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8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
1/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
Approaches, Issues, and Debates for AQA A2 Psychology
These are areas that are essential for good evaluation for the skills known as AO2 and AO3. You need to know which are
relevant to each sub-topic, and then practise using them on sample/past questions. You cannot do well in A2 withoutconsiderable skill in using evaluation.
Issuesinclude bias (culture- or gender-based), ethics (for human and non-human animal participants), methodology. Debatesinclude nature/nurture, free will and determinism, reductionism. Approachesinclude cognitive, biological/physiological, behavioural/learning, and psychodynamic.
You need to practise using these to comment on, to evaluate, to identify strengths and weaknesses, and to explain the points youare making.
Below is a set of grids, one for each A2 topic, with suggestions about appropriate/relevant issues, debates, and approaches to use
in evaluation. Checking these out and doing the Over to you! sections will help you score good marks in your exam answers.
NOTE:Only some, not all, issues/debates/approaches apply to any one sub-topic or essay question.
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
2/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY3: BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS AND SLEEP
Sub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you! Further resources
Biological Rhythms Culture biasmany
cultures have a siesta so
their sleep rhythm is not
circadian; case studiesand small samples are
not generalisable; animal
studies might or might
not be generalisable
The siesta behaviour
suggests nurture as well
as nature is involved in
the circadian sleeprhythm
Very biological, but
some research suggests
individual differences
Try writing a 15-minute
evaluation of the
research into biological
rhythms using theseand/or other ideas
Check the online
chapters on Approaches,
Issues, and Debates for
additional material to useas evaluation
Sleep States Can we assume that
researchers see normalsleep states when
participants are wired up
and in a laboratory? Isthere a validity or
mundane realism issue
here?
Endogenous and
exogenous control showsnature and nurture
This reductionist stages-
of-sleep approach doesnot explain the
differences between how
long people sleep, orhow sleep for an
individual varies
In what ways can non-
human animal studieshelp our understanding
of sleep, and what are the
ethical issues of usinganimals in this way?
Check out what validity
means, e.g. in Searle, A.(1999)Introducing
Research and Data in
Psychology(Routledge),p. 75
Disorders of Sleep What issues are there
when researching a
disorder? What are the
ethical concerns for sucha sensitive topic?
Is insomnia a genetic
condition (nature), or
learned (nurture)? What
sort of research couldhelp answer this
question?
Can you contrast what
the psychodynamic
approach might say
about somnambulismwith the biological
approach?
Consider what factors
can affect a persons
sleep. Can you write a
10-minute answer onhow psychological
knowledge could be
applied to support an
individual withinsomnia?
Go to www.bbc.co.uk
and search for sleep
disorders
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
3/13
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
4/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY3: RELATIONSHIPSSub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you Further reading
The Formation,
Maintenance, and
Breakdown of
Romantic
Relationships
Culture bias shows up
here, also zeitgeist; very
northern European view
of romantic relationshipsi.e. individualist, and
very mid twentieth
century
Do we have free will in
choosing romantic
partners, or are we
influenced or constrainedby our social group,
social/economic status,
and expectations?
Social factors would
support several theories,
but the cognitive
approach is alsosuggested e.g. for equity
theory
Pick one of these ideas,
or choose another, and
write a 20-minute
evaluation of the theoriesof romantic
relationships, including
discussion, evidence, and
explanations
Check out the section on
free will (and
determinism) in the
online Debates inPsychology chapter
Human
Reproductive
Behaviour
What could be more
socially sensitive thanthis? Private behaviour
will always be difficult
to research; areparticipants likely to be
representative of the
population?
Free will does not seem
to feature here.Behaviour is determined
by our genes, reduced to
our biological drive tomate and reproduce
The evolutionary or
biological approachignores culture, social
norms, emotions, and
more
Write a 10-minute
discussion of the prosand cons of the
evolutionary approach or
explanation of thisbehaviour, identifying
strengths and
weaknesses
Jarviss (2000)Theoretical Approaches
in Psychology(Routledge), has an
interesting short sectionon mate selection and
evolutionary psychology
Effects of Early
Experience and
Culture on Adult
Relationships
Adolescence and
childhood are sensitive
topics to many; looking
back from the adult statealso has methodological
issues
The topic title suggests
that nurture may be more
influential than nature,
but this ignorestemperament, which is
mainly genetic
Both psychodynamic and
behavioural approaches
can apply
Construct a mind map, or
other detailed plan, of
how you could discuss
the ethical issuesinvolved in researching
early experiences
relating to adult
relationships
The excellent, and very
interesting, chapter on
socially sensitive
research in Banyard andFlanagans (2005)
Ethical Issues and
Guidelines in
Psychology(Routledge),is well worth reading
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
5/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY3: AGGRESSIONSub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you Further reading
Social Psychological
Approaches to
Explaining
Aggression
Aggression is anti-socialbehaviour, so
researching it is
sensitive; also, whatcounts as aggression
varies from one cultural
group to another
If aggression is learnedas a child from the
domestic environment, is
this behaviourdetermined by that
environment as well as
the effect of nurture?
Learning theory, faultycognition? What about
genes, hormones,
neurochemicals?
Mind map, or plan insome other way with
detailed discussion
points, the debates aboutaggression
Clarke (2003) has aninteresting section on
personality and
aggression in Pro-Social
and Anti-Social
Behaviour(Routledge)
Biological
Explanations of
Aggression
Research suggests the
brains limbic system has
a causal function; alsothe pre-frontal cortex and
amygdala. But can we
generalise from animalstudies to humans; or
from murderers to the
population?
Some biological
evidence suggests
aggression could bepartly innate, so is this
determinism? Does this
absolve those peoplefrom censure?
This biological approach
ignores alternative or
additional explanationsand factors such as
cognitive, emotional, and
social
Write a 10-minute
discussion of the
alternative or additionalfactors ignored by the
biological approach
The online chapter
Approaches in
Psychology has a sectionon the biological
approach which is really
useful reading
Aggression as an
Adaptive Response
We cannot test
evolutionary biologicalexplanations, and evenlooking at current very
non-industrial cultures
cannot compensate for
this lack of empiricalevidence, however
appealing the
evolutionary explanation
This is an extreme nature
explanation, with littlenurture; it is alsodeterministic and
reductionist, which
makes it a narrow
explanation when oneconsiders the complexity
of human behaviour
The evolutionary
approach is part of thebiological approach, andignores many social and
other factors, though
learning theory and
identity do support someof the explanations
Write a 15-minute
discussion on the issuesaround evolutionaryexplanations, giving
clear explanations
The online chapter
Approaches inPsychology has a sectionon the evolutionary
approach which is really
useful reading
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
6/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY3: EATING BEHAVIOURSub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you Further reading
Eating Behaviour Food and eating areemotive and sensitive
issues. To some, food
can equate to love; tothose who have
insufficient food, it
means life. Westernresearch assumes no
shortage of food, so this
is a bias issue
Clearly the need to eat isnature (innate), but what,
and how, and when we
eat is nurture. In somewealthy cultures,
individuals can choose
what and when they eat,
which could illustratefree will, but in other
cultures there is nochoice
Several approachescould explain this
behaviour, such as the
psychodynamic,behavioural, and
biological views; there
are also social factorsthat could affect eating
behaviours
Discuss, in a 15-minutewritten answer with clear
explanations and
examples, how cultureaffects eating behaviour
Access the BBCswebsite www.bbc.co.uk
and search food and
mood
Biological
Explanations of
Eating Behaviour
Much of the empirical
evidence is based onnon-human animals,
which involves at least
two issues, the ethical
issue and the
generalisation issue
The common preference
across many, but not all,cultures for alcohol,
could suggest some
biological determinism
Biological explanations,
including evolutionaryones apply strongly, with
their strengths and also
their weaknesses
Mind map, or use
another strategy, to makea detailed plan of how
you would organise a
discussion on the use of
non-human animals in
this researchEating Disorders Main issues with any
disorder are the social
sensitivity; the ethics
such as gaining informed
consent to studyparticipants with
disorders; the small
sample size, and genderand cultural bias
Neither free will nordeterminism explain why
some and not the
majority of people do not
develop these disorders.Nature, and also nurture,
might be able to go some
way to explaining this
Biological andpsychodynamic
explanations do not deal
with the effect of culture
here; also the majority ofWestern girls do not
develop these disorders,
which most approachesdo not explain
Write a 15-minutediscussion explaining
why/how the debates
relate or do not relate to
these disorders
Banyard and Flanagan(2005) inEthical Issues
and Guidelines in
Psychology(Routledge),
have an interestingsection on dealing with
cultural sensitivity
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
7/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY3: GENDERSub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you Further reading
Psychological
explanations of
Gender
Development
The social sensitivity of
gender issues, e.g.
gender stereotyping and
prejudice; genderdifference studies and
sample size
Nature and nurture
why is there little
difference in IQ but
much larger differencesin school achievement
between the sexes?
Cognitive theories apply
here, but so also do
social factors
Write a 15-minute
discussion on how a
named theory can or
cannot explain the debateidentified here
Abbots (2001) Social
and Personality
Development(Routledge), has goodsections on gender
development
Biological Influences
on Gender
An issue here is that
seeing gender-relatedbehaviours as
biologically driven canlead to bias if an
individual does not show
the typical genderbehaviour expected
The biological
determinism of theevolutionary explanation
does not allow for thevariety of behaviours
seen within each gender
in everyday life
Learning theory vs.
evolutionary explanation
For either the biosocial
or the evolutionaryexplanation, draw up a
list of discussion pointsfor and against the
theory, including
evidence andexplanations
The evaluation of the
evolutionary explanationis covered very clearly in
the online chapterApproaches in
Psychology
Social Contexts of
Gender Role
Cross-cultural studies
give global and valid,rather than ethnocentric,
data about gender roles
Social factors show the
importance andinteraction of nature and
nurture
Social factors are clearly
important but thebiological approach is
also relevant and should
not be ignored
Mind map, or use
another strategy, to planan essay discussing the
effects of social
influence and culture on
gender development
Search the BBC site
www.bbc.co.uk, forgender development
for more information
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
8/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY3: INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNINGSub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you Further reading
Theories of
Intelligence
Different groups and
cultures define
intelligence differently,
yet research focuses on anarrow definition
The cultural aspects of
intelligence suggest that
much research is
wrongly determinist inits assumptions
Cognitive vs.
behaviouralthough
neither addresses
emotional IQ
Mind map, or use
another strategy, to
produce a detailed plan
for an essay discussingone theory of
intelligence, including
evidence and
explanations
Banyards (1999)
Controversies in
Psychology(Routledge),
has a good section onpsychometric tests, such
as IQ tests
Animal Learning
and Intelligence
A main ethical issue is
the use of non-humananimals in research, even
in research about
themselves
Conditioning studies
have quite a reductionistbasis, as in A follows or
leads to B; this is
challenged by theecological explanation
because of e.g. instinct
The behavioural
approach is challengedby studies showing self
recognition and social
learning
Write a 10-minute
answer discussing theevidence for animal
learning and what this
tells us
Search for octopus +
IQ tests onwww.bbc.co.ukand read
the CBBC report, then
watch the videos todecide whether you think
the tests are valid
Evolution ofIntelligence
It is impossible to gathersignificant amounts of
empirical evidence for an
evolutionary theory,
even though the fossilrecord does provide
some such
The ongoing debate hereis that we can only guess
the influences of nature
and nurture, because of
lack of evidence, plus thefact that we are unable to
assess the genetics of
intelligence; only brain
size and structure
Evolutionary, alsocognitive and social
explanations, join here
Write a 15-minutediscussion of the
influence of ecological
demands OR social
complexity and brainsize on the evolution of
human intelligence
If you Google humanevolution you can
watch the video clip
Human Evolution: The
Evidence
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
9/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY3: COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENTSub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you Further reading
Development of
Thinking
Methodological issues
include sample size and
experimenter bias
Assuming that all
children develop
cognitively in the same
way implies adeterminist view, which
other evidence
challenges
Biological and cognitive
explanations combine
with social factorsthey
are not mutuallyexclusive
Map out in detail the
support and the
challenges you could use
in a discussion of onetheory of cognitive
development
There is an interesting
section on Issues in
Oakleys (2004)Cognitive Development(Routledge)
Development ofMoral
Understanding
Ethical issues relate tohaving children as
participants, especiallywhen judgements are
being made about other
sensitive areas such asmorality
Kohlbergs view can beregarded as reductionist
in that the focus is oncognition, with human
emotions being ignored
The cognitiveexplanation is useful, but
emotions also play animportant part
Write a 15-minutediscussion of the
challenges to one theoryof moral development,
including evidence and
explanation
Oakley (2004) has astimulating section on
gender and moraldevelopment in
Cognitive Development(Routledge)
Development of
Social Cognition
Researching a disorder is
always highly sociallysensitive, especially if
there is a suggestion of a
genetic input or a gender
issue
Theories can be regarded
as biologicallydeterministic, because
cognitive factors are
emphasised, based on
brain function, andmotivation tends to be
overlooked
Both biological and
cognitive explanationscontribute here, but other
factors are also needed in
the explanations
Compare the theory of
mind and theperspective-taking
theories, looking for
points in common and
points of difference.Organise your points into
a table
Search the BBC website
www.bbc.co.ukforarticles on Theory of
Mind
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
10/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY4: PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Sub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Over to you Further reading
Clinical
Characteristics +
Issues Surrounding
Classification and
Diagnosis
Ethical issues are concerned with
the sensitivity of researching
disorders, such as the giving ofinformed consent. There are also
the methodological issues, such
as the artificiality of criteria and
the cut-off between normal anddisordered; and there are cross-cultural differences in what is
considered abnormal behaviour
The classification systems
could be argued to be
determinism in action
Write a 10-minute discussion
on the three issues identified
here, including examples andexplanations
Jarvis (2000) section on the
importance of language and
culture in Theoretical
Approaches in Psychology(Routledge) is short, but makes
key points
Biological
Explanations and
Therapies
Perhaps the main issue here is to
what extent the therapy works
and produces long-term benefit;also the question of validity, i.e.
are the symptoms or the actual
underlying cause being treated?
Nature and nurture is an
obvious debate, linking to the
cross-cultural issues; geneticexplanations also link to
biological determinism
Write a 10-minute answer
discussing evidence about the
validity of these therapies
Caves (1999) Therapeutic
Approaches in Psychology
(Routledge) is worth dipping intofor extra information
Psychological
Explanations and
Therapies
A main issue here is to what
extent the therapy works and
produces long-term benefit; also,is there any cultural or social
bias in the explanation?
Nature and nurture is an
obvious debate, linking to the
cross-cultural issues. Geneticexplanations also link to
biological determinism,
whereas social and culturalfactors are nurture, and couldindicate some free will
Mind map, or use another
strategy, to plan a detailed
discussion about cultural andsocial effects in explanations
of abnormality
Caves (1999) Therapeutic
Approaches in Psychology
(Routledge) is worth dipping intofor extra information
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
11/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. EysenckPublished by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY4: MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY
Sub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you! Further resources
Media
Influences on
Social
Behaviour
One ethical issue is giving participants
media experiences, which might
increase their anti-social tendencies
The suggestion of
media influences is
clearly nurture, but
temperament (which
is nature) is a
possible factor too
Behaviourism or
Learning Theory
(including social
learning) applies here,
but social factors and
biological ones also
play a part
Mind map, or use
another technique, to
plan a detailed
discussion of media
influences on pro-
social behaviour,
including evidence
and evaluation
The section on media
influences is worth
reading in Clarkes
(2003) Pro-Social
and Anti-Social
Behaviour
(Routledge)
Persuasion,
Attitude, and
Change
An important ethical issue is how
psychological knowledge could be
used; deliberately influencing attitudes
is a good example of this. There are
also methodological issues, such as
self-reporting and correlational
findings
Nature and nurture
are involved, as
cognitive ability and
personality are
nature, but
judgements about
the communicatorare likely to be more
socially- or
culturally-based, and
therefore nurture
Much of this is very
cognitive in its
approach, but other
factors such as emotions
and personality are also
involved
Write a 10-minute
discussion including
evidence on the non-
cognitive factors
involved in
persuasion and
attitude change
The BBC website
search for
persuasion links to
an interesting article
and video clip on how
to persuade
www.bbc.co.uk
The Psychology
of Celebrity
Research has to be careful to make the
distinction between celebrity worship
which is not pathological, and thatwhich is. There is also the issue of
when fandom becomes intense, as this
distinction is an artificial construct and
could be a matter of opinion, thus
questioning reliability and validity
Nature could be
more important than
nurture, as researchidentifies innate
characteristics (e.g.
personality and
intelligence) as
relevant factors
Several approaches
could contribute
explanations; biologicalfor personality;
cognitive for obsessive
thinking; but emotional
and attachment factors
also seem pertinent
Write a 15-minute
discussion of the
AbsorptionAddiction model,
including evidence
and evaluation
Search the BBC site
for celebrity
worshipwww.bbc.co.uk
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
12/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. EysenckPublished by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY4: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADDICTIVE BEHAVIOUR
Sub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you! Further resources
Models ofAddictive
Behaviour
There is no clear, accepted definitionof addiction. Also, addiction and
addicts are examples of a socially
sensitive research area, and so extra
ethical concerns apply
The biologicalexplanations suggest
nature, whilst the
learning or
behavioural
explanations involve
nurture
Behavioural, cognitive,and biological
approaches all have
contributions, as do
social factors
Write a 10-minutediscussion including
evidence of either
the biological or the
behavioural
explanation of
addiction
Search theNewScientistwebsite for
an interesting
comment on internet
addiction
www.newscientist.co
m
Factors
Affecting
Addictive
Behaviour
There are cultural issues as to which
behaviours (and their extent) count as
addictions
Nature and nurture
interact, as some
factors are innate
(such as personality)
and others are
environmental (such
as advertising and
social norms)
Cognitive explanations
are important (e.g. in
attributional style), but
there are many factors
involved as the
biopsychosocial
explanation suggests
Mind map, or use
another technique, to
produce a detailed
plan of discussion
including evidence
of the factors in
either the
biopsychosocialapproach or Davies
stage model
AnotherNew Scientist
article looks at a case
study of gambling,
titledHooked: Why
your brain is primed
for addictionwww.newscientist.co
m
Reducing
Addictive
Behaviour
The social sensitivity of this
psychopathology means that many
addicts cannot accept that they are
addicted, and/or feel powerless as well
as ashamed. There is also the issue ofresearch comparing therapies if this
shows that any have little usefulness
Do addicts have free
will over their
addiction? Is
addictive behaviour
determined eitherbiologically or
socially?
Clearly the cognitive
approach has impact on
reducing addictive
behaviour, but many
other factors areinvolved, such as
emotions, and social
and environmental
barriers
Choose one
biological and one
psychological
therapy and write a
15-minute discussionincluding evidence
and evaluation of the
two therapies
The BBC website has
some alternative ideas
on addiction therapy,
but is there research
evidence?
8/12/2019 Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid
13/13
For use withA2 Level Psychologyby Michael W. EysenckPublished by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press
PSY4: ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Sub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you! Further resources
Theoretical and
Methodological
Issues in the
Study of
Anomalous
Experience
Pseudoscience, reliability, and validity
of evidence, fraudall important
issues
Write a detailed
plan, such as a mind
map, linking
Ganzfeld studies to
the three basic
principles of science
The BBC website has
a video clip
demonstrating how
easy it is to produce
fake results. Search
for ESP in
www.bbc.co.uk
Factors
Underlying
Anomalous
Experience
Sensitivity is needed towards social or
cultural norms in paranormal beliefs,
such as superstitions and near-death
experiences, or paranormal
explanations of physiological states,
such as sleep paralysis
Nature is involved if
the biological
explanations are
valid, but nurture is
also a factor for
norms and
experiences
The cognitive and
biological approaches
are important here, with
possible cultural factors
and psychodynamic
explanations, such as
the effects of earlychildhood experiences
Construct a simple
table of the evidence
for differences
between
superstitious and
non-superstitious
people
Searching theNew
Scientistwebsite for
near death
experience gives
some interesting
articles on, for
example, producingsimilar experiences in
the laboratory
www.newscientist.co
m
Belief in
Exceptional
Experience
Considerable sensitivity should be
shown when researching, and
therefore questioning, participantsbeliefs. Methodologically there is an
issue in that much exceptional
experience has to be studied
retrospectively, and that sample sizes
are small and biased
Nurture is clearly
involved where a
belief is cultural, andwhere any belief is
involved, as these
are the result of the
individuals
environment
Cognitive explanations
are relevant, modified
by personal experienceand possible innate
factors
Write a 15-minute
discussion and
evaluation of theevidence supporting
the validity of
exceptional
experiences
New Scientisthas a
good article on the
Power of Belief
www.newscientist.co
m