Appendix A: Activation of Oil Explorationand Development in the Ethiopia–Kenya–SouthSudan Transboundary Region1

Joshua S. Dimon2 with Claudia Carr

While the Gibe III component of the Omo River basin development constitutes the most urgent, intensive and extensivethreat to livelihoods along the lower Omo River and Lake Turkana, the peoples in this region are also under threat from otherlarge-scale development programs. These too promise further restrictions of access to livelihood resources, including landgrabs for large agri-business plantations along the lower Omo and, on an even larger scale, oil development. There has beena major expansion of oil exploration and development activities along Lake Turkana and the lower Omo basin in the last fiveyears. The impacts of these developments will only compound Gibe III’s negative impacts on livelihoods in the region byfurther restricting pastoral territories, further abstracting water from the Omo and Lake Turkana for drilling, further reducingthe water quality of the remaining water in the Omo River and Lake Turkana, and increasing the militarization of the regionand potential for armed conflict.

Current concessions for oil exploration in the region cover the entirety of Lake Turkana and the south Omo River, extendingalong the so-called tertiary rift valley zone of Ethiopia and the eastern branch of the East African Rift Valley. Explorationand, more recently, development of oil has been accelerating for the last five years in the region, although it is part of a muchlonger history of oil exploration.

Contrary to news of brand-new interest/discoveries, exploration in this region has been going on for many years, without theprior knowledge of those living in the zones of exploration. The first exploration in the region was in the 1950s, with the firsthints of oil resulting from shallow boring for water in Northwest Kenya in 1952 (Hedburg 1953). Exploration picked upagain in the 1980s with help from the World Bank in both Kenya and Ethiopia (Rachwal and Destefano 1980; McGrew1982; Hartman and Walker 1988). This zone is part of a larger regional exploration history starting in the 1940s. The AfricaResources Working Group (ARWG) has been investigating this history across thirteen countries covering seventy years andover three hundred companies, and has documented this in several forthcoming papers.

With decades of exploration history in the zones, oil companies currently investing in this region generally already knowwhat exists in the area, and where, and accelerate quickly to exploration drilling, which is a far more damaging phase thanseismic exploration, and requires a greater amount of auxiliary support infrastructure, including security, where the companydeems the area a potential risk to their property or employees. Given the growing tensions due to the Gibe III impacts, andthe increasing conflict in South Sudan, private security forces are likely in use here, further heightening the potential forviolent conflict in this region.

1This Appendix was written in July of 2014. Since that time, major expansions of Tullow Oil, Africa Oil and other petroleum and associatedinterests have been underway in the region. This discussion offers an outline and perspective regarding the genesis and basic characterof the fast-moving development now underway.2Joshua S. Dimon is completing a doctoral degree in Environmental Science, Policy and Management at the University of California, Berkeley—specializing in extractive industry development within Africa.

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Currently, Africa Oil and Tullow are the two dominant companies involved in the region, although over 15 companies areinvolved in the tertiary rift valley all together. Tullow has been very active in the broader region, with oil discoveries in theUgandan portion of the Western branch of the rift valley. Africa Oil is a more recent addition to the region, but includesindividuals with many years of geologic experience in the region. Perhaps more problematic, Africa Oil gained its con-cessions along the Omo River in Ethiopia through an intermediary that initially gained the concessions as agriculturalplantation project land. The inter-changing roles of the investors engaged both across industries, and across countries in theregion demonstrates both the unified front facing the pastoral peoples of the Southern Omo, northern Lake Turkana region,and the strategic advantage these companies have in negotiations with regional governments.

Seismic exploration, while progressing for decades, has rapidly expanded in recent years. Additionally, two wells havealready been drilled by Tullow Oil in the lower Omo area near the Ethiopia–Kenya border by Tullow Oil, and many moreSouth of the Lake in Kenya where development drilling is already in progress. These developments will directly andseverely impact pastoral livelihoods in the region. Seismic exploration requires the clearing of vast swaths of land from flora,fauna and people including for the placement of explosives or large “thumper trucks” every 100 m. This is carried out fordistances of hundreds of kilometers in order to generate seismic waves. These operations involve security measures toprevent people from approaching the seismic lines during clearing, placing of trucks and explosives, and seismic testingitself which can extend for months. For pastoral peoples, these actions mean major disruption of settlements, livestockmovements and access to grazing and water sources.

Drilling involves the same securitization of the location of the drilling rigs. It also involves the production of a very largeamount of drilling waste, including toxic drilling muds, drill cuttings (rock) contaminated with drilling muds and possiblyhydrocarbons, and produced water (from injection during drilling) also contaminated with drilling muds and hydrocarbons.If the drilling is on land, in areas such as this region, the wastes will be left near the drill site in waste ponds, likely unlined,risking contamination of any groundwater that may be accessed in the region, as well as nearby land. If the drilling is onwater, the wastes are generally dumped directly into the water system next to the drilling platform. This would be concernenough without the impacts on Lake Turkana water levels from the dam, as it can seriously impact benthic organisms,chemical oxygen demand, and fish life (Patin 1999; Satterly 2003). However, with any reduction in Lake level from the Damitself, this would be far worse.

Each of these phases of oil and gas development involve security, generally from either private security forces, or themilitary forces of the hosting country. In a region already experiencing the livelihood tensions noted in throughout this book,as well as the impending tensions from the impacts of the Dam itself, this increased militarization of the region will onlyaugment armed conflict and humanitarian concerns. The exploration programs that have been progressing in the South Omo,North Turkana regions have already sparked conflict when residents of the region first encountered oil company trucks thatsaid they had authorization from the government to commence work in the region, despite community members knowingnothing about it.

Literature Cited

Hartman, J.B., and T.L. Walker. 1988. Petroleum developments in Central and Southern Africa in 1987 (Part b). Bulletin ofthe American Association of Petroleum Geographers 72(10b):196–227.Hedberg, H. 1953. Petroleum developments in Africa in 1952.McGrew, H.J. 1982. Petroleum developments in central and Southern Africa in 1981. Bulletin of the American Associationof Petroleum Geographers 66(11):2251–2320.

Given the evidence from the past seven decades of exploration, and current upsurges in interest in the broader northernRift Valley Area and Horn of Africa, the oil companies are arguing this region is likely to become next West Africa.The convergence of this massive expansion of the oil industry in the same impact zone as that of the Gibe III dam willdecimate livelihoods in this region. The impacts from all of these developments together far exceed the sum of theindividual impacts, as livelihoods will already be stressed beyond their coping points by the Gibe III dam.

218 Appendix A: Activation of Oil Exploration

Fig. A.1 Concessions for oil and gas exploration in the Ethiopia–Kenya–South Sudan transboundary region—2014. Source Map by AfricaResources Working Group (ARWG), compiled from relevant oil industry documents/websites

Appendix A: Activation of Oil Exploration 219

Fig. A.2 Cumulative concessions for oil and gas exploration in Eastern Africa. Source Mapping by J. Dimon, A. Gray and C. Carr of AfricaResources Working Group (ARWG) with data from relevant petroleum literature and oil industry websites

220 Appendix A: Activation of Oil Exploration

Patin, S.A. 1999. Environmental impact of the offshore oil and gas industry. New York: Eco Monitor Publishing.Rachwal, C.A., and E.R. Destefano. 1980. Petroleum developments in central and Southern Africa in 1979. Bulletin of theAmerican Association of Petroleum Geographers 64(11):1785–1835.Satterly, N. 2003. PCR inhibition and toxic effects by sediment samples exposed to drilling muds. Masters Thesis, submittedto Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College.

Appendix A: Activation of Oil Exploration 221

Appendix B: Species Collected in the Lower OmoRiver Basin and Transborder Region

Collection by C. Carr (Taxonomic Update by F.H. Brown)

AcanthaceaeBarleria acanthoides VahlBarleria eranthemoides R. Br.Barleria linearifolia RendleBlepharis persica (Burm. f.) Kuntze (syn of B. ciliaris L.) B.L. BurttCrossandra nilotica Oliv.Ecbolium anisacanthus (Schweinf.) C.B.Cl.Ecbolium revolutum (L.) C.B.Cl.Hypoestes verticillaris R. Br.Justicia anselliana T. Anders.Justicia caerulea Forssk.Justicia flava Forssk.Justicia odora (Forssk.) Vahl (syn. J. fischeri Lindau)Justicia sp.Justicia striata (Flotsch.) BullockPeristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) NeesRuellia patula Jacq.

ActiniopteridaceaeActiniopteris radiata (Sw.) Link

AizoaceaeCorbichonia decumbens (Forssk.) ExellTrianthema triquetra Willd.Zaleya pentandra (L.) Jeffrey

AmaranthaceaeAchyranthes aspera L.Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Schult.Celosia argentea L.Celosia populifolia (Forssk.) Moq.Celosia schweinfurthiana SchinzCyathula orthacantha (Hochst.) SchinzDasysphaera prostrata (Gilg) CavacoDigera muricata (L.) Mart.Psilotrichum elliottii Bak.Psilotrichum gnaphalobryum (Hochst.) SchinzPupalia lappacea (L.) A. Juss.Sericocomopsis pallida (S.Moore) SchinzHeeria reticulata (Bak. f.) Engl.Lannea floccosa Jacl.Rhus natalensis Krauss

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AnnonaceaeUvaria leptocladon Oliv.

ApocynaceaeAdenium obesum ( Forssk.) Roem. & Schult.Saba florida (Benth.) Bullock

AraceaePistia stratiotes L.

ArecaceaeHyphaene compressa H. Wendl. (H. thebaica is syn.)

AristolochiaceaeAristolochia bracteolata Lam.

AsclepiadaceaeCalotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. AitonCaralluma acutangulata (Decne.) N.E. Br.Caralluma somaliea N.E. Br.Curroria volubilis (Schtr.) BullockGomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) AitLeptadenia hastata (Pers.) DecnePergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov.Sarcostemma viminale (L.) R. Br.Tacazzea apiculata Oliv.

AsparagaceaeAsparagus sp.

BalanitaceaeBalanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.Balanites orbicularis SpragueBalanites sp. (= Carr 859)Balanites zeylanicum (Burm.) R. Br.

BoraginaceaeCordia crenata DelileCordia sinensis Lam.Heliotropium indicum L.Heliotropium ovalifolium Forsk.Heliotropium somalense VatkeHeliotropium steudneri VatkeHeliotropium supinum L.Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm. f.) R. Br.

BurseraceaeBoswellia hildebrandtii Engl.Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) Engl.Commiphora edulis Engl. (C. boiviniana is syn.)Commiphora kua J.F. Royle (Vollesen) var. kua (C. madagascariensis is syn.)Commiphora sp.

CapparaceaeBoscia angustifolia A Rich. var. angustifoliaBoscia coriacea PaxCadaba farinosa Forssk. subsp. farinosaCadaba gillettii R.A. GrahamCadaba glandulosa Forssk.Cadaba rotundifolia Forssk.Capparis fascicularis DC. var. fascicularisCapparis tomentosa Lam.Cleome brachycarpa DC.Cleome parvipetala R.A. GrahamCrateva adansonii DC.Maerua crassifolia Forssk.Maerua decumbens (Brongn.) De Wolf (Maerua subcordata (Gilg.) De Wolf is syn.)Maerua oblongifolia (Forssk.) A. Rich.

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224 Appendix B: Species Collected in the Lower Omo River Basin and Transborder Region

CelastraceaeHippocratea africana (Willd.) Loes.Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell

CeratophyllaceaeCeratophyllum demersum L.

ChenopodiaceaeSuaeda monoica J.F. Gmel

CombretaceaeCombretum aculeatum Vent.Terminalia brevipes Pamp.

CommelinaceaeCommelina benghalensis L.Commelina forsskaolii Vahl

Compositae (Asteraceae)Delamerea procumbens S. MooreHelichrysum glumaceum DC.Kleinia longiflora DC.Kleinia squarrosa Cufod. (Syn is Kleinia kleinioides (Sch. Bip.) M.R.F. Taylor)Pluchea dioscoridis DC.Pluchea ovalis DC.Sphaeranthus ukambensis Vatke & O. Hoffm.Vernonia cinerascens Sch.-BipVernonia sp. ( = Carr 333)

ConvolvulaceaeHildebrandtia obcordata S. MooreIpomoea aquatica Forsk.Ipomoea sinensis (Desr.) Choisy subsp. blepharosepala (A. Rich) MeeuseSeddera hirsuta Hallier f. var. hirsuta

CucurbitaceaeCoccinia grandis (L.) VoigtCucumis dipsaceus Spach.Cucumis figarei Naud.Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn.Kedrostis gijef (J.F. Gmel.) C. JeffreyLuffa ?echinata Roxb.Momordica rostrata A. Zimm.

CyperaceaeCyperus alopecuroides Rottb.Cyperus articulatus (Cav.) Steud.Cyperus laevigatus L.Cyperus longus L.Cyperus maritimus L.Cyperus rotundus L.Cyperus teneriffae Poir.Scirpus maritimus L.

DichapetalaceaeTapura fischeri Engl.

DracaenaceaeSansevieria ehrenbergii Schweinf. ex Baker

EbenaceaeDiospyros scabra (Chiov.) Cufod.Diospyros sp.

ElatinaceaeBergia suffruticosa (Del.) Fanzl

EuphorbiaceaeAcalypha fruticosa Forssk.Acalypha indica L.Euphorbia grandicornis Goebel

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Appendix B: Species Collected in the Lower Omo River Basin and Transborder Region 225

Euphorbia heterochroma PaxEuphorbia hypericifolia L.Euphorbia tirucalli L.Euphorbia triaculeata Forsk.Jatropha ellenbeckii Pax (J. fissispina is syn.)Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. and Thonn.Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L.Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir.Phyllanthus sp. (= Carr 411)Ricinus communis L.Securinega virosa (Willd.) Pax and K. Hoffm.Tragia hildebrandtii Muell. Arg.

Fabaceae (Caesalpinioideae)Cassia didymobotrya Fres.Cassia italica (Mill.) F.W. Andr. var. micrantha BrenanCassia nigricans Vahl.Cassia occidentalis L.Delonix elata (L.) GambleTamarindus indica L.

Fabaceae (Faboideae)Canavalia cathartica Thou.Canavalia virosa Wight and Arn.Crotalaria polysperma KotschyCrotalaria pychnostachya Benth.Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A. Rich.Indigofera ciferrii Chiov.Indigofera coerulea Roxb.Indigofera hochstetteri BakerIndigofera oblongifolia Forsk.Indigofera schimperi Jaub. & SpachIndigofera spicata Forsk.Indigofera spinosa Forssk.Indigofera tinctoria L.Indigofera volkensii Taub. formaOrmocarpum trichocarpum (Taub.) Engl.Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC.Rhynchosia pulverulenta StocksSesbania sericea (Willd.) LinkSesbania sesban L. Merr. var. nubica Chiov.Sesbania somalensis GillettTephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. var. pubescens BakTephrosia uniflora Pers.Vigna luteola (Jacq.) Benth.Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczck. var. sublobata (Roxb.) Verdc.Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. var. unguiculata (Syn. of Vigna unguiculata (L.)) Walp. subsp. cylindrica (L.) Van EseltAcacia drepanolobiumDichrostachys cinerea (L.) W. and A.Mimosa pigra L.Senegalia (Acacia) mellifera (Vahl) Benth.Senegalia (Acacia) senegal (L.) Willd.Senegalia brevispica HarmsVachellia (Acacia) drepanolobium Harms ex Y. SjöstedtVachellia (Acacia) horrida (L.) Willd.Vachellia (Acacia) nubica Benth.Vachellia (Acacia) paolii Chiov.Vachellia (Acacia) reficiens WawraVachellia (Acacia) sieberiana DC.Vachellia (Acacia) tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne subsp. spirocarpa Chiov. (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) BrenanVachelliia (Acacia) seyal Del.

GentianaceaeEnicostema axillare (Lam.) A. Raynal subsp.axillare (Syn of Enicostema hyssopifolium (Willd.) Verdoor

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226 Appendix B: Species Collected in the Lower Omo River Basin and Transborder Region

HyacinthaceaeUrginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth

LamiaceaeBasilicum polystachon (L.) MoenchHyptis pectinata (L.) Poit.Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br.Leucas ?glabrata R. Br.Leucas nubica Benth.Ocimum americanum L.Ocimum forsskaolii Benth (syn. = O. hadiense Forssk.)Ocimum kilimandscharicum Baker ex GürkeOrthosiphon somalensis VatkePlectranthus hadiensis (Forssk.) Schweinf. ex Spreng. (Syn. of Ocimum hadiense) Forssk.Plectranthus sp. (= Carr 739)

LoranthaceaeLoranthus sp. ( = Carr 880)Plicosepalus sagittifolius (Sprague) DanserTapinanthus aurantiacus (Engl.) Danser

MalvaceaeAbelmoschus esculentus (L.)Abutilon figarianum WebbAbutilon fruticosum Guill. and Perr.Abutilon graveolens W. and A.Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet

Fabaceae (Mimosoideae)Abutilon pannosum (Forsk. f.) Schlecht.Hibiscus micranthus L.f.Hibiscus sp.Pavonia patens (Andr.) Chiov.Pavonia zeylanica Cav.Senra incana Cav.Sida rhombifolia L.Trichilia roka (Forsk.) Chiov.

MenispermaceaeCissampelos mucronata A. Rich.Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels

MoraceaeFicus sycomorus L.

NyctaginaceaeBoerhavia erecta L.Commicarpus helenae (Romer & Schultes) Meikle syn of C. stellatus (Wight) BerhautCommicarpus plumbagineus Standl.

NymphaceaeNymphaea lotus L.

OlacaceaeXimenia americana var. caffra (Sond.) Engl.Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC.

OnagraceaeLudwigia adscendens subsp. diffusa (Forrsk.) P.H. Raven (Syn. of Ludwigiastolonifera) (Guill. & Perr.) P.H. RavenLudwigia leptocarpa (Nutt.) H. Hara

PassifloraceaeAdenia venenata Forssk.

PedaliaceaePterodiscus ruspolii Engl.Sesamothamnus busseanus Engl.Sesamum latifolium J.B. Gillett

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Appendix B: Species Collected in the Lower Omo River Basin and Transborder Region 227

PoaceaeAristida adscensionis L.Aristida kenyensis HenrardAristida mutabilis Trin. & Rupr.Cenchrus ciliaris L.Cenchrus setigerus VahlChloris roxburghiana Schult.Chloris virgata Sw.Chrysopogon aucheri (Boiss.) Stapf var. aucheriCymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng.Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.Dactyloctenium giganteum Fischer and Schweickt.Dactyloctenium sp. nov.Digitaria macroblephara (Hack.) StapfDinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz.Echinochloa haploclada (Stapf) StapfEnneapogon brachystachyus (Jaub. and Spach) StapfEnneapogon cenchroides (Roem. and Schult.) C.E. HubbEnteropogon macrostachyus (A. Rich.) Benth.Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vignolo ex Janch.Eragrostis namaquensis NeesEriochloa fatmensis (Hochst. & Steud.) Clayton (Syn is E. nubica)Heteropogon contortus (L.) Roem. & Schult.Lintonia nutans StapfLoudetia phragmitoides (Peter) CE HubbardPanicum coloratum L.Panicum maximum Jacq.Panicum monticola Hook. F (Syn = P. meyeranum Nees)Panicum poaeoides StapfPerotis patens Gand. var. parvispicula RobynsPhragmites ?karka (Retz) Steud.Phragmites australis (Cav.) Steud.Schoenefeldia transiens (Pilger) Chiov.Sehima nervosum (Rottl.) StapfSetaria acromelaena (Hochst.) Dur. and SchinzSorghum verticilliflorum (Steud.) StapfSorghum virgatum StapfSporobolus consimilis Fresen.Sporobolus fimbriatus Nees var. latifoliusSporobolus helvolus (Trin.) T. Durand & SchinzSporobolus ioclados (Trin.) Nees (Syn. is S.marginatus)Sporobolus pellucidus Hochst.Sporobolus pyramidalis Beauv.Sporobolus spicatus (Vahl) KunthStipagrostis hirtigluma (Trin. & Rupr.) de WinterTetrapogon cenchriformis (A. Rich.) ClaytonTetrapogon tenellus (Roxb.) Chiov.Tragus berteronianus Schult.Urochloa setigera (Retz.) StapfVossia cuspidata (Roxb.) Griff.

PolygalaceaePolygala erioptera DC.Persecaria senegalensis f. albotomentosa (R.A. Graham) K.L. Wilson (Syn. is Polygonum senegalense Meisn. f. albotomentosum R.A. Graham)Portulaca foliosa Ker-Gawl.Portulaca oleracea L.Portulaca quadrifida L.Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Asch. ex Schweinf.

RhamnaceaeZiziphus mauritiana Lam.Ziziphus mucronata Willd.Ziziphus pubescens Oliv.

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228 Appendix B: Species Collected in the Lower Omo River Basin and Transborder Region

RubiaceaeKohautia caespitosa Schnizl.Tarenna graveolens (S. Moore) Brem.

RubiaceaeFagara chalybea (Engl.) Engl. (Syn of Zanthoxylum chalybeum)

SalvadoraceaeDobera glabra (Forssk.) Poir.Salvadora persica L.

SapindaceaeAllophylus ferrugineus Taub. var. ferrugineus (Syn = A. macrobotrys Gilg.)Cardiospermum halicababum L. var. halicababumGlenniea africana (Radlk.) Leenh. (Syn =Melanodiscus oblongus Radlk. Ex Taub., in Engl.Haplocoelum foliolosum (Hiern) BullockLepisanthes senegalensis (Juss. ex Poir.) Leenh. (is Syn. of Aphania senegalensis)

ScrophulariaceaeStemodia ?serrata Benth.Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth.

SimaroubaceaeHarrisonia abyssinica Oliv.

SolanaceaeLycium sp.Nicotiana tabacum L.Solanum hastifolium DunalSolanum incanum L.Solanum nigrum L.Solanum sepicula DunalWithania somnifera (L.) Dunal

SterculiaceaeMelochia corchorifolia L.Sterculia sp.

TiliaceaeCorchorus olitorius L.Corchorus trilocularis L.Grewia bicolor Juss.Grewia fallax K. Schum.Grewia tenax (Forssk.) FioriGrewia villosa Willd.

TyphaceaeTypha sp.

UlmaceaeCeltis integrifolia Lam.

VahliaceaeVahlia goddingii E.A. Bruce

VerbenaceaeChascanum laetum (Walp.) (Syn = Svensonia laeta (Walp.) Moldenke)Phyla nodiflora (L.) GreenePremna resinosa (Hochst.) SchauerPriva adhaerens (Forsk.) Chiov.

VitaceaeCayratia ibuensis (Hook f.) Suess.Cissus cactiformis Gilg.Cissus quadrangularis L.Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) VahlCyphostemma sp.

ZygophyllaceaeTribulus cistoides L.Tribulus terrestris L.Zygophyllum simplex L.

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Appendix C: Reference set of Selected Major Figures

Content by C. Carr represented in graphic form by Laura Daly

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232 Appendix C: Reference set of Selected Major Figures

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234 Appendix C: Reference set of Selected Major Figures

Appendix C: Reference set of Selected Major Figures 235

236 Appendix C: Reference set of Selected Major Figures

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238 Appendix C: Reference set of Selected Major Figures

Appendix C: Reference set of Selected Major Figures 239

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240 Appendix C: Reference set of Selected Major Figures