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APPLICATION OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

Application of Graphic Organizers in Problem-Based Learning

Xiaofang Li

Instructor: Dr. Amy Bradshaw

EIPT 6503 Design Text-Based Instruction


Outline

Part 1 Graphic Organizers and Theoretical Foundations

1) Schema theory and graphic organizers

2) Text structure awareness and graphic organizers

3) Information processing theory and graphic organizers

4) Cognitive load theory and graphic organizers

5) Activity theory and graphic organizers

Part 2 Problem-Based Learning and Graphic Organizers

1) Brief introduction to Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

2) Brief introduction to an instructional design model (PERFECT) based on PBL

3) Elaboration on how to integrate graphic organizers into PERFECT model

Use of graphic organizers at Prepare phase

Use of graphic organizers at Experience phase

Use of graphic organizers at Relate phase

Use of graphic organizers at Frame phase

Use of graphic organizers at Examine phase

Use of graphic organizers at Customize and Transfer phase

Part 3 Conclusion

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Application of Graphic Organizers in Problem-Based Learning

Abstract

Graphic organizers have many types and have been widely researched for their

effectiveness in improving learning outcomes for students. The paper begins with an

introduction to graphic organizers. The literature review addresses the theoretical support

of graphic organizers in educational practice. Based on evidence from researches and

studies, the paper proposes the application of graphic organizers in Problem-Based

Learning. The paper briefly introduces PBL and proceeds to identify ways that graphic

organizers can support PBL.

Key words: Graphic organizers, Learning Outcomes, Problem-Based Learning

Graphic Organizers and Theoretical Foundations

Graphic organizers are defined as visual or graphic displays that show visual

interrelationships of superordinate and subordinate ideas using spatial arrangements,

geometric shapes, lines, and arrows to portray the content structure and demonstrate key

relationships between concepts (Darch, Carnine & Kameenui, 1986). Graphic organizers

are developed based on the Cognitive Theory of Ausubel (1968). According to Ausubel

(1968), an individual’s cognitive structure is a major variable in learning new materials.

He argued that new meanings are acquired only when they are related to previous learned

information. Ausubel introduced advance organizers to support this process. Graphic

organizers including spatial and visual arrangements depict the structure of information

and provide prerequisite information for new materials. Ausubel’s theory regarding the

effectiveness of graphic organizers in promoting learning was examined in the literature

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(Alvermann, 1981; Darch & Carnine, 1986; Darch, Carnine, & Kameenui, 1986; Hawk,

1986). Five theoretical foundations guide the research in the application of graphic

organizers: schema theory, text structure awareness, information processing theory,

cognitive load theory and activity theory.

Schema Theory and Graphic Organizers

Schemata were initially introduced into psychology and education through the

work of the British psychologist Sir Frederic Bartlett. Bartlett (1932) proposed that

people have schemata, or unconscious mental structures, that represent an individual’s

generic knowledge about the world.

Anderson (1978) pointed out that schemata provided a form of representation for

complex knowledge and that the construct provided a principled account of how old

knowledge might influence the acquisition of new knowledge. Anderson (1978) believed

that presentation of a graphic organizer before reading activates the prerequisite

information of a student while presenting content information and organizing key

concepts schematically, and provides a frame for the new knowledge.

Text Structure Awareness and Graphic Organizers

Ornstein (1994) defines the structure of text as the main ideas of the text, how

information is organized, as well as the verbal and textual cues (or pedagogical aids) that

help organize and bring unity to the text. Students’ awareness of different types of text

structures will help them to infer the information which is necessary to comprehend from

the text.

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The effectiveness of graphic organizers is explained based on text structure

awareness (Alvermann, 1981, 1982; Berkowitz, 1986; Darch & Carnine, 1986; Darch &

Eaves, 1986). Through presenting visualized content of the text, graphic organizers

provide information about the sequence and structure of the text and let students pay

attention to the important units of the text (Anderson & Armbruster, 1984).

Information Processing Theory and Graphic Organizers

Information processing theory is a group of theoretical frameworks that address

how humans receive, think about, mentally modify, and remember information, and how

these processes change over the course of development (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2004). The

information processing model (IPM) developed in 1950s is one of the most popular

models based on information processing theory. The IPM consists of three main

components: sensory memory, working memory, and long term memory (Schraw, 2006).

Based on information processing theory, the use of graphic organizers enables

textual information to be dually encoded-both verbally and spatially (Paivio, 1983).

When verbal information is not successful in the retrieval of information given in the

text, the spatial processing becomes a second stratum cue (Kulhavy, Stock, Peterson,

Pridemore, & Klein, 1992). Moreover, visual presentation of core components of the

information makes it possible to spend less effort in processing the information.

Therefore, it facilitates information processing (Robinson, 1998).

Cognitive Load Theory and Graphic Organizers

According to cognitive load theory, learning occurs when learners engage in

appropriate cognitive processes (Chandler & Sweller, 1991). Appropriate cognitive

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processes can be attained by essential processing and generative processing. In essential

processing, a learner is engaged by mental representation of the material determined by

inherent complexity of the material, whereas in generative processing, learner is engaged

in mental activities relating to deeper cognitive processes of the material (Stull & Mayer,

2007).

Cognitive load theory theories are best applied in the area of instructional design

of cognitively complex or technically challenging material. Cognitive load theory has

many implications in the design of learning materials which must, if they are to be

effective, keep cognitive load of learners at a minimum during the learning process.

While in the past the theory has been applied primarily to technical areas, it is now being

applied to more language-based discursive areas.

As related to cognitive load theory, the presentation of graphic organizers

facilitates the students’ engagement in generative processing by giving information on

how the text was organized (Stull & Mayer, 2007).

Activity Theory and Graphic Organizers

Activity Theory was developed by the Russian psychologists Vygotsky,

Rubinshtein, Leont'ev, and others with work beginning in the 1920’s (Kaptelinin, Kuutti,

Bannon, 1995). According to this theory, when students engage in productive learning

activities, deep learning is acquired (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).

Stull and Mayer (2007) explain the effectiveness of constructing graphic

organizers based on activity theory. Constructing graphic organizers is a productive

learning activity. The students select relevant ideas from the text, organize the ideas in

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the graphic organizer, and show relations of different concepts. This process facilitates

deep learning.

PERFECT Model and Graphic Organizers

Problem-Based Learning

Educational practice is increasingly paying attention to advancing skills for

knowledge creation and collaboration, which is supported by problem-based activities

that simulate the practices of professional or scientific communities (Carey & Smith,

1995). Student-centered approaches, especially Problem-Based Learning (PBL), has been

the focus of many developments in teaching and learning facilitation in recent years.

PBL uses real-life problems modeled after a contemporary or historical case to

engage students as they pursue specified learning outcomes that are in line with academic

standards or course objectives (Stepien & Pyke, 1997). Students work through the

problem by exploring the issues involved, formulating questions, conducting research,

and considering possible solutions to the problems. The instructor acts as a facilitator

during the process.

It has been claimed that PBL produces independent learners who are motivated,

engaged in deep learning, work as a team, and develop effective strategies, skills and

knowledge for life-long learning and professional work (Lorna & Chris 2006).

PERFECT Model

Based on the principles of PBL and collaborative learning, the author developed

an instructional design model tentatively named PERFECT (Figure 1), for demonstrating

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Figure 1 PERFECT Instructional Design Model based on PBL

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an example of PBL model in a workshop. This model is a synthesis of PBL strategies and

characteristics. It doesn’t indicate that the model is perfect; rather, it indicates that both

instruction and learning are an ongoing process to achieving perfection.

There are seven components in this model: Prepare, Experience, Relate, Frame,

Examine, Customize and Transfer. Each component comprises different learning

activities. All these activities are designed based on PBL.

Graphic Organizers and PERFECT Model

In PBL, learners are required to find, organize, and present the information that

they need to solve real life problems. Learners need to synthesize information so that they

can complete their assignment efficiently and successfully. They must be information

processors in their life beyond school. Graphic organizers are a powerful tool for learners

to work through the problem in PBL regarding the information processing.

Using graphic organizers can help learners build their own knowledge and reflect

on how new information links to their mental framework or schema of the world. For

each component in PERFECT model, graphic organizers can help learners synthesize

information during their problem-solving process.

Prepare. At this stage, the instructor will inform learners of their learning

objectives and help them understand what they will do and why. Learners will also be

prepared for the learning activities with necessary resources for the new knowledge and

skills to be learned. Advanced organizers can be used to help learners build connections

between prior knowledge and new knowledge.

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An Advance organizer is a presentation of information (either verbal or visual)

that builds connections between prior knowledge and new knowledge. An expository

Advance organizer provides generalization of basic concepts to facilitate learners in

learning new and unfamiliar materials. A comparative Advance organizer compares and

contrasts prior knowledge and new knowledge to help learners integrate new ideas into

relatively familiar ideas. Ausubel (1960) suggested that Advance organizers might foster

meaningful learning by presenting a global representation of the knowledge to be learned

and help learners understand interconnections among the basic concepts in the domain.

For example, Figure 2 is an Advance organizer that shows relationships of different

concepts and can help build connection between a learner’s prior knowledge and new

knowledge to be learned.

Experience. At this stage, learners are situated in an authentic scenario where

they are provided a problem. They need to analyze the causes and effects and the

interrelationships among the attributes of the problem. The major function of graphic

organizers here is to define the problem.

Fishbone diagrams help to identify the problem causes and interrelationships

between the causes. A fishbone diagram, sometimes called a herringbone map, is a type

of graphic organizer used to explore the many aspects or effects of a complex topic. It

helps the learners to organize their thoughts in a clear and visual way. When the scenario

requires the learners to investigate the attributes associated with a complex topic and

obtaining details on each of the attributes, the learners can develop a fish bone diagram to

help them focus on the topic, review what they already know in order to organize their

knowledge, and monitor their growing comprehension of the problem. It also helps to

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Figure 2 A Concept Map of Learning Theories


clarify the areas where the learners must investigate more. Figure 3 demonstrates the

basic idea of how a fishbone diagram could be used to analyze the causes and effects of a

problem.

Some other graphic organizers can also be used at this stage, such as Chain of

Events which helps learners analyze the components of the problem, and Cycle Map

which shows interactions between events.

Parnaby & Towill, 2008

Figure 3 Fishbone diagram summarizing sources of “waste” observed in NHS day surgery pipeline

Relate. At this stage, learners start to relate the problem to existing resources and

identify tasks and necessary new resources. Graphic organizers can be used to analyze the

information seeking strategies in this process.

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Cluster diagrams help learners generate ideas about potential tasks and possible

sources of information. A cluster diagram, sometimes called cloud diagram, is a type of

non-linear graphic organizer that helps to systematize ideas based upon a central topic.

Learners can more easily brainstorm a theme, come up with an idea, or explore a new

subject by using a cluster diagram.

Other useful graphic organizers at this stage include Compare and contrast

Organizers, which help to select the best sources, and Spider Maps, which help to

determine key words for searching information.


Figure 4 A Cluster Diagram

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Frame. At this stage, learners start to acquire needed resources and engage in

framing the solutions for the problem. Graphic organizers here can be used to compare

and contrast information sources, identify similarities and differences, pull together ideas,

articulate the problem and consider multiple solutions and possible results, and map out

presentations and so on. Useful graphic organizers at this stage include Compare and

contrast diagram, Venn diagram, Cluster diagram, Problem and solution diagram and

Storyboard. Figure 5 is an example of what a Problem and solution diagram could look

like.


Figure 5 A Problem/Solution Diagram

Examine. At this stage, learners start to examine their solutions and synthesize

their experiences. Graphic organizers such as Compare and contrast diagram, Venn

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diagram and Interaction outline can help them present their solutions for peer review,

analyze the solutions of other groups and reflect on their problem solving experiences.

Figure 6 is an example of how a graphic organizer can be used to present solutions

effectively.


Figure 6 A Graphic Organizer for the Presentation of Solution

Customize and Transfer. At this stage, learners customize their solutions and

apply the solutions to real world problems. Cluster Diagrams can be used to identify new

information needed. Fishbone Diagram can be used to analyze the causes of the problems

existing in the solutions. Venn Diagrams can be used to compare and contrast the

learners’ solutions with experts’ solutions so that they can notice the areas in which they

need to make improvements.

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Conclusions

PBL is a student-centered approach. Integrating the use of graphic organizers into

PBL approach may enable students to be more engaged in learning and collaborate with

each other more effectively. Graphic organizers help learners by providing visual models

for sorting and processing information (Nancy & Ellen, 2010). In the process of

developing graphic organizers, the learners are constructing and negotiating meaning,

sharing information, and making presentations to each other. Thus, they identify and

summarize new concepts in ways that are meaningful, integrated, value-based, and

challenging (National Council for the Social Studies 1994).

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Application of Graphic Organizers in Problem-Based …xiaofangli.weebly.com/uploads/9/0/5/0/9050569/apply...An expository Advance organizer provides generalization of basic concepts