“Is the complete adoption of electric cars in our transport system possible and if so,what environmental effects will it bring? Over the years the problem of air pollution in the city of Almaty, Kazakhstan has worsened drastically. The main emitters were considered to be gasoline cars. Due to the mountainous area, winds could not blow away accumulated smog over the years, therefore citizens living at the bottom levels of the city suffered the most. One quite optimistic solution was presented to the mayor of the city by a research group. It proposed the adoption of electric vehicles and directly cut the sources of pollution. As a teenager I became interested in this idea and as soon as I was given an opportunity to research it fully I chose this topic as my EPQ thesis. By conducting this research I wanted to find out whether the actual change towards the use of electric vehicles (EV) would be possible throughout the entire world and how would this alter pollution levels.

In order to answer the question, my EPQ consists of many sections, leading on from one another so as to reach a conclusion. It begins with the general idea behind EVs and which types of them are used today. As my main focus was to assess whether it is possible to completely adopt the use of fully electric cars, the next section discusses the various ways that commuters would charge electric cars and their possible limitations. This research does not include in depth discussion of the various ways of generating the electricity needed to charge the cars as this is a full project in its own right. Then I discuss the direct pollution caused by electric cars in their production process and whether electric cars are suitable to be used as a solution to air pollution caused by transportation. In order to discuss that section it was necessary to research how the electric motor works and its various types, as shown in the appendix 1. The root cause of such high levels of air pollution was the abnormal amount of gasoline cars and this generally led to the development of the idea for EVs. I have researched the air pollution problem in China, UK, Canada and USA. Information regarding the levels of air pollution by ICE (internal combustion engines) in those countries is shown in appendix 2. Following the discussion about direct pollution from electric cars, there is a section where I explain my conclusion and my opinion in response to my EPQ question.

Humanity has always pursued innovation and progress. Our transport evolved from horses and carts to carriages and then eventually to cars, but this transition took a while. The need for transport on earth was always with us. Over the last two centuries we have significantly developed our industrial potential as a civilization. The British industrial and agricultural revolution from 1750 to 1890 was a period of huge development and success as it led to several inventions and discoveries which have shaped our present society and lifestyle. Interestingly, the concepts for the first electric engine and an internal combustion engine were developed in the late 19th century, at the peak of industrial revolution in Europe. There were many scientists working on the internal-combustion engine using either a 2 or 4 stroke system and sometimes it is unclear as to who was the first.

! 1

However, the first ever successful patented 4 stroke engine (intake, compression, power, 1

exhaust) was invented by a German engineer Nikolaus August Otto . He invented the first 2

internal-combustion engine to almost completely burn fuel directly in a piston chamber, using the concept of four strokes, with the vital compression of the mixture before ignition.

3

However it could be argued that the “father” of our modern automotive world is actually Gottlieb Daimler as he was the first to produce a working car and begin the first steps in manufacturing it. Furthermore the first mass production car manufacturer was Henry Ford with his famous model “T”. Nevertheless, the principles behind the engine propulsion were always the same.

As humans pursued globalisation, it led to a stronger dependency on fossil fuel use. World population grew and people started to explore more places as they had more opportunities. The availability of cars helped people from distant places move to major cities and be part of the new world. Although it seemed like a dream coming true, there was a substantial impact on the environment as the result of our advances in technology. Today, we have created an ongoing process, where air pollution from our transport actually causes severe damage to people and the environment. Some people are forced to wear masks everyday because their air contains an extremely high amount of pollutants. Children are already developing chronic diseases because of being exposed to car fumes on the way to school or commuting in densely populated areas. Some inventors like Elon Musk believe that there is a solution to our problem. It is an electric car, an under-funded and derided technology from last century is now a new strong player in our automotive world. My mission was to research and find out whether electric cars would make enough positive impact on both people and the environment to be a working solution.

Jay Baviskar, How does the 4 stroke engine work?, http://mechstuff.com/how-does-a-4-stroke-engine-work/,( accessed -17.12.16)1

Editors of Brtiannica,Nikolaus Otto, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nikolaus-Otto (accessed on -27th of december 2016)2

Rick Draganowski, Otto's Motor, http://www.rustpuppy.org/otto/Otto%27s%20Motor3.htm (accessed on 27th of decmber 2016) 3

! 2

Photo of the August Otto's internal combustion engine, whose concepts are still used in modern internal combustion engines. The look of today’s petrol engine is different as it went through the process of development and various

Why go electric in the first place?

Electric cars were invented alongside gasoline cars in the late 19th century but due to the discoveries of oil and coal and particularly their surplus, we went on using an internal-combustion engine and thereby choose the path of using a carbon-based fuel. Consequently we grew as a civilization and expanded our industrial potential, which led to inevitable consequences such as overusing resources, excessive CO2 emissions and environmental problems. For this reason, I wanted to know whether the usage of an electric engine in cars would contribute to lower rates of pollution. In order to investigate this, I needed to understand how an electric engine works and which types of motors are used in electric cars today.

I believe that adoption of an electric engine in our transport system must start from explaining the benefits of an electric vehicle over its potential predecessor, the gasoline car. The name “Electric Vehicle” already tells consumers that the most crucial difference is the need for a supply of electrical energy to the car. Therefore every electric car no matter whether it is a BEV or a plug-in hybrid will have a battery power pack installed in it.

!

The first mass produced EVs were from the TOYOTA Company. It owns most of the intellectual rights today. However its cars were not fully electric, they were hybrids, which means that they still were partially running on petrol or maybe gas but with a battery installed so that they could be switched to an electric mode. The reason TOYOTA chose the path of integrating ICE and electric motor was because, at that period of time, consumers were not ready to accept the fact that a car could run on an electric charge alone. There is a distinct difference between a fully electric car and a hybrid. However it is thought that both are creating less pollution than a

! 3

This diagram shows the very basic structure of a hybrid car, notice the presence of a battery and an ICE . The combination of two allows the car to use fuel more effciently and reduce waste tailpipe emissions. ICE-internal combustion engine

conventional gasoline car. There are two main models of the electric vehicles or also known hybrids . They are HEVs (hybrid electric vehicles or also known as mild hybrids) and PHEVs 4

(plug-in hybrids). Then there are fully electric cars like Tesla or Nissan Leaf also known as BEVs (Battery Electric Vehicles).

To start, a car is classified as a hybrid car when, alongside its gasoline engine, it has one or more electric motors installed there. This allows the car to switch between the driving process being either the internal-combustion engine or an electric motor. However the main difference between mild and other hybrid systems is that the electric motor in a mild hybrid needs an input 5

from a gas tank to start working.

HEVs (hybrids) 6

Hybrid electric vehicles use both electricity and fuel to run.

! Hybrid electric cars cannot be charged by an external source of electricity. The battery uses charge generated either by the internal-combustion or a regenerative braking system. A regenerative braking system uses the kinetic energy from the wheels and, with the help of the motor which acts as a generator, sustains the charge in the battery which could be used in powering minor electronics in a car, such as the radio, air circulation/conditioning, lights and windows.

(Stephen), “Plug-in hybrids explained” (http://www.autocarhire.com/travelblog/) (accessed on 3rd of july 2017).4

Ed wisemen, what’s the difference between a hybrid , a plug in hybrid and EV, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/cars/advice/difference-5

hybrid-plug-in-hybrid-electric-ev-car/ (accessed on 15th of August 2017)

US department of energy, Alternative fuel data center, https://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_basics_ev.html (accessed on 63rd of january 2017)

! 4

HEVs can be divided into two categories, mild-hybrids and full-hybrids. The main difference is that full hybrids have a bigger battery. Thus it could store more charge and drive the car for longer distances powered by electricity.

Plug-in hybrids 7

!

Plug-in hybrids are the updated versions of hybrids as they are able to be charged externally from a power source. The other features are the same with all hybrid vehicles. Plug-in hybrids could be charged from its installed internal combustion engine ,regenerative braking system and a socket. PHEVs always come with a specially designed wire, which can be plugged into a basic house socket of 220/240 Volts and used to charge the car. However, it also has some distinctions in terms of the connection of electric motor, gearing shaft and internal combustion engine. PHEVs can have either a parallel or a series connection. In a series connection, the internal combustion engine works as a generator of electricity for the battery and that alone; the battery is responsible for the driving force generating the movement of the wheels.In a parallel connection, both the electric battery and the internal energy are able to move the shaft and drive the car.

Ibid7

! 5

Battery electric vehicles 8

!

Electric cars with only a battery are called either “fully electric cars” or “Battery electric cars”. The battery is installed at the bottom of the car and produces a low centre of mass for the car making driving and friction with the road more stable. The battery is charged via an external source like a socket with 220v output or a specially designed supercharger such as the Tesla Motors technology. This type of vehicle completely abolishes the use of a petrol internal combustion engine and therefore will be the main focus in this EPQ.

Theory brought into practical use or how could normal commuters react to a new way of transport

ibid8

! 6

The use of electric cars in cities will have a positive impact on local people’s health as none of the pollutants will be emitted directly from cars. The question is whether it is possible to “switch” to EVs and what kind of resources it will take to accomplish the “change”. Further in my research I will show what resources it takes to produce electric vehicles and highlight counter-arguments regarding the actual notion of zero pollution claimed by EVs producers. I wanted to find out how people would react to a new style of transport. The use of electric cars means that there will be some significant changes in the methods of “re-fueling” or in other words charging cars, which some customers would not like. Electric cars run on electricity stored in their battery. However, the battery needs recharging after a certain time of driving. Usually EVs have a plug, which is connected to a special charging power supply as earlier explained. This is one of the main advantages of owning an electric vehicle as it can be recharged at the owner’s house after one of these specific energy supplies is installed in the house. The process resembles that of recharging a model car controlled by a wireless remote controller, but now it is a much bigger car and instead of an output of 240V you have almost 130kV.

!

This is a connector for a Tesla model S car type of BEVs. It is plugged into a special socket usually with a 240v output. One hour of recharge time gives a driving range of 31 miles . The full range of the Tesla model S is 300 9

miles , therefore it takes 9.7 hours to fully recharge the car battery until it reaches full capacity. 10

Obviously almost 10 hours of charging is not perfect for motorists as they need fast and convenient power stations to recharge their cars. Therefore Tesla has developed their own “Tesla supercharger ” stations designed to charge any Tesla models. This has an output of 11

Rick Popely,”How quickly does Tesla’s mdel S battery charge?”, https://www.cars.com/news/electric-cars/ (accessed on 15th of july 9

2017)

ibid from 910

Official Tesla website UK, https://www.tesla.com/en_GB/supercharger (accessed on 17th of july 2017)11

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100kW to 130kW and is able to charge Tesla model S from 0% to 100% in one hour. However 12

in practice owners say that the maximum output that the supercharger gives always differsfrom country to country and, moreover, it never reaches 130kW at all . On the positive side it does 13

charge the car astonishingly faster than a standard socket. In order to reach 30% of the battery charge, the Tesla supercharger needs only about 15-20 minutes. In order to reach a 90% 14

charge, the time period is about 40 minutes, but the remaining 10% charges in one hour. This is because of the battery itself. Once it is close to its full capacity it charges much slower than before. Therefore, sometimes Tesla’s mechanics recommend only charging Teslas to 90% 15

rather than wait until the full 100%.

!

The main advantage of electric cars above gasoline cars is that the charge that their batteries consume can be generated by any possible means. In other words, any method of generating

Cat Distasio,Tesla’s next supercharger could change electric car in mere seconds, https://inhabitat.com/elon-musk-implies-12supercharger-v3-could-charge-teslas-in-mere-seconds/ (accessed on 17th of july 2017)

Tesla Forum, https://forums.tesla.com/forum/forums/supercharging-not-super-efficient ,(accessed on 17th od july 2017)13

ibid14

ibid from 1115

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kinetic energy could be used to “fuel” an electric car. On the other hand, re-charging an electric car still takes more time than re-fueling a gas car. Not every potential user would want to wait up to an hour to charge his car. Electric cars depend heavily on the level of infrastructural development and innovation in terms of charging process. Luckily an American company, TankTwo, has come up with a bizare idea of charging electric cars in under 3 minutes. 16

The technology is still relatively new and, in my opinion, still requires time for further development, but it evidently has the potential to answer the “time” problem in terms of charging an electric car.

The idea behind this completely new approach in passing energy is that the charge will be passed through these “egg” shaped devices as a block chain. In order to have a successful 17

transfer of energy, each car will need a special tank with sensors detecting the transference of charge.

TankTwo offical website, https://www.tanktwo.com/ (Accessed on 20th of july 2017)16

Christian Ruoff,”Can TankTwo redefine battery pack with big data?”, https://chargedevs.com/features/can-tanktwo-redefine-the-17battery-pack-with-big-data/ (accessed on 20th of july 2017)

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Looking closely at the formation of one cell, it can be deduced that there is a “smart technology” being implemented. Each “egg” cell contains a lithium-ion battery and a micro-chip. The micro chip is responsible for the energy transfer. Moreover the material of the outer layer of the cell is made from electric active metals, therefore each cell can work as a positive terminal and as a negative terminal.

! The best side of this project is that these cells could be used in every type of transport, from heavy-duty trucks and school buses to normal light-duty cars. There is broad range of areas, where this technology would be suitable.

!

On the other hand this piece of technology will still have some limitations and constraints in terms of infrastructural development. There will be a need to build charging stations from scratch and completely re-design car’s inner components in order to fully use that technology. Therefore, in theory, the “TankTwo” idea is working well, but we still need to see how its practical application show its usefulness in our society.

Moreover re-designing and re-structuring electric cars will cause a massive delay in terms of the production process. As a result companies which already operate in the EV market might not

! 10

This is how a string tank would look. The elliptical shapes of the batteries ensure that the volume of a tank is used up as efficiently as possible. The tank will have sensors for charge and would transmit it towards the motor and other electrical components such as the lights and stereo system

want to

undergo a process of re-design and could simply continue using old and proven technology. I also presume that current producers of batteries would not want another relatively new technology to take over their market. At the end of the day, EVs are just transport and companies which produce EVs, although having good intentions in terms of reducing air pollution by implementing them, also aim to maximise profits.

In my opinion the technology of our conventional lithium-ion battery and this method of energy transfer is still a relatively efficient way of charging an electric car. It is also reliable because it is backed up by an already developed infrastructure, whereas the concept of “TankTwo” still requires probably years of innovation and funding. Also there is little real evidence about the efficiency levels of TankTwo technology so I presume there will need to be extensive tests and pre-runs of this technology in cars in future. Moreover when I researched these topics, the sources used were official websites of Tesla Motors and TankTwo. Therefore I believe that possibly there could have been a certain chance of biased information being written about products which I researched for my project.

Direct and indirect pollution by BEVs

Despite having zero emissions while utilising EVs, they still create a significant carbon footprint while being produced. According to a union of concerned scientists in USA the production of lithium-ion batteries (essentially the most important part of an electric car powered by a battery) has a more detrimental carbon footprint and land pollution than the usage of the internal-combustion engine cars. However, with time as people keep using their electric cars, pollution created by these cars while being driven will only

! 11

This is a virtual model designed to show how a charging process would actually occur. High pressure vacuum systems would “suck out” discharged cells and “put in” newly recharged cells in the car. The proces would resemble a petrol station, but in this case petrol would turn into “tanktwo” technology. This concept truly eliminates the time issue with charging electric cars and therefore if developed correctly could end up being used worldwide and be one of the cornerstones in the adoption of an electric engine.

depend on the electricity grid of the country and its primary resource. To clarify, electric 18

cars do not create a significant amount of air pollution as they are being driven because they are charged from the socket. If we look at the methods used by a country to generate its electricity and which raw material is primarily used in generating power, then we can deduct the polluting potential of electric cars that operate there or will operate there in the near future.

19

Lithium-ion batteries

The key question to the whether electric cars are non-pollutive lays in the battery components. Firstly in order to understand what consumers are dealing with when buying a battery electric car we need to know the impact on the environment during its production. Every lithium-ion battery, whether it is for a phone or for an electric car, shares similar raw material inputs, but these vary in the amounts and a structure.

Electricity grid is the system in a country, which supplies power to the houses for their domestic use. Commonly it uses burnt 18

fossil fuel energy in order to generate transmitted power.

Lindsay Wilson, Electric cars carbon footprint, http://shrinkthatfootprint.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Shades-of-Green-Full-19Report.pdf (assecced on 31st of july 2017)

! 12

If someone would like to own an electric car in India such as the Tesla model S, for a 300 mile range one Tesla car would produce 178 kg of CO2. In contrast, if Icelandic customers wanted to drive the Tesla, there they would only produce 34kg of CO2 per 300 mile range. This pollution is essentially produced by the powerstations in the country as they generate electricity. The main way that a Tesla car will pollute is during the charging process as it will drain electric charge from the main grid supply. Every power station uses a certain raw material or resource to create electricity for citizens of the country. If a power station burns fossil fuels such as coal, owning an electric car that was charged from that station is still an indirect pollution.

A lithium-ion battery consists of a cell. Often, in order to create a higer output for a battery, 20

producers put multiple cells together in one battery. Each cell is made up from three core structures, a positive electrode, a negative electrode and an electrolyte solution. Essentially a lithium-ion battery has a chemical reaction going in it. The positive electrode contains a chemical called lithiumm-cobalt oxide. A negative electrode is a pure carbon substance (graphite, graphine). Some people refer to these battery componnets as cathode, anode and a conductive electrolyte. The cathode is the li-cobalt oxide and the anode is the carbon material, whereas the electrolyte is a solution needed to conduct a chemical reaction.The way of lithium-ion battery works is better explained visually.

21

Moreover in order to give batteries a higher energy density so they could operate for a longer period, a lithium-ion battery in EVs contains more metals such as nickel and manganese alongside lithium, cobalt and graphite. Each of them plays a vital role in a production chain for the batteries and each of them has a substantial environmental and social impact.

Mining of lithium Lithium is mainly extracted in Latin American countries like Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Bolivia has the largest amounts of lithium brine flats, where lithium can be extracted. On aggregate, Bolivia had 9 million tonnes of lithium in their reserves according to current esimates. As the 22

demand for gadgets is rising alongside that for electric vehicles, this drives up the demand for lithium and therefore its price has nearly tripled in less than a year. I see it as a perfect incentive

Fred Lambert,Braking down the battery for an electric car, https://electrek.co/2016/11/01/breakdown-raw-materials-tesla-20

batteries-possible-bottleneck/ (accessed on 2nd of August 2017)

Brad Ward, How lithium-ion battery work?, http://www.talkandroid.com/guides/beginner/how-lithium-ion-batteries-work/ 21

(accessed on 3rd of August 2017)

Tam Hunt,The geopolitcs of lithium production, https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/the-geopolitics-of-22

lithium-production#gs.xY5s55M, (accessed on 15th of august 2017)

! 13

The main reason why li-ion batteries are used in the electric vehicles is that they are durable, light in weight and relatively quick in charging. A life span of one lithium-ion battery is about 4-5 years or 300 to 500 cycles. They can store reasonable amounts of charge for quite a long time. A battery, which is used in electric vehicles like Tesla model S has a life span of 25 years. That is assuming the battery has a 5% degradation over a range of 80,000km.

for countries which have enough of this metal to boost their production to get a good trade deal. According to future projections, owning vast areas of salt flats containing lithium will bring a long-lasting economic boom.

! 23

The process of extraction, however, is yet to be modernised as the current version has a lot of hazards to workers and to the nearby environment. Mining brings a lot of economic advantages to the country as the demand for lithium worldwide is only rising. However the enviromental impact is highly detrimental. Lithium is found in the salt flats, where it undergoes a process of evaporation by pumping in water and then pumping out the water as brine. Therefore due to irrigation requirements, lithium salt flats are often found near arid territories, which means the fresh water there is in short supply. The extraction process of lithium is highly pollutive to the flora and fauna of that territory. Moreover this process still requires plenty of fresh water being used in order to pump out the needed brine. As a result the streams of water can be contaminated, affecting the lives of local communities. Water with lithium is a pure toxin, which can lead to plenty of negative ramifications to people’s health in particuar. 1 tonne of lithium brine requires 500,000 gallons of fresh water. An ordinary electric car like a Tesla model S 24

contains about 50 kg of lithium carbonate, which means it uses up about 25 000 gallons of fresh water.

Tod C.Frankel,”Tossed aside in the white gold rush” , https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/batteries/23

tossed-aside-in-the-lithium-rush/ (accessed on 21st of July 2017 )

Todd.C.Frankel, Indegenious people are left poor as tech world takes lithium from their feet, https://www.washingtonpost.com/24graphics/business/batteries/tossed-aside-in-the-lithium-rush/ (accessed on 21st of July 2017 )

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25

!

Ibid25

! 15

The main problem with lithium extraction is that, in my opinion, it requires a lot of water which is highly important for flora and fauna in those areas. Another point is that the salt flats where lithium brine is extracted are dry and winds can carry waste flakes of salt to the atmosphere or to other places causing ecological disbalance. Although lithium salts are used in very small doses medicine in order to treat bi-polar diseases of depression, high concentrations of lithium in an organism could lead to bowel disorder and liver cancer.

Mining of Cobalt 26

Cobalt is another vital component of a lithium-ion battery. Cobalt is extracted in Africa and sold worldwide to corporations and then on to the consumer in our gadgets and electric cars. Congo provides half of the supply of cobalt today with 51% of the production.

27

In detail, the Democratic Republic of Congo is well known for its plentyful mineral supplies, according to estimates it has up to 3.4 million megatonnes of cobalt . It supplys 50% of total 28

cobalt worldwide and maybe somewhere in Norway a buyer of an electric vehicle will save the air quality and environment close to them, but at the expense of Congolese worker's health. As I was going into greater depth in my research of this topic, I was amazed how hostile working conditions are for miners in Congo. Furthermore the prevalence of child labour in the Congo completely reversed my opinion of being “pro” electric cars at all. How can I drive my electric car, knowing that dozens of children sacrificed their childhood years to work in the mines, barefoot and without any protection because of a cruel regime, corruption and a high demand for cobalt.

Lynsey Chutel, Everyone wants cobal, but few want to get tangled up in the world’s largest producing nation, https://qz.com/261087495/cobalt-miners-are-leaving-dr-congo-for-canada-and-europe-to-meet-demand/ (accessed on 5th of august 2017)

Cecilia Jamasmaie, Conog’s cobalt production set to soar despite child labour claims, http://www.mining.com/congos-cobalt-27

production-set-soar-despite-claims-child-labour/ (accessed on 5th of august 2017)

Top 10 countries producing cobalt in 2014, https://www.thestreet.com/story/12313522/1/top-10-cobalt-producing-28

countries-of-2012.html, (accessed on 6th of august 2017)

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Apart from child labour and poor working conditions, the extraction of cobalt in DRC has resulted in other detrimental environmental effects such as the contamination of the water supply and deforestation. 29 30

Andreas Zaragoza Montejano, In search of clean water and cobalt mining in DRC, https://reliefweb.int/sites/29

reliefweb.int/files/resources/In%20search%20of%20clean%20water%20-%20Katanga%20DRC.pdf (accessed on 14th of august 2017)

Melati Kaye ,Deforestantion in Congo , more than a hole in a canopy, https://forestsnews.cifor.org/10221/30

deforestation-from-mining-in-the-congo-more-than-a-hole-in-the-canopy?fnl=en ( accessed on 13th august 2017)

! 17

No helmets, no supporting scaffolding, but a huge amount of people working crazily long hours for a multinational company for only 1 dollar a day.

31

Contamination of the water supply leads to an ongoing chain-reaction in communities, where mothers give birth to children already afflicted by chronic skin diseases. Some of the internal organs do not develop as a result of an excessive amount of cobalt dust being consumed by the mother with either water or other food ingredients. Workers also suffer from acquired diseases such as hard metal lung disease, which is caused by inhaling too much cobalt dust. The normal level of cobalt found in the air is 30-800 micrograms. This amount of cobalt does not cause 32

any health problems. Amounts of cobalt in the African worker's air inside the mine is 0.038 milli-grams , which is 100,000 times more than a normal healthy amount. A SKY TV channel's 33

documentary showed that the DRC's cobalt mining is more of a curse to locals rather than a 34

clear economic advantage. The main buyers of Congolese cobalt are chinese retailers , who 35

care little about the methods of extraction and how much of human resource was used in that process. They only establish a good price for a kilogram of mined cobalt, which is about 60 USD. Most of artisanal miners in the DRC live on less than a dollar a day, therefore $60 per mined kilo gives them a fairly «reasonable» incentive to risk their health and lives while mining it. Global projections for demand of cobalt indicate that the demand for this metal will rise sharply over the coming years, which means that artisanal mines will have to recruit more workers. Today artisanal mines in the DRC employ about 700,000 people, 40 000 of whom are 36

children under 15 years old. According to projections for the demand, I can only imagine how much more human resource will be needed to satisfy our desire for our transport to “go green”.

Melati Kaye, Deforestation from mining in Congo, “more than a hole in a canopy” , https://forestsnews.cifor.org/10221/31

deforestation-from-mining-in-the-congo-more-than-a-hole-in-the-canopy?fnl=en (accessed on 11th of august 2017 )

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease registry, https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/PHS/PHS.asp?id=371&tid=64 (accessed on 12th of 32agust 2017)

Ibid from 5333

Alex Crafword, “Meet dorsen who mines cobalt to make your smartphone work” , https://news.sky.com/story/meet-dorsen-8-who-34

mines-cobalt-to-make-your-smartphone-work-10784120 (accessed on 13th of august 2017)

Claude Kabemba, “China-DRC relations:From a beneficial to a developmental cooperation, (http://asq.africa.ufl.edu/files/35

v16a6.Kabemba.HD_.pdf , (accessed on 13th of august 2017)

Mark Dummet,”The dark side of electric cars:exploitative labour practises” , https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/09/36the-dark-side-of-electric-cars-exploitative-labor-practices/ (accessed on 29th of september 2017)

! 18

This picture shows how artisanal miners illegally cut down trees causing deforestationmand bio-diversity loss.

Graphite mining Graphite is yet another component of the battery for an EV. It forms part of the anode in the battery. Today as the result of our dependancy on gadgets, demand for graphite is higher than ever before, a relative boom in the manufacture of electric cars also increases graphite mining.

As seen in the above table, the demand for rare metals and carbon elements has, in general, spiked dramatically over the period of the technological boom and EVs production. In my EPQ topic I wanted to find out, whether the change to electric engines would reduce air pollution but clearly the methods of making batteries for cars are not enviromentally friendly or at the very least the methods of extracting these materials are having a detrimental impact on the local people and the bio-diversity of the region. Graphite mining is “another brick in the wall” blocking improvements in air pollution . China currently leads the production of graphite, accounting for nearly ¾ of all graphite production in the world.

! 19

37

38

By mining graphite, the mine and its surroundings are polluted by graphite dust as it is carried by winds. This dust contaminates water sources and, as a result, local villagers have to stop using their water sources and often need to seek water near other villages where there is no 39

contamination from the dust. Some subsistance farmers suffer from harvest loss as graphite dust makes vegetables inedible and unsellable. Long-lasting exposure to graphite often leads to

Jeff Desjardins,”EVs and graphite”, http://www.visualcapitalist.com/massive-impact-evs-commodities/ (Accessed on 17th of 37

august 2017)

ibid38

Peter Whoriskey, “in your phone in their air”, https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/batteries/graphite-mining-39pollution-in-china/ (accessed on 15th of august)

! 20

the development of the chronic diseases such as lung fibrosis, pneumoconiosis, bronchitis and black sputum. 40

In 2017 the number of fully electric cars exceeded the 2 million and it is predicted to grow even 41

more, up to 140 million in 2030. Therefore, I believe that although EVs are currently one of the only viable solutions for reducing direct pollution from transport, the process of its components such as batteries creates other negative implications, particularly in environmental concerns.

Waste batteries Furthermore there is another rising problem,which we will face with electric cars in 20-30 years. Although, Li-ion batteries have a long life span, one day the battery will become completely useless as its chemical reactions will stop. Therefore we will need to think of how to manage all of the waste resources. It was estimated that by 2030 there will be 11 million tonnes of lithium 42

that needs to be recycled. By recycling batteries, some companies will be able to reuse the lithium for the next electric car. However the process will be very expensive and therefore a back up funding scheme will be needed to persuade manufacturers to do this. Currently only 5% of lithium-ion batteries are being recycled, li-ion batteries are used in various gadgets as 43

well as in electric cars. If batteries are not recycled properly, there is a threat of a possible leakage of toxic gases and the electrolyte solution, which is highly pollutive and poisonous. 44

Hopefully, there are companies like Umicore who have already recognised this impending issue and making preparations to tackle it. Recycling batteries is a complicated process, but if it is conducted properly it will be hugely beneficial on an environmental basis to own an electric car. If companies, such as Umicore, develop their ways of recycling li-ion batteries from electric cars, they can «break down» these batteries to manufacture batteries for household use or in other electronic devices. This gives an optimistic look to the future of electric cars, as theoretically there is a way of reusing batteries again for another use thus not over using raw materials and so sustaining environmental balance. From a commercial point of view I believe that lithium-ion battery recycling could persuade other businesses either to invest into that segment of a market or diversify and start recycling for themselves thus creating an absolutely new market and new opportunities for future employment and development. There is still time to prepare all of the infrastructure and technology. But if we want the transition to electric cars to happen, we must be ready to face the consequences of this choice and solve any problems that pose a direct threat to our society.

David Karanja, “The safety hazards of Carbon graphite dust” , http://www.ehow.co.uk/info_8463672_safety-hazards-carbon-40graphite-dust.html , ( accessed on 16th of august 2017)

Adam Vaughan, “Electric cars accelerate past 2m mark globally”, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jun/07/electric-41

cars-sales-2-million-worldwide-global-sales (acessed on 16th of august 2017 )

Joey Gardiner,”The rise of electric cars could leave us with a big battery waste problem” , https://www.theguardian.com/42

sustainable-business/2017/aug/10/electric-cars-big-battery-waste-problem-lithium-recycling (accessed on 20th of agust 2017)

Joseph Zacune, “Lithium”, http://www.foeeurope.org/sites/default/files/publications/13_factsheet-lithium-gb.pdf (accessed on 43

19th of august 2017)

Antonio Nedjalokv,”Toxic gas emission from damaged li-ion batteries-analysis and safety Enhancement Solution”, http://44www.mdpi.com/2313-0105/2/1/5 (accessed on 20th of august 2017)

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Final conclusion and reflection about my project

After researching all of the aspects regarding the manufacturing and use of an electric car, I would say that transition to EVs is possible as a lot of countries are already interested in this development. For example, the UK plans to ban diesel and petrol cars by 2040 , therefore the 45

only relatively efficient mode of transport would be EVs as they already have an established market and some infrastrucutre, athough this is still not perfect.

However, there is an issue regarding the methods of extracting the raw materials in order to sustain that transition. For now, owning an internal-combustion car with efficient fuel in my opinion is more enviromentally friendly than owning an electric car. Today people should focus on using a very efficient fuel instead of completely pursuing the production of lithium-ion batteries using current methods. Through the course of my research, I have changed my opinion towards electric cars in general, and I clearly see that the mining and extraction industry is not regulated properly because of the interests of multinational corporations in keeping prices low. It is a more of an ethical problem for me now.

As part of my primary research, I visited EXPO 2017, which was held in Kazakhstan. In a nutshell the purpose of this event was for all countries around the world to show their solutions to the existing problems and share their knowledge. I was lucky to ask some representatives what they think about the future of EVs and what their countries plan to do in that area. I was amazed by the amount of dedication and enthusiasm those representatives had when explaining possible strategies for how to ensure the global use of electric cars. It genuinely showed that nation leaders understand the issue of air pollution and all of its further consequences. The Japanese representative said that Japan is planning an investment scheme to pursue the development of sustainable ways of gathering raw materials for hybrids and fully electric cars. I then spoke to a German representative who said that Germany is very interested in an electric transport system and, as well as Japan, plans to invest into the further development of innovative approaches to the technology of electric cars.

John Craig,”New petrol and diesel cars to be banned in UK after 2040” , https://news.sky.com/story/petrol-and-diesel-cars-45banned-from-uk-roads-by-2040-10962075 (accessed on 26th of july 2017)

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Now, I believe that the future transition to electric cars is not possible with the current production methods. It is beyond doubt that electric cars have no tailpipe pollution, however there is still room for improvements in the production of batteries. Tighter regulation will most likely increase the price of the battery metals and countries like the DRC and China alongside Bolivia, Argentina and Chile will need to extract these strategic components according to newly composed sets of laws and regulations.

Thus supply of these metals to the global metal refiners will be constrained leading to higher prices for electric cars. Companies sometimes pursue the number of sales above all else, but the uncontrollable desire to earn money will not end well. However, I understand the good intentions behind the electric car movement and the desire to make our world a better place. Under the regulations I outline below, the electric car industry must take on another cost . Thus not everyone will be able to afford to use them as source of transport, rather they will still rely on carbon based fuels. Therefore for now, while the smooth transitional period is taking place in terms of fully electric cars, the world's manufacturers need to focus on the supplying less pollutive fuel. To exemplify, petrol cars will still emit certain amounts of CO2 and all the other pollutants which I described before but in smaller quantities. In my opinion, while the world continues to use a better quality petrol, it will give the companies responsible for a supply of lithium-ion batteries time to create the necessary infastructure for workers across the globe and regulate the DRC especially in order to eradicate child labour .

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This diagram shows the likely relationship of the electric cars with time. In my opinion, global demand for electric cars will only rise, since their capabilities are developing each year and consumers in general are looking the positive gains, forgetting about some of the hidden issues. The question underpins the productionline for electric cars. All of the components for lithium-ion battery come from diffferent places, all governed by different regulations. Places like the DRC completely violate human rights with their cobalt mining. China only increases air pollution with their graphite mining. Although Elon Musk claims to use graphene in Tesla’s batteries as graphene is mined on US terrritory. In the US the process is monitored by several groups who assess the environmental impact and possible violation of human rights or ethnic opression. Use of graphene is an innovative approach towards the production of anodes for a lithium-ion battery, however it is still not perfect in terms of its expensive production process.

My ideas about regulation particularly for the extraction of lithium-ion battery raw materials. • Ensure the complete eradication of child labour in any mining, firstly focus on the DRC

and their child labour.

• Lithium-brine extraction companies must provide water supplies to the communities living near Salar de Yuiie( check the right name).

• Chinese graphite suppliers (firms) MUST compensate the welfare loss of the villagers being affected by their extraction process.

• Chinese local authorities and an independent international comitte MUST monitor the actual process of extraction in order to minimise any possible violations of any kind.

• Global li-ion batteries producers should invest into infrastrucutural development at the mining sites (the use of «artisian mines» MUST cease) as every existing mine will have a transparent and verifyable document, which shows the names of the parties involved in the process from all sides.

• Education for workers must be provided to inform them about possible health dangers whilst working with these metals. Each mine should have a 24/7 working infirmary, which will serve workers and help them in case of any accidents.

• Global meeting each year of the leading countries involved in the production of electric cars and batteries, in order to discuss their innovative ideas about the approach of extraction and production processes.

Now, this is where my theory is formulated. With all the regulations and pre-extraction procedures, production costs for electric cars will be ludicrously high, but as soon as all of the main suppliers are given right technology, health checks and tools, the process of extraction of raw materials for the electric cars will become more efficient and on a larger scale. Therefore the transition from an internal combustion engine to an electric engine will be possible and will then completely change our reality.

Analysing the sources of information that I used while undergoing reserach I can say that there is a chance of them being biased and inclined to one point of view thus not showing the true situation. For example, the majority of information about charging process of electric cars was found on the Tesla Motors’ website. Therefore I think that their data about super-charges differs from the one in reality. I understand that some information regarding EVs could have been deliberatly presented in a way of showing advantages more and avoiding actual disadvantages like the «time issue» with charging because in reality even a 30-40 minute re-charging process is still a long time and if some major cities like London were to use EVs there would be a problem how to adapt an infrastructure for a public convenience. Moreover, the impact of mining is also not as clear cut as I hoped for it to be. Information which showed its disadvantages was

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from a news paper and the sources that it used could be questioned for bias. However generally, websites were secured and valid in terms of quality of information.

Reflecting in my EPQ at the very end I can say that it has strong and weak sides. One of the strongest sides in my EPQ is that I discussed a lot of topics relating EVs.Many of them are vital and they all interconnected with each other. I also think that I have used simple and understandable language to explain my points of view on certain topics after researching them. I believe I answered the question of my EPQ and showed evidence for my answer.

EVs is a quite broad topic to research and I think taking it as my EPQ was risky as there was a possibility of making research too descriptive. Another weak point in my opinion is that perhaps,some websites like Tesla Motors or that I used in my project.On the other hand I did my best to analyse and evaluate my arguments and come up with my own answer basing on my sources of information.I would say that arguments in my project if elaborated further can make separate EPQ topic. On a personal side however I feel that by completing this project I hope to spark interest and curiosity in readers. I truly wish that people who plan to buy an electric car in future would read something like that beforehand to know exact consequences of the exploitation of that electric car. I want to end my epq with the saying, which came to my mind recently:”Whenever people think that they have solved a certain problem, their solution often becomes even a bigger problem itself over time”.

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Appendix 1.0

The timeline of the electric cars . 46

1832-1839 Scottish inventor Robert Anderson invents the first crude electric carriage powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.

1835 American Thomas Davenport is credited with building the first practical electric vehicle -- a small locomotive.

1859 French physicist Gaston Planté invents the rechargeable lead-acid storage battery. In 1881, his countryman Camille Faure will improve the storage battery's ability to supply current and invent the basic lead-acid battery used in automobiles.

1891 William Morrison of Des Moines, Iowa builds the first successful electric automobile in the United States.

1920 During the 1920s the electric car ceases to be a viable commercial product. The electric car's downfall is attributable to a number of factors, including the desire for vehicles with a longer range of driving and availability of gasoline to accomplish it.

1997 Toyota unveils the Prius -- the world's first commercially mass-produced and marketed hybrid car -- in Japan. Nearly 18,000 units are sold during the first production year.

1997 - 2000 A few thousand all-electric cars (such as Honda's EV Plus, G.M.'s EV1, Ford's Ranger pickup EV, Nissan's Altra EV, Chevy's S-10 EV, and Toyota's RAV4 EV) are produced by big car manufacturers, but most of them are available for lease only. All of the major automakers' advanced all-electric production programs will be discontinued by the early 2000s.

Electric DC motor - What is it? How does it work? When was it invented?

‘Timeline of electcric cars’http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/223/electric-car-timeline.html (November the 10th 2016).46

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Electric engine began its journey from a creation of a simple electric motor in the beginning of 47

19th century. The first rotating device driven by electromagnetism was built by the Peter Barlow in 1822 (Barlow's Wheel ). Later a Prussian inventor Moritz Jacobi after a series 48 49 50

of attempts was able to construct an electric motor in may 1834 ,which output was quite high at that time. However it is said that the first patented electric motor was invented by Thomas Davenport in 1834 as well, it obeyed the same principles as Barlow’s wheel, however 51

Jacobi’s motor gave higher instantaneous torque, which is what is more valuable than the patent itself. The interesting fact is that those inventors never shared any of their ideas amongst themselves and still came up with similar concepts.

! !

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Martin Doppelbauer, ‘ What is electric engine’ The invention of the electric motor 471800-1854 (accessed 27 March 2017).

(no name), Inventions of an electric motor, http://www.quantum-controls.co.uk/faq/motors/who-invented-the-electric-motor/ 48

(accessed on 30th of march 2017)

Diana,Barlow’s wheel electricity and magnetism at work, http://www.upsbatterycenter.com/blog/barlows-wheel-electricity-49

magnetism-work/ (accessed on 30th of march 2017)

(no name of any author), Electric Motors, https://www.assignmentexpert.com/blog/electric-motors/ (accessed on 30th of march 50

2017)

(no name I really don’t know why), Thomas Davenport an american invenotr, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-51Davenport (accessed on 30th of march 2017)

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DC motor characteristics, advantages and disadvantages

DC motors in general have two versions of itself. Motors which operate with a permanent magnet in it and a motor which works with an electromagnet. For short they are called PMDC (permanent magnet dc) and SWDC (shunt wound DC motor ,uses electromagnetism). 52 53

DC motors are easier to understand. By putting more magnets or coils inside a DC motor its revolutions increase. Therefore operating with a DC motor allows users to control its speed better and boost it if they want to. On the other hand, DC motors which operate with a permanent magnet have a tendency to de-magnetise over a period of time and require time-consuming maintenance work and service, 54

which adds to its cost. As DC motors use brushes they can not operate at extremely high temperatures as the brushes could create a spark and cause a fire. The DC motors which are using electromagnetism and no magnets cannot operate at variable drive speeds and could be excluded from application in a car industry. The production of PMDC requires rare-earth metals, therefore some people argue that it is only adding to pollution levels at the end of the day. I personally agree with that point as I know that there are types of electric motors which do not have high amounts of pollution in their production process.

Permanent Magnet DC motor, https://circuitglobe.com/permanent-magnet-dc-motor.html, (accessed on 27th od December 2016)52

Eletrical Power energy, http://www.electricalpowerenergy.com/2017/05/03/direct-current-motor-advantages-and-disadvantages/,53

(accessed on 27th of december)

Ibid 54

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AC motors and their influence today

Not every electric car uses similar electric motors, but there are two main types, DC and AC motors. The inventor of an AC motor was famous Nikola Tesla. The AC motor is different due 55

to its three phase concept converting electric energy into kinetic energy. 56

An AC induction motor with a variable frequency is used in some electric vehicles. It operates 57

only on an alternating current and does not need any permanent magnets to create a rotational magnetic field. AC motor consists of two parts, rotor and a stator. An alternating current is supplied to a rotor and creates a rotational magnetic field. AC current is supplied via 3 “routes” to the motor. This is done so that the motor will always have an induced current in it and a subsequent induced emf. 58

An AC induction motor is made of stacked together laminated steel components. It is 59

constructed in order to magnify a magnetic field and stop the eddy currents which oppose the work done by a motor according to Lenz's law.

(no name), “Electric Motors” , https://www.assignmentexpert.com/blog/electric-motors/ (accessed on 3rd of January 2017)55

Chris Woodford,”Induction Motors” , http://www.explainthatstuff.com/induction-motors.html (accessed on 4th of january 2017)56

S.Reddy,Electrical machines ,Induction motor advantages and disadvantages, http://instrumentationtools.com/advantages-57

disadvantages-induction-motor/ (accessed on 5th of January 2017)

Wally Ripel,Induction vs Bushless DC motors, https://www.tesla.com/en_GB/blog/induction-versus-dc-brushless-motors?58

redirect=no (Accessed on 5th of january 2017)

ibid 59

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This diagram shows the variation of an AC current being supplied to a motor via the 3 phase concept. The AC motor always does work as it always has a current being supplied to it .Therefore it is capable of obtaining high values of mechanical power.

When I was doing my research I also found out that there are actually two main types of AC 60

motors, an induction motor and a synchronous motor. The main differences between a synchrounous motor and an induction motor are that synchronous motor is working on a never changing frequency and requires a permanent magnet in it. A synchronous motor could obtain a higher output power than an induction motor, but as it uses a permanent magnet it costs more than an AC induction motor. Apparently AC synchronous motors slightly outperform AC induction motors in terms of acceleration, top rpm and speed capabilities. Therefore logically it would be more beneficial for electric cars to use PM AC motors, but the AC induciton motor costs 26% less than a synchronous motor. Perhaps this led engineers at Tesla motors to integrate AC 61

induction motor into their cars. I think by combining an AC motor which is relatively cheap and a high-energy density lithium-ion battery was the best option in getting model S efficient and not as pricey as it could be. Therefore, despite using an AC induction motor, which is a little bit slower than an AC synchronous motor, the Tesla model S is capable of accelerating up to 96 km/h in just about 2.3 seconds . 62

Amit Jha,”Lets discuss electric motors in EVs” http://etn-demeter.eu/lets-discuss-motors-in-electric-vehicles-continued/ 60

(accessed on 13th od December 2016)

Jay W.Shultz and Steve Huard,”Comparing AC and PM motors”, https://ru.scribd.com/document/346536945/Comparing-AC-and-61PM-Motors (accessed on 25th of December 2016)

Frank Markus, 2017 TESLA MODEL S P100D FIRST TEST: A NEW RECORD — 0-60 MPH IN 2.28 SECONDS!, HTTP://62

WWW.MOTORTREND.COM/CARS/TESLA/MODEL-S/2017/2017-TESLA-MODEL-S-P100D-FIRST-TEST-REVIEW/ (accessed on 3rd of January 2017)

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Tailpipe’s emission as part of an air pollution worldwide. My main mission was to find out whether the complete adoption of BEVs in our lives would contribute to lower levels of air pollution. However firstly I needed to assess how severe was the damage to the environment by car fumes and which repercussions affected people .

Chinese carbon-based pollution 63

Chinese gas emissions became a real problem in 1990 and the number of cars has been rising ever since due to rapid urbanisation and infrastructural development. As people got a substantial amount of income, they have started to buy vehicles as it is seen as a sign of wealth. From 1994 to 1998 amounts of carbon dioxide in the air of Chinese cities were only rising. To exemplify, Beijing has experienced a rapid urbanisation over the1990s and went through some crucial infrastructural developments in terms of transport routes. Therefore today, Beijing’s air often contains 250-291 particulate matter micro-grams per cubic metre of air. This particulate 64

matter is a pollutant. It mostly originates from the combustion process and is highly pollutive and dangerous for people and the environment.

MICHAEL P. WALSH, Motor Vehicle Pollution and Fuel Consumption in China 63

https://www.nap.edu/read/11192/chapter/3#11 (accessed on 10th of July 2017)

BBC,China air pollution:first ever red alert in effect in Beijing, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-35026363 (accessed 64on 14th of July 2017)

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Appendix 2.0

! For both cities here, transport generates a quarter of the total air pollution by particulate matter only, therefore it does not take into account other pollutants such as nitrogen oxide or benzyne for example.

65

This table shows the relationship between densely urbanised cities and the airquality standards. In essence, more people living in the city leads to more gasoline cars, which then worsen air quality. As the result, the amount of CO2 in the air exceeds normal healthy levels as each city increases its urban density. China’s most dense cities are all located at the south-eastern and eastern part of the country. Following the patterns I explained above, there is a correlation between urbanisation and level

Michael.P.Walsh, Motor vehicles and air pollution in China, https://www.nap.edu/read/11192/chapter/3#10 (accessed on 18th of 65july 2017)

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of air pollution which I only proved to myself by finding a map of China showing the most substantial accumulations of air pollution by city.

!

66

Ernest Kao,”Smog from northern mainland ‘not affecting’ air qualities in the city” , http://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/health-66environment/article/2060614/toxic-smog-mainland-not-affecting-hong-kong-expert (assecced on 19th of july 2017)

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!

Canadian air pollution 67

Michael Richards, Atmospheric Measurement Technique journal ,www.tree hugger.com(accessed on 19th of june 2017)67

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Beijing’s population is now 21.5 million people, and everyday they are breathing in air which slowly poisons them. Adoption of electric cars in Beijing would considerably help with the situation of air pollution caused directly by transport. Currently Beijing’s car fleet accounts for 5.6 million cars, according to(http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-10/25/content_27170185.htm)

The scientists collected raw data from a highway with air-sampling probes. Experimenters examined 100,000 cars. 25% of this amount of cars caused almost 90% of the pollution on that highway. Air-samples contained the following pollutants as a percentage of total air.

• 95% of black carbon (or “soot”) • 93% of carbon monoxide • 76% of volatile organic compounds such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and

xylenes, some of which are known-carcinogens

The main problem is the effects of these pollutants on the people breathing it in. As I explained before, pollutants of any kind only bring problems to people exposed to it. To exemplify, breathing in volatile organic compounds like ethylbenzene in short term will cause headache, fatigue, sleepiness and respiratory toxication according to WHO. In the long term it leads to 68 69 70

the abnormal tissue growth of organs like the kidneys and liver. Imagine if cars that were tested did not emit any of those compounds and people would not be exposed to them and there would not be the current levels of premature deaths or some disorders during pregnancies. People would have a clear transport system and this system would not do any harm to its users and bystanders.

!

In many cases car fumes are not the biggest contributors to air pollution, often burning fossil fuels create more emissions. However, I believe that car fumes have a more direct detrimental effect on people living in big cities especially as sidewalks are in close proximity to the roads and commuters could be exposed to those harmful pollutants everyday. I think that eliminating pollution from cars directly would help to ensure relatively clear air for pedestrians and make densely populated cities better off. Carbon pollution of the air in the UK

UK also has issues regarding air pollution created by cars.

(no name of author), ethylbenzene , https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/a?dbs+hsdb:@term+@DOCNO+84, (accessed 68

on 15th of june 2017)

(no name), USA public health ethylbenzene, https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp110-c1.pdf (accessed on 15th of june 2017)69

(WHO), Exposure to benzene a major public health consern, http://www.who.int/ipcs/features/benzene.pdf (accessed on 16th of 70june 2017)

! 35

Picture of a smog in Toronto and endangered ecosystem of animals living nearby.

According to Department of Transport in 2001 UK had approximately 24 million normal cars 71

with another 5 million buses, trucks and motorcycles making the total number of vehicles 29 million. Petrol being used as the major source of fuel leads to an air pollution and therefore many other negative knock on effects. E.g Health problems, dementia, chronic asthma, premature deaths and even long-term disabilities. According to the Department of Transport UK roads had a 21% increase of all types of vehicles. Gasoline engine emits various types of pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO) and sulphur dioxide (SO2), lead and nitrodioxides (NDOx).

!

Particulate matter (PMs). The most dangerous tiny particles of air pollution can 72

penetrate deep into our lungs and can even get into the bloodstream. Particulates

Anna Donabie, UK transport, https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=4&ved=0ahUKEwie4-Dx_7jXAhXLWBoKHeNaBLgQFgg5MAM&url=https%3A71

%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fuploads%2Fsystem%2Fuploads%2Fattachment_data%2Ffile%2F516429%2Fvehicle-licensing-statistics-2015.pdf&usg=AOvVaw2llFGClQDtLgPrpqynH-HR (accessed on 25th of june 2017)

(no name),Air pollution in UK in 2015, https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/annualreport/72air_pollution_uk_2015_issue_1.pdf (accessed on 25th of june 2017)

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worsen heart and lung disease. Fine particle air pollution is responsible for 29,000 early deaths a year in the UK. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2). A toxic gas that you might sometimes notice as an orange haze over a city. High levels of NO2 can cause a flare-up of asthma or symptoms such as coughing and difficulty breathing. Ground level ozone (O3). Ground level or "bad" ozone is created by chemical reactions between the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight.

�

Half of nitrogen oxide pollution comes from car fumes in the UK for 2001 . 73

Clearly the internal-combustion engine generates a negative chain reaction enviromentally. The main problem in my opinion is that this air pollution undermines the health level of people living in the UK. There are generally two types of illnesses, long-term illness and short-term illness. I would say that all types of air pollution will increase the duration of illnesses, but more importantly increse their impacts on people.

(no name), air pollution in the uk ” http://www.air-quality.org.uk/08.php”, ( accessed on 27th of june 2017 )73

! 37

The recent governmental study reveals that across the whole UK gasoline and diesel car 74

fumes generate nitrogen dioxide pollution, which endangers the health of infants under 5 years old, teenagers and adult commuters. The more worrying fact is that children who get to school by cars are exposed to a higher level of air pollution. To clarify, car ventilation system circulates air taken from outside which is already full of pollutants. Children breathing that air at such an early age can dramatically harm their respiratory system in long-run and even develop a chronic disease due to this exposure. Data from the research shows that there are almost 47,000 children attending primary schools near roads with high nitrogen oxide levels. It should be noted that those NO (nitrogen oxide) levels are above a social norm stated by an European Union. The limit is 40 micro-grams per cubic metre of air. Further governmental research showed that in East London the air contains about three times the legal limit, which means that there are about 120 micro-grams per cubic metre of air; that area has a nursery closeby. Children living in cities like London with high levels of volatile compounds are more likely to develop chronic lung diseases because children’s breathing rate is higher than the adult’s rate. Moreover air pollution lowers insulin levels in blood and increases chances of getting diabetes. Insulin is a 75

polypeptide hormone that is responsible for a healthy carbohydrate metabolism. Low levels of insulin the blood of a human leads to the development of diabetes, the metabolism becomes dramatically inefficient and this produces other problems with it. This disease affects children and adults across the whole country and worlwide. Different organs react differently to the exposure of nitrogen oxide pollutants . People who were affected by air pollution have a higher 76

possibillity of having a stroke, diabetes, a higher-rate of skin-ageing and many other unpleasant effects. However, note that these consequences do not happen in one second, the human organism is gradually developing a bad state when some vital organs start to malfunction and create knock on problems. However, in my opinion the data about London and information about the levels of pollution in certain areas does not take into account Heathrow’s impact. Everyday dozens of airplanes land there emitting their wastes from kerosene in the London area. Therefore some of the tracked pollution in London could have originated from a different source.

Air pollution by cars in the USA

Sandra Laville, Matthew Taylor, Helena Bengtsson and Carlo Zapponi, Thousands of British children exposed to illegal levels of air pollution, 74https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/apr/04/thousands-of-british-children-exposed-to-illegal-levels-of-air-pollution (accessed 20th of july 2017)

75Helmholtz Zentrum Muenchen, Exposure to air pollution at the place of residence increases the risk of developing insulin resistance as a pre-diabetic state of type 2 diabetes, report scientists. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/09/160908084041.htm (accessed 21st of july 2017).

76 George D. Thurston, Howard Kipen, Isabella Annesi-Maesano, A joint ERS/ATS policy statement: what constitutes an adverse health effect of air pollution? An analytical framework, http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/early/2016/12/19/13993003.00419-2016.figures-only. (accessed on 25th of july 2017).

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Half of the USA's population live in areas with very low air standards because of their reliance on the generation of electricity from coal burning and people’s reliance on petrol as their fuel for transport. Any type of gasoline vehicle emitts highly pollutive particulate matter, carbon monoxide and CO2. USA civil transport generates 20% of all American fumes. 1 gallon of 77

petrol creates nearly 13 kg of carbon dioxide and other pollutive matter . 3 kg of this emitted 78

carbon is a consequence of extraction of oil from the ground and another 10 kg comes from the tailpipe as black soot.

The detrimental effects of air polllution are similar to the ones other countries have. The numbers of registered asthmatics among children grew and those who had it only worsened their condition. The most dangerous repercussion of chronic asthma or brochitis is it could be a introduction to tuberculosis and then cancer. Sadly air pollution across the whole USA has caused 30,000 premature deaths, when the main pollutants which cause deaths come from 79

car fumes. Therefore transport itself has caused this situation.

Bibliography Jay Baviskar, How does the 4 stroke engine work?, http://mechstuff.com/how-does-a-4-stroke-engine-work/,( accessed -17.12.16)

No name , http://www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/car-emissions-and-global-warming#.WgNeG8b5ZPM (accessed on 1st of august 77

2017)

(gov website US),How much CO2 is produced by burning fuel?, https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=307&t=11 (accessed 78

on 27th f july 2017)

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