APPLIED MICROPHOTONIC5

WE5 R. JAIVIRDZ

RDIVIAN KRUZELECKY

EMILE I. HADDAD

CRC is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Microphotonics: A New Branch of Technology 1 1.2 Historical Perspective 4

1.2.1 Photonic Computing 7 1.2.2 Photonic-Band-Gap Structures 7 1.2.3 Quantum Photonics 8

Chapter 2 Technological Growth and the Market Push 11

2.1 Law of Growth 11 2.2 Moore's Law of Photonics 14 2.3 Moore's Law of Data Processing 16 2.4 General Trend of Technological Growth 19 2.5 Technological Challenges 20

2.5.1 Silicon Microphotonics 21 2.5.2 Microphotonic Integrated Circuits 22

2.6 New Growth Cycle 23 References 25

Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Interaction of Light with Matter 27

3.1 Wave Equation 27 3.2 Band Gap in Solids 28 3.3 Index of Refraction 31 3.4 Polarization 32 3.5 Reflection and Transmission 35 3.6 Total Internal Reflection 37 3.7 Optical Waveguides 38 3.8 Dispersion in Dielectrics 40 3.9 Dispersion in Semiconductors 42 3.10 Wave Propagation in Nonlinear Media 43 3.11 Electroabsorption 48 3.12 Bragg Reflection 50 3.13 Photonic-Band-Gap Structures 52 3.14 Photonic Crystal Fibers 57 3.15 Stimulated Emission in Semiconductors 59 3.16 The Sagnac Effect 61 3.17 Evanescent Waves 63

3.18 Smart Thin-Film Coatings 65 3.19 Quantum Photonic Effects 69

3.19.1 Qubits 70 3.19.2 Bell States 72 3.19.3 EPR Correlation 73 3.19.4 Quantum Gates 75 3.19.5 Quantum Circuits 81 3.19.6 Bell Measurements 82

3.20 Fabry-Perot Cavities 85 References 87

Chapter 4 Photonic Node 89

4.1 Microprocessor 89 4.2 Communication Node 90 4.3 Microphotonic Node 92 References 98

Chapter 5 Transmitters 99

5.1 Transmission Systems 99 5.2 Optical Sources 100

5.2.1 LEDs 100 5.2.2 Laser Diodes 103 5.2.3 Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers 107 5.2.4 External-Cavity Lasers 108 5.2.5 Tunable Laser Modules 110 5.2.6 Optical Pulse Generators 110 5.2.7 Fiber Lasers 111 5.2.8 All-Silicon Lasers 112

5.3 Modulators 113 5.3.1 External Modulators 114 5.3.2 Waveguide-Based Modulators 115 5.3.3 Si-Based Waveguide Modulators 118

5.3.3.1 Modulator Based on MOS Configuration 118 5.3.3.2 Modulator Based on Ring Resonators 121 5.3.3.3 Spatial Light Modulators 122

References 123

Chapter 6 Couplers and Switches 125

6.1 Couplers and Splitters 125 6.1.1 Splitters 125

6.1.2 Couplers 126 6.1.3 Circulators 131

6.2 Optical Isolators 131 6.3 Grätings 133 6.4 Waveguide Collimators 135 6.5 Total Internal Reflection T Junction 135 6.6 Optical Switches 136

6.6.1 Optomechanical Switches 138 6.6.2 Electro-Optical Switches 138 6.6.3 Liquid Crystals 139 6.6.4 Bubbles 140 6.6.5 Holographie Switches 141 6.6.6 Acousto-Optical Switches 141 6.6.7 Total Internal Reflection Switches 142 6.6.8 Thermo-Optical Switches 143

6.7 MOEMS-Based Switches 144 6.8 Waveguide Switches 147 6.9 SOA Switches 148 6.10 Waveguide Gräting Routers 149 6.11 Evanescent Switches 149 6.12 Optical Cross Connects 151 6.13 Hybrid PBG/MOEMS Switches 153 References 156

Chapter 7 Multiplexers 159

7.1 TDM 159 7.2 WDM 160

7.2.1 Coarse Wavelength-Division Multiplexing 161 7.2.2 Dense Wavelength-Division Multiplexing 162

7.3 Filters 166 7.3.1 Dichroic Filters 166 7.3.2 Fiber Bragg Grätings 166

7.4 Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers 167 References 170

Chapter 8 Receivers 171

8.1 Detectors 171 8.2 PIN Photodiodes 173 8.3 Avalanche Photodiodes 174 8.4 Light Emitters 175 8.5 Silicon-Based Photodetectors 175 References 177

Chapter 9 Amplifiers and Compensators 179

9.1 Amplifier Subsystems 179 9.2 SOAs 180 9.3 Erbium-Doped Amplifiers 181

9.3.1 EDFAs 182 9.3.2 EDWAs 187

9.4 ROAs 188 9.5 Dynamic Gain Equalizers 191 9.6 Dispersion Compensators 191 9.7 Wavelength Converters 194 References 195

Chapter 10 New Technologies 197

10.1 MOEMS 197 10.2 PBG Structures 201

10.2.1 Silicon PBGs 203 10.2.2 High-Order PBGs 203

10.3 Ring Resonators 205 10.4 Smart Coatings 206

10.4.1 La,_x MxMnOn 207 10.4.2 WO, 207 10.4.3 VOn 208

10.5 Hybrid Structures 209 References 210

Chapter 11 Materials, Fabrication, and Integration 213

11.1 Materials 214 11.1.1 Silicon 214 11.1.2 InGaAsP 216 11.1.3 LiNbO, 217 11.1.4 Sol-Gels 217

11.2 Fabrication 218 11.2.1 Multiple-Cycle Surface Microprocessing 218

11.2.1.1 FilmGrowth 219 11.2.1.2 Doping 220 11.2.1.3 Lithography 220 11.2.1.4 Etching 220 11.2.1.5 Surface Micromachining 221 11.2.1.6 LIGA 221

11.2.2 Fabrication of Waveguides 222 11.2.3 Fabrication of PBG Structures 224

11.2.4 Fabrication of EDWA 225 11.2.5 Fabrication of MOEMS 226

11.3 Integration Approaches 230 11.3.1 Micro-PICs 231 11.3.2 Optical Interconnects 233 11.3.3 Optical Coupling 234 11.3.4 Wafer Bonding 237 11.3.5 Hybrid Silica/MOEMS 238 11.3.6 Hybrid PBG 239

11.4 Fabrication of Smart Coatings 239 References 243

Chapter 12 Advanced Microphotonic Devices 245

12.1 Photonic Computer 245 12.1.1 SEEDs 246

12.2 Optica] Memory Storage Devices 246 12.3 Photonic-Band-Gap Sensors 249 12.4 Cascade Lasers 249 12.5 Miniaturized IR Spectrometers 252 12.6 Miniature FP Filters 261 12.7 Miniature Shutter Arrays 265

12.7.1 V02-Based Shutter Arrays 270 12.7.2 MEMS Shutter Arrays 272

12.7.2.1 Shutter Arrays Based on Comb Electrodes 272 12.7.2.2 Shutter Arrays Based on Sweeping Blades 273 12.7.2.3 Shutter Arrays Based on Zipping Actuators 274

12.8 Superprism 276 References 277

Chapter 13 Quantum Photonic Systems 279

13.1 Quantum Communications 279 13.1.1 Quantum Dense Coding 280 13.1.2 Teleporting System 281

13.2 Building Blocks 283 13.2.1 Entanglers 284

13.2.1.1 Time-Bin Qubit Entanglers 284 13.2.1.2 Polarization Qubit Entanglers 284 13.2.1.3 PPLN-Based Entanglers 288

13.2.2 Modulators 288 13.2.3 Decoders 290 13.2.4 Single-Photon Detectors 293

13.2.4.1 APDs 294 13.2.4.2 Frequency Up-Converters 294

13.2.5 Tomographers 294 13.2.6 Quantum Node 295

13.2.6.1 Quantum Node for Dense Coding 295 13.2.6.2 Teleporting Node 296 13.2.6.3 Time-Bin Qubit Quantum Node 298 13.2.6.4 Microphotonic Quantum Nodes 299

13.2.7 Repeaters 302 13.3 Quantum Computers 303

13.3.1 Computer Building Blocks 304 13.3.2 LOQC 305 13.3.3 HOM Interferometer 306 13.3.4 Beam Splitter Entangler 307 13.3.5 Quantum Parity Checker 308 13.3.6 CNOTGate 310 13.3.7 Teleportation Photonic Circuit 316

13.4 Quantum Cryptography 316 References 321

Chapter 14 Future Systems and Their Applications 323

14.1 Microphotonics in Space 323 14.2 Optical Interconnects for Spacecraft 327 14.3 Satellite Optical Communication Links 329

14.3.1 Downlink Communications 338 14.4 Quantum Communication Links in Space 341 14.5 Optical Beamformers for SAR Antennas 344

14.5.1 Optical Beamformers Based on Bulk Optics 349 14.5.2 Optical Beamforming Networks Based on

Fiber-Optic Components 350 14.5.3 Microphotonic Beamformers 351

14.6 Photonic Sensing Systems 356 14.6.1 Distributed Fiber-Optic Sensor Systems 357 14.6.2 Gyroscopes 358

14.7 Satellite Navigation Systems 363 14.8 Thermal Radiator Devices 367

14.8.1 Mechanical Louvers 370 14.8.2 MEMS-Based Louvers 370 14.8.3 Smart Thermal Radiators 371

14.8.3.1 La,_x MxMnOn 371 14.8.3.2 W03 371 14.8.3.3 V02-Based STR 372

14.9 SunShields 377

14.9.1 Currently Used Sun Shields 379 14.9.2 Microphotonic Sun Shields 380

References 382

Chapter 15 Conclusion 385

Index 387

Related Titles 403