Antioxidant Review Articals

1

Antioxidant Natural Plant

AMANI. S. AWAAD1* AND NABILAH A. AL- JABER1

Abstract

Cellular damage or oxidative injury arising from free radicals or reactiveoxygen species (ROS) now appears the fundamental mechanism underlyinga number of human neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, inflammation,viral infections, autoimmune pathologies and digestive system disorders.Free radical are generated through normal metabolism of drugs,environmental chemicals and other xenobiotics as well as endogenouschemicals, especially stress hormones (adrenalin and noradrenalin).Accumulated evidence suggests that ROS can be scavenged throughchemoprevention utilizing natural antioxidant compounds present in foodsand medicinal plants. Plant extracts and their constituents as a naturalsource of antioxidants have been extensively reviewed. Plant extractscontaining low molecular mass compounds have been successively used inphytotherapy since ancient times, as reactive oxygen species are involvedin several diseases in this review, research on the antioxidant potential ofmedicinal plants.

Key words : Medicinal plant, Antioxidant activity, Chemoprevention,Neurodegenerative diseases, Antioxidant flavonoids,Antioxidant alkaloids, Antioxidant plant

IntroductionAn array of intra and extracellular antioxidant mechanisms are essentialto scavenge any oxidants ‘reactive intermediate’ which are continuouslygenerated in almost all aerobic cells, otherwise tissue damage occurs(1-7).

1. Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science (Girls Sections), King Saud University,Riyadh, KSA

* Corresponding author : Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

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2 RPMP Vol. 27 — Ethnomedicine: Source & Mechanism I

The antioxidant is any substance which when present at lowconcentrations compared with those of an oxidizable substrate, significantlydelays or prevents oxidation of substrate. The term ’oxidizable substrate’includes almost everything found in the living cells including proteins,lipids, DNA and carbohydrates(8).

Biological antioxidants have been defined as compounds that protectbiological systems against the potentially harmful effects of processes orreaction that can cause excessive oxidation(9).

Our body is rich in endogenous antioxidants, the substances thathave the ability to stop free radicals formation or to limit the damagethey cause(10). The effectiveness of current used exogenous antioxidantsarises most probably from the increase of the endogenous free radicalscavengers as enzymes (superoxide dismutase and selenium-dependentglutathione peroxidase), vitamins (alpha tocopherol and ascorbic acid).Many plants have been also found to posses free radical scavenging activity(Polyphenols, alkaloids and terpenoids)

Low levels of one or more of the essential antioxidants have beenshown to be associated with many disorders including cancer,inflammation, atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease and diabetes. Thus,in such cases, the administration of exogenous antioxidants seems to besalutary. Nowadays, a great deal of effort being expended to find effectiveantioxidants for the treatment or prevention of free radical-mediateddeleterious effects(9).

Source of AntioxidantsThere are several sources of antioxidant: those that we can get from foodand food supplements e.g. vitamin E, D and β carotene; and those thatare produced within our own bodies they are less well known but vital.The later type includes molecules such as glutathione and uric acidwhich scavenge free radicals directly; and enzymes such as superoxidedismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase which can break freeradical into nontoxic products. There are also melatonin which comes asa new member in antioxidant systems besides macromolecules such ascaeruloplasmin and transferrin and an array of small molecules includingmethionine(7,10),vitamins E & C.

The antioxidant can occur endogenously in body e.g.: enzymes andmelatonin, or exogenously as they can be obtained from dietary allowanceand natural or synthetic drugs such as vitamins and their precursors(vitamins E and C and carotenoids), selenium and polyphenols.

Plant extracts and their constituents as a natural source ofantioxidants have been extensively reviewed. This includes different plant




Antioxidant Natural Plant 3

organs such as seeds (Soybean, peanut, cottonseed, mustard, rapeseed,rice, sesame seed), fruits (grape, citrus, black, pepper, olive), leaves (tea,rosemary, thyme, oregano) and others (sweet potato, onion, oat seedling(11).

Plant extracts containing low molecular mass compounds have beensuccessively used in phytotherapy since ancient times, as reactive oxygenspecies are involved in several dideases. It has been demonstrated thatmany naturally occuaring possess notable activity as radical scevengersand lipid peroxidation inhibitors(12).

In addtion to plant extracts, numerous naturally occurring compoundsare useful as antioxidant, ranging from alpha tocopherol and beta caroteneto plant antioxidants such phenolic compounds (tannins, flavonoids,anthrocyanins, chalcones, xanthones, xanthones, liganans, depsides, anddepsidones ….etc), terpenes (sesquterpens and diterpineses), alkaloids,organic sulfur compounds(13)….etc.

A large number of experiments have been carried out concerning theantioxidant activity of several plant extracts and powders. The results ofthese experiments reveal that, the activity is due to several secondarymetabolites especially phenolic compound e.g.: flavonoids tannins….etc.

Tannins and related polyphenolsTannins known as the group of phenolic compounds are the significantplant secondary metabolites. Tannins in vascular plants occur as twotypes, the condensed and the hydrolysable(14). Condensed tannins are alsoknown as proanthocyanidins (PAs), the oligomeric and polymeric flavan-3-ols, which are linked through C4-C8 or C4-C6 linkages. The diversityof condensed tannins is given by the structural variability of the monomerunits. The size of PA molecules can be described by their degrees ofpolymerization (DPs). The molecules are water-soluble and can formcomplexes with proteins and polysaccharides (15). PAs are of great interestin nutrition and medicine because of their potent antioxidant capacityand possible protective effects on human health(16). They have antioxidantproperties related to their radical scavenging capacity(17), and theseproperties have been used against heart disease through reducing lipidoxidation. It was hypothesized that the free radical scavenging propertiesof PAs may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, cancer (18) andblood clotting, and certain types of trimeric PAs may protect againsturinary tract infections(16). However, tannins are diverse compounds withgreat variation in structure and concentration within and among plantspecies. Therefore, biomedical researches on the health benefits andrisks of increased tannins consumption are severely limited by lack ofmethods for rapid characterization and standardization.





Gallic acid and (+)-catechin showed the highest followed by tannicacid, and then chlorogenic acid which exhibited relatively very lowabsorbance. Chlorogenic acid and neochlorogenic acid showed the lowerabsorbance than gallic acid by 0.6 times(19).

Pedunculagin(20) is the most cytotoxic compound against solid tumorcancer cells as it work as potent scavenger against the artificial radicalDPPH and physiological radicals including ROO*, OH*, and O2-*,

Polyphenols

Polyphenols are present in a variety of plants utilized as importantcomponents of both human and animal diets (21-23). fruit and vegetablesprovide the best polypharmacy against the development of a chronicdisease, considering that they contain a vast array of antioxidantcomponents such as polyphenols.

Polyphenols make a major contribution to free radical scavengingcapacities(24). There was a direct relationship between antioxidant activityand total phenolics content in selected herbs, vegetables and fruits (24). C.album leaves had a relatively high level of total phenolics and extractablecondensed tannins which consisted of predominantly procyanidins andprodelphinidins with 2,3-cis stereochemistry. Tannins extracted fromleaves, twigs and stem bark all showed very good DPPH radical scavengingactivity (IC50 of 56.86, 62.31 and 54.80 µg/ml) and ferric reducing power(4.28, 3.74 and 4.49 mmol AAE/g dried tannins).

Polyphenols are a broad family of naturally-occurring physiologically-active nutrients. They can be divided into four subgroups. The first groupis called bioflavonoids. The next two groups are close cousins ofbioflavonoids and are called anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins (OPCs).The last group is called xanthones.

Phenolic compounds act as antioxidants with mechanisms involvingboth free radical scavenging and metal chelation. They have idealstructural chemistry for free radical-scavenging activities, and have beenshown to be more effective antioxidants in vitro than vitamins E and Con a molar basis(25).

Biological Effects of Polyphenols

Polyphenols exhibit a wide range of biological effects as a consequenceof their antioxidant properties. They inhibit LDL oxidation in vitro(26).Moreover, LDL isolated from volunteers supplemented with red wine orred wine polyphenols show reduced susceptibility to oxidation(27,28). Thus,polyphenols probably protect LDL oxidation in vivo with significantconsequences in atherosclerosis and also protect DNA from oxidative





damage with important consequences in the age-related development ofsome cancers(29). In addition, flavonoids have antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory effects(30). The antimicrobial property of polyphenoliccompounds has been well documented(31).

Several types of polyphenols (phenolic acids, hydrolysable tannins,and flavonoids) show anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic effects.Polyphenols might interfere in several of the steps that lead to thedevelopment of malignant tumors, inactivating carcinogens, inhibitingthe expression of mutant genes and the activity of enzymes involved inthe activation of procarcinogens and activating enzymatic systems involvedin the detoxification of xenobiotics(32). However, some polyphenols havebeen reported to be mutagenic in microbial assays and co-carcinogens orpromoters in inducing skin carcinogenesis in the presence of othercarcinogens(33). This latter possibility warrants further research.

Several studies have shown that in addition to their antioxidantprotective effect on DNA and gene expression, polyphenols, particularlyflavonoids, inhibit the initiation, promotion and progression of tumors,possibly by a different mechanism.

Caffeic and ferulic acids react with nitrite in vitro and inhibitnitrosamine formation in vivo. They inhibit the formation of skin tumorsinduced by 7,12-dimethyl-benz(a) anthracene in mice(34). They also inhibittyrosine nitration mediated by peroxynitrite(35).

Polyphenol Bioavailability and Metabolism

The knowledge of absorption, biodistribution and metabolism of polyphenolsis partial and incomplete, yet it is sufficient to state that in general,some polyphenols are bioactive compounds that are absorbed from thegut in their native or modified form. They are subsequently metabolizedwith products detected in plasma that retain at least part of the antioxidantcapacity and then excreted. Experimental studies in animals support theprevious general statement(36-38). In humans, studies aim at identifyingnative compounds and their metabolites in plasma and urine after theadministration of test meals or drinks. These studies also support theinitial general statement. Many of the studies performed with humansare centered on the detection of quercetin after the consumption ofonions, tea, and apple juice(39).

Some of these studies have addressed the question of the biologicalactivity of rutin and quercetin metabolites, such as the ability of quercetinand isorhamnetin to inhibit copper induced LDL oxidation(40). Theseauthors state that the plasma metabolites retain antioxidant activity.





After green tea consumption, epigallocatechin gallate and epicatechingallate are detected in plasma and urine(41). Red wine consumption leadsto the accumulation of O-methylcatechin, a catechin metabolic product,in plasma(42). These findings should be considered important initialcontributions to the identification of the various bioavailable polyphenolspresent in tea and wine, as well as the identification of their metabolites.Some worker employed(43) green tea to attempt an overall evaluation ofabsorption and metabolism. They detected green tea flavanols in plasmaand some monohydroxy and dihydroxybenzoic acids in urine, accountingfor approximately 15% of the polyphenols administered. These phenolicacids would result from bacterial metabolization of catechin and quercetinin the gut. The intestinal flora has enzymes that cleave the benzopyranosicring(44).Methylation in one or more phenolic hydroxyls is another possibilityin polyphenol metabolism, having been observed for catechin, epicatechinand green tea flavonoids(33,34). This reaction is apparently mediated bycatechol-O-methyl transferase, an enzyme present in liver and kidney.Epicatechin, methylated and conjugated with glucuronic acid and sulfate,appears as the plasma metabolite with the longer half life, after a singledose of epicatechin to rats. In rats receiving 0.2% quercetin in their dietfor three weeks, the most abundant metabolite was the glucuronic acidand sulfate conjugate of isorhamnetin, the 3’ methylation product ofquercetin(34).

Bioflavonoid

Bioflavonoids are antioxidants that battle and neutralize a wide varietyof free radicals including nitric oxide, the hydroxyl radical (HORAC),singlet oxygen, the super-oxide radical, and the super-potent combinationof superoxide and nitric oxide called the peroxynitrate radical. Bioflavonoidshelp to regulate nitric oxide levels and keep them from becoming excessive.Free radicals like nitric oxide cannot be totally eliminated for they havea good side as well as a bad one. Free radicals react with just about everypart of your body including proteins, fats, brain cells, collagen, connectivetissue(45), blood vessels, immune cells and DNA. Free radical reactionsproduce oxidative stress which if left unchecked can result in greatersusceptibility to disease, premature aging, heart disease, chronicinflammations in a variety of organs and tissues, arthritis, asthma, diabetesand stroke. Bioflavonoids in general are amazingly bioactive with a widerange of benefits. Like many other powerful antioxidants, they show abiphasic action, depending on the dose. Lower doses, available from dietand supplements act as antioxidants and raise the levels of reducedglutathione and vitamin C. Negative effects such as pro-oxidant actionand glutathione depletion become an issue only if huge megadoses aretaken over a longer period of time(46).





AnthocyaninsAnthocyanins have some of the strongest medicinal effects of any plantcompounds. Physiologically, they are powerful antioxidants used as viabletherapies that support eye and heart health. Some anthocyanins havebeen shown to be four times as powerful as vitamin E. The berry nectarsincluding grapes (vitis vinifera var), bilberries, and blueberries (vacciniummyrtillus), elderberries (sambucus cerulean), cranberries (vacciniummacrocarpon) and prunes (prunus domestica) are some of the richestsources of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are most stable in low, acid Ph’s.However, these berries have a powerful alkalinizing effect from theirminerals and polyphenols. The ultimate test of a nutrient’s effect of bodypH is the pH of its ash, and when the nectars of these anthocyanin-richfoods are heated to ash, the pH is quite alkaline. Red cabbage, egg plantand apples (malva pumila) are some common foods that containanthocyanins. An easy way to identify them in your refrigerator is tonotice which fruits and vegetables do not spoil quickly(47). Bilberry nectaris a rich source of anthocyanins. It is also a rich botanical source of iron,magnesium, potassium and copper. It was used as early as the MiddleAges to induce menstruation and as recently as World War II to improvepilots’ night vision.

One study showed that anthocyanins have the strongest antioxidantpower in the polyphenol family. The study found that the darker a berry’scolor, the greater its antioxidant power.

Oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs) can prevent damage caused byatherosclerosis and unhealthy lifestyles. They inhibit platelet aggregationfour times better than aspirin in smokers. They also prevent damagefrom blood clots, or ischemic reperfusion injury, as well as from venousinsufficiency. Anthocyanins are powerful atherosclerosis fighters, theyprevent the damaging oxidation of low density lipoproteins or LDL (bad)cholesterol, which is often the source of inflammation, thickening ofarteries and clotting mechanisms, all of which lead to heart disease.They help maintain healthy cholesterol levels and reduce the risk factorsfrom heart disease that can lead to death. Prune nectar has been shownto promote healthy cholesterol levels, particularly high density lipoproteinsor HDL (good) cholesterol in both menopausal and post-menopausal women,compensating in part for the reduction of estrogen levels and helping tomaintain a healthy cardiovascular system(48).

Proanthocyanidins

Proanthocyanidins are another family of polyphenols that chemists callcondensed tannins or oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs). OPCs offer





antioxidant protection specifically against heart disease and cancer, twomajor risk factors for death. OPCs owe their current popularity to Frenchscientists that were successful in finding uses for the waste produced bythe paper pulp and winemaking industries. These scientists studiedMaritime Pine bark and grape seeds and found that the OPCs theycontained were perfect nutrients to build and maintain high energy levels.Some of the richest sources of OPCs are the nectars of grapes, bilberry,blueberry, cranberry, elderberry, prunes and apples. Grape nectar hasthe richest source of OPCs of all the botanicals in their seeds and peels.OPCs are important antioxidants by themselves. Grape OPCs have beenshown to protect many different types of body tissues better than vitamin-C, vitamin-E or beta-carotene.

OPCs are also synergists that enhance the effects of other antioxidants.Grape OPCs in particular show this antioxidant recycling and potentiatingability. The cell membrane protecting ability of vitamin-E is improved inthe presence of grape OPCs. OPCs can protect our cellular tissues frompremature aging with special emphasis on protecting the cardiovascularsystem. OPCs have also been shown to be effective against several cancer-causing agents. Grape OPCs are more effective at positively affecting theresponse of human mouth cells to the free-radical damage caused bysmokeless tobacco than either vitamin-C or vitamin-E alone or evenwhen both of these vitamins are combined(49).

XanthonesXanthones are close cousins to the polyphenol family and have strongantioxidant effects on the nervous system. The richest source of xanthonesis gentian root nectar. The xanthones in gentian root include genistein,gentisin and several methoxyxanthones. Xanthones are among thebitterest compounds known. However, their mood-enhancing propertiesinvoke some of the most agreeable, delightful feelings known. This is ofgreat benefit to those who suffer from depression and obesity, acting toreduce appetites and obsessions. Gentain is known to delay stomachemptying and to trigger the release of cholecystokinin (CCK). This actionthen produces a series of hormonal reactions that result in satiety, afeeling of fullness and well-being triggered by dopamine release in thepleasure centers of the brain. Besides mood enhancement, xanthones arealso useful in treating metabolic syndrome X, type-2 diabetes, loweringblood sugar and reducing insulin resistance(46). Xanthones have a commonhealing heritage with polyphenols, being both antiviral and anti-inflammatory.

The antioxidant activity of tannins in plants was demonstratedas follows:

1. Suporessingthe oxidation of ascorbic acid by Ca2+ blocking or bytheir radical scavenging activity e.g. geraniin.





2. Inhibition of lipid peroxidation induced by ADP and ascorbic acidor by ADP and NADPH e.g. pedunculagin, isoterchebin, the monomericcatechin analog (-)epigallocatechin galate and geraniin.

3. They free radical scavengers that have a significant inhibitoryaction on carbon tetrachloride and galactosamine hepatic cytotoxicity e.g.licorice phenolics.

The antioxidant activity of most hydrolysable tannins are strongerthan those of condensed tannins.

Phenolic acidsPhenolic acids and their esters have been reported as active antioxidants.Caffeic acid, chlorogic acid and its isomers, including 4-O-caffeoylquinicacid were isolated from sweet potatoes. chlorogenic acid and its derivativese.g: 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid were isolated from many plant extracts(10,50,51).

DiterpenesRosmaridiphenol(50), carnosic acid, carnosol, resmanol and epirosmanol,were phenolic diterpenes isolated from Rosmarinus officinalis. They wereshown to be effective to protect the biological systems against oxidativestresses(52).

Diterpenes, totarol, totaradiol 19-hydroxytotarol totaral, 4b-carboxy-19-nortotarol and sugiol were isolated from Prodocarpus nagi and evaluatedas antioxidants. They inhibit linoleic acid auto oxidation but not generationof superoxide anion. Totarol protects mitochondrial respiratory enzymeactivities against NADPH induced oxidative injury. These diterpenes areeffective to protected biological systems and functions against variousoxidative stresses(53).

Miscellaneous phenolicsXanthone derivatives e.g: 1,2,5-trihydroxyxanthone and 1,2-dihydroxy-5,6-dimethoxyxanthone isolated from the woods of Garcinia subelliptica haveantilipid peroxidation, free radical and superoxide anion scavengingactivity(54).

Curcumin and curcumin related phenols e.g; 1,5-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenol)-1E,4E)-1,4-pentadien-3-one and1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-5-(4-hydroxyphenol-1E,4E)-1,4-pentadien-3-one, wereisolated from curcuma domestica. The related phenolics were show tohave stronger antioxidant activity than curcumin(55). Curcuminoid mixturefor curcumin, demethoxy curcumin and bis-demethoxycurcumin, isolatedfrom curcuma longa has synergistic antioxidant effect between componentof the mixture(56).

The structurally similar lignans , dihydroguayaretic acid , guaycasione-s-transferase and microsomal cytochrome and isopergomisin, isolated from





porlieria chilensis are powerful antioxidants(57). Schisandrin B, is ligninwith a dibezocyclooctadine structure isolated from Schisandra chinensisincreases the activities of hepatic(58) glutathione.

The depsidones e.g. pannarin and 1-chloropannarin, the linchenicmetabolites isolated from protusnea malacea and palcopis sp. are efficientantioxidants(59).

SesquiterpensChamazulen isolated from chamomile was shown to be a good antioxidantas it blocks the peroxidation of arachidonic acid(60).

The sesquiterpens 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalin and 7-hydroxycadainisolated from Heterothica inuloides have been found to inhibit autooxidativeand microsomal lipid peroxidation(61).

AlkaloidsSeveral alkaloids of various structural types have been found to be potentinhibitors of singlet oxygen species(1O2) ,superoxide radical(O2

–) scavengerand liped peroxidation inhibitors.

Tetrandrine is a bioscoclaurine alkaloid isolated from Stephaniatetrandra was shown to be O2

- and OH- scavenger and inhibitor for 5-lipogenase(62,63).

Flavonoids as antioxidantChalcones are biosynthetic intermediates between cinnamic acids andflavonoids. They also show considerable antioxidant activity e.g. butein,and interestingly, chalcones with only two adjacent hydroxyl groups arealmost fully effevtive. Intruduction of additional hydroxyl groups leadingto only slight increase in their antioxidant activity. Hydrogenationofrigalone B20. chalcone double bond increase their antioxidant activity(64,65)

e.g.: pent hydroxyl dihydrochlalcone.

Flavonoids exerts their antioxidant effects by neutralizing all typesof oxidizing radicals including the superoxide and hydroxyl radicals andby chelation. Flavonoid can also act as powerful chain breaking antioxidantdue to the electron-donating capacity of their phenolic groups. The potantantioxidant activity of flavonoids; their ability to scavenge hydroxyl radicals.May be the most important function of flavonoids and underlies many oftheir actions in the body(65).

Flavonoids by acting as free radical scavengers were shown to exerta protective effect in perfusion ischemic tissue damage, and by acting asantioxidants exhibited several beneficial effects as anti-inflammatory,antiallergic, antiviral as well as anticancer activity. They have also been





suggested to play a protective role in liver diseases, cataracts andcardiovascular diseases(66). They do not only have direct antioxidant activitybut also have sparing effects on other antioxidants as vitamin C and E(67).And their capacity to modify membrane dependent process, such as freeradical induced membrane lipid peroxidation, is related not only to theirstructural characteristics but also to their ability to interact with andpenetrate the lipid bilayers(68).

In addition to their effects on ROS, They have certain actions onRNS, polyphenolic compounds are especially susceptible to peroxynitrite-dependant reactions and they are powerful inhibitors of nitrous aciddependant nitration and DNA deamination in vitro, and the role can beexerted in vivo, thus flavonoids may provide gastro-protective effect whenhigh levels of RNS are produced(69).

Flavnoids have chelating activity which allowed them to chelate orbinds to metal ions in our bodies to prevent them being available foroxidation. The aerobic oxidation of ascorbic acid in neutral or alkalinesolution is catalyzed by copper (Π) ions and thought to proceed througha free radical mechanism. The ability of flavoniods to inhibit aerobicoxidation has been attributed to their ability to act as free radical acceptorsand to remove catalytic ions through formation of complexes with themetal. The effectiveness of flavonoids to form complexes with metal isundoubtedly influenced by pH of the system(70). Flavonoids and phenoliccompounds with hydroxyl (or other electro donating) groups can interactwith transition metal ions to form chelates, this chelates might be stable,or redox cycling might take place leading to the reduction of the iron orcopper to a more pro-oxidant from and the oxidized flavonoid(69).

The polyphenolic compounds generally present a tonifying actionbecause of their natural antioxidant properties. Other action to be stressedare the stimulation of protein synthesis and the promotion of ammoniaelimination. More specifically, the compounds cause a stabilizing of cellmembrane components in cell organelles such as lysosomes and all above,a stabilizing of the plasmatic membrane of erythrocytes, mastocytes,fibrocytes, hepatocytes and other similar cells(71).

Another pharmacological action of flavonoids is the protector effectson carcinogenesis by inhibiting the neoplastic effects of chemicalcarcinogens; their activity as antioxidants on microsomal mono-oxygenasepromotes a detoxifying action with an antineoplastic effect(72).

Allium sativam L. (Garlic), a food throughout the world, has beenused as a remedy for various ailments since ancient times. More recently,organosulfur compounds, flavonoids, anthocyanins and other phenolics ofgarlic have been shown to have oxygen radical scavenging and antioxidant





properties by several mechanisms as follows: Inhibition of Ca2+-inducedlow density lipoproteins (LDLS) oxidation, Antioxidant against hepaticmicrosomes stressed by ascorbic acid/Fe3+. Hydroxyl radical (OH)scavenger, Prevent carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) induced cytotoxicity inliver cells, Inhibition of phorbol ester-induced oxygen radical formationby human granulocytes and Increase the tissues concentration of theenzymes glutathione-peroxidase and glutathione-disulfide reductase(12,73).

Casimiroa edulis Llave et LexDescription

Casimiroa edulis Llave et Lex (Rotaceae) is a species indigenous totemperate zones of Mexico, Africa, India and central America, and it ispopularly called “Zapote blanco”, which has been known since prehispanictimes for its interesting sedative–like effects and its use as a sleep inducer.The tree is cultivated for its edible fruits. In folk medicine, a concoctionof leaves and occasionally of seeds is administered for sedative action.

Chemical contents and biological activiteis

New study was carried out and mentioned that fruit of this plant exhibitantioxidant activity due to the presence of two new flavones known as;5-methoxy-6-hydroxyflavone(1) and its 6-O-β-D- glucoside(2) in addition toquercetin and its 3-O- rutinoside , were found to have antioxidant activityvia scavenging by the ABTS%+ [2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazolone-6-sulfonic acid)] free radical. Fractionation (using Diethylether,chloroform,ethylacetate and butanol) was carried out for this plant, these fractionswere studied for their antioxidant activity. This study has revealed thatthe total antioxidant content ranged from 389 to 842 µmol Troloxequivalent/g dry weight. Alcoholic and ethyl acetate extracts exhibited842, and 712 µmol Trolox equivalent/g dry weight; compounds 1 and 2showed the rutinoside were found to have the highest activity (640 and772 µmol/g, respectively(74).

Sisymbrium erysimoides Dess., Fl. Atlant (cruciferae)Chemical contents and biological activities

This plant was subjected to study to investigate it is pharmacological useand compounds responsible for these activities. All extracts of the plantunder investigation (total alcohol, ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate andbutanol) were tested for their anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities,all showed a significant effect, these were found to be very clear in it isethyl acetate and butanol extracts and poor in chloroform and etherextracts. The activities were due to high flavonidal content (6.25%) and





Fig 1. Plant images for Casimiroa edulis Llave et Lex (Rotaceae)

their antioxidant activity, this activity directed to isolation of sevenflavonoidal compounds from the combination of butanol and ethyl acetateextracts. The isolated compounds were identified as apigenin, apigenin-7-O-galctoside, apigenin-7-O-β-rhamnoside, apigenin-7-O-glucuronide,apigenin-7-O-rhamnosyl galactoronide, Kampferol, and kampferol-3-xyloside-7-galactoside. The total antioxidant content ranged from 129 to952 µmol Trolox equivalent/g dry weight. Total alcohol extract was 952µmol/g both ether and chloroform extract showed the lowest amount ofantioxidant (132 and 129 µmol/g, respectively), while butanol and ethylacetate fraction were found to have the highest amount (843 and 810µmol/g respectively). On the other hand, all isolated compounds have





Fig 2. Image for Sisymbrium erysimoides Dess., Fl. Atlant (cruciferae)

closer activity to butanol but in lesser concentration (100 mg/kg).Compound 2 (apigenin-7-O-galactoside) showed the highest effect in themean time and other compounds possesses nearer effect(75).

Atriplex lentiformis (Torr.) S.Wats.

Description

Leaves are alternate, exstipulate, flat, petioled , mostly angled and toothed.Flowers are typically pentamerous , with a single whorl in both perigeneand androecium, stamens opposite the perianth leaves. Reduced unisexualflowers are not infrequent. The unilocular ovary contains a basalcampylotropous ovule. Fruit is a nut, seeds with a curved embryo bentaround the floury perisperm. Cultivated successfully under salineconditions in South Sinai.

Chemical contents and biological activities

Two new flavonoids, Quercetin 6,4'-dimethoxy-3-fructo-rhamnoside andQuercetin 4'-methoxy-3-fructo-rhamnoside in addition to another fiveknown compounds were isolated from Atriplex lentiformis (Torr.) S. Watsand identified as kaempferol-4'-methoxy-rutinoside, kaempferol 7-rhamnoside, kaempferol 3,7-dirhamnoside, quercetin and kaempferol. Allof the extracts and the isolated compounds were tested for their





antioxidant activity, the two new compounds were found to have thehighest antioxidant activity with no side effect. The results of this studyrevealed that this plant is very good as antioxidant with no side effect onliver and kidney functions. The total antioxidant content ranged from129 to 952 µmol Trolox equivalent/gram dry weight. total alcohol extractwas 952 µmol/g both ether and chloroform extract showed the lowestamount of antioxidant (132 and 129 µmol/g respectively), while butanoland ethyl acetate fraction were found to have the highest amount (843and 810µmol/g respectively) on the other hand all isolated compoundhave closer activity to butanol but in lesser concentration(76) (100 mg/kg).No side effects were detected for all extracts and some of the isolatedcompounds on both AST and ALT (liver and kidney function).

Solenostemma arghel (Del.) HayneDescription

Blue-green finely velvety-pubescent plant with numerous erect stem.Leaves elliptical lanceolate, acute. Umbels short-peduncled, rich. Corolla-lobed erect. Woody perennials. This plant grows widely in Sinai proper;

Fig 3. General view of Atriplex Lentiformis





south El Tih desert and the Islamic desert (El-Tih and the region Northof Wadi Tumilat). It grows only in natural habitats(81).


Chemical investigation of the Solenostemma arghel revealed the presenceof several contents such as: 6,7-dihydroxy-dihydrolinalool 3-O-β-glucopyranoside and 6,7-dihydroxy-dihydrolinalool 7-O-β- glucopyranoside.A pregnane glucoside was also isolated and assigned as pregn-5-ene-3,14-β-dihydroxy-7,20-dione 3-O-β-glucopyranoside together with the knowncompounds benzyl alcohol O-β-apiofuranosyl-(1β6)-β - glucopyranoside, 2-phenylethyl O-α- arabinopyranosyl - (1→6)-β-glucopyranoside, astragalinand kaempferol-3-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-glucopyranoside(79). Twopregnene derivatives 14β-15-dihydroxy-∆4pregnene-3,20 dione and 3β-14β,15α-16α hydroxy-20-oxo-∆5pregnene-tetra-ol, in addition to α- and β-amyrinand β-sitosterol, were isolated from Solenostemma argel leaves(77). Twonew pregnane ester glycosides, named stemmoside A and stemmoside Band a third new polyhydroxy pregnane, named(78). stemmin C. From theaerial parts of Solenostemma arghel, four new acylated phenolic glycosidessinapyl alcohol 9-O-feruloyl-4-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-glucopyranoside, solargin I (1), sinapyl alcohol 9-O-caffeoyl-4-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-glucopyranoside, solargin II, sinapyl alcohol 9-O-feruloyl-4-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-glucopyrano-side, solargin III (3) and sinapyl alcohol 9-O-caffeoyl-4-O-α-

Fig 4. General view of Solenostemma arghel (Del.) Hayne.





rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-glucopyrano-side,solargin IV have been isolated(79).

Solenostemma arghel is used in folk medicine as a remedy forrheumatic pains, in cough, in common cold and in cardiovascular diseases,also it has antimicrobial activity(80). The plant was subjected to study forits pharmacological use and the isolate of compounds responsible forthese activities. All extracts of the plant (total alcohol, ether, chloroform,ethyl acetate and butanol) were tested for their anti-inflammatory,antinociceptive and antipyretic effects. A significant effect was observedespecially those of ethyl acetate and butanol extracts. The activities weredue to high flavonidal content (5.76%) and their antioxidant activity. Thisactivity was correlated to the isolation of two flavonoidal compoundsfrom the ethyl acetate extract. The isolated compounds were identifiedas kaempferol-3, 4'-diglucoside and kaempferol 3-rutinoside. DPPH freeradical scavenging activity reached 65.3%, 78.2%, 61.5%, 90.01%, 83.40%and 86.50% for butanolic, chloroformic, ether, ethyl acetate fractions, C1and C2 respectively, corresponding to 87.8% for standard ascorbic acid at100 µM concentration

Alhagi maurorum Boiss.Description

Alhagi maurorum Boiss (Leguminosae). Richly branched intricate shrubletwith short patent spiny-tipped twigs, woody perennials. Very commonplant. It grows widely in the Nile region including the Delta, the valleyand the faiyum, the oases of the Libyan Desert, the Mediterranean coastalstrip from El-salloum to Rafah, the red coastal region and Sinai proper;south El Tih desert. A characteristic plant, especially of canal banks andwaste places. Flourishing and flouring in summer. Mainly reproductingitself vegetatively by its long creeping rhizomes pushing up specimens toa wide distance. Hydrohalophytes, plants of wet and salty habitats; weedin fields on deep clayey soils(81).


Chemical investigation of the Alhagi maurorum revealed the presence ofseveral contents mainly flavonoids, Twelve flavonoids were isolated fromAlhagi maurorum. These flavonoids were identified as tamarixtin 3-O-dirhamnoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-glucosylneo-hesperidoside, isorhamnetine3-O-robinoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rotinoside, Quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside,Kampferol 3-O-galactoside, Quercetin 3,7-diglycoside, isorhamnetin 3-rutinoside, daidzein7,4'-dihydroxyisoflavone, calycisin 3'-hydroxyfor-mononetin, isorhamnetin and tamarxtin aglycones. As well asPolysaccharide fraction form Alhagi maurorum contains soluble and





insoluble fractions of sulphur. The soluble fraction contains galactose andarabinose in ratio 3:2 in addition to a small amount of uroniccomponent(82).

Six flavonoidal glycosides were isolated from the ethanolc extract ofthis plant they were identified as kaempferol, chrysoeriol, isorhamnetin,chrysoeriol-7-O-xyloside, kaempferol-3-galactorhamnoside andisorhamnetin 3-O-β-D-apio-furanosyl-β-D-galactopyranoside. Thesecompounds showed various activates as anti-ulcerogenic due to its workas antioxidant

Alhagi maurorum, is used in folk medicine as a remedy for rheumaticpains, bilharziasis, liver disorders, urinary tract infection and for varioustypes of gastrointestinal discomfort(83). It was found that Alhagi maurorumhas both peripheral and central antinociceptive activity on the dose of400 mg/kg through its work as antioxidant. It exhibit anti-diarrheal activityin vivo (200 and 400 mg/kg). This effect was appeared to be due tocalcium channel blocking effect(84).

Fig 5. General view of Alhagi maurorum Medic





Conyza dioscordis (L.) DesfDescription

Richly branched hairy shrub, often 2-3 m. height, with lanceolate acuteserrate leaves. Heads numerous, corymbose, terminating the leafybranches. Flowers pale yellow or pink. Woody perennials. Very commonplant. It grows widely in the Nile region including the Delta, the valleyand the faiyum, the oases of the Libyan Desert, the Mediterranean coastalstrip from El-salloum to Rafah and the part of the Arabian desert fromWadi Tumilat to Qena-Qosseir road(81).


Chemical investigation of the Conyza dioscordis revealed the presence ofseveral contents such as: Six flavonoids named as; isorhamnetin 3-O-rhamnoside, quercetin 4’-glucoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside, quercetin,quercetin-7-arabinoside and quercitrin. Sesqiterpenes hydrocarbons mainly,β-Maaliene and α-Elemene and oxygenated sesqiterpenes compoundsmainly, α-Cadinol, Muurolol, Carryophyllene oxide isomer andsesquiterpene alcohol(85). Triterpenes as α-amyrin, β-amyrin, β-amyrinacetate and lupeol acetate(86). Fatty acids and sterols mainly, cholesterol,campesterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol and hexadecanoic, arachidonic andoctadecanoic esters.

It was found that Conyza dioscordis has both peripheral and centralantinociceptive activity(83) on the dose of 400 mg/kg through its work as

Fig 6. General view of Conyza dioscordis (L.) Desf.





antioxidant. It exhibit anti-diarrheal activity in vivo (200 and 400 mg/kg)and in vitro (0.4-2.8 mg/ml) and this activity appeared to be due togangalionic blocking effect. The volatile constituents of this plant hadpromising antimicrobial activities against some tested micro-organisms.This plant also showed hypoglycaemic effects(87).

Convolvulus fatmensisDescription

Calyx of 5 sepals. Corolla funnel- shaped with entire, 5-angled or 5-plaited limb and no regular color strips. Style solitary with filiform stigmas.Capsule 2-valved. Herbs or shrubs of various habits with pedicels oftenbracteate, but bracts forming no involucre. Flowers only 1 cm. long onpeduncles not exceeding the leaves, Annual and rare plant. This plantgrows widely in the Nile region including the Delta, the valley and thefaiyum, the oases of the Libyan Desert and the Western Mediterraneancoastal region, including Rosetta. Weed in cultivated land, mainly insteppe and desert areas, and herbaceous formations.


The three organs of Convolvulus arvensis L. (flower, green parts androot) were phytochemically studied for their phenolic compounds content.Four coumarin compounds were isolated and identified as umbeliferone,scopoletin, asculetin and scopoline for the first time from the plant.Eleven flavonoidal compounds were isolated for the first time from differentplant organs and identified by using 1H NMR, 13C NMR HMQC and UV

Fig 7. General view of Convolvulus fatmensis G.Kunze.





shift reagent, these compounds were kaempferol, kaempferol-3-rutinoside,kaempferol-7-rutinoside, kaempferol-7-glucoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside,kaempferol-3-rhamnoside-7-glucoside, kaempferol-3-galactorhamnoside,quercetin, quercetin-3-rhamnoside,quercetin-3-rutinoside and kaempferol-3-rhamnoside. A quantitative estimation of the total flavonoids inmethanolic extracts of the three organs of the plant were carried out byspectrophotometic method. Pharmacological screening in addition to theside effects on both liver and kidney functions were carried out for differentplant organ extracts.It was found that Convolvulus fatmensis has bothperipheral and central antinociceptive activity on the dose of 400 mg/kg(83) through its work as antioxidant.

Diplotaxis acris h.Description

Annual glabrescent herb with somewhat fleshy leaves of gargir-taste.Flowers large, purple. Pods numerous, erect, in dense racemes, commonplant. It frows widely in the Islamic desert (El-Tih and the region Northof Wadt Tumilat), Sinai proper; south El Tih desert and in sandy andstony desert valleys. Desert slopes, mainly on hard limestones, and wadisin extreme desert areas, grows only in natural habitats(81).

Fig 8. General view of Diplotaxis acris (Forssk)Boiss






Chemical investigation of the Diplotaxis acris revealed the presence of,isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside, quercetin, kaempferol 3-O-glucoside,Diosmetin 7-rhamnoside, apigenin, apigenin 7-diglucoside, luteolin 7-diglucoside, luteolin 7-rhamnoside and quercetin 7-rhamnoside-3'-methylether. Fatty acids and sterols as α-linolenic acid, β-sitosterol and benzylbenzoate in addition to the alkaloid cholin chloride(88). Diplotaxis acriswas found to have both peripheral and central antinociceptive activity onthe doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg(83) through its work as antioxidant.

Origanum syriacum

Description

Leaves nearly sessile, densely hairy. Bracts small, 4-ranked, white-canescent. Flowers-heads often cylindrical, panicled. Of mint-smell. Itgrows widely in the Islamic desert (El-Tih and the region North of WadtTumilat) and Sinai proper; south El Tih desert(81).


Chemical investigation of the Origanum syriacum revealed that the majorconstituent of the plant are ; Monoterpenes, oxygenated monoterpenesand sesquiterpenes, mainly γ-terpinene, carvacrol, p-cymene, β-caryophyllene, menthon, pulegone p-menth-1-en-4-ol and 1,8-cineole aswell as monoterpene glucosides: thymoquinol 2,5-O-β-diglucopyranoside,

Fig 9. General view of Origanum syriacum L.





carvacrol 2-O-β-glucopyranosyl, p-menth-1-ene-3,4-diol 4-O-β-glucopyranoside, thymoquinol 2-O-β-glucopyranoside and thymoquinol 5-O-β-glucopyranoside(89). The main action reported for this plant was theirpotent antioxidant effect on scavenging free radical and chelating withmetals (90, 91). It also has nematicidal activity(92).

Euphorbia cuneata, Vahl.Description

It is a spiny plant. Trees (up to three meter) are non-succulent and theyoung twigs transformed into spines. Leaves alternate, spathulate, obtuse,entire. Cyathia in terminal or lateral umbel-like cyme, umbel-rays 3-5,each 5-15 mm long. Fruit is a capsule. Seeds brown and smooth (81).

Anatomical features of the family Euphorbiaceae: Leaves withdorsiventral mesophyl. Lower and upper epidermises sometimespapillosed. Single or many layers of hypoderm are present beneath theupper epidermis. Sclerenchyma is said to be absent in Euphorbia(81).Laticeferous cells characterizing Euphorbia genus. Pericyclic fibers arediscontinuous.


8 phenolic compounds were isolated from the total alcoholic extract whichwere identified as, naringenis, dihydrokaempferol, apigenin, quercetin,

Fig 10. Photograph of the whole plant of Euphorbia cuneata, Vahl.





4\-methoxy–luteolin–7-rhamnoglucoside, kaempferol, gallic acid andapigenin 7–galactoside. This plant has activities as antimicrobial,Analgesic(at dose of 2 gm/kg body weight), Antiinflammatory(at dose upto 2 gm/kg body weight after 2 and 3 hours only) and Antiulcerogenic atdose of 2 gm/kg body weight. The isolated flavonoid compound nargeninwas found to be responsible about this activity due to its free radicalscavenging and metal chelating properties(93) it had a good activity at adose of 100 mg/kg body weight. Euphorbia cuneata showed no abnormalkidney and liver function when tested for two weeks administrations.

Chenopodium mural L.(Forssk)Description

Stems erect, branched, 1-6(-10) dm, glabrous (to sparsely farinose whenyoung); proximal branches decumbent. Leaves nonaromatic; petiole 1-2.5cm; blade triangular, ovate, or rhombic-ovate, 0.8-4(-8) × 0.4-3(-5) cm,base cuneate to rounded, margins irregularly dentate, apex acute toacuminate, glabrous (rarely indistinctly farinose when young).Inflorescences glomerules in terminal and lateral panicles, 6-7 × 4-5 cm;glomerules subglobose, 2-4 mm diam., or some flowers not in glomerules;bracts absent. Flowers: perianth segments 5, distinct nearly to base;

Fig 11. Photograph of the whole plant of Chenopodium mural L.(Forssk)





Table 1. Some plants having antioxidant activity

Ref.

100

100

82, 83

100

100

99

76

103

100

103

103

104

105

74

94

Plant Name Chemical content

Acacia senegal Phenolic compounds

Acalypha indica Phenolic compounds

Alhagi maurorum tamarixtin 3-O-dirhamnoside,isorhamnetin 3-O-glucosylneo-hesperidoside, isorhamnetine 3-O-robinoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rotinoside,Quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside, Kampferol3-O-galactoside, Quercetin 3,7-diglycoside, isorhamnetin 3-rutinoside,daidzein7, 4 '-dihydroxyisoflavone,calycisin 3 '-hydroxyformononetin,isorhamnetin and tamarxtin aglycones.

Allophylus rubifolius Phenolic compounds

Anogeissus dhofarica Phenolic compounds

Artocarpus odoratissimus Phenolic compounds

Atriplex lentiformis Quercetin 6,4'–dimethoxy-3–fructo-rhamnoside , Quercetin 4' –methoxy-3 –fructo- rhamnoside, kaempferol - 4/ -methoxy – rutinoside, kaempferol 7 –rhamnoside, kaempferol 3,7-dirhamnoside, quercetin andkaempferol.

Balanites aegyptiaca Phenolic compounds

Becium dhofarense Phenolic compounds

Bombax costatum Phenolic compounds

Boscia senegalensis Phenolic compounds

Burkea africana 6-Hydroxy 5-methoxyflavone5-Methoxyflavone 6-O-β -D-gl.QuercetinQuercetin 3-O-rutinoside

Caparis erythrocarpus Phenolic compounds

Casimiroaedulis 6-Hydroxy 5-methoxyflavone5-Methoxyflavone 6-O-β -D-gl.QuercetinQuercetin 3-O-rutinoside

Chenopodium mural L.(Forssk) Kampferol , Quercetin,Kampferol-3-O-α-L-rhamnoside-7-O-β-D-xyloside(1-2)-O-α-L-rhamnoside, kampferol-3-galactorhamnoside, kampeferol 3,7-O-dirhamnoside, Kaempferol-4/-methoxy–rutinoside, kampferol -7-O- rhamnoside.





Table 1. (Continued)

Plant Name Chemical content Ref.

Cleome arabica Phenolic compounds

Conyza dioscordis (L.) Desf isorhamnetin 3-O-rhamnoside, quercetin4'-glucoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rutinoside,quercetin, quercetin-7-arabinoside andquercitrin. Sesqiterpenes hydrocarbonsmainly, β-Maaliene and α-Elemene andoxygenated sesqiterpenes compoundsmainly, α-Cadinol, Muurolol,Carryophyllene oxide isomer andsesquiterpene alcohol. Triterpenes as α-amyrin, β-amyrin, β-amyrin acetate andlupeol acetate, Fatty acids and sterolsmainly, cholesterol, campesterol,stigmasterol, β -sitosterol andhexadecanoic, arachidonic andoctadecanoic esters

Convolvulus fatmensis kaempferol, kaempferol-3-rutinoside,kaempferol-7-rutinoside, kaempferol-7-glucoside, kaempferol-3-glucoside,kaempferol-3-rhamnoside-7-glucoside,k ae m pf e r o l - 3- g al ac to r ham no s i de ,quercetin, quercetin-3-rhamnoside,quercetin-3-rutinoside andkaempferol-3-rhamnoside.

Cordia perrottettii Not identified

Curcuma longa L., Phenolic compounds

Cussona barteri Flavonoid

Diplotaxis acris (Forssk)Boiss isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside , quercetin,kaempferol 3-O-glucoside, Diosmetin 7-rhamnoside, apigenin, apigenin 7-diglucoside, luteolin 7-diglucoside, luteolin7-rhamnoside and quercetin 7-rhamnoside-3'-methyl ether. Fatty acidsand sterols as α-linolenic acid, β-sitosteroland benzyl benzoate in addition to thealkaloid cholin chloride.

Dorstenia ciliata Gallic and ellagic acid

Emblica officinalis L., Phenolic compounds

Entada Africana Not identified

Eucalyptus Camaldulensis Phenolic compounds

Euphorbia cuneata, Vah Nargenine

106

85, 86, 87

83

100

95

107

83, 88

108

95

109

110

93







Ficus lutea Flavonoid

Glinus oppositifolius Flavonoid

Gongronema latifolium Flavonoid

Gynandropis gynandra Flavonoid

Hypaene thebaica Flavonoid

Lannea vilutina Flavonoid

Leptadenia hastate Flavonoid

Mangifera indica L Phenolic compounds

Mangifera pajang Phenolic compounds

Momordica charantia L., Flavonoid

Moringa peregrina, Flavonoid

Mallotus oppositifolium Flavonoid

Myrothamnus flabellifolia Phenolic compounds

Olea europaea, Not identified

Origanum syriacum L flavonoids, terpens

Pelargonium reniforme Proanthocyanidins, catechin, epicatechin& fisetinidol

Pluchea arabica, Quercetin

Pulicaria crispa, Quercetin

Rhoicissus rhomboidea Phenolic compounds

Rhoicissus tomentosa Phenolic compounds

Rhoicissus tridentata Phenolic compounds

Sacoglottis gabonensis Flavonoid

Santalum album L., Phenolic compounds

Sesbania pachycarpa Flavonoid

Sisymbrium erysimoides apigenin, apigenin -7-O-galctoside,apigenin -7-O-β-rhamnoside, apigenin -7-O-glucuronide, Kampferol, apigenin -7-O-rhamnosyl galactoronide, kampferol-3-xyloside-7-galactoside, Quercetin -6,4'–dimethoxy-3–fructo- rhamnoside,Quercetin 4' –methoxy-3 –fructo-rhamnoside

100

111

112

103

103

111

103

95

99

95

100

113

114

100

89, 92

115

100

100

116

116

116

117

95

103

103







Sorbus domestica Phenolic compounds

Swertia chirata Buch-Ham, Phenolic compounds

Sutherlandia frutescens Phenolic compounds

Solenostemma arghel (Del.) Quercetin, kaempferol.

Thai indigenous Not identified

Tapinanthus globiferus Not identified

Terras Madeirenses Not identified

Trichilia roka Flavonoid

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Phenolic compounds

98

95

118

79, 80

96

103

97

119

95

lobes ovate, 0.5-0.8 × 0.6-0.7 mm, apex acute to obtuse, keeled abaxially,farinose, covering fruit at maturity; stamens 5; stigmas 2, 0.2 mm. Achenesdepressed-ovoid; pericarp adherent, pustulate, becoming smooth withmaturity. Seeds lenticular, round, 1-1.5 mm diam.; seed coat black,minutely rugose to ± smooth(102).


The phytochemical investigation of Chenopodium mural L.(Forssk); familyChenopodiaceae, afforded Seven flavonoids identified as, Kampferol ,Quercetin, Kampferol-3-O-α-L-rhamnoside-7-O-β-D-xyloside(1-2)-O-α-L-rhamnoside, kampferol-3-galactorhamnoside, kampeferol 3,7-O-dirhamnoside, Kaempferol-4/-methoxy–rutinoside, kampferol -7-O-rhamnoside. The ethyl acetate, ether, chloroform, butanol and totalethanolic extracts and the isolated compounds of Chenopodium muralL.(Forssk); were tested for their antioxidant activity. Among all the testedfractions and compounds, Kaempferol-4/-methoxy–rutinoside exhibited thestrongest antioxidant activity followed by kampeferol 3,7-0-dirhamnoside,giving 810 and 770 (µmol Trolox equivalent/gram dry weight). Moderateactivities were detected for the other tested materials(94).

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