Appendix 1: The World Bank classification of developing and other countries

DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

Low-income economies Ethiopia Bangladesh Mali Zaire Burkina Faso Nepal Burma Malawi Niger Tanzania Burundi Uganda Togo Central African Republic India Madagascar Somalia Benin Rwanda China Kenya Sierra Leone Haiti Guinea Ghana Sri Lanka Sudan Pakistan

Population (millions) mid-1984

42.2 98.1 7.3

29.7 6.6

16.1 36.1 6.8 6.2

21.5 4.6

15.0 2.9 2.5

749.2 9.9 5.2 3.9 5.8

1029.2

349

19.6 3.7 5.4 5.9

12.3 15.9 21.3 92.4

GNP per capita ($) 1984

110 130 140 140 160 160 180 180 190 210 220 230 250 260 260 260 260 270 280 310 310 310 320 330 350 360 360 380

350 World Bank Classification of Countries

Population (millions) GNP per capita ($) mid-1984 1984

Senegal 6.4 380 Afghanistan n.a. n.a. Bhutan 1.2 n.a. Kampuchea n.a. n.a. Lao PDR 3.5 n.a. Mozambique 13.4 n.a. Vietnam 60.1 n.a.

Middle-income economies (Oil Exporters and Oil Importers)

(a) Lower middle income Mauritania 1.7 450 Liberia 2.1 470 Zambia 6.4 470 Lesotho 1.5 530 Bolivia 6.2 540 Indonesia 158.9 540 Yemen Arab Republic 7.8 550 Yemen PRO 2.0 550 Cote d'Ivoire 9.9 610 Philippines 53.4 660 Morocco 21.4 670 Honduras 4.2 700 El Salvador 5.4 710 Papua New Guinea 3.4 710 Egypt 45.9 720 Nigeria 96.5 730 Zimbabwe 8.1 760 Cameroon 9.9 800 Nicaragua 3.2 860 Thailand 50.0 860 Botswana 1.0 960 Dominican Republic 6.1 970 Peru 18.2 1000 Mauritius 1.0 1090 Congo People's Republic 1.8 1140 Ecuador 9.1 1150 Jamaica 2.2 1150 Guatemala 7.7 1160 Turkey 48.4 1160 Costa Rica 2.5 1190 Paraguay 3.3 1240 Tunisia 7.0 1270 Columbia 28.4 1390 Jordan 3.4 1570 Syrian Arab Republic 10.1 1620 Angola 9.9 n.a.

World Bank Classification of Countries 351

Population (millions) GNP per capita ($) mid-1984 1984

Cuba 9.9 n.a. Korea, Democratic Republic 19.9 n.a. Lebanon n.a. n.a. Mongolia 1.9 n.a.

(b) Upper middle income Chile 11.8 1700 Brazil 132.6 1720 Portugal 10.2 1970 Malaysia 15.3 1980 Panama 2.1 1980 Uruguay 3.0 1980 Mexico 76.8 2040 Korea, Republic of 40.1 2110 Yugoslavia 23.0 2120 Argentina 30.1 2230 South Africa 31.6 2340 Algeria 21.2 2410 Venezuela 16.8 3410 Greece 9.9 3770 Israel 4.2 5060 Hong Kong 5.4 6330 Trinidad and Tobago 1.2 7150 Singapore 2.5 7260 Iran Islamic Republic 43.8 n.a. Iraq 15.1 n.a.

High-income economies (Oil exporters)

Oman 1.1 6490 Libya 3.5 8520 Saudi Arabia 11.1 10530 Kuwait 1.7 16720 United Arab Emirates 1.3 21920

INDUSTRIAL MARKET ECONOMIES

Spain 38.7 4440 Ireland 3.5 4970 Italy 57.0 6420 New Zealand 3.2 7730 UK 56.4 8570 Belgium 9.9 8610 Austria 7.6 9140 Netherlands 14.4 9520 France 54.9 9760 Japan 120.0 10630

352 World Bank Classification of Countries

Finland German Federal Republic Denmark Austria Sweden Canada Norway United States Switzerland

EASTERN EUROPE NON-MARKET ECONOMIES

Hungary Poland Albania Bulgaria Czechoslovakia German Democratic Republic Romania USSR

Population (millions) mid-1984

4.9 61.2 5.1

15.5 8.3

25.1 4.1

237.0 6.4

10.7 36.9 2.9 9.0

15.5 16.7 22.7

275.0

GNP per capita ($) 1984

10770 11130 11170 11740 11860 13280 13940 15390 16330

2100 2100 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Appendix II: Livingstone's classification of developing and other countries

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

These may be subdivided according to: Size: A country may be considered to be large if its population is 30m or over.

This is simply an empirical cut-off point, blurred in the Third World by a rapidly rising population. But given a domestic population of 30m and with adequate and equitable per capita income, a country could sustain modem industry for its domestic market alone.

A country is considered to be small if it population is under 30m.

Wealth: A country is considered to be rich (or potentiall rich) if its earnings from the production and sale of raw materials are comparable (or, in prospect, comparable) with the income per head of an industrially developed country. It is often the internal political and cultural situation rather than the lack of exploitable resources which has thus far prevented many countries from achieving a standard of living comparable with industrial nations.

A country is considered to be poor if its earnings from the production and sale of proved raw material are well below, and not likely to achieve, the per capita income of an advance country.

This gives a classification as follows:

Large (potentially) rich countries, e.g. Nigeria. Large poor countries, e.g. Bangladesh. Small rich countries, e.g. Saudi Arabia. Small poor countries, e.g. Malawi.

353

354 Livingstone's Classification of Countries

A subset drawn from large (potentially) rich, large poor and small poor countries constitutes the newly industrialised category. These countries are said to have broken out of the trap of underdevelopment and have achieved technological bases which enable them to produce a wide range of products. However some are very much more successful than others. Indeed some, such as Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan have moved into a situation broadly comparable with industrialised countries, which they are rapidly joining. Others are much further behind in their development.

II WESTERN DEVELOPED NATIONS

North America, United Kingdom and the rest of Western Europe, Aus­tralia, New Zealand and South Africa (at least in respect of the dominant racial group).

III JAPAN

(which although western developed is culturally distinct).

IV MARXIST COUNTRIES

(Spanning the range from industrialised through industrialising to poor and backward).

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and Iran' (R. Mathews), p. 22; 5 Jan. 1987 'China's student revolt', p.12; 10 Jan. 1987 'Arabia keeps the Faith', Weekend Financial Times (M. Field), p. 2; 23 Jan. 1987 'Chinese academics and propaganda chief purged' (R. Thompson), p. 5; 29 Jan. 1987 'Brunei turns a leisurely eye to the future', p. 3; 3 Feb. 1987 'Singapore tunes in to the electronics boom' (S. Butler), p. 4.

Harrison, P. (1980) The Third World Tomorrow (Harmondsworth: Penguin). Hoffman, P. G. (1972) Time, January 17. Hofheinz, R. and Calder, K. E. (1982) The £astasia Edge (New York: Basic Books). Knapman, R. and Walter, M.A. H. B. (1980) The Way of the Land and the Path of

Mondy: The Generation of Economic Inequality' in E. Fiji, Journal of Developing Areas, vo1.14, pp. 201-22.

Landes, D. S. (1969) The Unbound Prometheus (Cambridge University Press). Levitt, T. (1983) 'The Globalisation of markets', Harvard Business Review, May­

June, pp. 92-102. Livingstone, J. M. (1975) The International Enterprise (London: Associated Business

Programmes). Terpstra, V. (1978) The Cultural Environment of International Business (Cincinnati:

South West Publishing Co.). Thorelli, H. B. (1981) 'Consumer Policy for the Third World', Journal of Consumer

Policy, vol. 3, pp.197-211.

Author index

Adams, K. A. 269 Alderson, W. 18, 290 Alexander, T. G. 261 Allen, L. L. 260, 262, 263

Baker, M. J. 17, 18, 35, 36, 40, 58, 61, 68, 83, 86, 87, 88, 90, 98, 99, 112, 113, 118, 123, 124, 126, 134

Baker, R. W. 22, 66 Bates, J. A. 75 Baxter, N. 14 Beals, A. R. 50 Becker, H. 18 Bolton, J. E. 259 Boswell, J. 259, 261 Bramley, G. 259 Brandt, W. 290, 296, 301, 315, 318 Brannen, W. 260

Calder, K. E. 39, 49, 277, 317, 345 Cateora, P. R. 83, 240 Cleland, S. 261 Craig, C. S. 95 Cundiff, E. W. 292

Davies, J. R. 261 Davis, H. R. 102 Denney, R. 67 Dichter, E. 67 Douglas, S. P. 23, 95, 102, 104 Drucker, P. F. 238 Dunning, J. H. 212

Espy, J. L. 278

Farmer, R.N. 62 Food and Agricultural Organisation

260 Frank, I. 254 Financial Times 171

20 Jan. 1984 171 12 July 1984 139 19 Sept. 1984 74

5 Jan. 1985 334 12 Jan. 1985 70 13 Jan. 1985 277 22 Jan. 1985 135, 276 3 June 1985 135, 150, 273, 331 19 Sept. 1985 333 27 Sept. 1985 311 31 Oct. 1985 248 13 Nov. 1985 207 30 Nov. 1985 134 21 Jan. 1986 339 24 Feb. 1986 263 3 March 1986 152, 169, 339 10 March 1986 149, 150, 314 9 April 1986 327, 343 23 April 1986 203 25 April1986 342 12 May 1986 155, 174 13 Aug. 1986 206 23 Aug. 1986 204 29 Aug. 1986 298, 314, 340 1 Sept. 1986 187, 253, 254 4 Sept. 1986 171 6 Sept. 1986 151 8 Sept. 1986 254 21 Sept. 1986 311 22 Sept. 1986 301 9 Oct. 1986 325 20 Oct. 1986 317 31 Oct. 1986 250 3 Nov. 1986 345 14 Nov. 1986 326 10 Jan. 1987 326 21 Jan. 1987 339 23 Jan. 1987 334 3 Feb. 1987 345 11 Feb. 1987 215, 256 14 Feb. 1987 64, 80 24 Feb. 1987 335 25 Feb. 1987 313

Fisk, G. 24 Ford, D. 260, 261

364

Frazier, G. L. 260

Germidis, D. 229 Girling, R. 70, 233 Glazer, N. 67 Golby, C. W. 260, 263 Goldman, A. 129, 158, 269

Hall, E. T. 53, 245 Hansen, R. D. 290 Harper, M. 43, 60, 74, 75, 122, 181,

195 Harrison, P. 71, 166, 321, 323 Hawes, D. K. 260 Hertel, F. M. 260 Hess, J. M. 83, 240 Hilger, M. T. 78, 160, 292 Hill, R. 211, 238 Hodder, B. W. 66 Hoffman, P. G. 265, 336 Hofheinz, J. R. 39, 49, 277, 317, 345 House, R. 279 Howell, D. 260 Hurtado, M.E. 301

Jackson, H. H. 260 Jacoby, N. H. 251 Jain, S. G. 237 Jefkins, F. 64 Johns, G. 260, 261, 263 Johnston, P. 259-60

Kacker, M. P. 131, 132, 157 Kaikati, J. G. 127 Kaplan, A. D. H. 261 Kaynak, E. 272 Kelly, M. 261 Kernan, J. B. 67 Kim, S. H. 235 Kinsey, J. 14 Knapman, R. 324 Kotler, P. 16, 17; 19, 24, 59, 155 Kracmar, J. Z. 93, 99 Kumar, K. 66

Lamont, L. M. 260 Landes, D. S. 323 Lauter, G. P. 85 Ledogar, R. J. 233 Levitt, T. 324, 329 Lewis, W. A. 146 Livingstone, J. M. 90, 212, 330 Loudon, D. L. 85

Author Index 365

Manley, M. 290, 296, 301, 315 Marcus, B. 24 Maslow, A. H. 40, 59, 61 Medewar, C. 227 Miller, S. W. 235 Moreau, J. F. 261, 262 Myrdal, G. 20, 194, 232

Noonan, A. C. 261 Nurske, R. 21, 146 Perlmutter, H. V. 212 Peterson, R. 24 Prebisch, R. 294-6 Purl, Y. 237

Reisman, D. 67 Richman, B. M. 239 Rogers, E. M. 73 Rostow, W. W. 21 Rowley, T. P. 260, 261 Ryan, G. A. 261

Sarkar, N. F. 205 Sentell, G. D. 77 Shoemaker, R. 104 Silk, A. J. 102 Smedley, S. R. 245 Sommers, S. 67 Soon, T. T. 181, 195 Stancil, J. M. 261 Stephenson, P.R. 260

Terpstra, V. 50, 53, 323 Thorelli, H. B. 18, 77, 264, 336, 347 Times, The, 27 May 1986 168 Ting, W. 247 Trilateral Commission 304, 305 Tussie, D. 300, 307, 308 Tylor, E. B. 49

Vernon, R. 212, 230, 234, 293

Walter, H. G. 60 Walter, M. A. H. B. 324 Weinshall, T. D. 241 Wells, L. T. 237 Westlake, M. 300, 307 Woodruff, A. M. 261 World Bank 302 Wright, P. 246

Zaltman, G. 19, 155 Zimmerer, T. W. 245

Subject index

achievement 52, 54, 55, 62, 241, 242-3

achievement motivation 40 (see also motivation)

administrative inefficiency 39, 200, 331 (see also bureaucracy)

advertising 21, 23, 30, 36, 44, 50, 51, 59, 74, 79, 80, 85, 112, 115, 118, 119-22, 134, 138, 155, 332-3

advertising agency 37, 45, 92, 118, 121-2

advertising expenditure 119-20, 122

advertising media 43, 45, 74, 118, 120-1, 123

impact of advertising on consumer behaviour 74-6

word-of-mouth advertising 44, 120, 155

Africa 5, 11, 39, 47, 66, 72, 91, 110, 129, 147, 167, 170, 171, 226, 234, 245, 317

agriculture 27, 31, 36, 40, 56, 117, 144, 145, 146, 149, 153, 156, 161-74, 176

agriculture and the role of marketing 161-74

agricultural co-operatives 129-30 agricultural planning 144, 145, 161-

74, 176, 265 aid to developing countries 18, 37,

209, 313, 318 Algeria 7, 297 Andean Pact 185, 191-2, 220 Angola 39, 168 anti-colonialism 313 anti-dumping measures 300, 319 Arab executive 273-7 Argentina 7, 11, 12, 63, 75, 301,

303-4 Asia 31, 62, 92, 129, 161, 178, 182,

206, 226, 234, 247, 303

Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) 185

attitude scales 98 Australia 47

Bahrain 27, 75, 326 balance of payments 37, 229, 315 Bangladesh 75, 298, 299 bargaining 44, 51, 59, 76-9, 81, 124,

128 (see also haggling) barter 17, 22, 25, 41, 127, 133, 311,

339 bazaars 42, 131 beggar-thy-neighbour protectionist

policies 287, 290, 315, 319 Bermuda 75 bilateral agreements 298, 299 birth control 27, 30, 72, 154-6 Bolivia 265 brands 64, 75, 76, 78, 132 brand names 43, 70, 116, 138, 185,

214, 218, 223, 231, 281, 310, 325 brand image 134 brand loyalty 43, 187, 325 branding 24, 113, 118, 125, 159, 282 Brandt Report 318 Brazil 7, 9, 12, 21, 38, 44, 63, 75,

115, 120, 129, 151, 184, 224, 226, 233, 244, 279-80, 297, 301, 302, 303-4, 311

bribery 52, 54, 162, 165, 178, 191, 192, 193, 241, 250, 252

bribery and corruption 26, 135-6, 139, 169, 211, 250-2, 257, 273 (see also corruption)

Britain 47 Brunei 339 bureaucracy 31, 37, 39, 55, 135, 150,

168, 174, 206, 268, 285, 322, 331, 335, 340, 346

Burma 178

366

capital 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 33, 39, 44, 46, 55, 186, 192, 300

capitalism 41, 73, 322, 323, 326, 329-37, 338, 346

captive producers 214, 238, 278 caste system 64, 144 Central Africa 270 Central America 53, 129, 264 Central Provident Fund (CPF) 46,

344 centre-periphery model 294-6, 313,

319 Chad 4 China 47, 49, 206, 299, 309, 311-12,

316, 317, 322, 330, 331-5 China's open-door policy 335 Chile 120, 192, 271, 301, 303-4 Civil Service 51, 54, 149, 169, 250,

337 Coca-Cola 214, 224, 324, 327 cocoa 36, 156, 166, 169-70, 339 codes of conduct 192-3 colonialism 41, 47, 48, 73, 330 collective markets 22, 119 Colombia 38, 44, 129, 163, 192, 235,

265, 303-4 commodities 292 commodity prices 297-301, 311,

314, 319 communications 40, 43, 44, 45, 47,

70, 84, 99, 118, 119, 124, 125, 126, 136, 147, 215 (see also transport and communications)

communications infrastructure 99 communism 73, 326 Compania Nacional de Subsistencias

Populares (CONASUPO) 78, 148, 157-61

comparative advantage 183, 291-2, 297, 298, 300, 304, 315

competition 17, 18, 23, 24, 26, 28, 41, 49, 60, 76, 77, 80, 83, 84, 87, 110, 119, 126, 133, 137, 164, 230, 262

competitive forces 38 competitive pressures 22

consumer behaviour 1, 57, 58-81, 86

consumer buying process 59, 76-9

consumer decision-making 68-9 influence of culture on consumer

behaviour 61-6

Subject Index 367

impact of advertising on consumer behaviour 74-6

consumer durables 30, 65, 74, 85, 114, 120, 124, 215

consumer emancipation 80, 336, 347 consumer goods 42-3, 56, 115, 131,

156, 157, 182, 204, 230, 271, 322 consumer pressure groups 37 convergence of consumer tastes 59,

65, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 81, 114, 211, 212, 215, 224, 256, 322, 323, 324, 325, 327-9, 334, 341, 342, 346, 347

convergence or divergence of culture 322, 323-9

co-operatives 166, 174, 266, 337 countertrade 135, 310-12, 320 copyright 316 corruption 15, 128, 148, 149-53,

161, 162, 173, 178, 202, 207, 273, 285, 333, 335, 336, 337, 340 (see also bribery and corruption)

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) 95

counterfeiting 187, 253-4, 257, 316 counterpurchase 311 creditworthiness 52 Cuba 44, 129, 280 culture 15, 18, 19, 27, 28, 34, 37, 39,

40, 45, 49-57, 60, 61-6, 67, 68, 72, 73, 76, 80, 97, 103, 105, 113-15, 118, 119, 138, 139, 144, 147,148, 151, 153, 166, 175, 181, 193, 211, 239-53, 321, 327, 330

cultural attitudes to change 184, 186-7

cultural barriers to economic development 20

cultural conditions 20, 76, 249, 261

cultural constraints 70, 99, 178 cultural factors 35, 37, 49-56, 59,

78, 102, 173, 207 cultural values 43, 113, 231 influence of culture on the

indigenous marketer 273-80 influence of culture on the

multinational marketer 249-53

Daewoo 211, 248, 302 debt 11, 301-2, 311, 314, 319 decision-making 53, 59, 81, 244,

264, 277

368 Subject Index

demand 21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 33, 36, 38, 40, 41, 43, 47, 48, 49, 50, 55, 56, 59, 71, 85, 94, 115, 117, 126, 128, 133, 136, 147, 162, 180, 182, 232-3

demand structure 41 demand and supply 21, 23, 33,

40, 56, 132, 261 effective demand 21, 36, 40, 83,

146 latent demand 21, 36, 40, 83

department stores 71, 127, 131, 269 desk research 89-98, 108 (see also

marketing research - secondary data)

developing countries and economic development 4 characteristics of developing

countries 5-7, 35-40 classification of developing

countries 7-13 definition of developing countries

4-7 see also large rich, large poor, small

rich, small poor developing countries

development 13, 16, 19, 44, 46 development planning 19, 27 development plans 21 disposable income 9, 21, 22, 34, 36,

40, 55, 60, 65, 68, 72, 110, 113, 115, 118, 121, 184, 203

distribution 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 37, 40, 43, 44, 45, 48, 51, 73, 78, 110, 112, 126-32, 139, 144, 146, 148, 156-61, 225, 256, 261, 282

distribution channel(s) 22, 23, 41, 49, 69, 78, 83, 112, 121, 129, 131, 132, 133, 139, 148, 165, 176, 214, 221, 265, 329

distribution systems 21, 25, 27, 44, 56, 60, 77, 78, 80, 81, 85, 110, 124, 126-8, 133, 147

state involvement in distribution 156-61

distributors 128, 262, 266-7, 284 dualism 41-2, 44, 47, 48, 110, 128

East Africa 269 East Asia 13, 49, 248, 346 Eastern Europe 92, 253 economic development 1, 3, 4, 9,

13-7, 29-32, 37, 47, 57, 60, 65, 67, 71, 75, 78, 79, 83, 96, 101, 115, 118, 119, 122, 126, 127, 129, 143, 144, 145, 156, 160, 177, 178, 206, 239, 259, 262, 326, 331, 337, 348

economic development and marketing 16-27

economic development defined 13-14

desire for economic development 14

economic growth 13, 14, 17, 180 economic recession 14, 16, 320, 331 economic structure 14 Economic Community of West

African States (ECOWAS) 185, 192

Ecuador 38, 162, 265, 301 Egypt 7, 11, 75, 251, 254, 326, 338 electronics 39, 136-7, 341, 344 entrepreneur 21, 29, 40, 43, 117,

136, 140, 148, 157, 178, 204, 230, 234-5, 259, 264, 279-80

government as entrepreneur 80, 160

entrepreneurial development 48, 231, 234

entrepreneurship 22, 226, 257, 266, 337, 347

Ethiopia 53, 62, 175, 244 Europe 66, 92, 324, 333 European Economic Community

(EEC) 215, 295, 299, 316, 317 export incentives 9, 340

export promotion programmes 147

exporting 187, 282, 308-10 exports 5, 12, 36, 39, 84, 213, 260,

278, 293-4, 296-7, 301, 332 exports of manufactured goods

from developing countries 304

Far East 11, 53, 66, 187, 217, 218, 244, 253, 254, 277, 319, 322, 323

field research 98-108 (see also marketing research)

foreign exchange 83, 116, 151, 161, 180, 182, 185, 187, 191, 205, 211, 213, 217, 220, 226, 231-2, 235, 256, 311

foreign exchange earnings 190, 267

foreign exchange restrictions 133 foreign investment 9, 42, 48, 149,

173, 174, 178, 183, 189, 204, 208, 219, 255, 335, 338, 340

foreign investment strategies 9 foreign ownership 42, 174 foreign trade 16 Fulani 153

Gambia 36 Gang of Four 303, 305, 309, 310,

319, 320, 341, 348 General Agreement on Tariffs and

Trade (GATT) 95, 253, 295, 298, 299, 300, 302, 303, 316, 317, 318, 319

Ghana 36, 86, 156, 168 global market strategy 216-7, 218,

219-22, 223, 224, 233, 256 global marketing 149 global lifestyle 324, 327, 329, 346 global policy 65, 81, 116 global strategy 30 government control(s) 34, 39, 71 government officials 31, 41, 107, 148

(see also governmental marketer) governmental marketer 28, 30-1,

32, 40, 53, 58, 59, 74, 75, 79, 80, 81, 85, 110, 112, 113, 117, 118, 119, 122, 132, 134, 139, 141, 143-209, 290, 291, 307, 311, 312, 323, 329, 335, 336-7, 338, 341, 346, 347 (see also state marketer)

Greece 120 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 11,

12 Gross National Product (GNP) 7, 9,

12-4, 37, 84, 119, 254 Guinea Coast 72 Guinness 74

haggling 44, 76, 77, 80, 124, 272 (see also bargaining)

Hausa 66, 72, 153 hawkers 266, 284 historical factors 47-49 Hong Kong 7, 11, 13, 38, 47, 75,

120, 123, 124, 133, 206, 214, 230, 240, 251, 253, 259, 278, 285, 297, 303-4, 309, 310, 317, 332, 341

Hyundai 39, 211, 302, 342 (see also Pony cars)

Subject Index 369

ideology 330, 333-5 import controls 262 import restrictions 37, 39, 42, 84 India 31, 47, 62, 64, 66, 69, 70, 75,

80, 97, 102, 103, 104, 120, 131, 135, 137-8, 144, 150, 152, 153, 154-5, 157, 172, 174, 178, 182, 190, 195, 204-6, 250-1, 271, 285, 303-4, 324, 331, 333, 335

indigenisation 38, 48, 190, 191, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 239, 256

indigenisation policy 116 indigenous marketer 28-9, 31, 32,

40, 48, 51, 53, 58, 59, 74, 79, 81, 84, 86, 107, 110, 112, 113, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 130, 132, 133, 134, 136, 139, 141, 258-85, 290, 291, 328, 329, 335, 338, 341, 346

individual market strategy 216-17, 219-22, 223, 224, 256

Indonesia 7, 41, 75, 106, 149-50, 173, 178, 184, 206, 207, 217, 254, 255, 279, 297, 311, 314, 317, 340, 344

industrial development 22, 38, 178 industrial goods 42-3, 56, 115, 124,

131, 156, 157 industrial planning 145, 177-208 industrialisation 9, 12, 15, 24, 93,

168 industrialisation policies/strategies

12, 42, 43, 56, 84, 116, 132, 143, 144, 182-3 187, 260

inward-looking import substitution industrialisation policies 9, 19, 134, 179, 182, 204-6, 217, 225, 254, 307, 338, 339

outward-looking, export-orientated industrialisation policies 19, 42, 117, 124, 140, 179, 183, 202-4, 254, 279, 307, 317, 341

inflation 18, 39, 84, 85, 133,186, 252, 262, 303, 331, 332

infrastructure 9, 23, 30, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43-7, 60, 73, 81, 113, 114, 115, 118, 122, 127, 130, 132, 139, 147, 153, 158, 161, 165, 174, 181, 196, 252, 262, 270, 332, 337, 347

intellectual property 187, 264 intellectual property rights 187, 254,

313, 316, 325 (see also patents, trade marks)

370 Subject Index

interdependent world economy 3, 19, 290, 314-18

international agreements 189, 192-3 International Monetary Fund (IMF)

11, 95, 171, 301, 311, 315, 318 international product life cycle

{IPLC) 214, 290, 292-4, 319, 342 international product life cycle and

reality 302-6 international trade 47 International Trade Centre (lTC) 95 international trading system 312-

15, 314-18 International Trade Theory (ITT)

290, 291-2, 319 international trade theory and

reality 294-301 investment 22, 26, 31, 45, 46, 47

inward investment policies 39 Iran 7, 126, 131, 311, 326 Iraq 311 Islamic fundamentalism 322, 325-7,

346 Ivory Coast 166, 303-4

Jamaica 70 Japan 11, 12, 14, 215, 236, 238, 240,

298, 299, 300, 303, 317, 323 joint ventures 149, 190, 208, 217,

219, 221, 222, 223, 238, 256, 311 J. Walter Thompson 86

Kenya 75, 97, 149, 166, 171-2 Kenya Tea Development Authority

(KTDA) 31, 166, 167, 171-2, 176

Kuwait 26, 43, 116, 138

large poor developing countries 9, 11, 16, 38, 59, 60, 62, 68, 79, 217-18, 222, 256

large (potentially) rich developing countries 9, 11, 38, 42, 59, 60, 63, 68, 79, 116, 133, 182, 184, 187, 217-8, 222, 225, 252, 255, 256, 325, 340

Latin America 5, 11, 39, 44, 51, 53, 92, 106, 123, 188, 191, 226, 234, 240, 243, 245, 246, 253, 300, 301, 317

Latin America Free Trade Area (LAFTA) 307

Lee Kuan Yew 204

Libya 73, 75 licensing 9, 216, 217, 229 luxury goods 37, 41, 46, 47, 144,

182, 200

Malawi 104, 170, 172 Malaysia 7, 11, 75, 103, 104, 120,

178, 206, 230, 235, 236, 248, 254, 297, 303-4, 340, 344

management 21, 26, 31, 40, 51, 52, 53, 141, 165, 166, 167, 171, 172, 178, 226, 231, 238-49, 257, 273, 331, 334, 337

impact of culture on management 239-49, 257

local management/personnel in multinational operations 189, 191

western management techniques 212, 235, 238-49, 257, 261

manager(s) 21, 30, 43, 85 owner-manager 261, 262 potential manager 40, 261, 262

managerial skills 15, 23, 31, 37, 354 markets

black markets 80, 133, 135, 225 buyers' market 38, 39 export market 42, 87, 90, 115,

116, 130, 147, 213, 267, 282-4 global market 25, 184, 212, 327 international/overseas market(s)

25, 28, 84, 90, 112, 132, 164, 178, 263

local market(s) 25, 28 national/domestic market(s) 21,

25, 28, 29, 38, 42, 48, 116, 117, 125, 132, 133, 135, 161, 178

rotating market(s) 44 rural market(s) 21, 41, 44, 132 sellers' market 27, 29, 44, 69, 77,

110, 118, 119, 124, 130, 225, 258, 261-2, 264, 335

urban market(s) 21, 37, 41, 132 market forces 31, 162, 205, 209, 331,

341 market niche 262, 263, 279, 280,

284, 310 market potential 22, 23, 38, 84 market research 30, 47, 144, 165,

224, 256, 261 market segment 30, 225 market segmentation 23, 25, 26, 261 market structure 19, 34, 35, 40-2

marketing - state of the art in developing countries 338-46, 347

marketing boards 129-30, 166-70, 265, 268

marketing channels 44 marketing environment 18, 33-57,

80, 109, 110 marketing mix 25, 28, 30, 51, 81,

109-40, 160, 223-5, 261 marketing research 1, 20, 82-108,

110, 181 marketing research agencies 86-

7, 91 marketing research data 88-108

Maslow's hierarchy 60, 61, 62, 64 Mauritius 75 Mexico 1, 7, 9, 11, 12, 44, 63, 75,

78, 85, 87, 92, 129, 159-61, 184, 186, 217, 233, 235, 297, 301, 303-4

Middle East 23, 29, 43, 53, 71, 91, 104, 121, 123, 137-9, 186, 218, 219, 277, 326, 338, 347

Middle Eastern states 5, 9 middlemen 22, 29, 44, 48, 78, 132,

265, 266, 285 monopoly 27, 37, 60, 77, 78, 110,

128, 133, 161, 165, 166, 167, 182 Morocco 303-4 motivation 49, 61, 68 (see also

achievement motivation) Mozambique 104 Multi-Fibre Agreement (MFA) 299 multinational companies 4, 9, 11,

13, 21, 22, 23, 30, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 54, 65, 70, 74, 84, 85, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 126, 133, 147, 149, 166, 178, 179, 183-93, 200, 208, 210-57, 262, 263, 297, 307, 315, 318, 320, 323

impact of the multinational on host countries 225-53

multinational company defined 212

multinational marketing strategies 215-25

role of the multinational in international trade theory 296-7

multinational marketer 28, 29-30, 32, 38, 39, 45, 48, 53, 54, 58, 59, 65, 79, 80, 81, 85, 86, 107, 112,

Subject Index 371

113, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 132, 133, 134, 135, 139, 140, 141, 210-57, 290, 306, 323, 328, 335, 346

multiplier effect 129, 211, 226-7, 230, 232, 257, 267, 271, 285

national income 5, 13, 14, 18, 41 national plan 26, 96, 162 national planning 30-1 nationalisation 39, 189 natural resources 9 12 19 28 34

36, 42, 56, 132, t45,' 153, ui9, ' 218, 291, 314

needs 22, 23, 24, 31, 40, 50, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 68, 79, 113, 115, 117 122 I

needs and wants 16, 17, 29, 33, 59-61, 64, 65, 66, 67, 76, 80-1, 85, (see also demand)

neo-colonialism 213 neo-colonialist 226, 227, 233, 256 neo-imperialism 73 neo-imperialist 236 Nepal 75 nepotism 15, 150, 243, 275 Nestle 75, 226-7 New Zealand 47 Nigeria 7, 9, 11, 30, 37, 42, 66, 75,

122, 134, 152, 153, 164, 165, 169-70, 184, 190, 191, 192, 217, 220, 251, 254, 255, 297, 301, 311, 339

non-aligned group of nations 192, 312-13

non-tariff barriers 298, 300, 303, 309 North America 47, 215, 298, 303,

323 North-South integrated marketing

290, 314-18

offset deals 311 oil 12, 13, 23, 36, 189, 252, 314 oil-exporting countries 7, 9, 311 oil prices 14, 314, 322, 339 oil-rich countries 16, 322, 328-40,

347 oil-rich states 73, 323 opinion leaders 61, 121, 125 Organisation for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD) 94, 192, 318

Oil Producing and Exporting Countries (OPEC) 295, 297

372 Subject Index

ownership of multinational operations 30, 189-91, 216, 219-25

local ownership 116, 191 no ownership 30, 223, 256 (see

also turnkey, capitive producers)

total ownership 30, 219, 223, 256 see also wholly-owned subsidiaries,

indigenisation, joint ventures

Pacific Rim 317 packaging 45, 51, 79, 112, 113, 117,

118, 125, 131, 162, 164, 224, 253 Pakistan 75, 178, 299, 303-4 Panama 279 Paraguay 150-1 parastatal 31, 38, 148, 166, 171-2,

190, 207, 220, 266, 267, 268, 285, 322, 337

patent(s) 29, 186, 187-8, 213, 253, 316 (see also trade marks, intellectual property rights)

patent protection 39 paternalism 244 Pepsi-Cola 324 per capita income 4, 5, 9, 13, 36, 40,

119, 218 personal selling 51, 110, 118, 123-4,

282 Peru 44, 75, 120, 129, 185, 231, 235 Philippines 7, 11, 12, 31, 73, 106,

120, 178, 188, 194, 235, 240, 248, 253, 254, 297, 301, 303-4, 317, 340

planned obsolescence 114 political connections 73, 243 political instability 9, 38 political interests 12 political payments 251 political regimes 329-37 political systems 322 politics 19, 34 Pony cars 13, 39, 302 population 4, 5, 9, 13, 22, 25, 36,

39, 45, 64, 132, 144, 154, 155, 156, 333

population control 154-6 population growth 5, 9, 15, 17,

48, 55, 56, 94, 143, 145, 147, 149, 154-6, 161, 162, 176, 186, 203, 338

poverty 4, 14, 36, 76, 287

prestige 43, 50, 61, 64, 66, 112, 115, 116, 117, 133, 165, 168, 180, 184, 186, 187, 188, 200, 223, 224, 256

price control 27, 169, 170 price elasticity 128 price speculation 162 pricing 29, 110, 112, 128, 132-6,

137, 139, 225, 256 underpricing 261, 262

private enterprise 27, 31, 165, 206, 268, 269-73, 322, 334

private sector 258-85, 331 privatisation 154, 206-8, 331, 337, 345 product 29, 110, 261

product differentiation 25, 27 product policy 29, 112, 113-17,

128, 136-7, 139, 223 product positioning 261 product standardisation 114, 115,

116, 216, 328 (see also standardised product)

product buyback 311 product life cycle 113, 117, 134 product orientation 25, 27, 30, 256 product-orientated 30, 85, 107, 113,

115, 257 production orientation 28, 73, 84,

121, 261 profit(s) 29, 39, 52, 71, 85, 103, 115,

128, 133, 165, 225, 237, 331 profit margin 26, 44 profit motive 48

promotion 29, 110, 112, 118-25, 128, 139, 181, 224, 256, 282

protectionism 132, 207, 208, 295, 297-301, 303, 309, 318, 319, 320

protectionist measures 16, 18, 46, 306, 307-8, 313, 316

Protestant ethic 52, 243, 244 public relations 118, 125 public sector 30, 31, 331 Puerto Rico 120, 128 purchasing power 21, 22, 23, 37

quality control 37, 77, 263 quantitative restrictions 299-300 questionnaires 106 quotas 207, 299-300, 308, 313, 317,

319

raw materials 5, 9, 13, 21, 33, 39, 47, 170, 180, 186, 213, 214, 226, 254, 312

recession 18, 255 reference groups 61, 64, 65, 67, 68,

69, 71 regional groupings 189, 191--.2, 307 religion 49, 50, 52, 61, 66, 67, 72,

118, 244, 251 Buddhism 244, 328 Catholicism 61, 244 Hindu 68, 70, 72, 151 Hinduism 52, 61, 244, 328 Islam 52, 61, 68, 246, 322, 326-7 Judaism 244 Moslem 68, 99, 245, 327 Protestantism 61

research and development 36, 114, 137, 229

retail outlets 23, 38, 44, 78, 80, 110, 129, 158

retail sector 269-73, 285 retailer 44, 45, 96, 123, 125, 128,

130, 132, 157, 158 retailing 21, 44, 38, 44, 126, 128,

129, 147, 269-73 rural sector 259, 284

indigenous marketing in the rural sector 265-9

Sahel 169 sales force 87, 124 sales promotion 21, 118, 123, 138 sample(s) 89, 99-101

convenience sample 96, 100-1 judgement sample 101 probability-based sample 100 quota sample 101 snowball sample 101

sampling and non-sampling errors 98, 100-6, 108

sampling frame 89, 96, 98, 101 Samsung 342 Saudi Arabia 7, 42, 75, 121, 127,

134, 139, 311, 342 Sears Roebuck 21, 44, 129, 270, 271 Senegal 169 Singapore 7, 11, 12, 39, 42, 46, 47,

65, 75, 78, 100, 120, 123, 154, 178, 186, 202-4, 206, 209, 218, 240, 253, 254, 297, 303-4, 316, 317, 335, 341, 343-6, 348

sm;oll business 48 small firms 179, 181, 193-7, 202,

208, 259, 263, 329 small poor developing countries 9,

Subject Index 373

11, 38, 39, 59, 64, 67, 79, 81, 117, 184-5, 187, 217-8, 222, 256,

small rich countries 9, 11, 42, 59, 68, 217-18, 222, 252, 256, 338-9

smuggling 134, 150, 152, 262-3, 335 social class 51, 62, 64, 68, 103, 104 social marketing 18, 19, 27, 145,

147, 154-6, 164, 165, 173, 176, 179, 181, 182, 312, 318, 329, 345

social injustice 16 social structures 48, 64, 181-2, 273-

4 social systems 16, 18, 19, 20, 27, 49,

51, 52, 144, 176, 181 socialism 322, 329-37, 338, 346 social marketing 17, 18

societal marketing concept 17, 250 Somalia 170 souk 23 South Africa 12 South America 53, 76, 129, 270 South East Asia 5, 39, 55, 56, 60,

79, 104, 300, 317, 341, 345 South East Asian nations/countries

1, 4, 12, 38, 39, 45, 46, 55, 153 South Korea 12, 13, 39, 71, 75, 173,

206, 211, 214, 230, 236, 246, 271, 297, 299, 302, 303-4, 309, 314, 316, 317, 335, 341, 342-3, 348

Spain 307 Sri Lanka 172 standard of living 11, 13, 18, 20, 38,

43, 65, 79, 145, 225, 315, 324 standardised product 74, 79, 184,

325, 327 (see also product standardisation)

state marketer 58, 143-209, 226, 308, 329 (see also governmental marketer)

state planning 18, 31, 143-209, 322, 347

Suharto 149, 150 supply 28, 34, 59, 79, 180

supply and demand 17, 27, 42, 60, 80, 133, 134, 137, 164, 332

supermarkets 23, 44, 71, 110, 129, 131, 157, 158-9, 176, 270, 271, 272, 285

Syria 326

Taiwan 11, 12, 38, 39, 55, 75, 206, 214, 230, 235, 247, 253, 254, 297, 299, 303-4, 317, 341

374 Subject Index

Tanzania 31, 38, 168 tariff protection 182, 218, 342 tariffs/tariff barriers 38, 133, 135,

183, 205, 207, 213, 217, 292, 298, 342

tax evasion 97 tax incentives 46, 201, 238 technology 11, 14, 15, 23, 24, 29, 34,

38, 39, 40, 43, 48, 55, 60, 70, 80, 116, 133, 136, 145, 161, 178, 179, 180, 184, 185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, 195, 196, 213, 218, 220, 223, 226, 229, 292-4, 305-6

capital-intensive technology 180, 200

inappropriate technology 211, 229, 234, 256

intermediate technology 180-1, 186, 195, 201, 203, 229, 255, 261, 323

western technology 55, 115, 138 technology transfer 21, 179, 183,

186, 187, 201, 234, 311 Thailand 7, 11, 12, 51, 72, 78, 120,

194, 254, 303-4, 309 trade 24, 47, 78, 287, 291-320 trade barriers 279, 308-9, 317, 319,

324 trade marks 29, 39, 70, 185, 187-8,

213, 218, 221, 223, 231, 282, 316, 325 (see also patents, intellectual property rights)

traders 267, 268, 284 transfer pricing 188, 193, 225, 232,

235 transnationalcorporation 212 transideological enterprise 322, 323,

330, 335, 346-7 transport and communications 22,

24, 26, 126 (see also communications)

Tunisia 303-4 Turkey 297 turnkey 216, 219

underemployment 11, 15 unemployment 5, 9, 14, 39, 144,

194, 205, 287

United Africa Company (UAC) 30, 44

United Arab Emirates 7, 27, 338 United Biscuits 70, 324 United Kingdom (UK) 18, 26, 36,

41, 62, 74, 95, 120, 121, 259, 260, 278, 295, 298, 336, 348

United Nations (UN) 92, 94, 189, 212

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) 5, 94, 300, 313, 318

United States of America (USA) 5, 18, 26, 41, 62, 74, 120, 121, 151, 189, 211, 239, 245, 253, 259, 260, 271, 293, 299, 300, 309, 310, 311, 319, 324, 336, 342, 343, 344

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) 316

Uruguay 316

Venezuela 7, 44, 75 Voice of the South 312-13 Volkswagen car/VW Beetle 115, 184,

224, 327

West, The 15, 17, 23, 26, 66, 74 West Africa 44 Western lbo 67, 72, 153 wheel of retailing 271-2, 285 wholesalers 29, 44, 96, 125, 128,

129, 130, 132, 133, 157, 158, 258, 262

wholesaling 24, 126, 128, 147 wholly-owned subsidiaries 190, 219,

221 World Bank 7, 13, 46, 94, 170 world economy 287 World Intellectual Property

Organisation (WIPO) 316

Yoruba 66, 153 Yugoslavia 301

Zaire 168 Zambia 31, 48, 168, 170 Zimbabwe 75, 172, 311