory. There will be detailed and increasingly convincing
reference to the fieldwork undertaken and consideration of the implications.
Candidate A
The conclusions drawn from the data collected at the Cowside Beck were very useful. Firstly,
they showed that all our hypotheses were correct: discharge and hydraulic radius increased
bedload shape became smoother and bedload decreased as velocity increased. At our sites,
Tennant Hill (source), Darnbrook Farm and Arncliffe village (confluence) discharge for
example increased from 0.08 cumecs to 0.33 and finally to 0.88. Hydraulic radius also
increased site on site from 0.13m to 0.17 to 0.18m. Thus the conclusion is clear, as are the
implications: the Bradshaw model and accepted geographical theory have been validated.
The conclusion that increased volumes of drainage and tributaries joining the rivers will
increase discharge is correct and this gives rise to greater cross sectional area and wetted
perimeter in turn increasing hydraulic radius. The river flows more efficiently as less water
in contact with the bed and banks and subject to frictional drag. This is a clear example of an
extremely of an extremely useful conclusion. Further implications of our study are that a
sound representation of how a river changes from source to mouth or confluence is given.
Conclusions also showed that physical features of the location can have marked effects.
Whilst bedload size saw an overall decrease from 12.23cm to 8.25 to 9.08 there is a slight but
evident rise from site 2 to site 3. On investigation this was shown to have been due to scree
from Yew Cogan Scar entering the river and artificially increasing bedload size. Whilst
Bradshaw’s position that velocity would increase downstream is often disputed, our study
gave velocity results of 0.2m/s to 0.37m/s to 0.5m/s. This site on site increase further
enhances the credibility of accepted theory and Bradshaw’s model, and reinforces the central
implication of our investigation: that what we use as theory is accurate and reliable based on
strong evidence.
36
(c) Explain how the use of techniques, such as those referred to in 4(a) and 4(b), may
help the analysis of data collected in the field and increase geographical understanding.
(12 marks)
Level 1 (1 - 5 marks)
There will be a basic awareness of such techniques, graphical and/or statistical. The response
will be limited, with a strong focus on description of the techniques, rather than their
assistance in analysis. Links to the candidates own fieldwork will be limited. There will be
uncertainty about the links to geographical understanding.
Level 2 (6 - 10 marks)
There will be clear reference to the graphical and statistical techniques. There will be
increasing detail toward the upper end of the band and the explanation of the usefulness in
analysis will become more apparent. References to the candidate’s own fieldwork and
geographical understanding may be present, but probably inconsistent and/or imbalanced.
There may be some reference to synopticity – ‘thinking like a geographer’.
Analysis only – Top Level 2.
Level 3 (11 - 12 marks)
There will be consistent, detailed reference to graphical and statistical techniques. There will
be consistent evidence of explanation of the usefulness of the techniques in analysis. This
may be linked in some detail to the individual fieldwork investigation. The role in developing
geographical understanding will be consistently referenced. Synopticity will be apparent.
Candidate C
Using graphic techniques such as scatter graphs two sets of data that appear to show some
degree of correlation can be compared and this will visually show with the help of a trend
line whether any correlation does actually exist or not. The would help to aid geographical
understanding in that geographers can see from the graph whether there is a positive or
negative relationship between the two sets of data. This will help them to answer set
hypotheses over whether there is a relationship or not.
If no relationship is observed the geographer may decide that the data is too small and will
therefore decide to go back and collect more data. If for example the data collected in Figure
1 it could be said that maybe the sample size of 10 points was too small and therefore a
scatter graph will help determine this or not. A scatter graph will also help determine
residuals in the results that again will help imply whether more data is needed to be collected
or whether this is a mistake in data collection methodology. Spearman’s rank and other
similar statistical techniques such as Pearson’s can be used to determine how far there is a
relationship between two sets of data. It will help with the setting of a null hypothesis. The
calculation can be used to determine whether there is a positive or negative relationship or
whether there is no relationship. If for example the figure was to fall outside of 1 or minus 1
it could be concluded that either a mistake has been made or whether more data needs to be
collected. The final figure could then be compared to a significance table to see the likelihood
that this relationship occurred by chance or not and the % of this being the case enabling the
validity of the results to be assessed.
37
Unit 4B January 2010
1 Explain why the government is trying to encourage the planners of urban areas to
make transport systems more suitable for walking and cycling. (10 marks)
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1 - 4 marks)
The answer contains some basic knowledge or understanding of at least one of the themes
listed above. However, these points are isolated and not developed. Links between points are
not made. There are some assertions without supporting evidence. Points may be lifted from
the AIB without being developed.
Level 2 (5 - 8 marks)
At least one point is made clearly showing knowledge and understanding of the topic.
Ideas are elaborated and developed, with supporting evidence.
Points from the AIB may be used and/or clearly linked together to make logical sense.
Level 3 (9 - 10 marks)
The answer is developed thoroughly showing knowledge of the topic and insight into the
underlying geographical ideas.
There is evidence of a breadth of understanding of the topic, evidenced by several of the
bullet points above having been considered in some depth. Points from the AIB may be used
and linked with points from the candidate’s own knowledge to make a detailed case.
Candidate B
By encouraging walking and cycling through planning of transport systems in urban areas,
numerous current issues can be tackled and according to research carried out by NICE,
considerable savings can be made for the NHS – evidence suggests a £3.20 benefit for every
£1 invested.
Increased walking and cycling have been shown to reduce levels of obesity by increasing
levels of daily activity, increasing levels of fitness, reducing numbers of cars on the roads and
therefore reducing congestion, pollution and emissions. Making transport systems more
suitable for cycling and walking aids those who want to take part in active travel, making it
easier and part of everyday life so people are more likely to make use of these systems,
contributing to the fitness and environmental benefits described above. The government also
want this to affect and be utilised by the younger children as evidence has shown that those
who cycle to school at a young age are more likely to continue cycling into adulthood, this
being a sustainable outcome/benefit of suitable transport systems for cycling and walking.
2 Refer to one or more areas that you have studied.
2 (a) Evaluate the suitability of the transport network for people walking or cycling to
and from school or college. (10 marks)
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1 - 4 marks)
Some basic points of description are given, but there is no coherent view of the area or the
transport network.
Evaluation is basic with little or no evidence and little or no justification for any judgements
made.
The viewpoint from which the evaluation is made is not clear. References to real places are
vague or non-existent.
38
Level 2 (5 - 8 marks)
The answer is clear with valid description of some aspects of the situation around the chosen
example(s).
Evaluation is clear.
Some evidence is presented and judgements are based on this evidence.
At least one point of view is established and discussed, even if only implicitly. Clear
references to one or more places (possibly grid references in Guildford)
Level 3 (9 - 10 marks)
The answer is developed well and provides a clear sense of place in relation to the chosen
area(s). The answer shows clear geographical understanding of the issues involved.
Evaluation is detailed.
Detailed evidence is presented and judgements are based on this evidence. A strong sense of
place is shown. At least one point of view is established and discussed in detail. Criteria for
evaluation are established and considered in detail.
Candidate B
Suitability for those walking or cycling to Solihull School is poor. There are few cycle paths
within proximity to the school and none that lead directly to any of the entrances. Both main
entrances to the school are located on Warwick Road, a busy main road with at least two
lanes of traffic flowing in each direction and double red lines to prevent any slowing of
traffic. Whilst provision at the school is made for the parking of 20 bicycles, the transport
network surrounding the school is dangerous for those wishing to cycle or walk. In addition,
parents are more likely to be worried about their children travelling to school because of the
main road. However, there are crossing points for pedestrians at points controlled by traffic
lights. It could therefore be seen that the transport network favours walkers more than
cyclists as it would be very dangerous for cyclists to cycle along the Warwick Road especially
if they are inexperienced. Lack of speed cameras and poor awareness of cyclists are also
negative aspects of the transport network for cyclists. There is however a bridge in proximity
to the school which could be utilised by pupils which crosses the main road and avoids the
main junction/roundabout so cyclists are safer at that point of a journey (would be used by
those living in Knowle/Dorridge area).
(b) With reference to the area(s) that you referred to in 2(a), suggest how provision for
walking and cycling in the area around the school or college could be improved.
(8 marks)
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1 - 4 marks)
At least one relevant suggestion is made but this is not developed in any detail and may not
arise from the needs shown in the evaluation of the situation.
Suggestions may be poorly matched to the scale of the plan, e.g. they may be very expensive
or cause serious problems elsewhere.
There is no clarity to the overall plan. The answer lacks clear references to place.
Level 2 (5 - 8 marks)
The answer is clear.
Suggested improvements are sensible and are matched well to the issues described and
present sensible, practical solutions. They fit the size and scale of the problems.
The answer shows good geographical understanding of the issues involved. There are clear
references to place.
39
Candidate B
For Solihull School I would say that building dedicated cycle paths along the area of the
Warwick Road in front of school would be the best improvement that could be made as it
would create maximum safety for cyclists. However, this would be expensive, not particularly
beneficial for pedestrians, and cause conflict between motorists and cyclists and cause
considerable disruption when being constructed. I would therefore think that the upgrading
of current pavements along the Warwick Road that can be used jointly by both cyclists and
pedestrians would be most beneficial as it would not be too expensive. It could be utilised by
both cyclists and pedestrians and cause little conflict with motorists. For students who live
locally (Dorridge, Solihull, Knowle) this would be useful for all cyclists and could be used as
a link to further public transport for those who make longer journeys. It could also be
implemented on frequently used side roads eg Hampton Lane, which would also be cost
effective and enable more students to cycle to school safely. (8)
3 With reference to Item 3 in the Advance Information Booklet:
3 (a) suggest how you would present the data on ‘the numbers in each half-hour period
passing in each direction’ collected in the manual count. (4 marks)
Mark scheme
Point mark, for each relevant, correct suggestion.
Award a second mark for justification of each point. Line/scatter graph – Max 2.
Candidate B
I would use a divided bar chart, with time of day along the x axis and number of people along
the y axis. However within the bar for each half hour period, I would divide between the
different modes of transport eg I would use a key to show what each colour in the bar
represented. I would use separate bars for males and females, clearly labelled. (4)
(b) How suitable are the procedures outlined in the intercept survey for A Level
students researching travel patterns to and from their school or college? (8 marks)
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1 - 4 marks)
Some basic points are made, but there is no coherent analysis of the original scheme and few
suggestions about how it might be adapted to suit the circumstances of a school survey.
Points from the original may be adopted or rejected with little or no reasoning.
Level 2 (5 - 8 marks)
The answer is clear with some valid and workable suggestions for adaptation of the plan to
the school situation or lists aspects of the survey that could be adapted.
At the top of the level, it shows how a real programme of data collection could be planned
and executed to produce very practical results that could be analysed to good effect.
The answer shows genuine geographical understanding of the issue and the type of data that
might be needed.
Suggested improvements to the plan make it more practical and are clearly justified.
There are clear justifications for dropping those parts of the original that are discarded.
Candidate B
For A Level students the hours and time span (3 weekdays, 1 weekend, 7.30am to 5.30pm)
are unrealistic as would be the amount of data that would be collected – it would be too much
to process or make use of. Moreover, if finding out travel patterns to and from school, it
40
would be more useful to ask the students rather than adults. A smaller sample and time scale
would be more realistic. The trip type would not be useful to us either as we know they are
going to school and few of the questions asked in the intercept survey would be necessary for
the purposes of A level students studying travel patterns to school. It would be useful to take
certain aspects (eg mode being used) and take the survey at the beginning and end of school
as pupils come into and out of the area, perhaps on two week days and discount the weekends
unless the school opens on a Saturday, as it is not likely to be pupils coming to school and
therefore useful.
4 (a) Study Figure 1 below, a map showing the distribution of population in the
Borough of Guildford.
(a) Describe the distribution of population shown in Figure 1. (5 marks)
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1 - 3 marks)
Some basic points are selected from the map (or table) but these points are not developed to
show any clear trends or patterns.
Level 2 (4 - 5 marks)
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A clear overall pattern is seen, supported by good use of relevant statistics. Pattern and
anomaly. The maps and the stats are slightly different. Allow credit for recognition of this but
bear in mind that the question asks about the map.
Candidate B
Population density is greatest in Stoughton and Westborough, roughly in the centre of the
borough. Towards the peripheries the density generally decreases, with anomalies perhaps of
Ash Vale and Ash Wharf where there are 15.01-25 persons per ha. In the most central wards,
population density is highest, with lower population densities to the north west (eg Pirbright)
and south (Shalford) and east (Effingham) where population densities are 2 persons and
under per ha.. (5)
(b) With reference to Figure P1, in the Advance Information Booklet, and the Ordnance
Survey map extract, discuss how well the people in different areas of Guildford are
provided with routes and open space for active leisure pursuits such as walking and
cycling. (15 marks)
Mark scheme
Level 1 (1 - 6 marks)
Some basic points are made, but these are not developed.
Some observations from the maps are made but these are not clearly located and may show
some misunderstandings.
Some understanding of urban structure might be shown but this is superficial and lacks
clarity.
There is little attempt to discuss ideas.
Level 2 (7 - 12 marks)
The answer is clear with some development of ideas.
Observations from the map are fairly clear and show some precision.
There is some understanding of urban structure and this is applied reasonably well to the
situation in Guildford. Sensible distinctions are made between different parts of the town and
the types of housing area that are found in different parts.
There is some attempt to discuss ideas.
Level 3 (13 - 15 marks)
The answer is developed well.
Observations from the maps are precise and show geographical understanding.
They are well located and provide a clear sense of place.
The answer shows a good understanding of urban structure and this is applied clearly to the
Guildford situation, with clear reference to a variety of different areas of the town.
Distinctions are made between different parts of the town, showing some good geographical
understanding. Ideas are discussed well, with understanding.
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Candidate B
At first glance provision for leisure pursuits such as walking and cycling appear substantial,
for example the traffic free routes through Stoke Park in 0050 in the area of Stoke. Indeed off
road cycling facilities also run parallel to Stoke Park between the A25 and the traffic free
cycle route. A traffic free cycle route also exists along Moorfield Road to the industrial estate
(0052) enabling workers to cycle here to work. However, for leisure purposes there seem few
options. Most of the signposted routes are on main roads, the A3100 and A246 for example
which could hardly be described as a leisurely place to walk or cycle. In addition certain
routes that have been recommended by forums and cyclists for example on Ryde’s Hill
(977514) which appears from the map to be safe, we found to be steep with numerous cars
parked on either side making it dangerously narrow for cyclists and also a bus route again
increasing danger to cyclists and not providing open space in the area of Stoughton (which
coincidentally is the ward with the highest population density in Guildford). In areas such as
Merrow however there is access to tennis courts, a playing field, Guildford Golf Club and the
Merrow Downs – an area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Whilst there are few cycle
tracks/paths to link to the area, a traffic free cycle route runs through the Merrow Downs
showing an example of open space for leisure pursuits such as walking and cycling (seen as
Drove Road on P1 and marked as a trackway in 0349 on the OS map). In the area of Onslow
(9849) to the south west of Guildford there is little provision for cyclists or walkers and little
access to open space. Provision to such areas seems best perhaps in Merrow with less access
to open space and cycling facilities in the west areas of Guildford, for example Stoughton.
Where open spaces exist, there is not always access by cycle route directly for example
Stringers Common 9952 or the Queen Elizabeth park 986526, indeed the area of Stoughton
appears to have least provision of cycle routes linking to open space for the leisure of either
cyclists or walkers.
