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Apocalyptic Now: Apocalyptic Miracles

and Discipleship in Acts

Brandon Walker

St. John’s College

Nottingham

Introduction

It has been a longstanding observation that Luke altered both Matthew and Mark in an effort to

make future concerns present for his audience. The alteration of the Mark 9:1 by Luke to read,

‘Truly I tell you, there are some who are standing here who will not taste death until they see the

Kingdom of God’ (Luke 9.27) is an example where an apocalyptic statement of Jesus is changed or

‘toned down’ by the author. Another example is the changing of the Beatitudes in Matthew 5.3-11 to

an abbreviated set of macarisms concerning the poor, hungry and needy being blessed here and now

(Luke 6.20-22). From these examples, it is clear that Luke’s interest in the Kingdom of God and

eschatological interpretation is oriented towards the present audience and not entirely on the future.1

The two examples provide us a perspective on Luke’s eschatological and Kingdom

understanding in the gospel, which carries on in Acts. God’s kingdom and judgment may be

imminent, but if so, it is through the apostolic witnesses presented in Acts that both Israel and the

Gentiles would receive another chance to believe.2 This raises the question of the role of the

apocalyptic in Luke’s Acts. Luke creates a more realized eschatology and maintains a sense of the

apocalyptic thought in Acts.3

1 I would like to extend appreciation to Dr. Graham Twelftree for nominating me for this paper. I would also like to

thank Dr. Andy Angel for his feedback regarding theophany and apocalypse and Dr. Thomas O’Loughlin for

encouraging the pursuit of apocalyptic thought in Acts. A final thanks goes to my dad, Don Stone, who has graciously

edited my work for many years. Bart D. Ehrman, Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (Oxford University Press,

1999), 130–132. 2 Luke 17. 20-21. 3 I use the term ‘apocalyptic’ to refer to the characteristics displayed in apocalypses and apocalyptic movements. Though

apocalyptic thought is often connected with eschatology, Charlesworth notes, eschatology is not always connected with

apocalyptic. For the purposes of this paper the apocalyptic tendencies relate with the judgment, dualistic worldview of

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This paper argues that there is an apocalyptic stream of tradition in the judgment miracles of

Annanias and Sapphira (Acts 5.1-10), Simon Bar Jesus (Acts 13.6-12) as well as the rescue miracles

of Peter (Acts 12.1- 12) and Paul (Acts 16.16-29). In each of these miracle accounts the revelation of

God’s presence is expressed in apocalyptic terms. This is significant for three reasons: First, while

much of the conversation concerning the genre of apocalyptic centres on divine revelation, visions

and future judgment,4 Luke depicts these miracles in apocalyptic fashion for the ‘here and now’

explicitly for discipleship purposes. Second, based on his redaction of Mark 13:1-12, Luke knows of

the judgment of Jerusalem and the Jews, which is a common Jewish apocalyptic motif.5 Given his

knowledge of this judgement, Luke extends the apocalyptic judgment throughout Acts by presenting

Peter and Paul as apocalyptic prophets carrying out the mission of Jesus through travelling,

preaching and warning both Jews and Gentiles about the coming judgement (Acts 24:25). One of

the means of demonstrating this judgment is often through judgment miracles and miracles of

rescue. In this respect, miracle stories of this kind served as a form of social control for early

Christian communities. Finally, these apocalyptic miracles demonstrate the on-going sovereignty of

God and understanding of the divinely ordained mission of the apostles.

To establish Luke’s apocalyptic presentation of these miracles we will first examine one of

Jesus’ miracles, the Beelzebul controversy (Q 11.14–23; Matt 12.22–38; Mark 3.22; Luke 11.15–19),

which is seen as apocalyptic.6 In his expectation for the ministry of Jesus to carry on, Luke creates a

chain of tradition with the hopes that along with Jesus’ teaching, his healing ministry would continue

in the life of the Twelve and other followers. This connects the miracles related with apocalyptic

interpretation of Jesus with his later followers, especially Peter and Paul.

God vs. Satan, an unveiling or theophany and possible moral teaching. James H. Charlesworth, Jesus within Judaism: New

Light from Exciting Archaeological Discoveries, 1st ed., Anchor Bible reference library (New York: Doubleday, 1988), 43. 4 It is generally accepted that Luke is writing a history of the early Church with pastoral and apologetic purposes in mind.

While not entirely uniform across literature dubbed ‘apocalyptic’, the characteristics of apocalyptic have been noted by

Klaus Koch. John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature (Grand Rapids,

Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1998), 1–32; Klaus Koch, “What Is Apocalyptic? An Attempt at a Preliminary Definition,”

in Visionaries and Their Apocalypses, ed. Paul D. Hanson, Issues in Religion and Theology 2 (Philadelphia  : London:

Fortress Press  ; SPCK, 1983), 16–36. 5 Floyd V. Filson, “The Journey Motif in Luke-Acts,” in Apostolic History and the Gospel (Exeter: The Paternoster Press,

1970), 68–77; Hans Conzelmann, Acts of the Apostles: A Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles, ed. Eldon Jay Epp and

Christopher R Matthews, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987). 6 Seán Freyne, Jesus, a Jewish Galilean: A New Reading of the Jesus Story (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 2004), 147.

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Second, in order to discern this apocalyptic strain in Acts we must understand in what ways

Luke altered these stories. We can discern this by using a form critical approach to compare what

ways Luke altered Mark. Though there is no specific form of judgment miracle, we can use form

criticism to help us locate the stream of apocalyptic tradition within these miracle stories. We will

also analyse the relationship between the apocalyptic and the theophanic elements to guide our

search for the apocalyptic strain in these narratives. These elements are often derived from the

‘biblicisms’ or intertextual references from the Old Testament. Finally, we will analyse two judgment

and two rescue miracle stories based upon the previously established criteria noting the apocalyptic

and theophanic elements. Ultimately, we understand the discipleship lessons Luke wanted his

audience to understand as they relate to the miracles and their apocalyptic representation.

Apocalyptic Miracles of Jesus

Perceptions about Jesus’ works of power play a part in understanding his identity and interpretations

of his mission from both his friends and his enemies. Jesus’ miracles in part played an important role

of the early Christian identity and carried over to his disciples. As the various ‘Quests’ for the

historical Jesus have taught us, one’s own perception of Jesus will impact his/her interpretation of

his message and deeds.7 It is also contingent on one’s culture, history and interpretive paradigm. In

examining how Jesus saw his own miracles and the context in which they were performed we may

glean an understanding of how the earliest disciples interpreted the miracles witnessed at their own

hands and their mission. In their close relationship to Jesus, it is likely that his own perception may

have rubbed off on his earliest disciples.

Jesus’ ministry in the Jewish apocalyptic atmosphere is widely accepted.8 His spiritual and

ideological environment influenced his ministry, travel, teaching and miracles.9 His primary message

about the Kingdom of God often entailed teaching about a future judgment, resurrection (Mark

12.18-27; Luke 14.12-14) and the defeat of Satan (Mark 3.20-27; Luke 10.18). Each of these activities

is generally accepted as apocalyptic aspects of his life and ministry.

7 Albert Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus, First complete ed. (London: SCM, 2000), 4. 8 Charlesworth, Jesus within Judaism, 42. 9 Ibid.; Brandon Walker, “The Forgotten Kingdom: Miracle, the Memory of Jesus and Counter-Ideology to the Roman

Empire,” in Reactions to Empire: Sacred Texts in Their Socio-Political Contexts, ed. Dan Botovici and John Dunn (Tübingen:

Mohr Siebeck, 2014), 129–46.

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Along with Jesus’ teaching about the Kingdom of God, there were also memories of visual

or tangible demonstrations about Jesus’ message. Jesus’ healings,10 exorcisms11 and resuscitations12

lent themselves to his great popularity. Indeed, Jesus’ miracles explain his popularity and why he was

able to draw crowds for his teaching. 13 Because teaching was not strictly enough and ancient

audiences ‘put more faith in their eyes than in their ears,’14 Jesus demonstrated the Kingdom of God

through miracles, specifically exorcisms and healings.

The Beelzebul incident provides a balance between the apocalyptic dualism, expectation of

salvation through defeat of Satan and the realization of salvation through the exorcism. While the

arrival of the Kingdom itself was not clearly linked with the coming of the Holy Spirit, Jesus’

correlation with the expulsion of demons through the presence of the Spirit (Matt 12.28) indicates

that the prophetic fulfilment of the expected Kingdom was present.15 As we shall see in Acts, Luke

tips the balance towards a realized eschatology that maintains an apocalyptic perspective through the

judgment and rescue miracles.

The novelty of Jesus’s combined preaching and healing within an environment holding

apocalyptic expectations would have certainly drawn attention to the movement. Jesus’ response in

the Beelzebul controversy (Matt 12.28; Luke 11.20) relates the presence of the Spirit of God as well as

the in-breaking presence of the Kingdom.16 The presence of the Spirit was an eschatological

10 Howard Clark Kee, Medicine, Miracle and Magic in New Testament Times, SNTSMS 55 (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1986); Eric Eve, The Healer from Nazareth: Jesus’ Miracles in Historical Context (London: SPCK Publishing, 2009). 11 Graham H. Twelftree, Jesus the Exorcist: A Contribution to the Study of the Historical Jesus (Tübingen: Mohr, 1993). 12 Craig S. Keener, Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts, 2 vols. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic,

2011). 13 Dale C. Allison, Jesus of Nazareth: A Millenarian Prophet (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991), 49; E. P Sanders, Jesus and

Judaism, 1st Fortress Press ed. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 164. 14 Seneca, Ep. 6.5 (Gummere, LCL). 15 The coming of the Spirit is generally associated with the arrival of a new age or the day of judgement (Isa 44.3; Joel

2.26–29). However, within the Second Temple period the development of the Messiah depicted one on whom the Spirit

dwelt (cf. 1 Enoch 49.3, 62.2; T. Levi 18.7; T. Jud. 24.2; Pss Sol 17.37; 18.7). Interestingly enough, there is relatively little

regarding miracles in the Second Temple period. Jubilees 23.26, 29 says that there will be healing “in those days“ and in

some of the Qumran texts there is healing and resurrection of the dead expected in the eschaton (cf. 4Q521 2.ii.8, 12).

Other instances of healing and exorcism at Qumran are 4Q504 1–2 II, 14 and 4Q560 1 I, 3; 4Q560 1 II, 5–6. 16 Schweizer, πνεῦµα, πνευµατικός, TDNT 6.398. Contra Schweitzer and Bultmann who believed that the kingdom of

God was merely near or dawning. The aorist use of ἔφθασεν indicates that the Kingdom was thought of as manifestly

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indicator of a new age that was expected by the prophets.17 Through Jesus’ response to the

Pharisees, Jesus “combines two conceptual worlds which had never been combined in this way

before...”18 In this conflict Jesus places the “apocalyptic expectation of universal salvation in the

future and the episodic realization of salvation in the present through miracles.”19

Luke’s Redaction of Mark

One method of attaining what is Lucan redaction and what has remained of the traditions he

received is through examining his redaction of the miracle stories of Mark.20 The redactional changes

that Luke makes to Mark’s gospel provide a means to detect Luke’s style and what is from his hand.

With this knowledge we can further discern what was part of the received tradition. Williams has

analysed the parallel miracle stories occurring in Mark and Luke and comes to the following

observations:21 (1) Luke tends to create an ordered sense of Mark’s stories through polishing the

style and developing motivational plot development; (2) in creating an ordered account (καθεξῆς) he

often uses δὲ as a copulative; (3) Luke utilizes certain phrases such as ‘a certain

man/woman/disciple named…’ and ‘and it happened’22 to introduce a character or story; (4) he

often separates the individual from their ailment or disease. Some examples are:

present or as having arrived. See Rudolf Karl Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament (2 vols.; New York: Scribner, 1965),

2:7; Albert Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus (London: SCM, 2000), 345. 17 Isa 25.8; 26.19; 34–35; 44.3–4 Jer 23.1–8; 29.10–14; Joel 2.23–30; E. P. Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus (London:

Penguin, 1995), 168. 18 Gerd Theissen, The Miracle Stories of the Early Christian Tradition, ed. John Kenneth Riches, trans. Francis McDonagh,

Fortress ex libris publication. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007), 278. Mat 12.28. 19 Ibid. 20 Benjamin E Williams, Miracle Stories in the Biblical Book Acts of the Apostles (Lewiston, N.Y.: E. Mellen Press, 2001), chap.

3. 21 Ibid. 22 Luke 1.5, 8, 23, 41, 44, 59, 65; 2.1-2, 6, 13, 15, 42, 46; 3.2, 21; 4.25, 36; 5.1, 12, 17; 6.1, 6, 12-13, 16, 49; 7.11; 8.1, 22,

24; 9.18, 28-29, 33-35, 37, 51; 10.21; 11.1, 14, 27, 30; 13.19; 14.1; 15.14; 16.22; 17.11, 14, 26, 28; 18.35; 19.9, 15, 29; 20.1;

22.14, 24, 44, 66; 23.44; 24.4, 15, 19, 21, 30-31, 51; Acts 1.19; 2.2; 4.5; 5.5, 7, 11; 6.1; 7.13, 29, 31, 40; 8.1, 8; 9.3, 19, 32,

37, 42-43; 10.10, 13, 16, 25; 11.10, 26, 28; 12.18; 14.1, 5; 15.39; 16.16, 26; 19.1, 10, 17, 23, 34; 20.3, 37; 21.1, 5, 30, 35;

22.6, 17; 23.7, 9; 27.27, 39, 42, 44; 28.8, 17.

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Lucan Changes of Mark Mark Luke

‘A certain man’ And when He had come out

of the boat, immediately a

man from the tombs with

an unclean spirit met Him,

(Mark 5:2 NAS)

And when He had come out

onto the land, He was met

by a certain man from the

city who was possessed with

demons; and who had not

put on any clothing for a

long time, and was not living

in a house, but in the tombs.

(Luke 8.27 NAS)

‘And it happened…’ or ‘it

came about’

And a leper came to Him,

beseeching Him and falling

on his knees before Him,

and saying to Him, "If You

are willing, You can make me

clean." (Mark 1.40 NAS)

And it came about that

while He was in one of the

cities, behold, there was a man

full of leprosy; and when he

saw Jesus, he fell on his face

and implored Him, saying,

"Lord, if You are willing,

You can make me clean."

(Luke 5.12 NAS)

Separation of person from

disease

And immediately there was

in their synagogue a man

with an unclean spirit;

(Mark 1.23 RSV)

And they came, bringing to

him a paralytic carried by

And in the synagogue there

was a man who had the

spirit of an unclean

demon; and he cried out

with a loud voice (Luke 4.33

RSV)

And behold, men were

bringing on a bed a man

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four men. (Mark 2.3 RSV)

who was paralyzed, and

they sought to bring him in

and lay him before Jesus;

(Luke 5.18 RSV)

These examples provide us with a criterion to extract some of the core tradition of the judgment

miracle and rescue stories. By recognizing what was part of Luke’s hand we can better discern with

some degree of accuracy what came from the author and what was likely part of traditional sources

he used.

Apocalyptic and Theophany

Some of the miracles in Acts contain both apocalyptic and theophanic elements. Throughout both

the Old Testament and Jewish apocalypses, theophany, or the coming of God, is a common motif.23

These arrivals have similar characteristics including (but not limited to): (A) God coming and

speaking (B) the result of a disruption of nature or a shaking (Judg. 5.4-5; Amos 1.2; Isa. 13.9-10).

During the intertestamental period a tripartite form of theophany occurred which included (C) the

eschatological judgment with possible salvation (1 En. 1.8-9, 60.6; T. Levi 4.1; 4 Ezra 7.36-38, 9.7-

9).24 The inclusion of judgment creates an apocalyptic theophany.

As stated above the apocalyptic may not have to entail eschatology,25 but does concern

judgment and the end of the present world order.26 The transition to the new world system would

include the coming of God, transitional upset exhibited in nature and a judgment. These

manifestations include the earthquakes, 27 winds, 28 and signs and portents in the sky. 29 These

23 G. R. Beasley-Murray, Jesus and the Kingdom of God (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1996), chap. 5. 24 David Schnasa Jacobsen, Mark (Augsburg Fortress Publishers, 2014), 192. 25 See note 3 above. 26 N. T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God, vol. 2, Christian Origins and the Question of God (London: SPCK, 1996), 95. 27 Joel 2.1, 31; 4 Ezra 6.17-18, 29-32a. 28 Psa. 50.3. 29 Ezek. 30.3; Joel 3.15-16;

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manifestations are theophanic and indicate the presence of God. Other theophanic manifestations

include lightning, clouds, and ice.30

The most notable theophany was at Sinai when God gave the Law to Moses: ‘And Mount

Sinai was wrapped in smoke, because the LORD descended upon it in fire; and the smoke of it went

up like the smoke of a kiln, and the whole mountain quaked greatly.’31 Later writers utilized the

memory of this event at points of victory or in prophesying a coming judgment. According to the

song of Deborah, when the ‘One of Sinai’ comes the ‘earth trembled, the heavens poured…the

mountains quaked…’32 Similar expressions are provided throughout the Psalms and Prophets.33

In the New Testament the Jesus’ baptismal accounts and transfiguration (Mark 1.10) are

examples of an apocalyptic theophany.34 The similarities between the ripping (σκίζω) of heaven and

the temple curtain have comparable apocalyptic motifs. The descent of the Spirit in the baptism, the

cloud and the voice carry elements of an apocalyptic theophany.35 Jesus’ description of the last days

is another good example of apocalyptic theophany (Mark 13.24-27).

Luke provides apocalyptic imagery of cosmic destruction in the Pentecost story (Acts 2.2-4,

19-20).36 The earth shaking after the prayer of the community in Acts 4.31 accompanied with the

statement ‘they were all filled with the Holy Spirit’ provides another example of an apocalyptic motif

combined with a theophanic event. Throughout Luke’s narrative, the uses of some of these

manifestations indicate and confirm the divine mission of the apostles and extending the apocalyptic

mission of Jesus, which we will address in further detail below.37

30 Job 37.9-15 31 Exod. 19.18. 32 Judg. 5.4-5. 33 Psa. 68.8-9, 18-18, 77.18; Jer. 25.31, 30.23-24; Hab. 3.6; Joel 2.28-31; Zeph. 1.14; Hag. 2.6. For a more detailed

exposition of the Sinai theophany see, Jeffrey Jay Niehaus, God at Sinai: Covenant and Theophany in the Bible and Ancient Near

East, Studies in Old Testament Biblical Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1995). 34 Joel Marcus, The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark (Louisville, KY:

Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992), 56–57. 35 Ibid., 56; William L. Lane, ed., The Gospel According to Mark;, The New International commentary on the New

Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974), 55. 36 Gregory K Beale, “The Descent of the Eschatological Temple in the Form of the Spirit at Pentecost Part 1 The

Clearest Evidence,” Tyndale Bull. 56, no. 1 (2005): 97–99. 37 If the eschatological hope of Jesus died with him, the apocalyptic certainly did not.

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Apocalyptic Miracles in Acts

Having laid the foundation of what we are looking for (apocalyptic and theophanic elements) along

with the form critical method to determine what is Lucan redaction and what is from traditional

source material, we can now evaluate some of the stories in Acts. It should be mentioned that the

judgment miracles in Acts are not pervasive, but they are momentous enough for Luke to include in

his historiography of the early Christian mission. They are significant in the fact that no mediating

force other than divine intervention can be claimed. The cases of Ananias and Sapphira as well as

Bar-Jesus serve as the primary examples of judgment miracles.

There are of judgment miracles also called ‘rule’ miracles in the ancient Mediterranean. The

first is the Semitic type that generally has a cross-examination between the prophet or authority

figure and the individual who has violated the community rules or covenant.38 The impending

judgment is permanent and is often death. The second type is Hellenistic and contains no cross-

examination and results in a less severe punishment that often matches the offense.39

The rescue miracles are more prominent throughout Acts. The miraculous release of the

apostles from prison throughout the book vindicate their calling and mission as prophets, but also

provide an indictment against their persecutors. The phenomena surrounding their release such as

angelic assistance, earthquakes and chains breaking are evidence of theophany or a divine unveiling

of the presence of God, common in apocalyptic thought.

Ananias  and  Sapphira  (Acts  5.1-­‐10)  

The story of Ananias and Sapphira is remembered in the early years of the Christian community in

Jerusalem. The couple sells a portion of their property and gave some of the proceeds to the early

Christian community being led by Peter. Peter, having supernatural insight, knows that Ananias

withheld some of the proceeds and asks him, ‘why has Satan filled your heart to lie to the Holy Spirit

and to keep back part of the proceeds of the land?’40 Followed by the declaration, ‘You have not lied

to men but to God."41 At this point Ananias drops dead with the result that ‘great fear came upon all

38 Theissen, Miracle Stories, 109–110. 39 Ibid., 110. 40 Acts 5.3 τί ἐπλήρωσεν ὁ σατανᾶς τὴν καρδίαν σου, ψεύσασθαί σε τὸ πνεῦµα τὸ ἅγιον καὶ νοσφίσασθαι ἀπὸ τῆς

τιµῆς τοῦ χωρίου; 41 Acts 5.4 οὐκ ἐψεύσω ἀνθρώποις ἀλλὰ τῷ θεῷ.

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who heard of it.’42 After about three hours his wife Sapphira, came in and was confronted by Peter

over the price that they sold the piece of land for. She maintains the deceit and Peter pronounces a

curse followed by her death.

The form of this specific account is a double judgment miracle where supernatural

intervention enforces a normative standard of behaviour.43 This judgment miracle is Semitic in style

and has the elements of cross-examination by Peter with the resulting curse and permanent

punishment of death.44

In vs. 1-2 ‘a certain man named’ is Lucan as well as ‘the Holy Spirit’ in vs. 3. Vs. 4 gives the

explanation of the behaviour and displays the voluntary nature of the sale and offering to the

apostles. This is likewise from Luke.45 The parallel phrases ‘he fell down and breathed his last’ in vs.

5 and ‘she fell down at his feet and breathed her last’ are Lucan. Based on Peter’s knowledge of the

withholding of the money, Lüdemann argues that vs. 7-10 is Lucan.46 This would provide an

explanation of what happened to Ananias’ wife and parallelism, which is consistent with Luke.47 The

names Ananias, Sapphira and Peter are from tradition. Peter’s speech and the apocalyptic dualism

contained therein are likely from tradition as well.

In the account, Ananias and Sapphira provide a conflict that might tarnish the integrity of

the early Christian community.48 Luke adds identical crowd reactions in vss. 5b and 11. The first

reaction is not consistent within the context of the story and is more than likely to be the fear of the

hearers of the story that was incorporated into Luke’s narrative.49 Williams states, ‘Luke describes

the audience response not to a miracle itself, but to a miracle story, and likely had in mind less the

42 Acts 5.5. 43 Williams, Miracle Stories, 61. 44 Theissen, Miracle Stories, 109–112; Williams, Miracle Stories, 28–30; 61. 45 Gerd Lüdemann, The Acts of the Apostles: What Really Happened in the Earliest Days of the Church (Amherst, NY:

Prometheus Books, 2005), 78. 46 Ibid., 79. 47 Andrew C. Clark, Parallel Lives: The Relation of Paul to the Apostles in the Lucan Perspective (Carlisle, U.K.; Waynesboro, GA:

Paternoster Press, 2001). 48 In this instance, the judgment of both Ananias and Sapphira provides a balance in that they both behave in the same

way and receive the same result. See above 1.3c 49 Theissen, Miracle Stories, 162–165.

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reaction of the general public in the narrative than that of the listening, worshipping Christian

community.’50

There are two possible explanations for the deaths of the couple, both of which have

thematic parallels drawn from the Scriptures. The first relates with holding back some items that

were supposed to go to God found in Joshua 7.1. The use of νοσφίζω in vss. 2-3 may have

recollected the account of judgment of Achan in Joshua 7 in the memories of the audience.51

Similarly, the story of Ahab coveting Naboth’s vineyard, and the dishonesty of Jezebel in acquiring

the land serve the memory of this account as well.52

The introduction of the story (vss. 1-2) provides the wilful deceit of the couple. Apparently

the commitment of property that some people brought forward to the apostles was seen as a vow.53

The fact that the couple conspired together in neglecting their vow brought judgment upon them

according to Num. 30.2 and Deut. 23.22-24. Though they thought they were lying to Peter, the

obvious outcome indicates that they were lying to God. The judgment indicates a certain perception

of holiness or sanctity that was violated through their actions.

The second explanation of their deaths may have reflected the understanding that the divine

presence was among the apostles and early Jerusalem community. As a post-Pentecost community,

the Holy Spirit was among the believers and understood to be akin to the presence of God in their

midst.54 Set within the post-Pentecost context, Talbert rightly states that this story ‘is a narrative

illustration of the Pauline warning found in 1 Cor. 3.16-17.’ 55 The presence was among the

community to the extent that violation of the standards of holiness resulted in death. Based on OT

proscriptions on handling the Ark of the Covenant in Numbers 4, by touching the holy utensils

outside of the rules one could die.56 The death of Aaron’s sons indicate their offering of ‘strange fire’

50 Williams, Miracle Stories, 64. Italics in original. 51 Jos. 7.1a LXX καὶ ἐπληµµέλησαν οἱ υἱοὶ Ισραηλ πληµµέλειαν µεγάλην καὶ ἐνοσφίσαντο ἀπὸ τοῦ ἀναθέµατος 52 1 Kgs. 21. 53 Acts 4.34-36. 54 Beale, “The Descent of the Eschatological Temple in the Form of the Spirit at Pentecost Part 1 The Clearest

Evidence.” 55 Charles H. Talbert, Reading Acts: A Literary and Theological Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (Reading the New Testament)

(Smyth & Helwys Publishing, 2005), 66. 56 Num. 4.15

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was outside of God’s commands.57 Their death could be due to their offering, but could also be due

to their inappropriate closeness to the divine.58 Similar inappropriate closeness to the divine is

derived from the death of Uzzah who died when he touched the ark (2 Sam. 6.7; 1 Chron. 13.10).

Luke sees their deception in terms of apocalyptic conflict between Satan and the Holy

Spirit,59 as illustrated Peter’s question, ‘why has Satan filled your heart to lie to the Holy Spirit and to

keep back part of the proceeds of the land?’60 In Luke 22.3 Satan enters the heart of Judas to betray

Jesus.61 With this in mind, the judgment of Ananias and Sapphira is not only on the human agents

who wilfully broke their vows and lied to God, but also upon Satan who led them astray.62 Like the

Beelzebul controversy, the judgment miracle reflects the apocalyptic dualism and the defeat of Satan.

The divine intervention shows how God protects the church from those who might taint its purity

or integrity.63

Bar-­‐Jesus  (Acts  13.6-­‐12)  

In Paphos on Cyprus, Paul and Barnabas confront a Jewish magician named Bar-Jesus who served

in the court of Sergius Paulus. Sergius Paulus is characterized as intelligent and interested in Paul’s

message and invites them to share the gospel. Bar-Jesus, whose name is changed to Elymas in vs.

13.8, sought to turn the proconsul away from the faith.64 Paul, being inspired by the Holy Spirit

looked at Elymas and curses him saying ‘behold, the hand of the Lord is upon you, and you shall be

blind and unable to see the sun for a time.’65

The form of the story follows a Semitic punitive miracle story. The magician opposes the

preaching of the gospel by Paul and Barnabas and is temporarily blinded. The speech and

57 Lev. 10.1-5. 58 George W. Savran, Encountering the Divine: Theophany in Biblical Narrative, Journal for the study of the Old Testament.

Supplement series 420 (London  ; New York: T & T Clark International, 2005), 190–191, http://0-

search.ebscohost.com.library.regent.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=243846. 59 James D. G. Dunn, The Acts of the Apostles: Epworth Commentaries (Peterborough, UK: Epworth Press, 1996), 64. 60 Acts 5.3. 61 Cf. Mart. Isa. 3.11. 62 Max Turner, Power from on High: The Spirit in Israel’s Restoration and Witness in Luke-Acts, Journal of Pentecostal Theology

9 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 406–407. 63 Williams, Miracle Stories, 64; Talbert, Reading Acts, 66. 64 Acts 13.8. 65 Acts 13.6.

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pronouncement upon are common in Semitic miracle stories; however, Luke has softened the

judgment of blindness for a period of time; 66 whereas normally, the judgment would be permanent.67

The introduction was changed by the editor so that Paul’s opponent is introduced first (vs. 6) prior

to their arrival (vs. 7) indicating the story existed in tradition.68

The Pre-Lucan narrative would have told of Paul’s encounter with a court diviner named

‘Bar-Jesus’ in Paphos. The surname ‘Bar-Jesus’ would have been original to the story.69 Paul’s

exposure of Bar-Jesus as a magician, calling Bar-Jesus the ‘son of the devil’ and the pronouncement

of judgment ‘become blind!’ would also have been original to the story.70

The Lucan style is present in the phrase ‘a certain magician.’71 Other elements such as the

depiction of Bar-Jesus being a Jewish false prophet,72 ‘full of deceit’73 and ‘making crooked the

straight paths of the Lord’74 are ‘biblicisms’ derived from the Septuagint.75 The immediacy of the

miracle through the use of παραχρῆµά would have likely been Lucan.76

The usual audience reaction to the story such as fear or awe is absent except for the

conversion of Sergius Paulus (vs.12). Conversion in this type of story is unusual and is probably a

later addition, but was present before Luke received the story.77 Similarly absent is a reference to the

name of Jesus in the declaration of power or judgment clause.78

66 Acts 13.11. 67 Williams, Miracle Stories, 75–76. 68 Martin Dibelius, “Style Criticism of the Book of Acts,” in Studies in the Acts of the Apostles, trans. Heinrich Greeven

(London: SCM Press, 1956), 16. 69 Ernst Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles: A Commentary (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971), 398 n. 2. 70 Acts 13.10-11. 71 Acts 13.6 τινὰ µάγον 72 Acts 13.6 ψευδοπροφήτην Ἰουδαῖον 73 Sir. 1.30, 19.26. 74 Jer. 5.27; Sir. 39.24; Hos. 14.10; C. K. Barrett, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles, vol. 1, 2

vols., International critical commentary on the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments (Edinburgh: T & T

Clark, 1994), 617. 75 Joseph A Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles, Anchor Bible v. 31 (New York  ; London: Doubleday, 1998), 113. 76 Of the 18 uses of παραχρῆµα, 16 of them are used by Luke. See, Matt. 21.19-20; Luke 1.64; 4.39; 5.25; 8.44, 47, 55;

13.13; 18.43; 19.11; 22.60; Acts 3.7; 5.10; 12.23; 13.11; 16.26, 33. 77 Williams, Miracle Stories, 74. 78 Acts 13.11.

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Like Jesus and Peter, Paul is likewise placed in line with the prophets of the Hebrew

Scriptures. After a period of fasting and prayer, Paul and Barnabas are commissioned through the

laying on of hands and sent out by the Holy Spirit (13.3-4). They are opposed by the magician Bar-

Jesus. In a similar pattern of Jesus’ own commission through fasting, satanic opposition and moving

forward in the power of the Holy Spirit (Luke 4.4, 14), the apostolic duo are sent out and likewise

are confronted with the devil.

The dualism between the apostles’ mission from God and their opposition from the ‘son of

the devil’ may be seen as extending the apocalyptic mission of Jesus. Despite the lack of

Christological title in the judgment declaration, there are some Lucan traces of divine intervention.

The use of ‘looked intently’79 at Bar-Jesus (vs. 9) provides evidence of supernatural insight or

wisdom.80 The preceding being ‘filled with the Holy Spirit’ provides further evidence of the divine

prerogative and impending judgment on Bar-Jesus. The addition of Sergius Paulus’ conversion in vs.

12 because of what he had seen and his astonishment to indicate that the ‘hearing’ the ‘Word of the

Lord’ and ‘teaching’ about the Lord is brought in by Luke to curtail possible misunderstandings of

magic and to balance out the miracle with the proclamation. This places Paul in line with earlier

Jewish prophets, Jesus and Peter.

With both Peter and Paul being involved in judgment miracles, it is clear that both of their

the missions were seen in similar apocalyptic terms just as Jesus’. The judgments imposed on

Ananias and Sapphira and Bar-Jesus are brought about due to their unrighteous acts that either

threaten the integrity of the community or stand in the way of faith. Luke sees this clash not as a

mere argument of words, but within an apocalyptic understanding. The divine mission of the

apostles is authenticated through the presence of signs and wonders, even those that bring

judgment. While the only example we have of Jesus casting physical judgment is on the fig tree, his

message of the impending judgment on Jerusalem places Jesus in line with the other Hebrew

prophets (Luke 21.20-24; 23.28-31). Following Jesus, Peter and Paul are also in line through the

execution of judgment on those who should know better.81

 

79 Acts 13.9 ἀτενίσας εἰς αὐτὸν. ‘ἀτενίζειν is a Lucan word…’ Barrett, Acts, 1:616. 80 Rick Strelan, “Recognizing the Gods (Acts 14.8–10),” New Testam. Stud. 46, no. 04 (2000): 488–503. 81 Presumably, Annanias and Sapphira were both Jewish converts to ‘the Way.’

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The  Apostles  Released  from  Prison  (Acts  5.17-­‐42)  

The first rescue miracle occurs at the start of the ministry of the Jerusalem church. Due to the

popularity of the apostles and their teaching, the high priest and the Sadducees arrest them out of

jealousy (ζῆλος)82 and throw them into the public jail. At night an angel releases them and instructs

them to continue teaching. They begin teaching at daybreak. When the apostle’s trial convened they

were not found and the guards reported that they found the jail empty and the doors locked.

Establishing the tradition of this narrative is difficult. The rescue miracle likely stood on its

own at one time and is traditional.83 Luke placed the scene and added the speeches by Peter and

Gamaliel to show that the Jerusalem leadership could stand up to pressure. The use of the

copulative δέ which is common to Luke carries the narrative on and gives it logical sequence. The

release from prison was a common topos throughout the Greco-Roman world, especially when a new

cult was established.84 Despite the common use of this motif in antiquity, the understanding would

have been Christian.85 Release of the captives was part of Jesus’ modus operandi in Luke 5. It is likely

that Luke included some of these stories in an effort to relate common motifs to his Gentile

audiences and further ground the identity of this audience by offering this narrative. The inclusion

of this story further confirms mission of the apostles, as the angel of the Lord would not,

presumably, show up for just ‘anybody.’

Luke’s ‘biblicizing’ of this account is prominent. In contrast to the arrest of Peter and John

by the Sanhedrin in Acts 4, this time ‘the apostles’ or The Twelve, are arrested. Their release by the

‘angel of the Lord’ carries an Exodus motif.86 The use of ἐξάγω, to lead out, is used in all three

prison escape stories in Acts and is likewise used in in Exodus.87 Prison or a house of bondage is

symbolic of death in both the Exodus narrative and in Acts.88 In this account as well as others, the

82 Acts 5.17. 83 Gerd Lüdemann, Early Christianity according to the Traditions in Acts: A Commentary, trans. John Bowden (London: SCM

Press, 1989), 71. 84 Joachim Jeremias, “θύρα,” Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 1977. Ovid, Metam. 3.699-700; Euripides, Bacch.

447-48. John B. Weaver, Plots of Epiphany: Prison-Escape in Acts of the Apostles (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2004). 85 Craig S. Keener, Acts: An Exegetical Commentary, vol. 2 (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2012), 1209–1210. 86 Exod. 3.2; 14.19; 23.20, 23; 32.34; 33.2. 87 Exod. 12.42, 29.46. 88 Exod. 13.3; 20.2; Psa.107.10-14; Isa 24.22. Weaver, Plots of Epiphany, 102–103; Robert C Tannehill, The Narrative Unity

of Luke-Acts: A Literary Interpretation, vol. 2, 2 vols. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994), 152–158; Richard I. Pervo, Luke’s

Story of Paul (Augsburg Fortress, 1990), 44.

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‘open doors’ is not only a trope for release but also for mission and symbolic of the resurrection.89

This story, as well as the next rescue miracle, is indicative of the symbolic escape through the

resurrection. It also shows the divine protection and support over the apostle’s message.

Aside from the visitation of the angel, there is little apocalyptic or theophanic imagery in this

account. Luke does not describe the angelic visitation in such dramatic terms, however the

combination of the angelic visitation and the Exodus motif may have conjured up theophanic

interpretation by Luke’s audience. There is an element of judgment or warning of judgment that

occurs on those who oppose the apostles. After the council was drawn together in vs. 21 and

informed of the apostles absence from prison, the apostles are brought back in and questioned

about their defiance. Peter accuses the council of Jesus’ death (vs. 30) and warns that they were

witnesses alongside the Holy Spirit to these events. With such a manifold witness, the tables are now

turned with the council on the defence in a position to possibly receive the judgment of God.90

Despite their best efforts, the Jewish leadership could not contain the apostles or their

teaching resulting in Gamaliel’s wise words, ‘…if it is of God, you will not be able to overthrow

them — in that case you may even be found fighting against God!’91

Peter  from  Prison  —  Angelophany  (Acts  12.1-­‐  12)  

In an effort to gain Jewish favour, Peter is arrested by Herod Agrippa during the feast of

Unleavened Bread and placed in prison in Jerusalem (Acts 12). To stifle the Jesus movement, the

leadership is targeted, resulting in the execution of James the son of Zebedee, followed by his

brother John. Peter is imprisoned and kept under guard waiting to be presented to the people during

the Passover. The parallels of time between this arrest and Jesus’ own are clear—both occur around

the Passover and Luke uses the term ‘Jews’ in a negative sense in this passage in Acts (12.3).92

While Peter is imprisoned the church prays for him (12.5)93 and in the middle of the night he

is awakened by an angel who hits him awake and tells him to get up. His chains immediately fall

89 See Acts 14.27; 1 Cor. 16.9; 2 Cor. 2.12. 90 Lüdemann, Early Christianity, 87. 91 Acts 5.39a 92 ‘The meaning of v. 3 then is that there is a parallel between the arrest of Peter on the feast of the Passover and that of

Jesus at the same time (Luke 22.7). So Peter’s fate is prefigured like that of Jesus.’ Lüdemann, Early Christianity, 140;

Conzelmann, Acts, 93. 93 A similar parallel in earnest prayer is made by Jesus in the garden of Gethsemane. Cf. Luke 22.44 καὶ γενόµενος ἐν

ἀγωνίᾳ ἐκτενέστερον προσηύχετο· καὶ ἐγένετο ὁ ἱδρὼς αὐτοῦ ὡσεὶ θρόµβοι αἵµατος καταβαίνοντες ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν.

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off.94 The prayer of the church is seen as on-going as the imperfect use of εἰµί indicates95 and we are

to infer that the prayer is related with this miraculous opening of the gate and release of the

apostle.96

The source of the story likely comes from a collection of stories about Peter from the

Jerusalem community. Like the story of the healing of the crippled man in Acts 3, this particular

story was likely an independent story that ends with Acts 12.17.97 The use of the phrases, ‘lay on

hands’ is likely to be redactional as the addition of ‘when he saw that it pleased the Jews’ in vs. 3.98

Similar Lucan additions are found in vs. 3-4, 5b-6a, 7, 9b, 11 and 17c. Luke has received the death of

James, the son of Zebedee from tradition vs. 1-2. Luke likely received the meeting place of at Mary’s

house from tradition as well.99

This particular story relates two separate events. The first is the execution of James (12.2)

and the arrest of Peter (12.3). From a narrative perspective, the story offers a transition from the

presence of The Twelve disappearing through death or going ‘to another place.’100 The noticeable

lack of replacing James and maintaining The Twelve shifts the focus to the Gentile mission that

begins to predominate as Paul and Barnabas have been introduced and the focus on Jerusalem

community disappears.

Like the previous rescue account, the pattern of the release of Peter has common motifs of

rescue found in the Greco-Roman world.101 The arrival of a god, or in this case a messenger of a

divinity, can bring rescue or salvation. In Euripides Bacchae, the god is released from prison when

Acts 12.5 ὁ µὲν οὖν Πέτρος ἐτηρεῖτο ἐν τῇ φυλακῇ· προσευχὴ δὲ ἦν ἐκτενῶς γινοµένη ὑπὸ τῆς ἐκκλησίας πρὸς τὸν

θεὸν περὶ αὐτοῦ. 94 Acts 12.7 καὶ ἰδοὺ ἄγγελος κυρίου ἐπέστη καὶ φῶς ἔλαµψεν ἐν τῷ οἰκήµατι· πατάξας δὲ τὴν πλευρὰν τοῦ Πέτρου

ἤγειρεν αὐτὸν λέγων· ἀνάστα ἐν τάχει. καὶ ἐξέπεσαν αὐτοῦ αἱ ἁλύσεις ἐκ τῶν χειρῶν. 95 Acts 12.5 προσευχὴ δὲ ἦν ἐκτενῶς γινοµένη 96 Darrell L. Bock, Acts, ed. Robert W. Yarbrough and Robert H. Stein, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New

Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007), 426. 97 Martin Hengel, Paul between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years (London: SCM Press, 1997), 470–471 n. 1316. 98 Acts 4.3; 5.18; 21.17. 99 Thomas C. Oden, The African Memory of Mark: Reassessing Early Church Tradition (IVP Books, 2011). 100 Acts 12.17. 101 Dennis Ronald MacDonald, Does the New Testament Imitate Homer? Four Cases from the Acts of the Apostles (New Haven,

CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 123–130.

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‘the fetters from their feet self-sundered fell; Doors, without mortal hand, unbarred themselves.’102

Similarly, Ovid’s Metamorphoses also has the doors of a prison opening on their own accord.103

Apollonius is able to loose his own chains according to Philostratus.104 While there is likely no direct

intertextual correlation between Acts and these works, the motif was present in the time of Luke and

an audience member from a Greco-Roman background would have some familiarity with it.

The parallels between Jesus’ passion and the imprisonment along with resurrection and

release should not be missed.105 Peter’s arrest and ‘passion’ in Acts 12.3 as he faces almost certain

death parallels Jesus’ arrest (συλλαµβάνω) are used in Luke 22.54. The arrest occurs during the days

of ‘unleavened bread’ and Passover, which is the same time Jesus was arrested (Luke 22.1,7). This

timing is also significant for further ‘biblicizing’ events as they also relate to the Exodus narrative.

The Passover is a commemoration of the Exodus event which for Luke is a motif related with Jesus’

departure (ἔξοδος) through his death and resurrection in Jerusalem.106 The angel’s words to Peter

‘Get up quickly,’107 (ἀνάστα ἐν τάχει) are the two standard words for Jesus’ resurrection in the New

Testament.108 This ‘resurrection’ of Peter, like Jesus, results in joy and disbelief.109

A verbal parallel between the Exodus narrative in Acts 12 and the Septuagint is as follows:

Acts 12.11

Καὶ ὁ Πέτρος ἐν ἑαυτῷ γενόµενος εἶπεν· νῦν

οἶδα ἀληθῶς ὅτι ἐξαπέστειλεν [ὁ] κύριος τὸν

ἄγγελον αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐξείλατό µε ἐκ χειρὸς

Ἡρῴδου καὶ πάσης τῆς προσδοκίας τοῦ λαοῦ

τῶν Ἰουδαίων.

Exod. 3.8 (LXX)

καὶ κατέβην ἐξελέσθαι αὐτοὺς ἐκ χειρὸς

Αἰγυπτίων καὶ ἐξαγαγεῖν αὐτοὺς ἐκ τῆς γῆς

ἐκείνης καὶ εἰσαγαγεῖν αὐτοὺς εἰς γῆν ἀγαθὴν

καὶ πολλήν εἰς γῆν ῥέουσαν γάλα καὶ µέλι εἰς

τὸν τόπον τῶν Χαναναίων καὶ Χετταίων καὶ

Αµορραίων καὶ Φερεζαίων καὶ Γεργεσαίων καὶ

Ευαίων καὶ Ιεβουσαίων

102 Euripides, Bacch. 447-48 (Way, LCL). 103 Ovid, Metam. 3.699-700. 104 Philostratus, Vit. Apoll. 7.34, 38 and 8.30. 105 Pervo, Luke’s Story of Paul, 44. 106 Luke 9.31. Richard I. Pervo, Luke’s Story of Paul (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1990), 44. 107 Acts 12.7. 108 M. D. Goulder, Type and History in Acts, First Edition edition. (London: SPCK Publishing, 1964), 44. 109 Luke 24.41; Acts 12.14.

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Acts 12.17

κατασείσας δὲ αὐτοῖς τῇ χειρὶ σιγᾶν διηγήσατο

[αὐτοῖς] πῶς ὁ κύριος αὐτὸν ἐξήγαγεν ἐκ τῆς

φυλακῆς εἶπέν τε· ἀπαγγείλατε Ἰακώβῳ καὶ

τοῖς ἀδελφοῖς ταῦτα. καὶ ἐξελθὼν ἐπορεύθη εἰς

ἕτερον τόπον.

Other parallels abound such as the ‘angel of the Lord’ bringing out Israel and Peter (cf. Exod. 13.3,

14; Acts 12.11, 17). The angel ‘struck’ (πατάσσω) Peter in vs. 7 is relatively harsh and indicates the

deep sleep that Peter was in. The same word is used later in 12.23 when the angel strikes down

Agrippa.110 The angel’s command for Peter to gird himself and put on his sandals relates to the

Passover commands.111

This rescue, with the references to the angel of the Lord and other ‘biblicisms’, would have

likely raised the two theophanic images to the audience: (a) the acts of God in the Exodus and (b)

Jesus’ passion and exodus to the Father (Luke 9.31, Acts 1.9-11). The angel of the Lord can bring

rescue as in the case of Peter or destruction as with Agrippa. In this regard, the apocalyptic elements

would have revealed ‘the revelation of the divine revelation’ that ‘takes place in the individual acts of

a coherent historical pattern.’112

Paul  from  Prison  —  Earthquake  (Acts  16.16-­‐29)  

The exorcism of Acts 16.16-18 brings about a social disruption as the slave owners bring Paul and

Silas before the court. They are flogged and thrown into prison by the magistrates. The two apostles

are placed in stocks and placed in the inner cell.113 Contrary to the expected moans and groans of

being incarcerated, Paul and Silas offer prayers and songs drawing attention to them by the other

prisoners.114 At about midnight there is an earthquake that opens the doors and releases everyone’s

chains.

110 cf. 2 Ki. 19.35. 111 Exod. 12.11; Acts 12.8. 112 Klaus Koch, The Rediscovery of Apocalyptic:, Studies in Biblical theology 22 (London: SCM Press, 1972), 33. 113 Lucian Tox. 29; Diodorus Siculus, Lib. hist. 31.9.2. 114 Plato, Phaedrus 60D, 61A, B; T. Joseph 8.5.

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The guard, awakened by the disruption, realizing that the prisoners might go free, draws his

sword to commit suicide. Paul intervenes and tells him that they are all accounted for and not to kill

himself. The jailer recognizes that the earthquake is somehow related with Paul and throws himself

at his feet asking ‘what must I do to be saved?’115 The jailer is told, ‘Believe in the Lord Jesus, and

you will be saved, you and your household.’116

This story is likely a Lucan creation, however the pre-Lucan story recounted the release of

two Christians from prison.117 The use of the copulative δὲ runs throughout the narrative which is an

indicator of Luke’s hand. The use of ‘Lord’ (κύριος) in connection with Jesus in vs. 31 is likely from

tradition. The meaning of this would necessarily need to be explained to the Roman. Historically, we

know from 1 Thes. 2.2 that Paul and Silas suffered mistreatment in Philippi. However, what

mistreatment this was specifically cannot be certain. It is possible that if Luke knew some of Paul’s

letters he drew from this statement along with possible other sources.

Like earlier accounts of the rescue of Peter, Luke utilizes a common topos of chains falling off

and doors opening on their own.118 The doors opening due to an earthquake is likely, however, as

Haenchen notes, the chains also falling off provide strength to the notion of a miracle.119 Whether or

not the earthquake is the cause, the entire incident is viewed as miraculous.

The form of this rescue story is standard. The two apostles are locked up and due to their

prayers and supplication they are released. The earthquake, a sign of theophany, occurs that opens

115 Acts 16.30 τί µε δεῖ ποιεῖν ἵνα σωθῶ; 116 Acts 16.31 οἱ δὲ εἶπαν· πίστευσον ἐπὶ τὸν κύριον Ἰησοῦν καὶ σωθήσῃ σὺ καὶ ὁ οἶκός σου. Cf. Rom. 10.9-10; Phil.

2.11. 117 Graham H. Twelftree, Paul and the Miraculous: A Historical Reconstruction (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2013),

256; Lüdemann, Early Christianity, 182. Lüdemann states, ‘It is impossible to decide whether Paul and Silas were already a

pre-Lucan ingredient of the legend about the release…I tend to attribute the insertion of the two missionaries to Luke,

since they could be replaced by other figures without damaging the sense.’ It is difficult to imagine specifically what two

apostles or other characters Luke might insert. Generally, the use of names in a story are considered traditional. In this

instance Luke’s use and reuse of this escape motif warrants merit. Further evidence for the story being a Lucan creation

lies in the fact that no one else outside of the prison mentioned it. When the apostles are released in 16.35-38, there is no

mention of the earthquake. In an effort to maintain continuity, one would expect that a dramatic event like an

earthquake would have made an impact outside of the prison as well. Haenchen, Acts, 497. 118 Jeremias, “θύρα.” 119 Haenchen, Acts, 500–501.

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the prison doors and unlocks their chains.120 The theophany, taking the form of an earthquake is

‘suddenly’ and recognized by the jailer.121 As stated above, evidence of the presence or coming of

God is commonly expressed through earthquakes throughout Old Testament material and

apocalyptic literature.122

It is a common motif that those being released often take others with them or offer them

freedom.123 In this instance Paul and Silas, like in other rescue stories, figuratively take others with

them. 124 Having already saved the jailer’s physical life, the jailer implores them further for salvation

(σωθῶ).125 As a survivor of the earthquake and one who is able to freely come and go from the

prison, the jailer recognizes the authority of the imprisoned apostles. The earthquake not only set

the prisoners free, it also served as a divine sign of favour for Paul and his followers and possible

judgment for their unjust imprisonment.

There is less ‘biblicizing’ of Paul’s escape when compared with Peter’s. This is likely due to

the appeal to Luke’s Gentile audience or the pagan location of the memory that Luke received. The

use of the motif of the chains falling off, like Peter, and the earthquake demonstrating the

theophany is a topos that would be understandable to a Gentile audience. The revelation of

salvation that Paul provides would likewise be another topos that Luke’s audience would

understand.126 Unlike Peter who escapes prison, Paul chooses to remain in prison until he is released.

If prison is accepted as a metaphor for passion, then Paul’s behaviour parallels that of Jesus. This

commitment to remain in prison echoes Jesus’ similar resilience in the face of mocking and

120 Acts 4.31; Euripides, Bacch. 585-93; Raymond K. Fisher, “The ‘Palace Miracles’ in Euripides’ Bacchae: A

Reconsideration,” Am. J. Philol. 113, no. 2 (1992): 179–88; Dennis Ronald MacDonald, “Lydia and Her Sisters as Lukan

Fictions,” in A Feminist Companion to the Acts of the Apostles, ed. Amy-Jill Levine and Marianne Blickenstaff (Continuum,

2004), 105–10.

121 The jailer’s use of κύριοι in Acts 16.30 indicates his recognition of the apostles superiority. Theissen, Miracle Stories,

103. 122 Ps. 68.8, 99.1; Jer. 10.10; Ezek. 38.20; Joel 2.10; 3.16; Nah. 1.5 123 Theissen, Miracle Stories, 102. 124 Ibid., 102–103. 125 Acts 16.30. Bock, Acts, 541; Luke Timothy Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles, ed. Daniel J. Harrington, Sacra Pagina

(Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1992), 301. 126 Harold W. Attridge, “Greek and Latin Apocalypses,” Semeia 14, no. 1 (1979): 159–86.

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persecution while on the cross.127 Similarly, the release from prison is brought about as an act of

God.

Echoes from Acts 3-5 are reminiscent in the story of Paul and Silas’ imprisonment. The

healing of the lame man (Acts 3.1-10) parallels the exorcism of the slave girl (16.16-18). Both are

done ‘in the name of Jesus’ resulting in their arrests (cf. Acts 4.1-3, 16.23). The jailer’s question

concerning salvation (Acts 16.30) is reminiscent of the people’s response to the Pentecost sermon

(Acts 2.37). Baptism and faith are both mentioned (Acts 2.41, 44; 16.31-34). The result of salvation

is exultation (ἀγαλλιάω) and a meal (Acts 2.46; 16.34). Peter and the church experience a shaking

after prayer which is similar to Paul and Silas’ experience in prison (Acts 4.31; 16.26).128

Through these parallels the notion of salvation progresses beyond Jerusalem with similar

experiences in Roman territory. Just as the Jerusalem believers ‘spoke the word of God with

boldness’ and Paul and Silas ‘spoke the word of the Lord’ to the jailer in Philippi.129 Upon hearing

the word of the Lord both parties share their possessions and express hospitality.130

John Weaver has argued convincingly that Luke utilizes a common mythological pattern of

the establishment of a new cult in antiquity.131 In this respect, the prison rescue miracles serve as

etiological narratives. Each of these rescues provides a larger narrative of the establishment of a new

cult in an area. Luke tells of the establishment of the new Jesus movement in Jerusalem in his gospel

and Acts. The persecutions the apostles face in Jerusalem actually serve in expanding the spread of

the gospel to new areas. Paul likewise is persecuted in his efforts to establish a new message and cult

in an unfamiliar area. In each region the prison rescue miracles vindicate the messenger and evoke

fear of divine retribution should the apostles message not be accepted as Gamaliel states (Acts 5.34-

39). Those holding the apostles could be fighting against God. In the end, the scenarios recount the

release of God’s emissary with the confirmation of the spread of Christianity.132

127 Luke 23.35-37. 128 The aorist passive of σαλεύω is used in 4.31 and 16.26. 129 Acts 4.31; 16.32. 130 Acts 4.32; 16.34. 131 Weaver, Plots of Epiphany. 132 Ibid., 282.

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Discipleship and Apocalyptic Miracles

Towards the end of Luke’s gospel two disciples describe Jesus as ‘Jesus of Nazareth, who was a

prophet mighty in deed and word before God and all the people…’133 This combination of ‘deed

and word’ best summarizes Jesus’ activities as a miracle worker and teacher. Like his teaching, Jesus’

miracles provided an exemplum for Jesus’ earliest followers to emulate.134 Miracles of healing and

exorcism are notable among the earliest accounts of Jesus’ disciples as they sought to follow him.135

Part of this ‘following’ entailed the extension of his mission in both proclamation and deeds. Both

Peter and Paul are remembered and presented after the likeness of Christ: they travel, preach and

perform similar miracles to Jesus. Some of these miracles contain strains of apocalyptic thought as

demonstrated above. In this respect Luke extends the apocalyptic mission to the early followers of

Jesus. While Jesus’ ministry and teaching was rife with apocalyptic residue, it is noteworthy that this

characteristic carried over in the interpretation of the lives of Peter and Paul. This is best displayed

by the judgment and rescue miracles they are involved in.

It should come as no surprise that for Luke, following Jesus included both teaching and

preaching as well as miracle working in Acts. The summary statements in Acts 2.42-43 states that

there was teaching, fellowship, breaking of bread, prayer and ‘many wonders and signs were done

through the apostles.’136 The accompaniment of teaching or preaching along with miracles is clearly

seen in the conversion of Sergius Paulus. Luke has added that the proconsul was ‘astonished at the

teaching of the Lord.’ 137 With few exceptions, 138 the miracles often accompany teaching,

proclamation or explanation of what or how the miracle occurred.139

133 Luke 24.19 τὰ περὶ Ἰησοῦ τοῦ Ναζαρηνοῦ, ὃς ἐγένετο ἀνὴρ προφήτης δυνατὸς ἐν ἔργῳ καὶ λόγῳ ἐναντίον τοῦ

θεοῦ καὶ παντὸς τοῦ λαοῦ 134 Brandon Walker, “Performing Miracles: Discipleship and the Miracle Tradition of Jesus,” Transformation: An

International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies (2015). 135 Mark 9.15-29; Luke 9.37-43a. 136 Acts 2.43b πολλά τε τέρατα καὶ σηµεῖα διὰ τῶν ἀποστόλων ἐγίνετο. 137 Acts 13.12 τότε ἰδὼν ὁ ἀνθύπατος τὸ γεγονὸς ἐπίστευσεν ἐκπλησσόµενος ἐπὶ τῇ διδαχῇ τοῦ κυρίου. 138 Acts 5.12-16. 139 In a situation where ambiguity over a miracle or wonder could be misconceived, Luke adds the ‘teaching of the Lord’

to clarify that teaching accompanied with miracle working was ideal and paralleled Jesus’ ministry.

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Some rescue miracles and judgement miracles are unique in the fact that the form does not

usually entail human mediation.140 As we saw, the rescue miracles entail divine mediation with

apocalyptic imagery such as an earthquake or an angelic visitation. In contrast to this, Luke depicts

the apostles as pronouncing judgment on those who would oppose the progress of the gospel. For

the examples in Acts discussed, the apostles generally speak a word, but God brings about judgment.

The apostles’ speeches in these instances are laden with apocalyptic dualism. The condemned

individuals stand as enemies of God and in alignment with Satan.

This combination of ‘deed and word’ emphasizes the prophetic nature of the apostles and

the understanding of early Christian ministry. Paralleling the prophets and Jesus who likewise

performed ‘deeds’ such as prophetic actions, signs and wonders, the apostles likewise engaged in

similar activity.141 Luke views the words and speeches of the apostles as spiritual in nature and under

the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. 142 The apostle’s words are often spiritualized by the addition of

being filled with ‘the Holy Spirit’ and speaking ‘boldly.’143 The combined actions of staring with the

verbal word of judgment in the judgment of Bar-Jesus signify the words and deeds of the apostles

are inspired, even when the name of Jesus is not mentioned. With this in mind, for Luke the

combination of preaching with miracle working are ‘word events.’144

The memory of the type and form of the miracles provides insight into the community’s

needs. Based on the preponderance of healings and exorcisms it is likely that Luke’s communities

were in need of physical and spiritual healing.145 For example, the frequent reference to lameness or

140 This is a common expression of the apocalyptic. The overturn of the political and social realities usually entail no

human mediation other than a sovereign act of God. Dale C. Allison, “The Eschatology of Jesus,” in The Encyclopedia of

Apocalypticism, ed. Bernard McGinn, John J. Collins, and Stephen J. Stein, vol. 1, 3 vols. (New York: Continuum, 1998),

298. 141 Leo O’Reilly, Word and Sign in the Acts of the Apostles: A Study in Lucan Theology (Gregorian Biblical BookShop, 1987),

193. 142 Acts 1.16; 4.31; 6.10; 10.44; 19.6; 21.11. The presence of the Holy Spirit often accompanies some form of speech,

ranging from glossolalia, prophecy, sermons or apologetic responses under persecution or inquiry. 143 Acts 4.31; 14.3; 18.9. Another indication of inspiration is the stern gaze as stated above. 144 Williams, Miracle Stories, 179. 145 David W. Pao, “Physical and Spiritual Restoration: The Role of Healing Miracles in the Acts of Andrew,” in The

Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, Harvard Divinity School Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1999), 266–267.

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paralysis is likely indicative of some of the ailments within Luke’s community.146 The memories of

the rescue miracles elaborate on the establishment of the communities as well as indicates the

struggle with persecution the Christians faced. The use of apocalyptic motifs ensured that a sense of

imminence or the nearness of God was present within the community. Violating community

standards was not disobedience to human rules, but to the God who called the community to be

holy. The apostles, as faithful witnesses, obeyed God rather than man and ensured others did

likewise.

Take  up  your  cross  (daily):  Persecution    

As a new religious movement early Christian communities perceived themselves as being persecuted,

as Luke depicts.147 In the midst of these perceived circumstances, following Jesus could look like

enduring faithfully through these trials with the expectation that God would vindicate his chosen

servants in the present and in the future. 148 The miracle working and expectation of divine

vindication place Peter and Paul in line with the Hebrew prophets and Jesus.149 Thus, discipleship in

Luke-Acts takes on suffering as part of God’s plan and is seen as providentially ordained.150

Miracles have a close relationship to persecution. From the outset of Acts, the Jerusalem

community experiences gifts of divine grace as well as persecution.151 The healing of the man at the

Temple gate draws the attention of the Council who arrest Peter and John and instruct them not to

teach in the name of Jesus.152 Their continued preaching and healings in the name of Jesus arouses

146 John J. Pilch, “Sickness and Healing in Luke-Acts,” in Social World of Luke-Acts, The: Models for Interpretation, ed. Jerome

H. Neyrey (Baker Publishing Group, 1999), 204–205. Feet and hands are ‘zones’ related with purposeful action. In

Lucan terms, it is likely that feet also relate with the spread of ‘the word’ as healing from lameness or paralysis would

indicate a new found mobility and freedom. In the healing of the man outside the Temple gate the first place he goes is

the Temple to worship God. 147 Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel according to Luke, 2 vols., 2nd ed., Anchor Bible 28-28A (Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday,

1981), 186. 148 Luke 4.28-29; 9.52-56, 12.11-12; 21.12-19. 149 Scott Cunningham, Through Many Tribulations: The Theology of Persecution in Luke-Acts, 1st ed. (T & T Clark, 1997), 206,

209. 150 Ibid., 287; David P. Moessner, “‘The Christ Must Suffer’: New Light on the Jesus-Peter, Stephen, Paul Parallels in

Luke-Acts,” Novum Testam. 28, no. 3 (1986): 220–56. The theme of suffering bridges the Peter and Paul tension as both

of these individuals endure persecution in Acts. However, there are historical references to persecution in their epistles. 151 Acts 1-7. 152 Acts 4.18.

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the jealousy of the council, which results in being arrested again (Acts 5). In a similar pattern to

Jesus, the miracle drew the attention of the people and served as a witness to the apostles’ preaching.

Stephen, who is noted for doing many signs and wonders, engaged in a debate with the

synagogue of the Freedmen and was ultimately martyred.153 Luke shapes Stephen’s martyrdom in a

similar manner to Jesus’ passion.154 In the exorcism of the slave girl in Phillipi, the owners angered

over their financial loss, drag Paul and Silas to the magistrates and they are beaten and imprisoned.155

The healing of the crippled man in Lystra initially brings out worship and high praise from the

pagans, but the Jews stir up the people to stone Paul and throwing him out of the city.156

Related with the persecutions are the rescue miracles. Though not every character is saved

(i.e. Stephen), these miracles provide evidence of God’s protection over the apostles and providence

over their mission. The other side of the story is the indictment against their persecutors. Peter

indicts the council for the death of Jesus with the apostles and the Holy Spirit as witnesses. If they

continue to persecute the apostles as Gamaliel noted, they may end up with God against them and

on the wrong side of a judgment miracle. The theophanic motifs expressed in the rescue miracles

indicate a sense of apocalyptic thought within Acts that both, Jews and Gentiles would understand.

The immanence and presence of a bearer of salvation bring those present into the valley of decision.

Luke also sees tribulations as a means to grow the church. The death of Stephen and Saul’s

persecution of the church results in producing followers of Jesus in Damascus and Antioch, where

Saul will become instructed in the faith.157 The repeated statements that the church grew or the word

of God spread in spite of the persecutions indicate the futility of human effort in stopping the

movement.158

 

153 Acts 6.8 Στέφανος δὲ πλήρης χάριτος καὶ δυνάµεως ἐποίει τέρατα καὶ σηµεῖα µεγάλα ἐν τῷ λαῷ. 154 Clark, Parallel Lives, 264–267. 155 Acts 16.16-24. 156 Acts 14.8-19. 157 Acts 8.1, 4. Paul W. Barnett, “Was Paul’s Grace-Based Gospel True to Jesus?,” in Paul as Missionary: Identity, Activity,

Theology and Practice, ed. Trevor J. Burke and Brian S. Rosner, Library of New Testament Studies 420 (London: T & T

Clark, 2011), 105–106; Oden, The African Memory of Mark, 124–125; Ernst Käsemann, “Paul and Early Catholicism,” in

New Testament Questions of Today, New Testament Library (London: SCM Press, 1969), 236–51. 158 Acts 4.4, 5.38, 6.7, 19.20. Graham H. Twelftree, People of the Spirit: Exploring Luke’s View of the Church (Grand Rapids,

Mich: Baker Academic, 2009), 105.

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Possessions  

While miracles are not always related with material goods throughout Acts, the issue of ownership

plays a part throughout Luke’s understanding of discipleship.159 The presence of communal goods

and sharing for Luke is evidence of conversion.160 After being asked by those wishing to be baptized

what they must do, 161 John tells them they must share their goods such as food and clothing.162 In a

similar manner, those who were cut to the heart in Acts 2 ask what they must do to be saved.163 The

placement of each of these questions is related with the descent of the Spirit (Luke 3.10, 16; Acts

2.37) which likely indicates that Luke thought of this kind of community as only possible within the

confines or impetus of the Holy Spirit or new eschatological community.

The early depiction of the church where all things were held in common (Acts 2.42)

provides a seemingly nostalgic view of early Christian life.164 While it was not obligatory to share

everything,165 the choice of this communal lifestyle was an early memory of what it meant to follow

Jesus. This unity however was short lived when the deception surrounding the plot of land ends up

bringing about the judgment and deaths of Ananias and Sapphira.166 While deception is the main

issue threatening the idyllic state of the Jerusalem community, the centrality of one’s attitudes

toward possessions also plays a key role.

For Luke and for Paul, the network of churches that Paul and other apostles established

were to be supportive of one another in prayer and in contributing to each other’s economic

welfare. The memory of Paul’s commitment to return to Jerusalem, possibly to give the gift he

spoke about in his own letters (1 Cor. 16.3; Acts 24.17) is indicative of the presence of charity and

159 Luke Timothy Johnson, The Literary Function of Possessions in Luke-Acts, Dissertation series / Society of Biblical

Literature no. 39 (Missoula, MT: Published by Scholars Press for the Society of Biblical Literature, 1977). 160 Ibid., 184. 161 Luke 3.10 Καὶ ἐπηρώτων αὐτὸν οἱ ὄχλοι λέγοντες· τί οὖν ποιήσωµεν; 162 Luke 3.11. 163 Acts 2.37b τί ποιήσωµεν, ἄνδρες ἀδελφοί; 164 While it seems to be nostalgic, this does not mean it was unhistorical. An event can be presented as idealistic or

nostalgic and still have happened. Johnson, Possessions, 183; Conzelmann, Acts, 24; S. Scott Bartchy, “Community of

Goods in Acts: Idealization or Social Reality?,” in Future of Early Christianity (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1991),

309–18. 165 Dunn, The Acts of the Apostles, 63. 166 Acts 5.1-12.

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communal aspects of early Christianity.167 This also presents Paul in an apocalyptic and prophetic

light as it was expected that the fortunes of Jacob would be restored to Israel.168

Conclusion

This paper has argued that the judgment and rescue miracles in Acts contain apocalyptic motifs.

This is significant due to the fact that Luke often softens the apocalyptic material found in the other

Synoptic gospels indicating his interest in the ‘here and now.’ This does not mean that he does not

have an interest in apocalyptic material as a whole. On the contrary, the apocalyptic nature of the

judgment and rescue miracles is presented in dualistic terms through the apostles’ engagement with

those who would compromise or wilfully challenge their message and authority. Luke also

‘biblicizes’ some of these miracles by borrowing from earlier theophanic experiences found in

prophetic literature.

By viewing Luke’s redaction of Mark we can gain further insight into his interests, alterations

and theology. The relatively little biblicizing of some of the miracles, particularly the rescue miracles,

indicates that he drew on motifs that his Gentile audiences would have been familiar. In contrast to

this, the judgment miracles are rife with Jewish apocalyptic imagery. Both Ananias and Sapphira are

filled with Satan and judged; Bar-Jesus is the son of Satan and struck blind. Each of these events

reveals the presence of the sovereign God.

The apocalyptic nature of these miracles served a discipleship function by encouraging faith

and providing instruction among Luke’s community as well as with others who read the text. In

these accounts Luke provides instruction through miracle stories. On the one hand, the God who

protected the apostles is actively protecting his people and is able to release them from their

persecutors. On the other hand, those who persecute the church may end up being shaken. Along

similar lines, Jews whose hearts are divided may end up judged. These miraculous events display

Luke’s understanding of apocalyptic thought for those in the past as well as for the here and now.

167 Filson, “Journey Motif,” 74. 168 Psa. 14.7; 53.6; Jer. 30.18; Isa. 60.5, 11; 61.6; Zech. 14.14.