AP English Literature & Composition

Ms. Morgan Imorgan@trschools.com HS East W24

2013-2014 Summer Reading Assignment

Welcome to the strange and exciting world of AP Literature!

Yes, we will work hard. Yes, we willieam a lot. Yes, we will have FUN!! (You might have to trust me on that last one .. .)

First, though, we have to get through the summer. And who wants to lie around on the beach or by the pool when you could be studying great literature? The good news is, you don't have to make that horrible choice-you can kill two birds with one stone!

Your AP Lit assignment for this summer has two parts:

(1) The Dastardly Lit Terms­

• Study the attached list of literary terms and definitions. They are one among several tickets to the Mystical Land of 5!

. Be prepared for a comprehensive vocabulary test in September. That will be one among several tickets to the Mystical Land of A+!

(2) The Dastardly Lit (naturally)­

• Read two (2) works from the reverse list that you have NOT read before. If you took AP Language last year instead of American Lit, then you MUST include at least one (l) American work among your selections.

• Complete a Yellow Review Form for each work you read. (Don't lose these! They are more tickets to your desired destination ... )

• Be prepared to write an extensive analysis of both works in September, including plot, character, and thematic development as well as the author's use of literary devices such as symbolism, figurative language (metaphors, similes, etc), imagery (visual as well as the other senses), character foils, parallel plot lines, etc.

· DO YOUR OWN INTERPRETIVE WORK! "Easy interpretation" sites such as SparkNotes, etc, are NOT acceptable sources of academic literary analysis, especially at the AP level. Additionally, working from such sites without crediting them is PLAGIARISM. Copying from one another is also plagiarism and is NOT allowed.

(See reverse for list ofSummer Reading selections.)

Read Two! (See front for further instructions.)

1984 (George Orwell) Love in the Time of Cholera

Atonement (Ian McEwan)

Beloved (Toni Morrison)

La Bete Humaine (Emile Zola)

Catch-22 (Joseph Heller)

The Catcher in the Rye (J.D. Salinger)

Crime and Punishment (Fyodor Dostoevsky)

Dr. Faustus (Christopher Marlow)

East of Eden (John Steinbeck)

Emma (Jane Austen)

A Farewell to Arms (Ernest Hemingway)

Faust, Part I (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)

For Whom the Bell Tolls (Ernest Hemingway)

The Glass Menagerie (Tennessee Williams)

The Grapes of Wrath (John Steinbeck)

The Great Gatsby (F. Scott Fitzgerald)

The Handmaid's Tale (Margaret Atwood)

Inferno (Part ~;fDivina Commedia) (Dante Alighieri)

Jude the Obscure (Thomas Hardy)

Les Miserables (The novel, not the musical!) (Victor Hugo)

(Gabriel Garcia Marquez)

Middlemarch (George Eliot, i.e. Mary Ann Evans)

Mrs. Dalloway (Virginia Woolf)

My Antonia (Willa Cather)

No Country for Old Men (Connac McCarthy)

One Hundred Years of Solitude (Gabriel Garcia Marquez)

The Poisonwood Bible (Barbara Kingsolver)

The Portrait of a Lady (Henry James)

Pygmalion (George Bernard Shaw)

The Scarlet Letter (Nathaniel Hawthorne)

Silas Marner (George Eliot, i.e. Mary Ann Evans)

The Stranger (Albert Camus)

A Streetcar Named Desire (Tennessee Williams)

The Sun Also Rises (Ernest Hemingway)

Their Eyes Were Watching God (Zora Neale Hurston)

Things Fall Apart (Chinua Achebe)

The Trial (Franz Kafka)

Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (Edward Albee)

NOTE: Please secure parentalpermission before reading any work listed.

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LIT

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AT

UR

E: R

eading Fiction, Poetry, and D

rama

Published by M

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Lib

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ng

ress Ca~oging-in-PublicationD

ata

DiY

anni, Robert.

I Li~erature: reading fiction, poetry, and dram

a 1 Ro

bert D

iYan

ni.-5

th ed.

I p.

cm.

I Includes bibliographical references and index. IS

BN

0_07'-242617-9 (:11k. paper) I

1. Literature. 2;-L

iterature-Collections. I.T

itle. ,P

N49 .0

52

2002:" '.

.

2001031249;808--<1c21

ww

w.m

hhe.com

About theA

uthor

iRo

bert D

iYanni is D

irector ofInternational Services for the College B

oard's A

dvanced Placem

ent Program

. Dr. D

iYanni has been a Professor o

fEnglish and

Hum

anities for nearly thirty years, including serving as Visiting Professor at

NY

U and H

arvard. He holds a B

.A. in E

nglish from R

utgers University and a

Ph.D

.from the C

ityU

niversity ofN

ewY

ork. D

r. DiY

anni has written and edited tw

o dozen books, primarily for college

students ofliterature and the hum

anities. His

publications include The McG

raw­

Hill Book ojP

oetry, me M

cGraw

-Hill B

ook ojFiction, W

riting about the Hum

anities, The Scribner H

andbook for Writers, The Insider's G

uide to College Success, and M

od­em

Am

erican Poets: Their liOices and Visions (a text to accompany the popular PB

S television series). H

e updated the most recent edition o

f Strunk and W

hite's classic E

lements oj Style and co-authored A

rts and Culture: A

n Introduction to the

liumanities, the basis for a lecture series at the M

etropolitan Museum

ofA

rt.

2I6

0

TIM

EL

INE

: L

ITE

RA

TU

RE

IN

Te

xt

,e (193(1.. ): "M,a

rriag

e Is a P

rivata A

r"; B

.mb

ara

(19

39

-): "Th

e L

esso

n"

(197 S

liko (194

): "Ye

llow

Wo

msn

"; Walker -

----­

(19

44

-):

veryd

lay U

se" (1973)

McP

herson (19 )=

"Wh

y I Like

Co

un

try ----­

Mu

sic" (1974)

Widem

an (19

41

-): "Da

mb

alla

h'

Mason (1940-): "S

hilo

h"; v

ale~1938-):

""m Y

our Horse lin the N

igh

t" (19~

A

two

od

(19

39

-): "Hla

pp

y En

din

gs"; C,

(1939-88): "Ca

th,e

dra

l"; Wasserstaln

(19

5G

-): Tender O

Oer(1983)

Hood (1

94

6-): "H

oV'V

Fa

r She W

en

t"; --.),\:~---l

K

inca

id (1949-I:: "G

irt"; Sanchez-S

cott (1

95

3-): The C

ulban Sw

lmm

er(1984) W

ilson

(1945-): Fe

nce

s (1985) L~

T. O

'Brie

n (1946-): "'T

he

Th

ing

s Th

ey

:-..,/

Carried"; D

ove (19

52

-): Thom

as and Be

ula

h

(1986)

Hegi (1

94

6-): "T

o the

Gate"; M

orrison, ~

Be

love

d (1987)

Hw

ang (19

57

-): M.

Bu

tterfly; M

ukherjee (1

94

G-): "T

he Te

na

nt" (1998)

Tan (1

95

2-), "R

ule

s 01 tha

Gam

e" (1989) M

cNally (1

93

9-): A

nd

re's M

other, Hall ('

Poems O

ld an

d N

ew (1990)

Cisneros (1

95

4-): ~

Eleven,"

"Ba

rb'

Q,"-----­

''There Was 8 M

elin, There Was

Wom

an," "W

oman H

olle

riflg C

raek" (1 1)

Ke

illor (1

94

2-): p

rod

/ga

l Son:

boon, Lost in ---­

Yonkers (1991)

Alexie (1961>-): "In

dia

n E

ca

tion

"; K

ushner, Angels in

Am

.

(1993)------­

Song (1955-

): SChool

ures (1994) ------

McK

enty (19

35

-): Fa

t/ro

m tha N

ucle

ar -

---­

Fam

ily; Sanchez

93

5-): D

oes you

r house have lions? C

ol (1

94

1-):

Th

eA

rtolD

n

/ng

(19

95

) L6pez (1

96

9-):

Imp

ly Maria; T

aylor (19

62

-): ---­

On

ly D,..,

sa

nd

Chl/dren T

el/th

e T

ruth (1996)

Alvarez (1

G-): "T

he

Kiss"; Jln

(19

56

-):----­

''Tak

g a Hu

sb..nd

"; Hirsh

field

(19

53

-): U~

01 the H

eat1 (1997) n

gl

der (19

71

-)' ''The T

um

ble

rs"; Jon 9

56

-): "Wh

o's Irish

?"; E

. O'B

rien (19

36

-): .

"lon

g D

istan

ce"; P

astan (19

32

-): Ca

mlva

lifEvening; P

rou

lx (19

35

-): ''Th

e B

un

chg

rass

. E

dge ot th

e W

orld

" (1996)

/­

• D

esai (19

37

-): ~'Di..mo

nd

Du

st" (2000) ~

. IIiIIIiIW

I"

CO

NT

EX

T

Glossary

Alleg

ory

A

symbolic narrative in w

hich the surface details imply a secondary m

eaning. Alle­

gory often takes the form o

f a story in which the characters represent m

oral qualities. The

most fam

ous example in E

nglish is John Bunyan's Pilgrim

's Progress, in which the nam

e ofthe

central character, Pilgrim

, epitomizes the book's allegorical nature. K

ay Boyle's story ','A

s­tronom

er's Wife" and C

hristina Rossetti's poem

"Up-H

ill" both contain allegorical elements.

Alliteratio

n

Th

e repetition of consonant sounds, especially at the beginning o

f words. E

xam­

ple:"Fetched

fresh, as1

suppose,offsome

sweetw

ood."H

opkins, "Inthev..lley o

ftheE

lwy."

An

apest

Tw

o unaccented syllables followed by an accented one, as in com

prehend or intervene.

An anapestic m

eter rises to the accented beat as in Byron's lines from

"Th

e Destruction o

f S

ennacherib": "An

d the sheen o

f their spears was like stars o

n the sea, I W

hen

the blue w

ave rolls nightly on deep Galilee."

An

tago

nist

A

character o

r force against

which

another character

struggles. C

reon is

Antigone's antagonist in S

ophocles' play Antigoni!; T

iresias is the antagonist of O

edipus in S

ophocles' Oedipus the K

ing. A

side

Words spoken by an actor directly to the audience w

hich are not "heard" by the other characters on stage during a play. In Shakespeare's O

thello, lago voices his inner thoughts a num

ber of tim

es as "asides" for the play's audience. A

sson

ance

Th

e repe~ition

ofsim

ilar vowel sounds in a sentence o

r a line ofpoetry o

r prose, as in "I rose and told him

ofm

y woe."W

hitman's "W

hen

I Heard the L

earn'd Astronom

er" contains assonantal ''I's'' in the follow

ing lines: "Ho

w soon unaccountable I becam

e tired

and sick, I Till rising and gliding o

ut I w

ander'd offb

y m

yself." A

ub

ade

A love lyric in w

hich the speaker complains about the arrival o

f the dawn, w

hen he m

ust part from his 10ver.John D

onne's "Th

e Sun R

ising" exemplifies this poetic genre.

Ballad

A

narrative poem w

ritten in four-line stanzas, characterized by swi'ft action and nar­

rated in a direct style.Th

e anonymous m

edieval ballad "Barbara A

llan" exemplifies the genre.

Blan

k v

erse A

line ofpoetry or prose in unrhym

ed iambic pentam

eter. Shakespeare's sonnets, M

ilton's epic poem Paradise Lost, and R

ob

ert Frost's meditative poem

s such as "BircheS"

21

61

'G

eorge W. B

ush elected president

I

2 1

/

GL

OS

SA

RY

....,.

.,--~<

include many lines o

f blank verse. Here are the opening blank verse lines o

f "Birches"·,

"Wh

en I see birches bend .to the left and right / A

cross the lines ofstraighter darker tre

I like to think some boy's been sw

ingng them."

. .~ .

Caesu

ra A

strong pause within a line o

fverse. Th

e following stanza from

HardY's'''Th~ MJ.,j 1

He K

illed" contains caesuras in the middle o

f two lines:

!. 1H

e thought he'd 'list, perhaps, 'I It

Off-h

and

-like-ju

st as 1­

Was out o

fwo

rk-h

ad

sold his trap

s­1 1 II I

No

other reason why.

Catastro

ph

e T

he action at the end o

f a tragedy that initiates thl1. denouement o

r faIl!Eg~,a..t~'· tion o

f a play. On

e example is the dueling scene in A

ct V o

f Ham

let in which H

amlet.dies,

along with L

aertes, King C

laudius, and Qu

een G

ertrude. C

atharsis

Th

e purging of the feelings o

f pity and fear that, according to Aristotle, occurs in

the audience of tragic dram

a. Th

e audience experiences catharsis at the end ofthe play, fol­

lowing the catastrophe.

Ch

aracter A

n imaginary person that inhabits a literary w

ork. Literary characters m

ay be ma­

jor o

r minor, static (unchanging) o

r dynamic (capable o

f change). In Shakespeare's q~h.~lI..A

Desdem

ona is a major character, b

ut one w

ho is static, like the minor character B,~~nca.

Othello is a m

ajor character who is dynam

ic, exhibiting an ability to change. :

<>.;,

Ch

aracterization

T

he m

eans by which w

riters present and reveal character.Although,:~ech~

niques of characterization are com

plex, writers typically reveal characters through,!their

speech, dress, manner, and actions. R

eaders come to understand the character M

iss EmifX~~' Faulkner's story"A

Rose for E

mily" through w

hat she says, how she lives, and w

hat sh~f floes'.

Ch

oru

s A

group ofcharacters in G

reek tragedy (and in later forms o

fdrama) w

ho

cO!]ffi1e.!3~ on the action o

f a play without participation in it. T

heir leader is the choragos. SOPhocles'

Antigone and O

edipus the King both contain an explicit chorus w

ith a choragos. Teppessee

William

s's Glass M

enagerie contains a character who functions like a chorus.

Clim

ax

Th

e turning point of the action in the plot o

f a play or story. T

he c

limaxrepr~s.~9.~

the point ofgreatest tension in the w

ork.Th

e climax o

fJohn Updike's "A

&P," for exam

ple, occurs w

hen Sam

my quits his jo

b as a cashier.

Clo

sed fo

rm

A type o

f form o

r structure in poetry characterized by regularity and cq~~s-:­tency in sllch elem

ents as rhyme, line length, and m

etrical pattern. Frost's "Stopp~ng

by W

oods on

a Snow

y Evening" provides one o

f many exam

ples. A single stanza illustrates

some o

f the features of closed form

:' ... "

Whose w

oods there are I think I know.

His house is in the village though.

He w

ill no

t see me stopping here

To w

atch his woods fill up w

ith snow.

Co

med

y

A type o

f drama in w

hich the characters experience reversals of fortune, usually

for the better. In comedy, things w

ork out happily in the end. Com

ic drama m

ay be e

~­

ther rom

antic-ch

aracterized by a tone o

f tolerance and gen

iality-o

r satiric. Satiric'

works offer a darker vision o

f human nature, one that ridicules hum

an folly. Shaw's A

rms

and the Man is a rom

antic comedy; C

hekhov's A M

arriage Proposal is a satiric comedy. ".

Glossary

21

63

Co

mic relief

Th

e use of a com

ic scene to interrupt a succession. of intensely tragic dra­

matic m

oments.T

he

comedy

ofscenes

offeringcom

icrelieftypically

parallels the.tragic action that the scenes interrupt. C

omic reliefis lacking in G

reek tragedy, but occurs.reg.:. ularly in Shakespeare's tragedies. O

ne exam

ple is the opening scene ofA

ctV o

f Ham

let, in w

hich a gravedigger banters with H

amlet.

Co

mp

lication

A

n intensification ofthe conflict in

a story or play. C

omplication builds up,

accumulates, and

develop~ the prim

ary OF central conflict'in a literary w

ork. Frank

O'C

on

no

r's story "Guests o

f the Nation" provides a striking exam

ple, as does Ralph E

l­lison's "B

attle Royal."

Co

nflict

A struggle betw

een opposing forces in a story or play, usually resolved'by the end

of the w

ork. Th

e conflict may occur w

ithin a character as well as betw

een characters.

Co

nn

otatio

n

Th

e associations called up by a word that go beyond its dictionary m

eaning. Poets, especially, tend to use w

ords rich in connotation, Dylan T

homas's "D

o not go gen­

tle into that good night" includes intensely connotative language, as in these lines: "Good

men, the last w

ave by, crying how bright / T

heir frail deeds might have danced in a green

bay, I Rage, rage against the dying o

f the light." .

.

Co

nv

entio

n

A custom

ary feature of a literary w

ork, such as the use of a chorus in G

reek tragedy, the inclusion o

f an explicit moral in a fable, o

r the use of a pailicular rhym

e schem

e in a villanelle. L

iterary conventions are defining features of particular literary

genres, such as novel, short story, ballad, sonnet, and play.

Co

up

let A

pair of rhym

ed lines that may

or m

ay not constitute a separate stanza in a poem.

Shakespeare's sonnets end in rhym

ed couplets, as in "Fo

r thy sweet lQ

ve remem

bered such w

ealth brings / Th

at then I scorn to change niy state with kings."

Dacty

l A

stressed syllable followed by tw

o unstressed ones, as injIut-ter-lng or blue-bir-fy.

Th

e following playful lines illustrate double dactyls, tw

o dactyls per line:

Higgledy piggledy,

Em

ily Dickinson

Gibbering; jabbering.

Den

otatio

n

Th

e dictionary meaning o

f a word. W

riters typically play

off a w

ord's denota­tive m

eaning against its connotations, or suggested and im

plied associational implications.

In the following lines from

Peter M

einke's "Advice to M

y S

on," the references to flowers

and fruit, bread and wine denote specific things, b

ut also suggest som

ething beyond the literal, dictionary m

eanings of the w

ords:

To be specific, betw

een the peony and rose .J.::'

Plant squash and spinach, turnips and tom

atoes; B

eauty' is nectar and nectar, in"a 'desert, sav

es-

, 'I· ·il..

;/,;

.:

'I '.,J

and always serve bread w

ith your wine.

But, son,

always serve w

ine. ~-: it,.-•.

j, ~ •.•/

Den

ou

emen

t T

heresolution

ofthe

plot ofa

literaryw

ork.Th

edenouem

ento

fHam

let .bk~s place after the catastrophe, w

ith the stage littered with corpses. D

uring. the deno~ement

,j!'1

2164 G

LO

SS

AR

Y

Fortinbras m

akes an ~ntrance and a speech, and H

oratio speaks his sweet lines in praise o

f H

amlet.

Deus ex m

achina A

god wh

o resolves the entanglem

ents of a play by supernatural interven­

tion. Th

e Latin phrase m

eans, literally, "a god from the m

achine."The phrase refers to

the use o

fartificial means to resolve the plot o

fa play. D

ialog

ue

Th

e conversation ofcharacters in a literary w

ork. In fiction and poetry dialogue:is typically enclosed w

ithin quotation marks. S

ee Frost's "Ho

me B

urial" for an example. In

plays, characters' speech is preceded by their names.

~

Dictio

n

Th

e selection ofw

ords in a literary work.A

work's diction form

s one ofits centrally im

portant literary elements, as w

riters use words to convey action, reveal character;'im

ply attitudes, identify them

es, and suggest values. We can speak o

f the diction particular to a character, as in Iago's and D

esdemona's very different w

ays ofspeaking in O

thello:· We'crn.

also refer to a poet's diction as represented over the body ofhi~ o

r her work, as in'D

onne's or H

ughes's diction. ,II

Dram

atic mo

no

log

ue

A type o

fpo

em in w

hich a speaker addresses a silent Iistener.As'read~. ers, w

e overhear the speaker in a dramatic m

onologue. Ro

bert B

rowning's "'M

yfLast

Duchess" represents the epitom

e of the genre.

·· ....,v·I>iJ

Dram

atispersonae L

atin for the characters or persons in

a play. Included among the':dram

atis' personae o

f Miller's D

eath ofa Salesman are W

illy Lom

an, the salesman, ius w

ife ,Lintla': arid

his sons Biff and H

appy.

..' : .~ I.

;I. E

legy

A

lyric po

em that lam

ents the dead. Ro

bert H

ayden's "Those W

inter Sunda~s"iis ele­

giac in tone. A

more explicitly identified elegy is W

H. A

uden's "In M

emo

ry ofW

ilIiam"

BuderY

eats" and his "Funeral B

lues." •

II E

lision

T

he om

ission ofan unstressed vow

el or syllable to preserve the m

eter ofa Iin~'ljf'~o~

etry.A1exander uses elision in "S

ound and Sense": "Flies o

'erth' unbending corn.'.·!""

. ,..:. E

njam

bm

ent

A ru

n-o

n line o

fpoetry in which.logical and gram

matical sense carrieseYG~t,..

II from

one line into the next. An enjam

bed line differs from an end-stopped line inwiiicli~;

the gramm

atical and logical sense is completed w

ithin the line. In the opening line~ :'ot

Ro

bert B

rowning's "M

y L

ast Duchess;' for exam

ple, the first line is end-stop~~.1;;~j~{*;

II =~~~

.

That's m

y last Duchess painted o

n the w

all, L

ooking as ifshe were alive. I call

Th

at piece a wonder, now

...

Ep

ic A

long narrative po

em that records the adventures o

f a hero. Epics typically'dironi:a

theorigins o

facivilization

andem

bodyits centralvalues.E

xamples

fromW

esternIiteratute..

include Hom

er's iliad and Odyssey, V

irgil's Aeneid, and M

ilton's Paradise Lost. .

. E

pig

ram

A b

rief witty poem

, often satirical. Alexander P

ope's "Epigram

eng

raved

,chth

. C

ollar of a D

og

" exemplifies the genre:

I am his H

ighness' dog at Kew

;· P

ray tell me, sir, w

hose dog are you?

Ex

po

sition

T

he first stage o

f a fictional or dram

atic plot, in wh

ich necessary backgrtiuitd :

~

formation is provided. Ibsen's A

Doll H

ouse, for instance, begins With a conversati0nib-e~

the two central characters, a dialogue that fills the audience in on events that oc~~n-:;d:b{,i6'

the action ofthe play begins, but w

hich are important in the developm

ent ofits p

lot

Glossary

...

Fable

A b

riefstory with an explicit m

oral provided by the author. Fables typically include an­im

als as characters. Their m

ost famous practitioner in the W

est is the ancient Greek w

riter A

esop, whose "T

he D

og and the Shadow

" and "Th

e Wolf and the M

astiff" are included in this book. C

ompare Parable.

Fallin

g actio

n

In the plot o

fa story or play, the action following the clim

ax ofthe w

ork that m

oves it towards its denouem

ent or resolution. T

he falling action o

f Othello begins after

Othello realizes that Iago is responsible for plotting against him

by spurring him o

n to

murder his w

ife, Desdem

ona. '

.

Falling m

eter P

oetic meters such as trochaic and dactylic that m

ove or fall from a stre~sed to

an unstressed. syllable. The nonsense line, "H

iggledy, piggledy," is dactylic, with' the accent

on the first syllable and the two syllables follow

ing falling offfrom that accent in each w

otd'. T

rochaic meter is represented by this line: "H

ip-hop, be-bop, treetop

-freedo

m?

Fictio

n

An im

agined story, whether in prose, poetry, o

r drama, or an im

agined character-a

"fiction." Ibsen's Nora is fictional, a "m

ake-believe" character in a play, as are Ham

let and O

thello. Characters like R

ob

ert Brow

ning's Duke and D

uchess from his poem

"My

Last

Duchess" are fictional as w

ell, though they may be based on actual historical individuals.

And, o

fcourse, characters in stories and novels are fictional, t110ugh they, too,.may be based,

in some w

ay, on real people.Th

e important thing to rem

ember is that w

riters embellish and

embroider and alter actual life w

hen they use real life as the basis for their work; T

hey fic­tionalize facts, deviate from

real life situations as they "make things up." .

Fig

urativ

e lang

uag

e A

form o

f language use in which w

riters and speakers convey some­

thing other than the literal ineaning oftheir w

ords. Exam

ples include hyperbole or exagger­

ation, litotes or understatem

ent, simile and m

etaphor, which em

ploy comparison, and syne(doche

and metonym

y, in which a part o

f a thing stands for the whole.

Flash

back

A

n interruption ofa w

ork's chronology to describe or present an incident that oc­curred prior to the m

ain time fram

e of a w

ork's action. Writers use flashbacks to com

pli­cate the sense o

f chronology in the plot of their w

orks and to convey the richness of the

experience of hum

an time. Faulkner's story "A

Rose for E

mily" includes flashbacks.

Fo

il A

character wh

o contrasts and parallels the m

ain character in a play or story. L

aertes, in H

amlet, is a foil for the m

ain character; in Oihello, E

milia and B

ianca are foils for Desdem

ona. F

oo

t A

metrical unit com

posed of stressed and unstressed syllables. F

or example, an iam

b or iam

bic foot is represented by "' that is, an unaccented syllable followed by an accented one.

Frost's line "Whose w

oods these are I think I know" contains four iam

bs, and is thus an

iambic foot.

Fo

reshad

ow

ing

H

ints of w

hat is to come in the action o

f a play or a story. Ibsen's A

Doll

House includes foreshadow

ing as does Synge's Riders to the Sea. So, too, do Poe's "C

ask of

Am

ontillado" and Chopin's "S

tory of an H

our." F

ou

rth w

all T

he im

aginary wall o

f the box theater setting, supposedly removed to allow

the audience to see the action. T

he fourth w

all is especially comm

on in modern and contem

­porary plays, such as H

ansberry's A R

aisin in the Sun, Wasserstein's Tender O

ffer, and Wilson's

Fences. F

reev

erse P

oetryw

ithouta

regularpattern o

fmeter

orrhym

e.Th

everse

is"free"

innot

be­ing bound by earlier poetic conventions requiring poem

s to adhere to an explicit and iden­tifiable m

eter and rhyme schem

e in a form such as the sonnet o

r ballad. Modern and

contemporary poets o

f the twentieth and tw

enty-first centuries often employ free verse:

William

s's "This Is Just to Say" is one o

f many exam

ples.

GL

OS

SA

RY

Gestu

re T

he physical m

ovement o

f a character during a play. Gesture is used to reve'al char­

acter, and may include facial expressions as w

ell as movem

ents of other parts o

f an actor's body. S

ometim

es a playwright w

ill be very explicit about both bodily and facial gestures, providing detailed instructions in the play's stage directions. Shaw

's Arm

s and the Man in­

cludes such stage directions. See Stage direction.

Hy

perb

ole

A figure o

f speech involving exaggeration. John Do

nn

e uses hyperbole in_his

poem "S

ong: Go and C

atch a Falling Star."

Iamb

A

n ullStressed syllable followed by a stressed one, as in today. See Foot.

Iamb

ic pen

tameter

A poetic line o

f five iambic feet: W

hen

i;l. disgrace With fortune and

mel'i's eyes.

~

Imag

e A

concrete representation of a sense im

pression, a feeling, or an idea. Imagery refers to

the pattern of related details in a w

ork. In some w

orks one image predom

inates either by recurring throughout the w

ork or by appearing at a critical point in the plot. Often w

rit­ers use m

ultiple images throughout a w

ork to suggest states offeeling and to convey im

pli­cations o

f thought and action. Som

e modern poets, such as E

zra Pound and W

illiam C

arlos W

illiams, w

rite poems that lack discursive explanation entirely and include only im

ages. A

mong the m

ost f.1mous exam

ples is Pound's p

oem

"In a S

tation of the M

etro":

Th

e apparition of these faces in the crow

d; Petals o

n a w

et, black bough.

Imag

ery

Th

e pattern of related com

parative aspects of language, particularly o

f images, in a

literary work. Im

agery of light and darkness pervades Jam

es Joyce's stories "Araby:' "T

he

Boarding H

ouse," and "Th

e Dead." So, too, does religious im

agery. Iro

ny

' A

contrast or discrepancy betw

een what is said and w

hat is meant o

r between w

hat happens and w

hat is expected to happen in life and in literature. In verbal irony, characters say the opposite o

f what they m

ean. In irony of circum

stance or situation, the opposite o

f w

hat is expected occurs. In dran1<1tic irony, a character speaks in ignorance ofa situation o

r event know

n to the audience or to the other characters. F

lannery O'C

onnor's short stories

employ all these form

s of irony, as does Poe's "C

ask ofA

montillado."

Literallan

gu

age

A form

oflanguage in which w

riters and speakers mean exactly w

hat their w

ords denote. See Figurative language, Denotation, and C

onnotation. L

yric p

oem

A

type of poem

characterized by brevity, compression, and the expression o

f feeling. M

ost of the poem

s in this book are lyrics. Th

e anonymous "W

estern Win

d" epito­

mizes the genre:

Western W

ind, when w

ill thou blow,

Th

e small rain dow

n can rain? C

hrist, if my love w

ere in my arm

s A

nd I in my bed again!

Metap

ho

r A

comparison betw

een essentially unlike things without an explicitly com

parative w

ord such as like or as. An exam

ple is "My

love is a red, red rose," from B

urns's "A R

ed,

Red

Rose." L

angston Hughes's "D

ream D

eferred" is built entirely ofm

etaphors. Metaphor

Gloss.ary

21

67

is oneo

fthem

ostimportant o

fliteraryuses oflanguage.S

hakespeareem

ploysa

wide range

of m

etaphor in his sonnets and his plays, often in such density and profusion that readers are kept busy analyzip.g and interpreting and unraveling them

. Com

pare Simile.

Meter

Th

e measured pattern o

f rhythmic accents in poem

s. See Foot and Iam

b. M

eton

ym

y

A figure o

f speech in which a closely related term

is substituted for an object or idea. A

n example: "W

e have alWolYS rem

ained loyal to the crown.~' Com

pare Synecdoche. M

on

olo

gu

e A

speech by a single character without another character:s response. See D

ramatic

monologue and Soliloquy.

.

Narrativ

e po

em

A

poem that tells a'Story. S

ee Ballad.

Narrato

r T

he voice and im

plied speaker ofa fictional w

ork, to be distinguished from the ac­

tualliving author. For exam

ple, the narrator ofJoyce's "A

raby" is no

t James Joyce him

self b

ut a literary fictional character created expressly to tell the story. F

aulkner's"A R

ose for E

mily" contains a com

munal narrator, identified only as "w

e." See Point of view

. N

oveUa

A short novel,as, for exam

ple, Kafka's "T

he M

etamorphosis."

Octav

e A

neight-line

unit,which

may

constitutea

stanza or

asection o

fapoem

,'as inthe

oc­tave o

f a sonnet. O

de

A long, stately poem

in stanzas ofvaried length, m

eter, and form. U

sually a serious poem

on

an exalted subject, such as Horace's "E

heu fugaces," bu

t sometim

es a more lighthearted

work, such as N

eruda's "Ode. to M

y Socks."

On

om

atop

oeia

Th

e use of w

ords to imitate the sounds they describe. W

ords such as buzz and crack are onom

atopoetic.Th

e following from

Pop~'s "Sound and S

ense" onomatopoet­

ically imitates in sound w

hat it describes:

Wh

en A

jax strives some rock's vast w

eight to throw,

Th

e line too labors, and the words m

ove slow.

Most often, how

ever, o.nomatopoeia refers to w

ords and groups ofw

ords, such as Tennyson's

descriptiono

fthe"m

urm

qr

ofinnum

erablebees,"

which attem

pts to capture thesound o

fa Sw

.Irm o

fbees buzzing. O

pen

form

A

type of structure o

r form in

poetry characterized by freedom from

regular­ity and consistency in

such elements as rhym

e, line length, metrical pattern, and overall

poetic structure. E. E

. Cum

mings's "B

uffalo Bill's" is one exam

ple. See also Free verse.

Parab

le A

briefstory that teaches a lesson often ethical o

r spiritual. Exam

ples include "Th

e P

rodigal Son," from

the New

Testam

ent, and the Zen

parable, "Learning to B

e Silent."

Com

pare Fable. P

arod

y

A hum

orouos, mocking im

itation of a literary w

ork, sometim

es sarcastic, but often playful and even respectful in

its playful imitation. E

xamples include B

ob MeK

enty's par­ody o

f Frost's "Du

st of S

now" and K

enneth Koch's parody o

fWilliam

s's "This Is Just to

Say." P

atho

s A

quality of a play's action that stim

ulates the audience to feel. pity for a character. P

athos is alWolys an aspect o

f tragedy, and may b

e present in comedy as v:.ell.

Perso

nificatio

n

Th

e endowm

ent ofinanim

ate objects or abstract concepts w

ith animate o

r living qualities. A

n exam

ple: "Th

e yellow leaves flaunted their color gaily in the breeze.','

Wordsw

orth's "I WoIndered lonely as a cloud" exem

plifies personification. "r'

.I

2168 G

LO

SS

AR

Y

Plo

t T

he unified structure o

f incidents in a literary work. See C

onflict, Clim

ax, Denouem

ent,

and Flashback. ",

Po

int o

f view

T

he angle o

f vision from w

hich a story is narrated. A w

ork's point of view

can be first person, in w

hich the narrator is a character or an observer; objective, in w

hich the narrator know

s or appears to know

no

more than the reader; om

niscient, in which th~ .

narrator knows everything about the characters; and lim

ited omniscient, w

hich allows the

narrator to know som

e things about the characters bu

t no

t everything. See N

arrator. . .-1,.

Pro

ps

Articles or objects that appear o

n stage during a play. T

he C

hristmas tree in A

Do'll

Hor./se and L

aura's collection of glass anim

als in The Glass M

enagerie are examples.

Pro

tago

nist

Th

e main character o

f a literary wo

rk-H

amlet and O

thello in the plays nam

ed after them, G

regor Samsa in K

afka's Metam

orphosis, Paul in L

awrence's "R

ocIqng-"

Horse W

inner." P

yrrh

ic A

metrical foot w

ith two unstressed syllables ("o

f the").

Qu

atrain

A four-line stanza in a poem

, the first four lines and the second four lines in a Pe~ trarchan sonnet. A

Shakespearean sonnet contains three quatrain's follow

ed by a couplet.

Reco

gn

ition

T

he point at w

hich a character understands his or her situation as it really is.

Sophocles' O

edipus comes to this point near the end o

f Oedipus the K

ing; Othello com

es

to a similar understanding o

f his situation in ActV

of O

thello. R

esolu

tion

T

he sorting o

ut or unraveling o

f a plot at the end of a play, novel, o

r story. See

Plol and Denouem

enl. R

eversal

Th

e point at which the action o

f the plot turns in an unexpected direction (or the protagonist. O

edipus' and Othello's recognitions are also reversals. T

hey

learn what they

did not expect to learn. See R

ecognition and also Irony. R

hy

me

Th

e matching o

f final vowel o

r consonant sounds in two o

r more w

ords. Th

e fol­low

ing stanza of R

ic/lard Cory em

ploys alternate rhyme, w

ith. the third line rhyming w

ith

the first and the fourth with the second:

Whenever R

ichard Co

ry w

ent down tow

n, W

e people on the pavement looked at him

; H

e was a gendem

an from sole to crow

n, C

lean favored and imperially slim

.

Rh

yth

m

Th

e recurrence of accent o

r stress in lines of verse. In the follow

ing lines from

"Sam

e in Blues" by L

angston Hughes, the accented w

ords and syllables are underlined:

I mrl to illy baby,

~by

t..'\ke it ~ ...

ldllu said to I&2nard,

I Y!1alll a .diam

ond ~

Risin

g actio

n

A set o

f conflicts and crises that constitute that part of a play's or story's plot

leading up to the climax. See C

limax, D

enouement, and Plot.

Risin

g m

eter P

oetic meters such as iam

bic and anapestic that move or ascend from

an un~

stressed to a stressed syllable. See Anapest, Iam

b, and Falling Meter.

Satire

A literary w

ork that criticizes human m

isconduct and ridicules vices, stupidities, and follies. Sw

ift's Gr<lIiver~< Travels is a fam

ous example. C

hekhov's A M

arriage Proposal and O

'Connor's "E

verything Th

at Rises M

ust Converge" have strong satirical elem

ents.

bG

lossary

Sestet

A six-line unit o

f verse constituting a stanza or section of a poem

; the last six lines of an Italian sonnet. E

xamples: Petrarch's "Ifit is not love, then w

hat is it that I feel" and Frost's "D

esign." S

estina

A poem

of dllrty-nine lines w

ritten in iam

bic pentameter. Its six-line stanzas repeat

in an intricate and prescribed order the final word in each o

f the first six lines. After the

sixth stanza, there is a three-line envoi, which uses the six repeating w

ords, two w

ords, two

per line. S

etting

T

he

time

andplace o

faliterary

work

thatestablish

itscontext.T

he

storieso

fSandra C

isneros are set in the Am

erican Southw

est in the mid-

to late twentieth century, those o

f Jam

es Joyce in Dublin, Ireland, in the early tw

entieth century.

Sim

ile A

figure of speech involving a com

parison between unlike things using like, as, or as

though. An exam

ple: "My

love is like a red, red rose." Com

pare Metaphor.

So

liloq

uy

A

speech in a play that is meant to be heard by the audience but not by other char­

acters on

the stage. If there are no other characters present, the soliloquy represents the character thinking aloud. H

amlet's "T

o be or not to be" speech is an exam

ple. Com

pare A

side and Monologue.

So

nn

et A

fourteen-line poem in iam

bic pentameter. T

he Shakespearean o

r English sonnet is

arranged as du

ee quatrains and a final couplet, rhyming abab cdcd efefgg. The./letrarchan or

Italian sonnet divides into two parts: an eight-line octave and a six-line sestet, rhym

ing abba abba cde cde or abba abba cd cd cd.

Sp

on

dee

A m

etrical foot represented by two stressed syllables, such as kn{ck~knack.

Stag

e directio

n

A playw

right's descriptive or interpretive com

ments that provide readers

(and actors) wiili inform

ation about the dialogue, setting, and action of a play. M

odern playw

rights, including Ibsen, Shaw, M

iller, and William

s, tend to include substantial stage directions, w

hile earlier playwrights typically used them

more sparsely, im

plicitly, or not at

all. See G

esture. S

tagin

g

Th

e spectacle a play presents in performance, including the position o

factors on stage, the scenic background, the props and costum

es, and ilie lighting and sound effects.Tennessee

William

s describes these in his detailed stage directions for The Glass M

enagerie and also in his

Production N

otes for the play. S

tanza

A division or unit o

( a poem that is repeated in ilie sam

e form

-either w

iili similar or

identical patterns or rhyme and m

eter, or w

ith variations from one stanza to anoilier. T

he stanzas o

f Gertrude S

chnackenberg's "Signs" are regular; those o

f Rita D

ove's "Canary" are

irregular. S

tyle T

he w

ayan author chooses words, and arranges them

in sentences or in lines of dialogue

or verse, and develops ideas and actions with description, im

agery, and other literary tech­niques. See

also C

onnotation, D

enotation, D

iction, Figurative

language, Im

age, Im

agery, Irony,

Metaphor, Narrator, Point ofview, Syntax, and Tone.

Su

bject

Wh

at a story or play is about; to be distinguished from

plot and theme. Faulkner's "A

Ro

se for Em

ily" is about the decline of a particular w

ay of life endem

ic to the Am

erican S

ouili before ilie CivilW

ar.Th

at is its subject. (Its plot is ho

w F

aulkner organizes the actions o

f the story's characters. Its ilieme is the overall m

eaning Faulkner conveys.)

Su

bp

lot

A subsidiary or subordinate or parallel plot in a play o

r story iliat coexists wiili the

main plot.T

he story ofR

osencrantz and Guildenstern form

s a subplot wit!J.in ilie overall plot

of H

amlet.

Sy

mb

ol

An object or action in a literary w

ork that means m

ore than itself, that stands for some­

thing beyond itself.The glass unicorn in The G

lass Menagerie, the rocking horse in "T

he Roc~­

ing-Horse W

inner," the road in Frost's "Th

e Ro

ad N

otTaken"--a1l are sym

bols in this sense.

GL

OS

SA

RY

Sy

necd

och

e A

figure ofspeech in w

hich a part is substituted for the whole.A

n exam

ple:"Lend

me a hand." C

ompare M

etonymy.

Sy

ntax

T

he granunatical order o

fwords in a sentence o

r line of verse o

r dialogue. Th

e organi­z.1tion o

fwords and phrases and clauses in sentences o

fprose, verse, and dialogue. In the fol­

lowing exam

ple, normal syntax (subject, verb, object order) is inverted: "W

hose woods these

are I think 1know

."

Tale

A story that narrates strange happenings in a direct m

anner, without detailed descriptions o

f character. P

etronius' "Th

e Wid

ow

ofE

phesus" is an example.

-

Tercet

A three-line stanza, as exem

plified by Shelley's "Ode to the W

est Wind."T

he three-line stan­zas or sections that together constitute the sestet o

f a Petrarchan or Italian sonnet. T

erza rima

A three-line stanz:lic pattern w

ith interlocking tercet rhymes: aba bcb, and so on, as in

Frost's "Acquainted w

ith the Night."

Th

eme

Th

e idea ofa Iiternry w

ork abstracted from its details o

flangua~e, character, and action, and

cast in the form o

f a generalization. See the discussion of D

ickinson's "Crum

bling is not an inst.1nt's A

ct." T

on

e T

he implied attitude o

f a writer tow

ard the subject and characters of a w

ork, as, for example,

Flannery O'C

onnor's ironic tone in her "Good C

ountry People." Com

pare Irony. T

raged

y

A type o

f drama in w

hich the characters experience reversals of fortune, usually for the

worse. In tragedy, cat.1strophe and suffering aw

ait many o

f the characters, especially the hero. Ex­

amples include Shakespeare's O

thello and Ham

let; Sophocles' A

ntigone and Oedipus the K

ing; A

rthur Miller's D

eath ofa Salesman. See Tragic.flaw

and Tragic Hero.

Trag

ic flaw

A w

eakness or limitation o

f character, resulting in the fall of the tragic hero. O

thello's

jealousy is one example. See Tragedy and

Tra<~;c hero. T

ragic

hero

A

privileged,exaltedcharacter o

fhighrepute,w

ho, byvirtue

ofa

tragic flawand

fate, suffers a f.11l from

glory into suffering. Sophocles' O

edipus is an example. See Tragedy and Tragic

.flaw. T

ragico

med

y

Works o

f drama that include and blend tragic anQ

comic elem

ents in fairly equal m

easure. lonesco's The Gap is one exam

ple. T

roch

ee A

n accented syllable followed by an unaccented one, as inf6otbiH

i.

Un

derstatem

ent

A figure o

f speech in which a w

riter or speaker says less than what he or she

means; the opposite o

f exaggeration. The last line o

f i"rost's "Birches" illustrates this literary de­

vice:"One could do w

orse than be a swinger o

f birches." U

nities

The idea that a play should be lim

ited to a specific time, place, and story line. T

he events

of the plot should occur w

ithin a twenty-four hour period, should occur w

ithin a given geo­graphic locale, and should tell a single stoty. A

ristotle argued that Sophocles' Oedipus the K

ing was

the perfect play for embodying the "unities."

Villanelle

A nineteen-line lyric poem

that relies heavily on repetition.The first and third lines alternate

throughout the poem, w

hich is structured in six stanzas-five tercets and a concluding quatrain.

Exam

plesinclude B

ishop's"One

Art:'R

oethke's"T

heW

aking:'andT

homas's

"Do

not go gentle into that good night."

\ Acknowledgmen

\

iU\;;"

'-'(11

. -: ; ~.

10

·" ;r

.,

CH

INU

A A

CH

EB

E

"Marriage

s a rivate A

ffair" from G

irls at War and O

ther Stories by C

hinua Achebe. C

opyright 1972,

973 by Ch

inu

a Achebe. U

sed by permission o

fDo

u­

bleday, a division of R

and

H

ouse, c. R

eprin

ted by perm

ission of H

arold Ob

er Asso­

ciates Incorporated.D

IAN

E A

CK

ER

MA

N

"pid

ers" from

Jag r o

f Sweet LA

ughter by Dian

e Ackerm

an. Copy­

right © 1991. R

epr'

ted by permi~sion 0 R

and

om

House, Inc. E

xcerp

t from "W

hat a

Po

em K

nows" by

lane Ackerm

an reprinte from

The W

riter on Her W

ork, edited by Janet S

ternberg, by pe

. sion ofW.W

. No

rton

&

ompany, Inc. C

op

yrig

ht ©

1980 byW.W

.

No

rton

& C

o

any, Inc. B

EL

LA

AK

H

UL

INA

"T

he B

ride" by B

ella m

adulina, translated by Stephen S

tep­anchev. C

o

righ

t C

1966 by

Harper's M

agazine. ep

rinted

by permission o

f Stephen

Stepanch

. A

NN

A A

X.

TO

VA

"R

equ

iem" from

Poems o

fAnna

hmatova, translated by M

ax Hay­

ward,

mted by S

tanley Kunitz, M

ay 1997. Rep

rinted

WI

permission o

f Darhansoff and

Verr'

Literary A

gency. S

HE

A

LE

XlE

"Indian E

ducation" from T

he Lone Rang

and Tonto Fisifight in H

eaven S

herm

an A

lexie. Co

py

righ

t © 1993 by S

herm

an A

lexie. p

rinted

by permission o

f G

rovelAtlantic, Inc. "Indian L

ove Songs I &

II" reprinted from

e Business ofFancy D

anc­ing ©

1992 by Sherm

an Alexie, by perm

ission of H

anging Loose

ess. IA

AL

VA

RE

Z

"Th

e Kiss" from

How

the Garcia G

irls LAst Their Ac

. Copyright ©

1991 by Julia A

lvarez. Published by P

lume, an

imp

rint o

f Du

tton

Signet, a

ivision of P

enguin U

SA

and originally in hardcover by A

lgonquin Books o

f Chapel H

ill. eprinted ·by per­

mission o

f Susan B

ergholz Literary S

ervices, New

York. A

ll rights reserve .

YE

HU

DA

AM

ICH

AI

."APity.W

eW

ereS

ucha G

oo

dInvention"

from poem

s ~rusalem and ·LA

ve Poems I E

nglish and Hebrew

by Yehuda A

michai, translated by A

ssia Gutm

ann, 1993~ . "Y

ou Can

Rely

on

Him

" from The

Great Tranquility: Q

uestionS and Answ

ers by Yehuda:!

21

71