Approaches to the Qur'an in Contemporary Indonesia (Qur'anic Studies) Introduction

TH E Q U RA N is the foundational source of guidance and inspi-ration for Muslims around the world. Yet much of the litera-ture on the Quran written in the modern period, particularly inmajor Muslim languages other than Arabic, is not easily availableto a wider audience. This is especially true of Islamic scholarshipon the Quran in Indonesia. Much has been written andpublished in Indonesian (the official language of more than per cent of the Muslim population of the world) on the Quranand other Islamic topics, but little made available or accessible tothe non-Indonesian reader. Furthermore, those books availablein English that discuss Indonesia are often primarily the work ofnon-Indonesians.

This book addresses these gaps in two ways. First, it makes avail-able to an English-speaking audience a sample of writings onQuran-related topics by intellectuals from the worlds most popu-lous Muslim country. And second, it presents work by a range ofIndonesian authors. While the first essay, which provides a histor-ical context for the volume, is by a non-Indonesian, the rest of theessays are by Indonesian scholars and intellectuals. This puts thevolume in the unique position of offering insight into the currentsof contemporary Indonesian thought and Quranic exegesis.

From its inception, the aim of this volume was to compile a snapshot of writings associated with the Quran, reflecting

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1Introduction:

the Quran, interpretation and the Indonesian context

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individual scholars interests. When a number of IndonesianMuslim intellectuals were invited to write on issues related to theQuran for this volume, no particular theme or focus wassuggested. The book therefore is a collage of writings, some morescholarly than others, intended to show the range of ways in whichthe Quran is studied, approached and explored in contemporaryIndonesia. It emphasises a diversity of voices, rather thanpresenting a school of thought.

As approaches to the Quran in Indonesia are related to devel-opments both in Indonesia and elsewhere in the Muslim world, Iwill start by providing an outline of modern trends in the inter-pretation of the Quran. Developments in Egypt, for example,were transmitted to what we call today Indonesia by students inthe al-Azhar seminary of Cairo as early as the late nineteenthcentury. In the twentieth century such contacts continuedbetween Indonesia and centres of intellectual activity in theMuslim world. Works on the Quran in the Arab world, and to alesser extent from the Indian sub-continent, were studied and attimes translated into Indonesian. New ideas explored elsewherebecame readily available in Indonesia, particularly in the secondhalf of the twentieth century. Readers will see these ideas reflectedin the contributions to this volume.

Yet despite such external influences and exchanges,Indonesias own social, political and intellectual contexts haveprovided the main basis for the development of fresh and innova-tive approaches to the Quran in the later part of the twentiethcentury. The second part of this introduction will outline thetrends in Islamic thought in Indonesia with a particular focus ontraditionalism, modernism and neo-modernism. Until the lates, Islamic thought in Indonesia was usually classified as eithermodernist or traditionalist. However, beginning with the lates, observers of Islamic thought in Indonesia noticed theemergence of a new trend referred to as neo-modernism.Associated with this trend was a flurry of activity in the area ofunderstanding and interpreting the Quran, heavily influenced byworks on the Quran from other parts of the Muslim world.

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Modern trends in interpretation

Modern trends in the interpretation of the Quran are oftentraced to Shah Wali Allah of India (d. ), who lived during thelater years of the Mughal empire. He perceived a mismatchbetween the message of the Quran and the reality of life for manyMuslims. His search for answers led him to approach the Islamictradition creatively. He narrowed the area of taqld (blindfollowing of earlier juristic views or interpretations) and extendedthe application of ijtihd.1 In the area of tafsr (Quranic exegesis),his emphasis on reason in interpreting the Quran is unmistak-able. In moving away from the blind following of tradition, herejected some of the traditionally accepted views related to theprinciples of exegesis (ul al-tafsr). An example of this is hisposition on naskh (abrogation of one ruling in the Quran by asubsequent ruling).2 Although Shah Wali Allahs ideas do notappear to be radical from a twenty-first century perspective, theywere highly original at the time and later became very influential,particularly in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.According to Baljon, from the end of the nineteenth centuryonwards, Shah Wali Allah was loudly acclaimed in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent as the man who discerned the signs of histimes. And when at present an Urdu-writing modernist is lookingfor arguments from Muslim lore, he weighs in with the opinionsof the Shah.3

In what may be called the beginning of the modern period inIslamic thought, perhaps the most daring and radical attempt toreinterpret the Quran was made by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan (d.) of India. Khan felt that Muslims needed to reassess theirtradition, heritage and ways of thought in line with the newlyemerging, dynamic and all-too-powerful knowledge, values andinstitutions of the West,4 and he published a series of works oninterpretation from towards this purpose. Prompted bynineteenth-century European rationalist thought, he argued thatreason should be the arbiter of truth. Ahmad Khans approachwas unpalatable to many Muslims, but he clearly influenced

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Quranic scholarship in the Indian sub-continent well into thetwentieth century. The Islamic modernist tradition that devel-oped in India was highly indebted to his thought.

Around the same time, debates emerged in the Middle East (inparticular in Egypt) which also called for the renewal and reformof Islamic thought. However, such efforts were resisted by manytraditionalist Ulema and members of the influential institutions,such as al-Azhar in Cairo. Their rejection of the renewal andreassessment of Islamic traditions appears to have been based inpart on their belief that there was a hidden colonial agenda tosubvert Islam. Despite this, in the late nineteenth centuryMuhammad Abduh5 (d. ) began expounding the Quran in asystematic fashion, paying attention to its relevance to thecontemporary needs of Muslims. He gave a series of lectures oninterpretation and dictated a (partial) commentary on theQuran, which was later compiled, added to, edited and publishedby his student Muhammad Rashid Rida (d. ). This commen-tary, Tafsr al-manr, was a fresh development, although not asradical as the work of Ahmad Khan. Abduh criticised some of theapproaches and techniques employed in traditional tafsr. Hedismissed the emphasis on philological and rhetorical features ofthe Quran, saying that such an exercise was dry and distances[one] from God and His Book.6 He was critical of the juristicfocus which viewed the main function of the Quran as legal, andasserted that legal topics were the least discussed matters in theQuran (aqallu m j>a f >l-Qur>n).7 Going beyond the gram-matical, philological and legal commentaries prevalent in thetafsr tradition, Abduh interpreted the Quran in a way thatcommented on the problems and issues faced by his society. Forhim, the role of tafsr was to understand the intended meaning inthe Quran (fahm al-murd min al-qawl), and the reasons inherentin its legislation, belief system and rulings in a way that wouldattract people to the Quran and enable them to be guided by it.8

These ideas have continued to be developed both in the Indiansub-continent and in the Middle East.

Continuing this theme, Amin al-Khuli of Egypt (d. ) devel-oped a thematic approach to the understanding and interpretation

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of the Quran. This approach emphasised the relationship betweenthe text of the Quran and its historical context, as well as the rela-tionship of one part of the text of the Quran to others with thesame theme. While opinions differ as to what constitutes thethematic approach, it is undeniable that it has become highly influ-ential in the modern interpretation of the Quran. This approachhas been adopted by many in the Arab world and outside of it,including Indonesia. Leading theoreticians of this approachinclude Aisha Abd al-Rahman (also known as Bint al-Shati) (d.) of Egypt, Abd al-Hayy al-Farmawi of Egypt, and Muhammadal-Ghazali (d. ). Many commentaries of the late twentiethcentury employed this method, or were heavily influenced by it,including such works as Sayyid Qutbs (d. ) F ill al-Qur>nand Muhammad Husayn al-Tabatabais (d. ) al-Mzn f tafsral-Qur>n.

The idea that the Quran should be treated as a unified text wasan important influence on Quranic interpretation in the secondhalf of the twentieth century. Perhaps the most influential intel-lectual who contributed to the development of this idea wasFazlur Rahman (d. ), a Pakistani-American. Rahman criti-cised early Muslims for their failure to understand the underlyingunity of the Quran and for their adoption of an atomisticapproach.9 He also argued that in the modern period the piece-meal treatment of the Quran had worsened, and that the formu-lation of an adequate hermeneutical method was imperative.10

In addition to emphasising the unity of the Quran, Rahman alsostressed the importance of the context while broadening theunderstanding of what context is. For Rahman, context has twoaspects: the context of the revelation (at the time of the Prophet),and the social, political, economic and intellectual context of theMuslim (in the modern period). Both of these concepts were tohave a lasting influence on many young Muslim thinkers of thelate twentieth century. The contributions of MohammedArkoun,11 Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd,12 Mahmoud Ayoub13 and FaridEsack14 have also been highly influential, and their works haveplayed an important role in Islamic scholarly discourse inIndonesia.


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The Indonesian context: between traditionalism and modernism15

Indonesia is the worlds largest Muslim country and containssome to ethnic and linguistic groupings, making it one ofthe most culturally diverse countries in the world. It is religiouslydiverse as well; of its estimated population of million, approxi-mately per cent are Muslim, per cent Christian, per centHindu, and to . per cent Buddhist.16 The rest are followers ofother religions, including animism, which is practised in theremote regions of Kalimantan and Irian Jaya.17

Since the s, the debate on Islam and Islamic thought inIndonesia has generally developed along divisions betweenmodernist and traditionalist Muslims. Islamic modernism wasbrought to Indonesia in the early twentieth century by Indonesianstudents returning from their studies in the Middle East, particu-larly Egypt. The first modernist organisation in Indonesia, theMuhammadiyah, was founded by Kiyai Haji Ahmad Dahlan (d.) in Yogyakarta in . According to Clifford Geertz, thefounding of the Muhammadiyah marked a period when the self-conscious Muslim was a man not only fond of his religion intheory, but also committed to it in practice.18 TheMuhammadiyah, with a predominantly urban base throughoutIndonesia, was concerned with providing educational and socialinstitutions such as hospitals and schools. Today, it claims amembership of over million. The founders of theMuhammadiyah were interested in issues such as ijtihd andreform of Islamic law, and the introduction of modern education.They were highly critical of syncretism and were opposed to whatthey considered to be the practice of bidari. NU wasbased on the support of the more conservative, traditionalistMuslims in rural Java, with strongholds in Central and EasternJava.20 NU leaders were opposed to the idea of ijtihd espoused

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by the Muhammadiyah. They practised taawwuf (Sufism) andupheld both the institution of taqld and the visiting of tombs,which the modernists regarded as bid

Muhammadiyah as such and it continued its work on educationand social projects, independent of party politics.

Emergence of neo-modernism

The politics of the period since independence, the failure of boththe Muhammadiyah and the NU at the political level (throughMasyumi), and the bitter experiences of the s had a markedinfluence on the development of Islamic thought in the post-period. The s were a turbulent period in Indonesias historywith the fall of Soekarno, the killing of more than ,suspected communists and the emergence of the New Orderperiod under Soeharto. Like his predecessor, Soeharto was insis-tent on the adoption of Pancasila (although perhaps with a moreauthoritarian interpretation), keeping political Islam at bay andnurturing an apolitical Islam in order to use it as a tool in theeconomic and social development programme of the New Order.It was in this environment that neo-modernism emerged inIndonesia in the late s and early s, a trend that grew out ofboth the modernist and the traditionalist schools of thought. Inthe process, neo-modernism adopted a more liberating positionvis--vis tradition and also some of the rigid stances of Islamicmodernism in Indonesia.

Among the intellectuals who led this trend was NurcholishMadjid (a well-known public intellectual, and a contributor tothis volume). Neo-modernists came from all sectors of theMuslim community in Indonesia. There were neo-modernistswho were members of the Muhammadiyah, some who weremembers of NU, and others who belonged to neither organisa-tion. Intellectuals associated with the neo-modernist trendusually combined traditional Islamic scholarship with modernWestern education, which gave them the ability to synthesisetraditionalism with modernism. Although Madjid, more than anyother, is credited with advocating what later came to be known asneo-modernist ideas, the precursors of the trend includedformer Minister of Religious Affairs Mukti Ali, who in the s

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played an important role by actively encouraging debate anddiscussion on matters related to ijtihd and Quranic interpreta-tion.

Neo-modernists are concerned with the essence rather thanthe form of Islamic teachings. For instance, they are more inter-ested in whether Muslim women lead ethical, productive livesthan whether or not they wear the ijb (veil, headscarf). Theyalso believe that social change must be reflected in the interpreta-tion of Islamic foundation texts. Furthermore, they subscribe tothe need for fresh ijtihd, with a new methodology to deal withcontemporary problems. Neo-modernists believe that social andeconomic matters, rather than political power, should remain thepriority for Islamic organisations in Indonesia, hence theirdisagreements with Islamic political parties. They are less hostileto Western and other outside influences, and more ready toacknowledge the legitimate interests of secular groups and coop-erate with those groups on a sustained basis.

In Quranic intepretation, three ideas dominate the thinking ofmany neo-modernists. First, neo-modernists assert that theQuran was a text revealed at a certain time and in a certaincontext and circumstances, which it reflected and responded to.This idea de-emphasises the total otherness of the Quran thatthe classical tradition stressed so strongly. Second, they argue thatthe Quran is not exclusively a book of laws but an ethical-moralguide, with both particular and universal dimensions. The partic-ular dimension is limited in scope and is essentially a reflection ofthe context in which the Quran was revealed: the cultural, histor-ical and legal aspects directly related to the situation in Arabia atthe time. The universal dimensions are related to areas that arenot bound by the specific context of seventh-century Arabia. Thethird idea relates to the emphasis that the classical Muslimscholars placed on certain aspects of the Quran, and which neo-modernists argue should be re-thought. The classical scholarsdrew on some parts of the Quran and certain interpretations atthe expense of other parts and interpretations, taking their cuefrom their own specific social, political, economic and intellectualcontexts. Neo-modernists believe that, in the modern period, a


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shift in emphasis that takes the interests of today into account isessential, and that such a shift should not necessarily be seen as asubversion of Islam.

Given this, the neo-modernists are often the target of criticismby ultra-conservative groups who consider them not sufficientlyMuslim or regard some of their views as tantamount to bid

psychology, and with modern methods of teaching. The reform of IAINs was based on the idea that Islam was

compatible with modernity, and that it could foster tolerance andpluralism. Mukti Ali (the first Minister of Religious Affairs[] entrusted with the reform of the IAIN) thus aimed tochange the IAINs into modern institutions of Islamic learning,whose graduates would be open-minded agents of modernisationand able to broaden the outlook of Indonesian Muslims. Thisphilosophy entailed exposing IAIN students to various trends inIslamic thought (both classical and modern), even the so-calledheterodox, as well as to Orientalist and modern Muslim scholar-ship. Unlike many other Islamic universities and institutions, theIAINs managed to provide their students with a broad frame ofreference. Critical reflection was introduced into the curriculum.Within the IAIN context, students and lecturers were givenconsiderable freedom to explore and discuss ideas, includingthose that went outside the boundaries of orthodox dogma (asespoused historically by Indonesian Muslims). Many Muslimintellectuals of Indonesia today are graduates of the IAIN systemor associated with that system (including some contributors to thisvolume).

The second most important factor that facilitated this consoli-dation is the relatively high degree of freedom available to neo-modernist Muslim thinkers to discuss and explore new ideasrelated to religion in Indonesia. In other parts of the Muslimworld, where relative homogeneity (in religious orientation, bothlegal and theological) exists, and where local orthodoxies areprotected by the state, views or writings that appear to be inconflict with the local orthodoxy might be considereddangerous or heretical. But because of the pluralistic nature ofIndonesian society and the absence of a unified religious outlook,it is difficult for a particular local orthodoxy to be imposed. It isimpossible even for a centralised institution such as the nationalMajelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI, or Indonesian Council of Ulema)to impose its own views on what is or is not Islamic. Also key reli-gious organisations, such as NU and the Muhammadiyah, havetheir own central councils of Ulema. Often, because of the diver-


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sity that exists even in the same organisation, it is simply notpossible for the central council of an organisation to forceuniform views on its members. This very broad diversity andplurality has long been an essential trait of Indonesian Islam at alllevels of the religious hierarchy. Especially in the post-period, young Muslim scholars were able to advocate views whichmight be considered problematic in some other parts of theMuslim world, and to challenge some traditionalist and modernistassumptions, beliefs, views and institutions.

Many young scholars sympathetic to neo-modernism havebecome committed to experimenting with and exploring newideas, and incorporating ideas from both modernist and tradi-tionalist streams of thought. The interpretation of the Quran hasbecome an important part of this discourse. Contemporarydiscourse in Indonesia ranges from critiques advanced by theseyounger scholars on the classical tradition of tafsr to the develop-ment of alternative methodologies and frameworks when dealingwith the interpretation of the Quran today. The debate has alsoinvolved reinterpreting some of the institutions and laws that weredeveloped in the classical period, and rethinking the foundationsof classical laws. This interest in the Quran and efforts toapproach it in new ways can be seen in the literature on theQuran in Indonesia over the last three decades of the twentiethcentury, from monographs to articles in both refereed journalsand popular magazines, as well as theses written on or about theQuran, most notably at the IAINs of Jakarta and Yogyakarta. Thetranslation into Indonesian of works on the Quran by Muslimintellectuals elsewhere is another example of this intense interest.

Essays in this volume

The contributors to this book represent a variety of trends inIslamic thought in Indonesia, from traditionalism andmodernism to neo-modernism. However, not every contributorcan be confined by one of these labels; some contributions areunmistakably traditionalist in their approach, while others may

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be considered innovative and therefore disagreeable to someMuslims. Readers may use their own judgement in placing theauthors within a given category. What is noticeable is that manycontributions come from those sympathetic to the ideas of neo-modernism (even though the contributors may not refer tothemselves as neo-modernists).

The essays are a sample of the wide range of approaches to theQuran practiced in Indonesia today. Some pieces are morescholarly than others, but the purpose of the collection is topresent the diverse points of view and approaches taken to theQuran in Indonesia, while addressing topics pertinent tocontemporary Indonesian society. The essays therefore vary infocus, approach and analysis. While some were submitted inEnglish, others were submitted in Indonesian and later translatedinto English. Although the volume includes essays both by estab-lished and by emerging scholars, most of the contributors are wellknown in Indonesia. Many essays are not strict examples of tradi-tional tafsr instead, they are attempts made by the authors toreflect on the Qurans relevance to contemporary life. Someauthors adopt a more theoretical approach, while others examinesocial problems. The topics considered include developing newmethods to approach the text, the reform of Islamic law, ques-tions about womens struggle for equal rights, human rights,inter-faith relations, and the use or misuse of Quranic symbolsand terms.

The first chapter, by Emeritus Professor Anthony Johns, sets thescene for the rest of the volume. For the past four decades Johnshas contributed enormously to the understanding of tafsr litera-ture in the Malay world. His chapter provides an overview ofexegetical scholarship in modern Indonesia, tracing the develop-ment of the tafsr tradition up to the modern period and giving ahistorical context for more general discussion in the volume.

The next three chapters deal with aspects of Quranic exegesisand translation in the work of three important and sometimescontroversial Indonesian intellectuals Hamka, Quraish Shihaband H.B. Jassin. In chapter six, Taufik Adnan Amal and SamsuRizal Panggabean address the scarcity of studies on tafsr in


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Indonesia and the limitations of traditional methods of interpre-tation. Then the book turns towards the application of the Quranin everyday life. In the chapters by Lukito, Marcoes-Natsir,Mudzakir and Azra, the authors directly address some difficultissues in Indonesia today, including abortion and the use ofQuranic verses in contemporary politics.

In the final chapter, Nurcholish Madjid deals with the topic ofreligious pluralism according to the Quran. In his view,humankind must approach God by following the straight path.According to the Quran, this path is common to all propheticreligions. Since God is the one source to which all believers strive,there should be no conflict or distinction between those whofollow religious traditions; all of them must be considered essen-tially on the true path. This view of religious pluralism, as inter-preted by Madjid, is gaining ground in Indonesia inneo-modernist circles, although it is still challenged by manytraditionalist scholars.

The compilation thus reflects the concerns, interests andapproaches of a new generation of Indonesian Muslim scholars.The articles are an indication of how the scholars seek guidancefrom the religious texts through bringing them into the contem-porary context. They remain part of a creative effort amongIndonesian Muslims to project new ideas and to assert that Islamand the Quran are in a broad sense compatible with the aspira-tions of Indonesian Muslims today.

There is a receptive readership for these writings in Indonesiaamong the younger generation, particularly those of a liberalpersuasion. This generation was born in the s and s andincludes those influenced by early neo-modernists likeNurcholish Madjid, emerging scholars trained in the IAIN system,and more recently those associated with the liberal Islam trend.One of the most hotly debated issues in Indonesia still today is theability of Islam to meet the challenges posed by modernity. Giventhat the most ardent supporters of Islams ability are found in theyoung generation of more liberally minded Muslims, the expecta-tion is that intellectuals will be bold in their attempts to demon-strate this ability.

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But why are such creative efforts in dealing with the Quranpossible in Indonesia? One potential reason is that, in addition tothe high degree of religious tolerance in Indonesia, scholars oftenhave been free to experiment with creative ideas in the religiousarena. Another reason may be that, although Islamic scholarshipin various parts of modern-day Indonesia goes back severalcenturies, this scholarship is less rooted in a continuous traditionthan in other parts of the Islamic world. This allows a high degreeof fluidity and flexibility in scholarship, and one can be relativelyfree to approach the Quran in a more creative way. Whatever thecause, evidence of this creativity can be found in the essays of thisvolume, which we hope will contribute to a greater understandingof some aspects of Islamic thought in the worlds most populousMuslim nation.

NOTES

1 J.M.S. Baljon, Religion and Thought of Shah Wali Allah Dihlawi ()(Leiden, ), p. .

2 Shah Wali Allah, al-Fawz al-kabr f ul al-tafsr, p. .3 J.M.S. Baljon, Modern Muslim Koran Interpretation () (Leiden,

), p. . 4 A summary and analysis of Ahmad Khans views on tafsr is given by

Christian Troll in his Sayyid Ahmad Khan: A Reinterpretation of MuslimTheology (New Delhi, ), pp. .

5 A scholar influenced by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (d. ).6 Muhammad Rashid Rida, Tafsr al-manr (Beirut, ),vol. I, p. .7 Rida, Tafsr al-manr, vol. I, p. .8 Rida, Tafsr al-manr, vol. I, p. .9 Fazlur Rahman, Revival and Reform in Islam (Oxford, ), p. .

10 Rahman, Revival and Reform, p. .11 Mohammed Arkoun, Rethinking Islam Today (Washington, DC, ). 12 Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Mafhm al-na: dirsa f n (Cairo,

).13 Mahmoud Ayoub, Islam Between Tolerance and Acceptance, Islam

and Christian-Muslim Relations : (), pp. .14 Farid Esack, Quran, Liberation and Pluralism (Oxford, ).15 The most accurate and up-to-date figures are % Muslim, %

Christian, % Hindu and % Buddhist. These are the Indonesiancensus statistics.

16 Taufik Abdullah, In Search of Islamic Roots for Modern Pluralism: TheIndonesian Experiences in Mark R. Woodward, ed., Toward a New


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Documents

Approaches to the Qur'an in Contemporary Indonesia (Qur'anic Studies) Introduction