Applying Psychological Principles to Course Design

Running head: APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES TO COURSE PLANNING 1

Applying Psychological Principles to Course Planning

The Psychology of Teaching

PSY8110

Dr. Nancy Longo

Melanie E. Meade

June 17, 2016

APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES TO COURSE PLANNING 2

Abstract

This paper will address the relationship between psychology and the field of education. The

discussion will also note the importance of the influence of psychology on teaching and

instruction. The paper will also provide an analysis of psychological theory and how to correlate

theory to assessments and best teaching practices. Upon review, a discussion of how psychology

can enhance teaching practices, professional development and course design, the paper will

conclude with a discussion of how professional development, psychological theory related to

learning and assessments and how to effectively design a course will facilitate and enhance

student engagement and learning.

Keywords: psychology, teaching, assessment, student engagement, learning outcomes


Describe psychology's contribution to teaching and learning.

Upon review of learning theories and the contributions to learning, Bandura presented a

social learning theory (Grusec, 1992). Self-efficacy relates to individual history of achievements

within a specified domain (Grusec, 1992). Another component presented by Bandura within a

modeling environment of social learning theory notes the reciprocal determinism that correlates

the individual, the environment, and behavior (Grusec, 1992). In relation to Bandura’s theory of

social cognition, further research is required to demonstrate the association between memory,

attention, self-monitoring, and reasoning to demonstrate the impact of successful teaching and

learning.

Psychology is viewed as a science that studies the behavior of the individual. Adult

students behave differently than the child therefore, understanding the developmental stage of

the adult student also relates directly to successful learning and teaching practices within the

classroom (Merriam, Bierema, and Ebrary, 2013-2014). The shift from an industrial society to

one that is based more on technology and globalization also requires a significant understanding

of the adult student in the classroom (Merriam, Bierema, and Ebrary, 2013-2014).

Skinner (1971, as cited by Merriam, Bierema, and Ebrary, 2013-2014), studied and

generated theories regarding behavior. If education is defined as a change in behavior, then

Skinner believed in setting up scenarios where opportunities to learn contributed to the concept

of classical conditioning (Merriam, Bierema, and Ebrary, 2013-2014). Within the field of

humanistic psychology as related to learning, Maslow (1970) believed the goal of learning

relates to self-actualization (Merriam, Bierema, and Ebrary, 2013-2014). Rogers (1983) related

adult learning as the result of the desire to become a fully functioning individual (Merriam,

Bierema, and Ebrary, 2013-2014).


Carl Rogers (1983, as cited by Merriam, Bierema, and Ebrary, 2013-2014), is considered

the creator of student-centered learning practices. Malcolm Knowles (1968) developed the

concept of andragogy which focuses upon adult learning practices versus pedagogy, which

focuses upon the facilitation of helping children learn (Merriam, 2001). Andragogy addresses

five key concepts associated with adult learning or andragogy (Merriam, 2001). The five

concepts of andragogy include:

1. Indirect self-concept and ability of the adult student to direct his or her own

learning

2. Individual who has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that can be used as

a rich resource to enhance learning

3. Individual learning needs that are closely related to changing social roles

4. A problem-centered approach that allows for immediate application of knowledge

and skills

5. Internal versus external motivation to learn (Merriam, 2001).

Research demonstrates a long history of the relationship between the field of psychology

and education. In 1901, an elective system that had been implemented by Walter Pillsbury, is an

initial introduction to two-year courses in psychology providing students with a blend of general

introductory course combined with a more technical class for experimental psychology

(McGovern, 1992). Over the course of time, the psychology curriculum expanded significantly

and as noted by McGovern (1992). The relationship between religious values, support for the

sciences and its development requirement for the baccalaureate level of education, and finally the

recognition for the need to include specialized courses and applied programs directed the


understanding for psychologists and the influence in shaping psychology curriculum (McGovern,

1992).

Self-determination theory examines the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation regarding learning (Vansteenkiste, Timmermans, Lens, Soenens, and Van den

Broeck, 2008). The research presented by Vansteenkiste, et. al, (2008), noted intrinsic

motivational factors in learning must be directly associated with meaningful connections to the

learning goals for the individual student. While the limitations of the study include only one

goal specific to each type of motivation, the research did effectively measure intrinsic motivation

as related to learning activities as more successful than extrinsic motivation and learning

activities (Vansteenkiste, et. al, 2008).

The understanding of how psychology influenced the evolution of education is necessary

in order to proceed with applying psychological theory to the best practices associated with

teaching and student assessments regarding the understanding of health psychology. The student

must develop a firm understanding and successfully apply psychological theory related to

behavior, cognition, and basic neurological concepts as related to how to successfully facilitate

implementing healthy practices into the individual lifestyle.

Apply psychological theory to best practices of teaching and assessment for a course in your area of specialization.

The application of psychological theory as related to the best practices for teaching and

assessment include the understanding on the part of the instructor of how student engagement

impacts learning outcomes (Bernstein, Addison, Altman, Hollister, Komarraju, Prieto, and

Shore, 2010). Effective instructors have a core expert level of understanding directly related to

the courses being taught (Bernstein, et. al, 2010).


Additionally, instructors must carry a vision of effective instruction as a guide to designing and

implementing courses as well as developing effective assessment methodologies related to

student learning evaluations and learning outcomes (Bernstein, et. al, 2010).

One assessment tool often used by instructors is the rubric. The rubric is described as a

method for clarifying learning goals, design instruction, and communicate those goals to the

student (Heidi, 2005). Self-assessment within the use of the rubric can be conducted by circling

the appropriate level presented by the student in regards to meeting the learning outcomes

(Heidi, 2005). Rubrics that are designed effectively also facilitate the student’s understanding in

regards to the goal of the assignment and to focus the student’s efforts in completion of the

assignment (Heidi, 2005).

Some negative issues associated with rubrics that are designed poorly can include a lack

of comfort on the part of the student in regards to peer-assessment or self-assessment practices

(Heidi, 2005). Heidi (2005) relates the ugly aspect of rubrics in relation to validity and

reliability. Reasonable and respectable standards must demonstrate alignment with the

curriculum as well (Heidi, 2005). One method to improve reliability and validity would include

peer instructor review or comparing the newly designed rubric to publishing standards from

credible teaching organizations (Heidi, 2005).

The classroom which is designed upon problem-based learning techniques will require

additional assessment methodologies related to student learning success and learning outcomes

(Barber, King and Buchanan, 2015). Students and instructors each face unique challenges

regarding problem-based learning environments and how to appropriately and effectively assess

learning outcomes (Barber, King, and Buchanan, 2015). Real world problems and the

application of knowledge, collaborative learning projects, and through alternative methods of


assignments, problem-based learning can facilitate a student’s ability to incorporate technology

through the use of photo journals or videos that relate directly to course curriculum for learning

assessment (Barber, King, and Buchanan, 2015).

Two additional forms of assessment of student learning outcomes include the Biggs’

model of constructive alignment, which emphasizes focus upon the identification of clear

learning outcomes, the design of appropriate assessment tasks to measure if learning outcomes

are met, and the design of effective learning opportunities that allow students to successfully

complete assignment tasks (Rust, 2002). Another form of assessment would include surface

learning and deep learning approaches (Rust, 2002). Within the surface learning approach, a

heavy workload with relatively high contact hours in the classroom are required (Gibbs, 1992, 9,

as cited by Rust, 2002). Surface learning practices of assessment also include excessive course

materials, the inability to pursue the course subject in greater depth, restricted choices related to

subject of study, and a threatening approach to assessment (Gibbs, 1992, 9, as cited by Rust,

2002).

Assessments providing a deeper learning approach would include engenderment of

intrinsic motivate regarding the students desire to learn, learning activities, collaborative learning

activities, and the instruction process of teaching within integrated wholes that allows students to

relate the materials to other knowledge, (Gibbs, 1992, 10-11, as cited by Rust, 2002). Positive

impacts of assessment for students include timely feedback with positive and encouraging

constructive criticism, explanation of comments, specific relationships of learning outcomes to

assessment criteria, and comments on how students can improve assignments (Rust, 2002).


Summarize the best teaching practices you plan to use in teaching your next higher education course.

According to Dunn, McCarthy, Baker, Halonen, & Hill (2007), an optimal program

within any psychology undergraduate class will be specific and create an effective sequence of

course requirements that will encourage and facilitate coherence with required coursework and

elective classes. Distinguished course programs also make every effort to unify capstone

experiences with rational course offerings (Dunn, et. al, 2007). The best outlines for health

psychology would include an introduction to the field of psychology and how this specifically

relates to individual cognitive and behavioral functions associated with choices to lead healthy

lifestyles.

Course sequencing is also important when considering how to effectively build a

foundation of solid skills that are immediately applicable to career choices related to health

psychology courses (Dunn, et. al, 2007). Variety is also a key component to providing students

with a diversified learning experience that can relate to various fields within the realm of health

psychology careers, whereas electives allow the students to tailor the courses to more specific

career-related goals (Dunn, et. al, 2007).

Students who are exposed to cultural practices that relate to health psychology as well as

ethical perspectives must also be included within any psychology based undergraduate courses to

ensure a scientific approach to the field of psychology and to promote the scholar-practitioner

level of learning (Dunn, et. al, 2007). Effective course assessments must be carefully planned

and aligned with assignments and classroom activities to enhance student engagement, develop

critical thinking skills and to further develop student writing skills in a progressive manner

(Dunn, et. al, 2007).


According to Merriam (2001), the teacher-learner approach must include an

understanding of the basic concerns of a student, the student and university goals required, the

social and physical milieu of where instruction occurs, as well as the techniques of learning and

teaching involved. Acknowledgment of where the student is in regards to the learning

experience is also critical in understanding the motivational and directional needs of the student

(Merriam, 2001). Self-directed learning would be one of the best practices within the

introductory level of health psychology courses due to the ability of the student to become more

self-directed as the student continues through his or her program and matures (Merriam, 2001).

In regards to student entitlement issues, a clear and explicit syllabus provided at the

beginning of the course is one strategy to reduce conflicts related to grading and assessment

practices both for the instructor and the institution (Lippmann, Bulanda, and Wagenaar, 2009).

In addition to the course syllabus, grading rubrics will be used to clarify to students how

assessments are used regarding assignments and classroom discussions (Lippmann, Bulanda, and

Wagenaar, 2009). In the case of a request by a student to have an assignment reevaluated for a

grade, the student will be explicitly informed that such a task may result in the addition or

subtraction of additional points (Lippmann, Bulanda, and Wagenaar, 2009).

The process of creating learning goals and outcomes must also be specific in content.

Instructors who work to define both the goals of what skills students should gain in addition to

the institutions requirements to successful completion of courses will more effectively translate

broader expectations into more specific course learning objectives (Boysen, 2012). Other

important resources are also necessary to develop effective learning outcomes including

collaboration with colleagues, textbook content, and professional knowledge and expertise

(Boysen, 2012).


Boysen (2012) also outlines how to effectively develop the content to the audience, the

types of desired behaviors associated with learning goals, the conditions desired of the student

based upon the level of the course, and the degree to which the student should understand the

course content. Students also must learn the importance of ethical conduct when completing

assignments. One methodology presented by Lamoreaux, Darnell, Sheehan, and Tusher (2012),

would include not only a lecture but also providing students with a worksheet immediately

following or to use with the lecture to recognize plagiarism issues.

Instructors may also present students with a contract that must be signed along with an

acknowledgement of receipt and understanding of the syllabus at the beginning of each course

(Lamoreaux, Darnell, Sheehan, and Tusher, 2012). The development of a worksheet to facilitate

instructors who must confront a student regarding plagiarism is another resource to prepare

instructors for various excuses a student may try to use to minimize or eliminate penalties for

plagiarized work (Lamoreaux, Darnell, Sheehan, and Tusher, 2012).

Highlight any teaching and assessment strategies, professional competencies, and specific elements of the course design.

Some of the professional competencies I can bring to the field of introductory courses in

health psychology include my prior experiences as a fitness instructor in addition to the prior

teaching experience for a stress management course. Specific elements that provide the

opportunity to make the course successful also include my experience as a caregiver and the

obstacles associated with being the sole provider for a family member with a health condition

that increases the risk of increased stress and psychological issues related to grieving, lack of

valuable resources for help in medical direction and lack of family support related to caregiving

duties.


Specific elements associated with the design of the course would have to include

prerequisite courses in introductory psychology, the understanding of sociology, psychology

theory and the link between mind/body connections related to well-being(Thomas and Mulvey,

2008). A basic understanding of pharmacology, which is covered sparingly in introductory

psychology courses I taught for Bryant & Stratton would also facilitate student understanding of

how types of medications and drug use impact perception and well-being.

Assessment practices can include many types of assignments, activities, discussions, and

projects, both individual and group (Rust, 2002). The student must have the opportunity to

present the knowledge and skills being taught and it is the duty of the instructor to ensure this

knowledge aligns with learning outcomes and goals related to the course content (Thomas and

Mulvey, 2008). Student engagement is critical to ensuring successful learning is taking place in

the classroom, whether online or in the traditional campus class setting.

The research presented by Thomas and Mulvey (2008) also presents positive correlations

related to experiential learning practices where there is an established grounding of shared

experiences that instructors can use to build class discussions. Community based experiences

associated with learning through a health psychology course can give students the opportunity to

reflect upon work completed and to allow students to build necessary skills by measuring

populations they would prefer working with (Thomas and Mulvey, 2008).

Another exciting prospect for the field of health psychology and how effective teaching

and assessment practices may impact learning would be the research necessary to measure

changes in aging and overall health impacts (Stephens and Flick, 2010). As the population in

general grows significantly with adults who are considered baby-boomers, the field of

psychology must grow and examine how initial failing health progression can be stopped before


institutionalization is required (Stephens and Flick, 2010). Additional research on those adults

who must be placed into a long-term care facility must also be provided with an opportunity to

engage in successful aging despite the environmental changes encountered (Stephens and Flick,

2010).

This area may become an additional required specialization for the field of psychology to

facilitate the understanding of aging and health in older adults (Stephens and Flick, 2010). The

baby-boomer generation contributes to the world in many substantive ways and while most

health psychology courses focus on younger generations, there must be recognition for the need

to include all age groups when focusing upon health and aging issues. This is also an opportunity

for instructors to infuse diversity and cultural experiences into the field of health psychology

(Stephens and Flick, 2010).

Apply how best practices in teaching and assessment, professional competencies, and course design all support students learning.

According to research presented by Schulte, Isley, Link, Shealy, and Winfrey (2004),

current recognition of behavioral components associated with symptomology of pain may

include sedentary lifestyle practices, unsafe sex, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Teaching

practices and assessment would include incorporating the changing models of caring for patients

that would include a more comprehensive approach to care to include psychology as a

contributing factor to illness (Schulte, et.al, 2004).

Another exciting prospect is a completely new designation within the field of

psychology, a Health Service Psychologist, which creates a specialization for students to develop

skills in helping patients overcome negative practices and to develop healthier lifestyles (Schulte,

et. al, 2004).


Core teaching competencies will include similar courses as general psychology doctorate

programs however, there will be a stronger emphasis on biological, cognitive, affective and

social components associated with behavior as well as the history and systems of psychology

(Schulte, et. al, 2004).

Successful teaching strategies within the newer field of health psychology will also rely

more heavily upon the science-practitioner model of teaching (Bernstein, et. al, 2010).

Assessment strategies must also focus upon evaluation of student learning outcomes related to

general psychology principles with advanced classwork offered and assessed in specific health-

related content to facilitate a psychological perspective to preventive measures associated with

healthy lifestyle practices.

Assessment practices that involve positive and constructive feedback along with strong

outlines, such as rubrics that designate the level of writing skill the student displays regarding

papers can engage a student (Rust, 2002). Careful course planning, thoughtful and deliberate

practices in developing sound syllabi for courses, and demonstrating a true desire and excitement

to share valuable knowledge and skills to students also creates a more successful learning

environment (Heidi, 2005). A strong commitment on the part of the instructor to be a true expert

in the field of psychology being taught, professional conduct and respect are also important

characteristics for instructors to continually work on and develop.


Conclusion

In summary, there is no right or wrong way to be successful in teaching. There must be a

commitment to lifelong learning, professional development through continuing education,

collaboration among teaching staff and administrative professionals, and allowing students to

provide some level of input regarding what skills and knowledge are perceived to be necessary to

career success upon graduation. The completion of a doctoral level program is only one method

of demonstrating a commitment to be a true expert and professional within one’s chosen field of

study and career.

The continuous practice of self-reflection at the end of each class, consistent review of

syllabi and development, and participating in professional development workshops, teaching

conventions, and networking with other teaching professionals is also a great way for instructors

to continue professional development and growth as he or she moves towards becoming a master

teacher. There must be ongoing efforts related to student assessment and what activities and

assignments contribute to the success of the class as well as the opportunity to apply required

skills and knowledge in real-world scenarios and to allow students to grow and become

comfortable with peer-assessment practices as well.

Going forward, teaching will always be a field within psychology that must change and

progress. Student populations and learning demands will shift as the needs of the general

population change therefore, the importance of staying current with practices and evolving new

theories will also be important for instructors when presented with the important task of

educating future generations regarding best practices within the field of psychology.


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