Apartheid City in Transition

Editors:

Mark Swilling, Richard H~imphries, and Khehla Shubane

C o t l t c n ~ p o m ~ South Africari De1,ates

1991 Oxford liniversity Press

Cape Town

Contents t >.y/i)~l I izir lcr sif19 F-'?-PS.\

W'hIto~ / ~ ~ I - c Y I ~ , ( j.y/ijr~/ ( ),Jr2 6DP, i 11 7 iicxl Ki? 2'qc/011?

iP 0 ~ f o i . d l T r l i \ ersit). f'r~s:., 199 1 (:)?iford j:, :I tl-;~dcnlask of' 0xfo1-d 1 Tnivei-sit). 1';-ess

\ ] I j-igl,ti ycwl-\-cci. i\lO p:ut of this puhlicaiion may hc s cp~~~c l i~ced , siosccl in ;I sc~sicl-al %ytcm, or- is:insmitted in :rnj fonn or i?). ;In). m e a n . rlccri-onic. 111(~~11:inic:11. photocol,yi~lg.

~ T ~ O I - C I ~ I I ~ 01- otl~y~-\\li\e \\ritllo~it [lie priol- pvs l~~ i s s i o~~ o f the c opl.l-~gll~ o\\.ner.

~ ~ ~ l \ ~ l i \ l ~ y ~ l [ I ? <lxfo~-cl l l t~ives\it~- 1'1.vss Sout l~ern -4fsica TTaii-ingloii I TOLL-,^., li:i~ rack Street, C:ipr To\\-n. SO0 1.

S( ~u th ,\i\fi-ic.:i

Part 1: Urbanization and the making of the apartheid city

1 Historical i2ackgroilncl of the :ip:~rtl~eicl city to 1948 I Kodnql llarl~~lpovit

2 Curbing African urbaniz:ition in the 1950s and 1960s 19 Dc. bond h Pose2

3 The dyna~nics of url>:lnization since 1060 Alan Mahi? r

Part 2: Governing the apartheid city

4 Managing the colousecl and Indian areah Rob Cnn.zen172

i Black lonil rulthorities: :I contr:lption of control 64 t Khehlu Shubane

6 Whither Regional Servict.s Co~~ncils? 78 Richard fI2,~ mnp h l-ic.~

7 Greying and free settler~lent Fa~zie Clorte

I 8 Citics straddling homeland bounciaries

Sinzofz Btrkkcr

' Part 3: The fiscal crisis of apartheid local government

9 Local goverrlnlent finance and institutional reform 119 Nlge/ Ma fzdy

10 Autonomy- in local autllority finance 339 Gerhard Cf-oeser

11 Privatization and nlunicipal reform C7h ris Hey ma 1 zs

l]rrp c o ~ ~ \ r ~ . s ~ < ) n 117 10 on 12 point G:~r:~n?ord 12 Finance, electricity costs, and tile rent \loycott 174 + ~ ~ ] l L ~ l , l Y s T~,pc>sctL~rlg (13ty) ~ t c l of Bcil\-iilc Murk Suiilli?kg. Willianz Cobbeti, a72d &lnrzcf fillltplp

I ' ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~ ;lnd I,c)u~icI 1 , ~ Liclmos I'rtnL~lig, CJP" TO" "

Part 4: Servicing the city

13 The housing crisis Pct L I / l-i'P1 z {llP!-

Part 5: City politics

10 C:l:lss. race, :~ncl url3an location:~l rel,ltionshi~,s ./cgf'!I Iccli 1-1/1, ) I

1' Onc-city ii~itiati\~es ~ ~ o ~ ~ c ~ o l l L~~ih111~s017

18 'I'o\-\rt1shil3 I-esist~tnce in the 1OSOs ./c)~-o I 7 1-1) SI~c4~i1qq~s

19 Tlie Coi~sc-.~~.nti\~c l-':~rt>. ancf local governtilent / . O ~ I L L ~ / ~ C ' ~ Z S P1~~1orizi.s ~ 1 1 1 ~ 1 Rich~t I"(/ FZzt ~ i l p l j r i~ '~

Part 6: Strategic pers yectives

20 'Tllc~ c1l;tllengc. of the cities t r ! ! Bt~c.!-ilslci~l

2 T l ~ e role of the c.i\.ic ino\ elllent CJ76.ts C'c)ol lcdc/ici

22 Ch;tllcnges of' pr-ocess a11d policy LLl~~~l~c~Izco S ~ / ~ / ~ ~ / I / ~ ? ? ~ ~ ~ ~

Contributors

Iloroc~rz Atkiusorl is ;i rcst.;irc.her :it the Centre for l'olicg- .",tt~dit.s, Ilniversity of the \Vit\~~;cratursrand.

Si~/zo/z Uclzl,.c)l. is Director of the Centre for Socitlf and De\-cloprnent Sti~dies, Uni\.essity o f N:~lal, 1lurh:in.

A I ~ I ~ B C ~ I - I I S ~ O I I ~ 1s Executi~~e 13irccror of IJrl~aniz,itior~ at the ti]-l~an Found;ttion, Joh:inncsl~trl-g.

Roh C ' ~ / ? I C > I , O I I lectures in the 13eprit-ttnent of Pol~t~c;il St ucjics, I_ini~.ersity of Crtpe ?'OM n.

F L ~ P ~ 11) C ' l~c ' t~ is lJrokssor o f Ilcveloplnent Studies :tt the R:ind ASriltaanb U n i ~ erslt~\- anci ;t rcsearc!~ associate wit11 the Centre for Policy Stucliys, I'ni\Tt.rslt~r of thc. \Xiitxi atel srLlnci.

lVillic~~7~ Co17h~tt is 'I 1oc;tl govei-n~lient 5pc'c-Lilist at Planact, Johannes l~~ rg .

Cils C'oozl~~clia is the Assistant Gcner-al Secret:is)- of CAST alld t l le I'uhlicity Secl-etaly o f Actstop.

(;c~-h~il-c/ CI-oc)so- is the 1311-ectos General of7 the Dcpastmenl of Fina nc e .

KOLI~LCJ) ' L ~ L I z ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ o I * ~ is a fo~-lner he;id of the 1)ep~irtm~nt of I T~stc~r-y, R1lodt.s 1 Tni\rc~-bit). .

P,51/11 H~'7zdlor is ;I s13eci;11ist hoi~c,i11g re~e; i r~I~ci- and d c ~ clcyxiicnt con- sult;~nt tx~secl in Johannesblrl-g. Tle is at present en~plo~rect 17). P1an;lc.t.

Chi-i.~ H F J C ~ J ~ C ~ I Z S is 21 politic,11 iinalyst at the TTrl3asl Founclation. Johannes1,irrg.

liicl~n;l-~l Nrlr~zl)h~-iccs is a researcher at the Centre for I'oI~cj~ Studies, IJniversity of tlie Witxvatersrtlnd.

Ro/~iiz~l H Z I I I ~ ~ I - is a n econotni5t n it11 Planact, Joll,1nne\17urg

Alc112 .11ci1?11~ is ;in Associate I'sofessot- in the 1)epartnlent of 'To-tvn and Regional Planning, and 1s Ilirectoi. o f the Pi-ogramrce for I'lanning Kese~~rch, TTnivcrslty of the \Yritn t~tessr-and

i\/igel 211~1~1c(11 is ;In ur1>an afktirs co~lsult;~nt 13asecl in Jollan12e\b~rrg.

Jci[;f'McCiz~?i~)~ is I'rofessc~r o f Geogr-:~phl- :it the 1Jni1-ersilJ: o f N~tttil, I>ietcrmt~ritzl~~rrg. ,

C-ollcc~~ ,l/lcCc~ril is ;I senior rcsc.,~~-cher ;it the South Aft-lcan Institute of Kttcc Kel,itions, Johanne5hu1-g.

Ilohoi-rtll Poscl lectures irl the 1Dep;~rtnlent o f Sociology, Cni\ ~rs i t !~ of the T'i'ihi :itelsrand

Acknowledgements Loz~uli.cra.s P~cto?-iris is an Associate l'rofessor in the Dep:lrtrnent of Sociology, liniversity of Soutll Africa, and ;I research associ:ite with the Centre for Policy Studies, linivers~ty of the Witwatersrand.

Laul?-elzct. ScD/o/imo. is 1)irector of the Centre for l'olicy Studies. University of the Witwatel-srand.

. J~i .~nz~y S ~ C ~ Z F Z ~ S is currently mployecl at the Research Unit, Sociology of Developnlent, Unil~ersity of Stellenl~osch.

lil?i%lii Si?l,~huue is a rescarclicr at the Centre for lJohcy Stucilrs, Univer~itp of the Witwatersranti.

! M L I ~ . ~ S~llillrng is ;i local government specialist with Planact, Johannesiiurg, on seconilment from the Centre for I'olicy Studies, liniversity of the Wit\vatersl-and.

7i,1ry LVo('so1z is a developn~ent planner at Planact, Jo1l:inneshui-g.

The editor\ 13 oulcl likc l o rll:tnh L arioui per sons for 11lc.11- 11elp in making this collection c )f ess;i17s po~sil)le:

0 Glenda Yoi~nge, a t Oxford I :ni\ ersit\- Press In C;ipe To\\r7, f i l l - 1ic1- encoul-:~genlc.nt, L~d~iic-c. ~ n c l fol11e;~r:tnce durlng tllc entire j3'"c'hs.

\%encll- I'owc.ll, also at OIII-', for editing tlie lengtJl!- tilanrrscript

@ Fiona Higgi~won. at tlie Centre for- Policy Studic.~. for ller gener;~l as5istance o ~ ~ e i - Inany nlontlis in I arious cal)acitics. .Ar-i enol-nio~rs clel3t of gl.:ititude is clue to Ilel-.

To all tlie contri1,utors for h;ir-ing ag1-eed to pat-ticipate, cornplet- ing their cllapters ;Lgainst often se~-clr-e nrol-li ~->r~ssuses.

To all our colle;~gue,\, past and presw~t, ;it the Centre for- l'olicy Studies, n-ho helpecl to crcatcJ \ucll :i congetiial ~-ese;irch atnic- spliere.

hlark Swilling

\Xliei-~~\ L ~ I - t 1 1 ~ ) elist, L 1t1e\ LIJ-V ;iI\\ :I),\ cI1:1t1;41iig l>c>c\'i~~se tliel- ~i1.c [lie ~ ~ - c ) c ~ L I L ~ or co~i\t:intI!, s111lting :inel ~ i \ ~ i : i l ~ ~ ~ ~~ripi-~iI~ct:~l>lc \ocio-politi- c:il c ~ i > c l cco11ot111c clb n'~~ili(:\ C:iticxs. 110~.\~e\ el-. ‘ire t ) o t ;il\\'iys ~ ~ n i l e ~ - - g o '1 -111cll111ct1 L 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 0 O f 1 1 l : l r l l e g ~ l e t :11011e1 111 the 111stor) 01 \ o c i c t~u . it is pc)s:sll3le to iel~ntif>~ moments when the f'uniilon of the c l t ? in tlje soc ial sptzlli .I\ :I n hole ~iridergoes a ti113- dcirnt.~-~tLll t1-~l11\ttio11 OII e ~ c r y 1e~e l At issue during tl~case periods is the I-eorganl/:ltlon :incl re-:~rtlcill:it I ( 111 of tile tllree most b a i c coni1,o- 12e11ts of I I I C ~ L L ~ ~ S I : ~ ~ \ociety. t l~d~~s t r i :~ l tiii~e, ui-l):~n sp>icc, LlncI po1itic:ll c i t i~e~i \ l i ip .~

I ~ I I - i n g the IC)SOs, tllc Soi~ill ~ l f r i c~ i~ r c ~ t ) w:is t l~ro~\m into .it1 clrl~at~ tr'iti\itic)n (1i:it l ~ i ~ l its 1-oots 1 1 1 the 1076 u p ~ - ~ s i ~ ~ g s , i-o~ltini~ecl tllro~~gl-1 the l98Os .inel I-. 5c.t to re:~ch :i cllni:ix cluring tllc 1990s :is the ~nten\e st1 i~ggle o\ ~ r - the tcJnns of ~1rlxin rc-con.stl-uctlo~~ i.ulminates in '1 n c ~ v set of ilr1>:111 p.itls Ixtsecl on 21 po~t-:lp:lrt11eld :~rtlculation of time. s1>.1ce. ;it?ei iitr/vnsli~p 1'11~ conts~l>i~tlons 111 tills hook :ittcmpt Lo i:ipt~i"c i l i i . coi-iipic~hie\ of thcsc psocc\ses :inel point to pos,sll)le dil-ect1on.s for tlic f'~lt~li-e

Time, space, and citizerrship in the 1980s

t l r l ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ l i ~ ~ ~ l \\'is pt-eiil~\vcl 011 '1 \ er! \pecijic conceptio~i of h e ~ ~ r ~ i c ~ ~ l ~ i t i o r i 13et\\een i~~c l~~\ i r~ : i l tiii~c. ~1r1,:ltl sp:ice, 'inel politic~il citi- /enshil~ tinclc-.~ c1:isslc ap,it.theid, ~ndu\t~-i:~l tlnie \\,as seen 2,s the e c l i ~ s c e r o t i c of o s i c 5 l i e 1 i i i g e r 1 i s i l 1.01.-

111:il 1-igllts 10 regulate thc Icngtll of thc nor-king cla? nnd its \-slue la!- in tlie hands o f enlployess until 1979. This cl;~ss managed illi: coilsol- idation c)f South Afi-ica's nxlnufacturing Ixise for tlie purposes of meeting t!le needs of a prcdorninantly white ~[otiiestic market4 of \\/ell housed and colnpleiel) sen-iced largel?. LI~-1-)anized consumers.

The org~inization of ~ndirstrial tlrnc. 1i:is suppr,irted r'ither than \ul>- i 1-el-ted bj. the racially bast.4 bpatial structure of tllr citjr that the: a1,artheicl state enl;,rced 1.i:~ :i gamut of ul-1~11-1 regu1:~iions. sucli '1s ' influx contl-01 and the Group Areas Act '171ie system of clifferentiated labour power repi-octuction that these 1:iws entrenched procluced the classic 2ipa1-thcid lalxjur- rllarket and I-educeci to a rnlnirnurn tlie costs of I~iboui- po\\ 1-t>l3r-ocluction.~ This -n as l3ased on the di\ lsioti 11etn.ecn 'migrants' wit11 their rural bases linked to urban liostels, and the 'urban insiders with thejl- rentecl 'in;ttcl~I>oi.i' houses and for~i~:il '~cmpora~-y ' st;it~ls The u r l~an ~!~\tet-n [hi\ gave rise 10 unclet.pint~cd, and w:is a necessar). recondition SOI-, the fo~-ln:~l ctisentratlclliseii~ent ,

of the 13l:ic.k majorit) fro111 th t~ nation-st:ite. This effectivel~r rrlearlt thC 'nation-state' that tlepenclecl on itrlnn ;ipartheid n.as resen-eel exclu- sil~ely tor the beneficiat-it~s of tlie urban system. 111 other \~orcls, whites were the 0111)' citizel3s tlut c1u;ilifiecl fol- full political, indl~s- trial, and url3an citizenship.

\ But :is Soutli i-2frica'> rich scjcial histol-1, tuaclition has forcetully

cle~nonstratecl, \\ihat policy-makers and ~icln~iizistrators planned t o

aclxeve rarely occ~irreci it? reality. It \\as not sinil>ly t1i;rt the pl:inners mho carved u p the societj- intci racial categories 1l;id a mi\tal<en assumption about the n:~t~lre of the \ociet?-. Tt was more to do ~ ' i t h the fact that the people n host. coinmunitic\ they n-el-e c;irving L I ~

hacl their onTn c,ipacititr-s tc, think, assoc-iatt', and organ i~e The result, therefore. thy constant struggle I,et\l-eel1 a wicle range of cor?tr,l- ciictor~~ ancl c-ross-cutting interests over the control o f inclu\trial time, the structure and regulation o f ~irl>an space. 2nd tlie clefinition of political citi~enship. l'ut another rva);, the :ipartheicl concept of ciii- zensliip g c n c ~ ~ t e d II pol7ul:ir societal re;lction that held up an alter- native concept of democracy that defjned Soutli Afi-icx's cit i~ens as tlie equ;tl bc:~rcrs of rights in the \xorkplace, the city, atld polit!.. Froill a glolml colnp;ir:~ti\ e perspecti\~e, this is a far- mor-c. rnclical con- ception of citizenship tk1~1n tl-xditional lil->cralism envisages.

Tile most el~during irnage from the 1980s of the way ~lrl>:i~? ;1l3artlieid was conte\ted mill stlrely cotne frc~m East 1,ondon. During the course of the 1983-5 bus t~oycott, the tr:~ins that t~insported tile l~lack laho~rr force f r o n ~ their 'holnel:ind' to\\ n of Mtlantsane wound

X Introduction

I \ I e t I r i g r o ~ t sleep) \\ h ~ t c stLrllu~-13s. lnslde tlie tr:lin\ tile long 25 k~lomeve jo~isnt.) \\ 21s relie\ ed 13). po1ttlc:~l nleetlngs :is these ti io~~ing 131-otec*ted <paces I>cc;i~iie tlie nleans of commun~c~lt i c )n 101 . t Iic o~g~itiizers of social mo\ elnents that \\ ere c o ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ i t t r c i to el 1sri1;~1it1111g tlie : i~x~~-tl-~e~el stkite syste111, \t:11-t111g with tlie cis lie^. In othcl ords, thc~ r:lciC~lly I~c~secl kelxi~-;~t~on 11etnt.cn Ilon~e :117c1 \\oi.li tlicit ~-~ndr~-l~itinec'I ;I .l~omelancl' state formation is nhat poiltlcizecl 'I \\orl\forcc that, in tul-n, joineel tr-ade unions that c.h:~l- lengecl tlie striict~ir-e of procluetion in E:~st I,ondori, not l u s t I3eca~iscc I I - 1 I I - t f c i I l l e ~ t l e n c l I the tillle r~ecclecl to ti-a\ el t o n ori.; fol \T ~lges that nex-er took ~ h l s Into .iccoiit?t. The nie:lris of tr;rnspolt l>eC;inle the 1ne:lris of organiz:~~ion;~I coilcs~on :inel the (;~slici st:~te ~i\ccl ~ o c ~ r c ~ o ~ ~ to 1>1-e:11< 'I 130j7cott oi :I k>iis colii- p,lnjr t1i:lt i t p:ii-tl> o\\.ned I f one cl\\ vlls fot '1 ~notnent on tlie c.:iuses of this I>en~~lclc~i-l!ig mix of co~~il>lex confiictalll lntcrcsts. then \omc of t11c f l : i \ 7 0 ~ ~ ~ :11icI text~ire of ~ i r l x ~ ~ i poltticb c:111 I > ? L~pp~-eci~~tecl

7'hc first p11l:~r- of cl:~ssic. apa~-r l i~ld Ixy:~t~ to cr~llnl,lc the rllolllent 11~1-l>;ln's \\ orl\t-~-\ d~\\~izt-d tools in 10'3 and 111~ t11v streets c\ 1t11 tllelr red Il:igs m c l t;ltcalcss leaders. Out of this \\as 1301-n ;I tr:~de union 111o\~e111ent t1i:it ll:iciq hy l97O. won tlie I-ight to fl-ee :~s\ociation. 13y 1982 tile unions 11~icl n ron a firm 11:lsc on the illi.tiir>, floor :inti in so doing l > ~ - o ~ ~ g l ~ t .in end to the c r :~ OF inil~istrial tlrlie m,iri.igement c o n - tn)llc.cl euclusi\~el\ 1,) \vllity luan.lgers. T11c i3l;lck nro~1<ing cl;iss I1;lcI \\.on 1nc1~1stn:il citi,:cii:,l~ip :~ncl hence the I-tght to ;I \:I! in thr length ,iticl \ alue of the n ol-li~rlg cl:t~..'~ Hlacl< \\ orkcrs. llon c; el-. \\ el-c ,11so pal-t of i1r1~111 com~i~~!nities :~nd so the st r~lqgle o\;e:- tiniu in tlle

oi-lipl:~ce c;cme to I>cx clo\cl) tlccl to the stl-ilgglc o\ cr the n:iture and control of u1-1~l:i bpacc.

Tt 1s no\I1 tllr ac.c.eptec1 \v~sdom of the 'Ne\\ Soutll ,i\fl-ica' cosiseli- \us t l ~ t t the gr:ititing of rncl~istrial c>ltizcnship to u~l,,in \\,O:-liel-:, 111

1079 (iticl~icl~ng 11l~gr;llil n-orhcss :~fter an initial me1i1pt to 1en1.e then1 out) n ;IS t l ~ e first f~~ncl:in~cnt:ll hrcak fl-olll ap:it~helcl. C)nc conse- cltience nlas to Imng Soiitll Afl-~~a 's m:lnagers 111to direct coritact with org:ill~zecl iritc,~-ests \\ 110 ~ \ ~ i ~ ~ t e c l IIICII-e tli;~n siinpI>- the I-igllt to 1>:11--

gmn for ht~tter J I ; I ~ ~ \ :incl \ \o rk~ng conditions. 'I'llis, in turn, con- trih~~tecl to the I nc-rr:~singl\ c ( )l~cscnt ()rg:lntL;ltl( )n of lxisine\s cli~ril~g the coiirse of the. 1980s :1ro~111d 111.ilor ~x~ l i c ? , ~niti;lti\ c\ - At tile heart ()f tliis ef lost LT as the IIrlx~n FoiiticI:~tion \\ liic 11, iiot s~~r.pl-i,singly, i ( l c~~ t i~~ec l tliv c%~ty :111cl the neeci to c i e ~ ~ c i ~ l ~ z e ~ t s sp;it1:11 s t ~ - ~ ~ c t ~ ~ l - e :1nc1 controls as the key to securing a pol~t~callj st;lhle, cieniocratlc, ancl m~isket-1>:1secl eci )noinic t utilre.' Its 101313~ ing effol-ts rc)mpleri~en tecl

the imlx~ct of the soclal mo! cnlents n-hlch I-esulted in the ;iholitio~~ of influx co~itrol in 1986 ,~ncl the adoption 1157 the state in 1990-1 of a non-r:icial urban policy franlen ork de5igned 1;urgcly l3y the think- tanks c )f l3ig 17usiness .''

'The st:~tc. llo\\'c\'er, drd not 111ake the link l)et\\ een inclustrl:~l citi- 7ensliip anti UI-ban c~t~zenslIip in the same n-ajr that I~usiness dicl 111

tlie early 1980s. Instezld, 13p : ~ ~ c e p t i ~ ~ g the Riekert Co~ilmissior~ rccomn~endntions 111 1379 : ~ t the sa111e time as it ir~iplementecl the Vl'lchalin C;or-nmission'+ I-econlrncndatio~~s on lal~our reforrn, the st:1tcx l;~unclicd 1t5elf into n contr~~cljc-ti011 tli;it only ~.esol\.ed itself \\.hen it ,rctel3tcci tlie nt-eci t o :ll>olish ir~flux control in mid-1986. With the scr ,~pp~ng o S influx contl-01, tliu state accepted 111 tllcc>rj that ind~ls- t~-i,ll ,~ncl usban citi~enahip should hc prellliscd on tllc salile inclusive 13rinc iple. T1i1.s \x as co~nplemenced h)- the simultaneous acceptance at the N;itional I'ast).'s 10$(3 Federal Congress of the rleecl for a ne\\ conhtitutional ciisj3cns:~tion based on the prl11c.1l3les of :L 'un~tt-d South i\f-1-ic:~ ancl '~ini\~ersal \uffr;lge3. 111 sl~ort, z~par-tlicid LAYIS tlieol-et~~-;~lly cle:ld 17)~ tile cnd of 1986 In reality, the state tricd to acllie\ e the olci objec.ti\ e o f clom~n;~t~on under- the g u ~ s c of :I n c n :inti-,ipar~l~eid dis- course '1'1113 \\:is \\ hat the 1986-90 state of cniel-genc-j7 nras 2111 :{bout :inel at the centre of this perverse last-ditch attenipt to hang on to the olcl orelet- .is. of cousse. tht. ur11;in sj-stem.

Thy '11 inr7~tig-l1e:lrts-:1ticl-11iinds' (\XJHAhl) str;lteg)- \\:is the corner- stone of the stL1te3s ' c o u n t e r - ~ e \ ~ a l ~ ~ t ~ o n ~ ~ ~ ~ - warfar-r' 121-ograninie cluring the enlcsgcncy pesiocl. As has 1,ecii denionstrated else\\ 11el-e.1" tlie Vil'TTllhI str:~tegy wa5 prenlised on the assurnptio~~ that the blacl; n~ajositj' \\ a:, Inore inte~.rstecl in url>:in sen.'ices th:ln in dcmocr:~c>.. It folio\\ ccl t1i:~t thc state ncwlec! to meet a range of [it-ban cleniands fol- sel-\/lees, I:incl, ;lnd I ~ o ~ ~ s l n g ii the political dernancls fat. ;I major-ital-i;~n state I\-ere to 13c. deflec.ted. 111 other \vorcls, url>an citi~enship n ;ls conceclecl 0x1 conilltic )n t 111s was ,Iccepted by the bl;lcl< major~t?. :IS ;I

sul>stitute fc11- ~>olitic:~l citi~enship S~gnificantly. this str;tteg-)- \\-as hasccl on the assunll~tion that tllu rirl3a11 soci;ll mo\enler~ts n u - e polit~call>- i~ )spired and \A ould d i s~~ppear r f ~irl,an clein;ind.; \\,ere ( p:t~-tl)f) net :~tici tlie libe~.ation ~novclnents suppressed.

In tllr end tlljs stl-:~tegy f~111ed 13ec;tuse 111e trade-off 13et~\een politi- c:11 citi~ensh~j-, and url>an ~~~>gr ,~d i r l g was I-oundly rejeered 13)- the majority. I t \\:IS .ilso rejec.tecl l>ec.ause the state's recession-inclucecl fiscal cl-isls madc rlic costs of I )ub7~r1g off the t11:tjority prollil3ttive.

The killure of \VHAhI inten\if~ecl the polit1c:~l crisis klced hy the state :ind p~-ep;ired tllc \v,I); for :I ne\\ appr(~acl1 that F. KT. de Klerk

XI1 lntroducfion lnfroducfion Xll l

I

eventually eincsgccl 10 iinplemer~t ~iftci- lie \yon his 130x1 er st~-ilggle l x e \ ~ l ( x l ~ t ~ - u g g l e s :incl a liiel to piit into place :I irt of posi-:il):irtheid 1 xit l l cliief- ' s e e ~ i r o c ~ ~ t ' 1'. PI. H0th:l in 1989. Tliis illtensifying pc>]iticLl] rules tlle g;lme. 'l'llis cloes not in and of itself cl~:~lleng:e the WO-

crisis \I\ as reflCctcd in South i\fric:~'s increa,singly iso];ited intel.tla- n ~ m i c 1 3 ( j \ \ 7 ~ of tlic corpor:itions: liut it does 131-o\-iele the leg:11

i t i ~nn l ~'osirion. the tleclining \upi,c,rt for state str;itcg\- alllong ],lac]i fl-alne\\.osk \\lit]lin \\ llich ts;ide unions c:i11 organ i~e to nlount :t c1l;il- 'rlloileratcs'. thv dceperling political clifferenccs [ , e t \ \ ~ ~ ~ n tllC st;lte lenge t(., tllehC ~ntel.c.sts It i y \\aiclely acceptecl by both capitd and ant1 c:ipital, the j,olitic:llly 01-erdetetninecl I-ecession ~nc l . most impos- tantly, tlie cant I nuecl stlt-\,i\ a1 o f tllc social ~no\~ernents. The e\.entual unl,,~rr riing of the libei-l~tion nlo\.cmcnts on 2 Felil*uasy 1990 \\,as preniisecl o n :in .~ckno\\ ledgenlen: that nothing \vo~~lcl he acliievecl if tile \ocial ~lio\emetit\ - :111d their politrc:il exprcsslon in tllc lil,cr:~- tion llio\lemc,nt\ - t.c.n~aincd exc l~~dcd fi-on1 the process of sc.con\ti- tilting po1itlc;il citi~cmship. 'I'he rcsult w,rs the ini1i:ttion of a .non- ~c\~olutioti:~ry regi~ne ti-anhltion'. Altl~ougll i t is Iiroaclly accepted t l l :~t regime t~-:ir~\ltion In S o ~ ~ t l i .Afric:i is going to lalie 10 years. n711at IS not aclt.cl~~;ltcl)- unciel-stooil :it 21 popu1;lt. level is that this pcjlitica! tl-arr\ition 15 going 1 0 clepend 11e:1\-il~r on the nature of the urb;in t~tnsition In o t t ~ ~ s nrords, like pse\rlous pI1ast.s in the st[-ugglc for l,olit~c:il power, ~l1e 13olttic;il transition t11:it began on 2 Fe1,ru:iiy 1c)c)O 1s alscacly ~ i l ayng ~tself out in ncnJ sti-~~ggles, coiifltc~s, and p:rct for- ll~ation:, at 1oc;tl Ie\-cl that :ire cen~red on the nature ancl function of t l ~ c city 111 society.

Transition and the city

In nlan); 'non-re\,ol~~tio~~:i~-)l regime transitions' thrit h;l\~e talten place elseu,llere o\.cr. the last 20 !-cars in Latin America. soutliurn Europe, eastern Eclrope, anci more recently in Afi-ica (alhcit only beginning), transition has tenclcci to re\-olsre around political citizenship. There uese, of' course, cases where the pacts tlut d ~ o \ ~ e the transition rel;~tecl to tllc n:iture of ind~~stri:il tinle and urb;in space ie.g. Sp;iin)." \Trhat is ~ignific~tnt :il~oiit the South Aft-ican transition is that it is not simply ahout the (n~ell lcnowr~) deracialization and reconstitution o f the polity.13 It is ;~lso about the changing nature of industrial titne and ~ ~ r h ; ~ n space.

As kir as tili~e is concerned. o n 20 Septemt->er 1990 the cabinet accepted a proposal tliat ;In aniended Lal>our Relations Act as set out in a hill jointly formu1:ited I,y COSATTJ, NACTU, and SACCOLA (South African Consultative Comn~ittee 012 Labour Affairs) shoulcl he suh~uitted to parli;~ment. Tlds prolmbly mnrkh the first sstate-capit:~l- people' 11i1c-t in the post 2 I'el,rua~y 1990 era ~hnt is both a product o f

1;ibour. l~ox\ e\ er, rliat the \\7a)7 tlie \\ orliplac~e struggle is n7:igecl u ill lie ilirri.tly :iffeeled l ~ y {hi. pace, intenity. rind n:ltiirv o f the s t r~~ggles I - I I In otller \vords, i t is I-ecognizcci t!l;it n here people lixe, IT(,\\ f:i~- tliey tsa\ el, tlle \cr\.ices ilie!; recen.e, tllc Iioi~se\ the) li\e 111, the Ile:~ltll (-ale tliey ~ e c e i \ ~ e , and hon- tlie~r childsen get cclu- c:tted :Ire :ill Issues tliat the entire societ)' tilust f~xce aricl deal \-\-ith :IS

past of the o\ el-all pt-ocess o f transition. All I I 1 1 s i fijrcefully L i ~ ~ e I decisi\el) cI~i~-ing

1990-I to lciclc-st;irt the ~ ~ r l ~ a n r e c o n s t t - ~ c t o proce\\. As fx- 3s the soci~ll 11101 c-rncnts mer-e con(-ertied, the) escalatecl the sent boycotts, r lxc i ; i l l~ - in the Trans\.:~al. OFS, :lncl northcrn C;~pe. ThesY lioj-cotts \\c-re the final de~ltli I,lon to the 13lacl.r local government s] stem, ar:cl :L\ these structures cr~inlhlecf, the local irrlxin acto1.s c:lmc togctllc-r t o negoti:itc the lull rangy of :iltern;iti\es. 'l'lle lxisic clemnncl of ihe social ~no\ements t11;tt cxne to he accepted 1,). everyone n7as for a .non-r;rcial :~nd democr:itlc ni~rnicipr~lity based on :i single tax base'. There is little d o ~ ~ l i t tliat the 1oc;~l-le\ el negoti:ltions are helping dri\ e the transition Ssotil .Ixlonr' - anotller ~lniclue feature about Socltll Africa's tran\ition ~ ind a statement once ag;ii11 ahout the centrali~) of the cit) in the 50~1t11 Afric>ln rocial fortn~ltion as a \vllole.

? , I he statc also moved on :I range of fi-onts, wit11 the cstalilislln~ent of the Indepenclent I)e\7elop1nent Trust nit11 a RZ 1,illion grant tc-)

/'in:lnce the I-cconstruction heing the most significant initi;lti\-e. 7'his \\,:IS complementecl 11). rno\.es to replace the existing local aiithol-i~ich wit11 a new non-racial 1oc:ll goirernment sy\tem, the scrapping c-t Groi~p Are:is and separate :immities. tlie .ll>olitlon of the 1:md act\. provt"ons for 'less fornial' township estahlislunrnt. tlie initiation of tllass housing sche~llcs, etc.

0sg:mi~ed business also surged fom-:lrd :I[ the policy le\rel \\,hen I tlie Ur1ia11 Foundation rele;~secl its serieh of ur1i;tn polic), docunlents

afier completing a five-year policy research exercise.li This was com- plemented I I ~ efforts cuch :is tliose initiated by the Perm's 13013 Tucker to I~uilcl a transition 'scenario' based on: e :i political 'coiilpact' to estal->lish a new constitution; * an urban *co~npact' based on the annual erection of 200 000

hoiises, 400 000 serviced sites, and a million electrified sites; anci.

XIV lnfroducfion Infroduction XV

a an ecoiiomic colnp:iCt' premised on a 1nanufiict~rnng-13;tsecI cxp(3rt-lcd gro~vt h pat11 l 5 ,-

I lie ~nos ( ilsef~11 \i :I> oi conc~el3t~1;11i~irig the LIS~XIII 11-iinsit~ot~ is I > > , ~ising :I systems a~->pt-o:ich to br-c>:ili (113 the citlT into a series of sub- .ystc~lls. ' ' ) -17hese sir13-s~~c;tenls 11;1\ C' their OCT 12 Iristorles ;ind dyn,im~cs .tnd lock the nutris of' ulI,:~ii intel-estl) together in complex \vnys tll:~r oficn I-esult IJ I csoss-ccittlng alliances .lncf conflicts l'lie) '11-e the f.01- 1on-lr;g.

The spatial system Ttrcl apartheld spatial system, as it nianlfested ~tscll xx 1tIir11 the ur11:in sys1t.m :IS ;I n llole, \\:is prernixed 011 policlcs .~imeJ :1t decentt-:ilt~lng :~r?cl clc.concent~-atlng c.rnplo~~tiiclit a t tlic nlacro Ic.\,el .rrtd i l l \ cling tllc <'it) itself ir:to 1.;ici;ll res1cI~nti;~l :tl-e,~s at the II I ILI -O leiel 1;t i t t l 1986, e n t ~ - ~ i r i ( o the c ~ t ? itself \\:is xeg111;ltec~ 13)-

1rli1uu corili.01, 1.c. [lie clri~icl~r~g line 11et1-1 ceri to\\ n arid co~lntrysrcle' \2 see ul-ecl 13). i-c13ress1\~e I-acially lxised Iegislat~on. This di\ision \\;is c~on~ple~iietitc.cl, h o ~ \ c\ el-, 1))- economic constsaints that 1,locl.recl access for lllc p ) o r to slxiccs ril;rt n7cre too cost1~- for the in-lnigl.;iting popw 1ations.l- 17iicie~-;xnning t h~s ~;ic.lal :~nd cla~s-l>,isc~cl cxc.lusion nr;ls tlie region;rl iitte,gr;~t~on o f I L i l ~ o ~ ~ r ni:lrkets that ul~dercut co~~stitutional ;~nd I itc.lal I~o i~nc l ;~~ 1c.s I'' 'The I esult llas heen a m;~sst\.c n astc of resources :~t-~ct the. net ~,13~11;111~ /),~sed rrcilstsil~irtion of \\ e;iltlr froiii the poor to the 1.lc11 ,is a jesult of d~viclecl tax l->:~scs, conht~.arnts o n sr~lall t3usincss dc.\ elqxnent, 1lm I t s o n :~gglo~net.atiol~ in the ins~c'r d i e \ . the 5ubsidisa- tion of tr:lrlspo~-t to countel-ac.t the costs of sirbsidized deconccntr;~- Ilon dccen t~~i l~~; i t io~ i . ;lnci co s t l~~ rnl\usc ancl non-use o f land. O~r t of this h,ls en~c~~-gc.cl thy nc.c~I lor nyliai tlle rrl3,in I-oi111d;ition has callccl 111~' '(Lonip.icr cit)'. r c :I tit), t h : ~ t rn:ixlmi,xs the use of its resources ~ 1 2 c l c.n51.1rc acii,s5 10 i ~ s ')eniccs fo1- tlw j,oor. Although legisl;lti\c clerL1ci:ili~:ltlm IS :1 ii~ct.ss.i~-~ contii~ion for lhuilcling tlle c o ~ i ~ p i c t city, the 1>~11lt en\ 11onlnc-nt is spatlall\7 f1xc.d T1o\\ tlie cornpac-t cjty nil1 be I~ulit In .I \ fay t l l ; ~ ~ s~~nirlt:ti~cousl~ utilizcs tlie deconcentr-;itt.d 11rl):~n ~nfl.:lstruct~~re tl~xt .~lrc;~cl~ esis~s nrill emerge ;is t l ~ e In;iln c1l;illengc..

The aarbann services system O v el- the decades, ;ill enornioi~s in\e\truent has 1,ec.n made in the urlxin infi-:~structul-e. 7'he lxisic inf'rastrircturc~ 1s [here ~vitli respect to r o ~ ~ d s . r11;i.s.; transit, elcctrific.,r- tion, nr:ites supplj-. s'inrtation, ancl n7aste d i~pos ,~ l No\ve.l-er. for ~.e;isons rel;lted 1~1th t o the class st~-ucti~re of t l i ~ societj- that results In lo\\ 1ex.c-Is of tt.ttii~nel;~tion for cinplo?-inent. and the r:ic1;11 struz- tut-e of t!ie c~pa~- t l~e id city tlxtt forbid untll 10 F.cars .igo cct-t:\i11 ~ - ~ s i - cl(>ntl;~l 21-c.:~\ fl-orn 1x1 tlg scr\~iceci. these bulk ser\71c.es ;Ire, on the ix lii>le, clenicd t o tllc 1rr1,an p o o r l>cca~~sc- [he cost of rlre set-\ Ice ,ind

11 h:~t is .;ifforcla\>le' cC~nnot Ile recot~cilecl 13) the lc\el of sul7sicliz:t- tion. It tollo\+,s frolii this that at tllc poiic') le\ el ;i c.o~>rnlittl~erit to set - \ - ic~ ' \ for '111 is 1-ec1uired t1l;tt is premised o n a dist1-il>~ition-f0~11sec1 ('ic,

opposed to 1,ulk sc~ppl?~ sick) subsidization Sorruul;~ t11:1t is cap:il3le ot i~ridg~lig the g;ip bet\\ een r1lford;ibility and cost. The once-off capiti:l s~rl,sidj- fo r upgr;~cling and \lte-and-sel-\.~c.e scllerncs t11;it the Indepe~idc~nt 1l)e~-elopr-t~ent 'I'rust Lvill be financing is :I step In t l i i~ d~re'tiot~ 'This does not, lro~\.e\rel-. subsitii~e opel-ating costs n~liiclr are the costs that co11le1 Ie:~d to 131-ge-sc:ile exclusion of the poor if they h~t i e t o I,c c:irricd excl~~sivel~. 13)- the poor. Int~1-ur13arl cross- sul)sicllz,~tion and ccntr.al-loc*:il si~bsicli~~ition formi~lac ase goirlg L C ) I x riec-.decl i f a 'hasic set-\ ices for :ill polic) 1135 an)- clianc e of \vork~ng

The housing system In crude ternls, tllc s1117sidirc.d ~narlter 112%

met the liousing needs o f the ullite popu1;ltion :~nd :I sul3sidi;.ccl state cleli\ erIr system h:~s niet some o f the most l~asic- sheltcxr neccl.? of the lhl;~ck pop~ri:ltlon. i"\tes lCj(78. hi>\\ r\'er, S-esy llttle housing \\ :is pro~~ided f ( 11- i~rl>,in A~I-1c.a n< insteacl, n-h:r t 11( )i~sc.s n ere 1,uilt \\rc~.c c.onstri~ctc.d cl~~rlng t hc lClXC)\ I-)!,- tht; psi\ ate becror for the u p p u le\ - els of tile lio~rsr~-ig ~rn;lrltc.t Tlie sul)sicit~;it~on that tlid occul- 7~7~1s f 0 1

jr~fi-astructure ;~ticl for o\\ net-s that clu;llified for stare lzousing sc:\>s~- ciies of one forin 01- ;itiotlies. Tlie result IS that 131 1990 the constr~~c- tion inclustry \\.,is dec.lining. the upl3t.r- lexrels of the hoirsing 1n:isket n-ere s~~turatccl, the state n :is not pro\licting mass lioi~sjns, and the ~nai-kct could t ~ o t i-espo~tcl to tllc housing neecls o f the ul-lxm pool- 7'he t-es~~lt 1r;is 1 )sen the m:iss~\~e prolifer,it~on of sh;lck settlements , The state ancl 1,uslnt.s.; art. unitccl tn sayirrg that tile solution Iles in sulxtdi~ing 1nf1-astructurc. 21nd lea\-lrig liousing cor~strirctio~i to tht- l a ~ l ~ ~ l ? ~ 'self-licll3' s) stems :inel tile prr\ xte clevelopers. 'To fin:tnccl tllis. colnplcx nexv ~necf~anisn~s h:~\-e 12cc.n c-rc;itecl th:it place the tin:inclal tt2\titutions :~ncl struc'tir~-es lrl<c the South Afrrc'in Ilousing '1'1-ust 21nd Inc lepe~~dcn~ I )c\ c.1op11ient 'PI-~1st at the ceni re of the ne\\ housing deli\ es) 51, sLeln The I,asic pi.ol,lenl nrirh this approai 11 from the per- sl3cti1.e of the soci;il m ~ \ - e m e r ~ t s is that thls could simpl>. leacl to thc senrtc.lng o t st~aclt scttlernenth r,ttller than .\ geriuine 111:iss housing p ~ - o g t - ; t ~ ~ ~ ~ i i ~ . This \\,111 he the resi~lt if the unclerlying s~ructusal causes of lonr-inc<)me houst.l~olcls 211-e not clctllt \\ jtll. 'l'lils is \\.Iry the 'hous- ing ;ih a growth r>;itli' policy frarne\\ork h:is hecon~e incrcasit?gl\; appealing because it coirld use the process of ~ n ~ e t i n g k ~ o ~ ~ s i n g neecls to stimu1:lte econoiuic gt-onth in a wajr that c1ecre,iscs unetn- plo).tncnt ancl, hopefulljr, I-:iises hoirsehold incornc\ This, 1 r l turn, \\ 111 place resoiir-ces it? the hantls of those who need to p;iy- for \\ hat

XVlll Introduction Introduction XIX

All I T I ~ )r ui-lxln sl:ii<rholder-s lia\~e alreacl y 13cgu11 to repost tion the~iist~l\-cs to secure Lrcl\-;int;igeorls positions in the enlergilig devel- o p l e n t :~Il~,inces I11 ex el-) loc:~l-le\~t.l negotiation pri)cess undci. n :I) in so11ie 50 Iocnli!ie\ 111 the Tr,lnsl-:~:il, thrs reposrtiontng ancl pact foi.- miition IS e \ ident /\t tlie c,cJntre 01 i t :ill are players \\ llo in one \\ J>

or anotl )el- .ire pri~ii~irrl~. 13,irt ot one of tl1ret3 Ix~sic soci~il fox-ccs: hcrsr- neix, tlic state. .mcl tlle soi~;il nio\ements. 'l'hc d~\ ic lo j~ i l l e~ \ t proks- s~onals ictiglneei-s, ti]-chitects, plannei-s, econorni\ts, etc.) ticA tllr>lii-

sehes to onc 01- tnore of tllese t l~rec catcgorics ancl 131) their tr:ide I,! constrvcttng the c.oncepts tllrougli 1zl1ic.11 the urban en\ ironnient is co111p1-elirnclccl and replannecl In Liccorclanc.c \i ith the 111tercxts t l i q repre,sent.

f At tl.its st;lge it I \ ~mp(jssil~lt> to predict nl1cl-e c~t! politics :lye i 1 going. Icieally. t11c- 'lust c i t ~ ' shoulcl I?e premlsecl on ;I concept of elti- I zcnsllip rhat is not li~liitecl siiilply t o the polltlcal realm. If tl~is

occurr-ed, it \\ ould Ila\-e meant that a ~x)litic:~l tr~in~sition llacl t:llien ' ~ I : L C C ~ \ ~ l t l i o ~ ~ t iL sitl~ult:~neo~is ur1~:in tr:insltion '1'0 ilrrivr :it the 'j~ist I tit!.'. In nddition to po1itic:il citizenship, c i t i~ensl~ip in t l l c wol-l<pl;~c.e

:ind c ~ y \%.ill nercl to 1~ the policy ol-,jecti\e. T11ti \\ill in\ol\e the tnstitu~ion:llii,:~tion of' the llleans n~hel-eby tlie length ;inti \,;ilue of rnci~~stsial ti~iie. thc cl~l:iIity and cost o f nrhan 11i~ng space, ;incl the cntitlemer~ts o f full cttlzenship can l-,c negotiateel Iri practlcct this sho~ilcl f;icil~t;ltc the r-eco~~cili:itiol~ o f proclucti\ity ;id \\:tges in the n orkplact., ;~fforcl:~l>le :Lccess to the c.it) and the cost of ses\~ices, and m:txiinurn citi1c.n part~cipation in ciecision-nlaltrng ancl effecti\~e ~~rl>ai i n~aiiagenlcnt. T11c interconnections are obvious: i f the \ :llilC of 1 o i 1 : is lesi tll:in mr1l,lt tlie iiver.ige iiolneless l,im11? n~oillci neecl to i nt vst in Ior-111;11 sllelter, then the housing prograrni~le \.\-ill fail: 11 prod~~cti~rity cioes not iilatch this \;11ue, tlle~i ~ L I I ~ I I C ~ - e \~ - cnues \\ 111 I3econie ~ncrc ,~ \ i r~g l~- clepe~ident on clefic'it tin:~ncing ancl ~iitesn:~t~onal lo;~~is : if sul)sidizat~on levels :[I-e inacieclu:ltc. and i~r1)an i e ~ \ ~ i ~ c . s Ihec oille too costl) . ; \ c e~s s ti) the city n ill l,e deniccl to those n711c) neccl it most: anil I [ polit~c:il citi/crisliil> 1s gi-,inled nithout ,I

sci?>sl;tnti;il ~nipi-o\elncnt ln tllc 1n:iteri;il conclliion\ of tile ur1,ari poor! the ~ C S C I I1 \vill hi' :I 11 ighlj7 LI nst:ihle post-:lpart heid politic a1 I

clcmocl-acy. Atiotl1e1- (n~ot-c pessiiilistrc.) clirecrion is \2.h;it coulcl I>c> called the

'cle~-~tci:ilizc-d ;ip:~~-tlieid' optiorl. ?'o date, the so-called .Flrst Yi70rld' st:indarcis in tllc \\hit? cities 11:rve h e m m:~dc ~)ossihle 13). the .cola- niz~ition' of the ton nships t l ~ l t , in turn, I'tcilitated tlle transf'er of \vealtli il-oiil tlie latter t c ~ the f?)nner. Ucc;lrlsc en~ployers li111<eci

n7ages excl iisi\~ely to 13rod~1c til'it)~ :inel not to soctt~l cond~tions o f e x i ~ t e n c ~ , the c-onst.yuenCes of uslxln unclerde\ elopment \iTet.' ignosed ~~i i t i l i t \ \ ; I \ too late I,egislati\re c1e1-acializ,~tion \ , i l l not 171

ancl of itself solbe the prol>le~n. Instencl, I-acc di\.~sic)ns co~lld \\ell I~ecome class cii~ Isions as econtjmics l-athel- lh;tn 1-:1ci;11 c o ~ i t r ~ l s COIIIC'

to regulate the sp;~tial mohilit)- of t hc~ urlxn 13oor. I11 this sc'en:tt.lo. acc-oss t o tlle cit)~ for the usban pc )or \vill not su1xt:intially ~mpl-o\ c. Tneclualities \ \ r i l l deepen wliicll, in turn. m i l l undermine t11c economlc perfornl,ince of the local c~i-lxin economies it local government structures ojwr:lte lilce they do nonr atid ha\-e the s;lrne liniited pon - css (all>e~t ti11 \\ ithin a nun-I-aci:il moulcl), ilien they n ill he pow-erless to clcal \T it11 the prol7lems. This coirld Ieacl to unstable local go\ ern- inent :itid, in .111 liltclihood, a seturn to violent confrontatjon. In t h ~ s c-ontcxt, lhe entitlennenL,s of citizenship may me11 come to be pel'- ccivcd as mear~inglcss.

\Vhetlieu \\ye ;Ire he~idtng to\\ ards 'cieracialized al~:l~-tlle~cl'. the .jusr tit),', or soine mixture of tlw t\\ o cannot be detenilined from coridi- tlons :lt tlie 111oment \Vli;tt is neeclecl. llom>t-\ er. is :I cle:lr- ;111c1 crisp \-ision of the 'just city' that is c~tp;il>lt- of cementing clc.\eloprlien~ alllances that i1r.e c>cr~t~-r'cl otl the org:lniz;it~ons o f the ~rrlxln pool-. Some of these ha\ e alread>- emerged from I ~ u s ~ r ~ e s s think-tanks ;rnc1 have Iwen fa1 o~rr,il,ly received by a range of major UI-b:~ri st:lkel~old- ers. 'These :ire, ho\\-ever, a1ternatibt.s in iorm:~tion: thc ; IS~UCI;L-

tions in\ollrec1 jn leading the soci;~l mo~~ements are, for example, t'orniing a n:~tion;tl *ci\-ic chal-ter' to guide grassroots developnient ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ r o : ~ c l i e s , and the LI-acle union n~o\ernent h:is ~nountecl its o \ \n policy 17roject to ~n\restigate tlic re1;ltionship hctn-een 11o~si11g 311~1

economic gro\\ th. So. in sum. 21s tlie struggle fils the citlcs drives thy url~an tr:~nsitic~n, the first \.ague outlines of m.her-e some po\verful st~~1teholde1-s \vould like our cities to go are hegirinjng to eillergc. Hopefullj, tlils book n ill :~s\ist these st:ikoliolder-s :ind tlle p ~ ~ h l ic at large to clnderstancl the pro1,leins in all tliets complexity so t11;it ade- quilte solr~tions c:in I x del~atecl and implemented 13efol.e it is too Inte for the South ,Afi.~ca~i c~ ty to negotiate the Lr,insitlon s~iccessf'ully.

Notes 1

I T h e \ \o~-cl 'tit!.' \\.ill \,c. i~sccl ;IS gener ic te1.111 IO rcl'c.1- Io ~ 1 1 1 urban cr)nc.cntl=itio~is. including \\,l~:it slioulcl niot-c. ;~c,cur-:~~el\ , h e c ~ ~ l l c d ' to~zmh' thar cit11c.1- Io1-171 1 ~ 1 r t 01' mctrc)l>olitan ;~gglomer ; i t io~is , 01- stancl ;ilonc ; ~ t t h e cent re of' rilral economies .

2 Tllis an:~l~ .s i s \X)SI.OL\.S cc.1-lain iclc;lh l'rom the seminal ;i~i;dy.sis 01' 11ie At ' r i~ , :~~i cjtlS clc.\~*lol~ccl I,!- l-'rccl Coopc.~. in his i n t roduc~ ion t o C o o l ~ e l F. S/t.lr,yc/cJb~- lhc (;'ill::

S e e 1 lintlxc )n l ) . 1'rr.s.~ <. i)~l / / -ol~ tr I / ( 1 1/10 l !/- l)( i / t ~ ! / ~ . ~ c ( I I I /-'~.o/cl/~//.i~r/ (.I( )li;~ t i ~ ~ e s l > c ~ I-g: \<:I\ :UI 10s7 t7ol. t h e I)cst :Icc,oLlnt of ~ l ~ i s ~>c.riocl o f r l ~ c : u n i o n rno\c. l l ic~lt 1111 t o tl~c ~nit l-IOSos sc(: 1:1~iecIl11:111 b. /311i/(/i1/g ' / ? J I I / o I . I . o / ~ ~ ~ ; ) ( , / [ L . I > : .,!/~YL-{/II l\-OrL~o~~~ 1 1 1 ~ ~ Y / [ / L J [ ' ~ t i o l ~ s , / O ~ ( & A ' I ( , J o ~ I ; I I ~ I I c . \ ~ > L I ~ ~ : 1k~v:irm I'l.c.\s 108-1,

S r r I,cc l i . :rnJ I ~ U I I ~ I I > ; I I ~ 1:. '7'111: l inhil lcs\ Scctor'h 111\-ol\ elllctil in I'o1ic.y (:li:~rlgc, 1980-SO' in (:clltl.e 1.01- i ~ o l i c ~ \ . St~lcl ies ,To//i/) A/jeic-(/ (11 / / X J / O / L / (!/.//w fiig/~/ic~.s. I ' O I ; ~ : ~ ~ /)r~/:s /~r~i- l i /v~.~ ( ~ [ o l ~ ~ i n n c . s l ) i ~ ~ ~ g : [ ni\,crsit!' or r h c \k'il\\~:~lc.~.s~.:~~icl, (:c.ntl-c. 1-01- Policy Sti~clies I OSO).

L~I-1x11-I I - o ~ I I ~ ~ I ; I L ~ ( )t2 l ) o / i ~ - i o . s , / i ) ~ ~ ~ ~ :\k>/i+ / / . I ? ( / / / 1:1111rr~~ ~ . ] o l i ; i ~ i ~ ~ c s l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ g : I- I - I X I I ~ P't ~Llllcl~1liO11 10~)O I 1, S e e S\\ illing h1. ' I ) e ~ . ; ~ c i ; ~ l i ~ c c l l i r l> ; tn iz ;~ t io l~ : :I (;rilicluc of t l ic Nc\\ l il-l>:~n Stl.;ltYgich ~11ic1 So111c. l)oli(:), 1'iltc1~11:11i\ c.< 1'1-0111 l ) ~ ~ ~ ~ i o c ~ ~ . z ~ t i c l ' e r spc~? i \ , e ' ,Soc.i(// I ? ) 8 ~ ~ f ~ ~ 7 / i c - . s 1 i i

( l k Y ~ O ) .

5c.c I{ol-:~inc !\. '\'i:l1:1111, Sllatn o r S c ~ ~ i l l ? - Scac.urity h l a ~ i ; ~ g c n i e n ! , L1pgr;~cling a n d l:casisl;~ nccr in a Sout 11 l\l'r-ir.an I'o\\ nhhip ' , 11:11>es prcscntecl ro t h e (:entr-c> for Afr.ic:~n Stuclies ilf'ric,;~ Scnlin:~r. ~ l ~ i i \ . c r s i t y 01. C:;rpc 'l'o\\-n, 2 l211gllst IOHS. ' l ' l ~ i s is t h c ~>i-oc,css ,~uciiccl C) ' l )onnell (;, ~1 ;I]. Ez117si/io1rs,fjn111 ~ l / / t h o / . i ~ c / ~ ~ i r / ~ / I?II/(J (13al~iniol.c ; ~ r l d ldonclotl: J o h n s l lo ;> lc i~ i s L1ni\,ersil). I'l.css 1 0 8 8 ) vols . 'I-+. 0 1 1 S ~ : I ~ I I ~ C L . ( ) ' l ~ o r i ~ ~ c I l C;. ct. :)I. 7?~11/ .s ; l io1?~s , f j . (~ /~t ~ ~ l ~ ~ r / ~ ? o ~ " i I ~ ~ ~ ~ i ( r ~ ~ 1<rr/c1: ~ S ~ I I / / X ~ I ~ I ?

~!/// .o&)c> (13~~li i111orc ;111cl L o ~ i ( l o ~ i , .Joliris I 1ol3l~iris 1 8~iivc~-sii!r I'I-cs:~ 19S8): (.~:~s~c!l,s h l . 7'170 (,'i()< c111r1 (;/.c~.ss~r~c,l.s (I3crl\c.lc.~ :~ncl 1,os Xngcles : I lni\.cl.sit). of' (::dil'ornia I'rc~ss lOH.3) r x 1 I . t 5, See. S\villing 21. 'l)olitic.;~l T'~.;~l>silion. l > c \ . c . l o p ~ n c ~ i t atlcl Civil Socict? ' ./!/j-icn Ir~.si,:,/nt ( lCj01). Seeb IIl-l);~n l- 'oi~nclat~ori . 01) . cit. S e c !i\villing 51. 2 n d Iiollcl 1'. ' Scenar io (:I. ;in I lnlil<cl>- 1)e:iI' lYor./,? iit I ' I ~ J ~ ~ I - L J . ~ . ~ ( 190 1 ) 7.3. in l ine \ \~ i th \\,hat I1:11,l)c,ns in Inost ,s.;ystc.111s ap;>roacheh. r l lcsc ;11-c l ieurist ic cle\ ic.c.5 fo r ~~tidcl.str!ncling t h e 'llo\v' 01' soci:ll p l l e n o r n e n a ~-;rtllc.~- 111;ln fully- s lc~ lgc( l ~ ~ o l l ~ ~ r ~ > l l l : l l LOOIS.

t 7 0 ~ - t l ~ i s ;Irgurnent src. 1I:ll)i11 A . .S~r t lggIc f o r 111e (;it>.: l i c l > a n i ~ : ~ l i o n :incl I'olitic;~l Str;it(::;.ics 01' t h c S o u t h i\l'cic:~n Sl:~tc' Sot-ill/ Q~i lc l~ l~ ic ' s ( 10891 15 i . S e e ( :ol>l~ett \V. ; \ I . ' A (:ritic:11 An:llysis o f S o u t h hl ' r ic . ;~ '~ S t ; ~ t e Kel'ornm Stralegic.\ in t h e lC)80\' in l ' la~lkel 1'. c.1 :I I . ( c d s . ) J'tntc., R ~ ~ . s i s / ~ ~ ~ r c c ~ cr~ttl C ~ ~ ~ I I I ~ L ~ ill So1itlj7 ./l/i.iccl ( l .o~ ic lon : CI-c )on1 1-lelm 1988 ).

Historical background of the apartheid city to 1948

Rodney Davenport

It t-eci~~irc-s an cffol-t of' the in~agint~tiori to gl-:tip tllc point th:it nland;itor)r url3:tn segsegation in southern Ah-ic:i is a de\rclopmer~t of the last h~~nclr-cd years. In a nulnlxr o f instances, 1oc;~l authol-i- ties pse\'ic>usly mc~de pi.o\,ision fclr the sep:~ratt' resiclenc~ of. Afl-icans: hut ~vith the exception of the Orai~ge FI-ee State (OFS) Volksra;id, \~rhicll took s~rclr 21 stcil-, in 1893, no Soutlr Mric;tn legii- 1;ltut-e c;tn-ied a general law cont~.ollit~g the o \ ~ n ~ r s h l p and occupn- tion of property in urban ;was Ixforc. the end o f the Anglo-Boer \w:1 r . '

Frv)m 1902 onwards tl~cre \\,as a change in the offici:~l ;ipp~.oach. inspired by the Milncr regin~e's Teutonic concern Sor orcterlitiess in the face of ii~creaslng African urbar~ization in an t ~ : i n1arl;t.d industrial growth and dorninr~tecl b y a (car of !ie;lltl.~ haznrds.' The Lagden Coln~nission recolninendccl the segl-eg:ttion of Africiins, but u-here the towns were concerned. this objective \\;IS only roughlj- sketched out.? The comn~ission wanted separate resiclential loc,i- tions occupicd 13y Africans n;l~ose ernployn~cnt entitled tllern to l>e in town, ~vhere they could eit11t.r I~uild home:, o f an acceptnblc standard, or live in council houses in supervised locations purged

t o f v:lgl-;ints, alcoholics, and prostitutes. Specific legislation accom- panied this ideological vision: the Nati~re Kesei-\re Locations Act in the Cape (1902), the Native Locations Act in I\i;it:11 (1904). :tnd the Orange Free t n t c Municipal Ordinance of 1903. \v\-liich took the 1893 legis1;ttion furtller hy tightening restrictiotls on Afi-icans xvho could not prove gainful employment. I11 tlic Transvaal, Inan)- ur-1,anized Africans were f-loused in mine componrids and were