Annual Report 2006 PGP - Forside · •PGP is a major partner (1 postdoc and 1 PhD student) in a new large-scale project (‘PETROBAR’) funded though the PETROMAKS program of the

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Annual Report 2006

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PGP ACHIEVEMENTS 2006 IN BRIEF............ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

DIRECTORS COMMENTS.................................ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

PHYSICS OF GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES ..................................................................... 8 MISSION STATEMENT............................................................................................................. 8 MAIN CHALLENGES ............................................................................................................... 8 AIM........................................................................................................................................ 8

SCIENTIFIC STATUS – MAIN PROJECTS...................................................................... 9

A. DYNAMICS OF PLATE MARGINS GROUP............................................................... 9

B. FLUID PROCESSES ......................................................................................................... 9

C. LOCALISATION PROCESSES .................................................................................... 33 REACTION INDUCED HIERARCHICAL FRACTURING....... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. SHEAR HEATING AND DEFORMATION LOCALISATION. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

D. MICROSTRUCTURES................................................................................................... 40

E. INTERFACE PROCESSES GROUP............................................................................. 50

EDUCATION ........................................................................................................................ 62

PETROMAX & INDUSTRY FUNDED PROJECTS ....................................................... 63

PUBLIC RELATIONS......................................................................................................... 63

ORGANIZATION ................................................................................................................ 68 EMPLOYEES ......................................................................................................................... 68 THE PGP BOARD ................................................................................................................. 68 SCIENTIfiC NETWORKING...................................................................................................... 71 ASSOCIATED PROJECTS ........................................................................................................ 72

INFRASTRUCTURE AND LABORATORIES ................................................................ 74 COMPUTER AND NETWORK SUPPORT.................................................................................... 74 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................... 74

FINANCES ............................................................................................................................ 76 PGP ACCOUNTING AND BALANCE FOR 2006 ....................................................................... 76 THE PGP BUDGET FOR 2007................................................................................................ 78

APPENDICES....................................................................................................................... 80

2005 LIST OF STAFF AND STUDENTS .......................................................................... 81

2006 FIELDWORK .............................................................................................................. 84

2006 EDUCATION ............................................................................................................... 90

2006 PRODUCT LIST.......................................................................................................... 94

PGP Achievements 2006 in brief •In 2006, 38 peer-review papers were published by PGP-staff. This is more than a 30% increase in paper production compared to 2005. 20 of these papers were published in high-impact (top 10) journals, more than a doubling since 2005. Approximately 20 ISI-articles are currently in press or already printed in 2007, an increase of ca 40% from 2005/2006. In addition, 7 papers appeared in proceedings or as book-chapters. •The visibility of PGP research is steadily increasing on the international science community as well as in the public domain. The number of invited scientific talks is about 30 per year and now largely limited by how many invitations we choose to accept. The number of contributed presentations at conferences is now ca 90 (60 at international meetings outside Norway) and largely determined by the PGP budget. •PGP group coordinators Karen Mair and Dani Schmid organized the 19th Kongsberg seminar (‘Deformation at all scales’) in May 2006, a meeting attended by ca 15 leading international scientists as well as PGP staff and students. Dani Schmid furthermore convened a special session in ‘Quantitative Structural Geology’ at EGU 2006 in Vienna with B. Grasemann (Univ of Vienna), and Jens Feder coorganized a ‘Workshop on Petroleum Sciences’ in Brasilia in March. •11 students (2 PhD and 9 Masters) graduated from PGP in 2006. They include the first group of students from the new PGP Master program. Three of these students have been recruited as PhD students at PGP. The other students quickly found relevant jobs, mainly in the petroleum related industry or in consultancy activities. • 10 international researchers visited PGP for a period > 1 week, and 10 for periods of 2-3 days. Dani Schmid (PGP) was an invited guest professor at the University of Vienna, running two courses in numerical modeling over a period of 5 weeks in October-November •In 2006, PGP carried out 30 fieldtrips in 12 countries on 5 continents. The field trips included 51 international collaborators, 10 national collaborators, a few people from the petroleum industry, in addition to 10 Masters and undergraduate students external to PGP. •More than 11 MNOK of the total 2006 budget of 42,5 MNOK came from externally funded projects, including 7 NFR projects and 2 projects sponsored by Statoil and Chevron/Texaco. •PGP is a major partner (1 postdoc and 1 PhD student) in a new large-scale project (‘PETROBAR’) funded though the PETROMAKS program of the Norwegian Research Council (NRC) in 2006 and led by prof. Jan Inge Faleide at the Dept of Geosciences (UiO). The project ‘Emplacement mechanisms and magma flow in sheet intrusions in sedimentary basins’ led by Else Ragnhild Neumann (PGP) received an extended grant of NOK 300 00 from NCR, and our newly appointed associate professor in physics Joachim Mathiesen was awarded a ‘start-up’ grant of 1.2 MNOK over 3 years from UiO.

2005 PGP Annual Report 4 April 1, 2006

• PGP’s significant role in Norwegian popular science communication through TV and radio continued in 2006, with 20 TV+radio appearances. PGP-Art exhibitions at gallery Sverdrup at UiO and in gallery ‘Norske grafikere’ in downtown Oslo, received considerable public attention. PGP enjoys increasing coverage in newspapers and magazines nationally and internationally (including The Guardian, Pravda, Herald Tribune, The Economist, Der Spiegel, Nature and a wide range of online publications) and has clearly become one of the most media exposed research groups in Norway. • Finally, PGP-professor Haakon Austrheim received the prestigious Alexander von Humboldt Prize from the German Alexander von Humboldt Foundation in October 2006, and will spend 2007 at the University of Münster, Germany. Histograms with production and rise in ISI citations

PGP Production 2003-2006

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Directors comments 2006 was evaluation year for PGP. Our center was evaluated by three international experts and subsequently by a cross-disciplinary international committee chosen by the Norwegian Research Council. PGP was ranked ‘Exceptional’ by all three referees and was granted an extension for the period 2008-20012 along with 9 out of the 13 ‘first generation’ Norwegian Centers of Excellence. This gives us confidence in our attempt to build and establish a leading international research center focusing on the physics geological processes at the University of Oslo. It also affords us the time and resources needed to focus fully on cutting edge basic research for an extended time horizon. PGP has been operating for 4 years. Many of the initial goals of our Center of Excellence have already been achieved, and the growth of a truly cross-disciplinary science environment is well underway. The balance between the geoscience and the physics components at PGP was significantly improved in 2006, notably by the addition of associate professor Joachim Mathiesen and senior researcher Galen Gisler. Furthermore, physics professor and former director Jens Feder is now spending all of his time on research and teaching which helps strengthen the physics basis of PGP. In 2006, 21% of the published articles from PGP were in physics journals. Three articles were published in the top physics journal Physics Review Letters (PRL). The recent PRL paper by Braeck and Podladchikov on ‘Thermal runaway as an ultimate failure mechanism of materials’ has been highlighted both by the PRL editors and by an extensive review on the Institute of Physics’ website physicsweb.org. PGP continues to produce young researchers for the international academic market. Our long-term postdoc Jan Bisshop left PGP in June to take on a position as Oberassistant at ETH-Zürich, and Magali Rossi accepted a tenured position at the University of Savoy, France, from Feb 1st 2007 after having spent a year as a postdoc at PGP. PGP senior researcher Ebbe Hartz accepted an offer as ‘Senior staff explorationist’ at Aker Exploration in Oslo. He will however, maintain a 20% position at PGP and represent an important direct link between PGP and the petroleum related industry. 2006 was a very successful year in terms of PGP’s challenges within education, industry interactions and public relations: The first group of Masters students graduated from the new cross-disciplinary PGP Master program. Three of these students were recruited to PhD positions internally in PGP. Due to the unique scientific background achieved during our Masters program the students have also proven to have a high market value in the industry and all graduating students have quickly found relevant employment. We do however, need to improve the recruitment of new students to be able to run our Master program with optimal efficiency. We have extensive contacts with the petroleum industry, and two projects on sedimentary basin evolution fully funded by Statoil and Chevron-Texaco were still running in 2006. Our industry based project portfolio could however be improved, and we are currently discussing possible collaborations with the Oslo based company Aker Exploration.


PGP do not conduct commercial activities, but are happy to choose basic research problems that are relevant for the petroleum industry, thus we also have 3 projects fully funded by the NFR’s petroleum program (PETROMAX) and is expanding our petroleum-relevant research through major involvement in the large scale NRC-funded ‘PETROBAR’ project lead from the Dept of Geoscience at UiO. PGP has built an extensive network with Norwegian and international media, and is one of the most media exposed Norwegian research environments. In 2006 our main media attention came from the release of senior researcher Henrik Svensen’s book “The end is near” about Natural catastrophes, as well as from our research on the spectacular mud volcanoe ‘LUSI’ that has covered several villages south of Surabaya on Java with a thick layer of hot mud. It is not very often that Norwegian-based researchers (in this case Adriano Mazzini from PGP) are referred to synchronously by media channels including CNN, The Guardian, Pravda, Al Jazeera, Der Spiegel and Nature. We continue our efforts to broaden our impact in society and communicate the relevance of our research for society in a broad sense, by preparing science-art exhibitions in collaboration with leading Norwegian artists. The first exhibition (80˙) opened at the Gallery Sverdrup (University of Oslo) in March 2006. This exhibit was later (Feb 2007) displayed at ‘The Light’ in Leeds (UK) during an international Astrobiology workshop arranged by the University of Leeds. PGP-Art was also displayed in the exhibit ‘Geoprints’ by PGP artist Ellen Karin Mæhlum at ‘Gallery Norske grafikere’ in September 2006. Some cool image at the bottom of this page


Physics of Geological Processes

Mission Statement Our mission is to obtain

• a fundamental and quantitative understanding of the Earth’s complex patterns and processes

• efficient ways of transmitting our basic research to the educational system, the industry and the public

Main Challenges Our main challenges are

• establishing an adequate conceptual framework for dealing with the Earth’s complex materials and processes

• attracting highly qualified national and international scientists and students

Aim Our aim is to establish an interdisciplinary science centre that includes scientists from the fields of Physics, Geology, and Applied Mathematics

• where geological processes are approached by integrated fieldwork, experiments, theory and computer modelling

• with an active and challenging program for master students • with active support from commercial enterprises, national and international

foundations, and public agencies


Scientific status – Main projects

A. Dynamics of Plate Margins Group

Links between topography, deep processes, and tectonic stresses

Scientific problem Paleo-landscapes are important keys for the understanding of past surfaces as well as deep lithospheric processes. Typically, landscapes are regarded as the product of horizontal forces - mountains result from shortening and basins from extension. The horizontal forces resulting from the gravitational contrast of landscapes can, however, reach in some cases equal magnitudes as the tectonic forces. The deeply incised fjords and > 3 km high mountains of East Greenland offer unique exposure of paleo-landscapes and are a natural laboratory for studying theses connections. Computational analysis can help to quantify the interrelations between tectonic stresses, topography, and deep processes.

Figure 1: Illustrations of the topography of Greenland and surrounding areas, plotted on a spherical Earth. (a) Present day surface (ice or rock) topography; (b) bedrock topography, and (c) isostatically compensated topography after removal of the ice shield. Surface topography: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Geophysical Data Center, 2001. 2-minute Gridded Global Relief Data (ETOPO2), http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov; Ice thickness: Bamber et al. 2001a,b

Approach and results To understand the paleo-topograhy of East Greenland, a coherent model is being developed from the combination of (1) digital elevation models of surface, bedrock, and Moho topography, (2) geological, and (3) thermo-chronological data. This novel combination of different data sets, in conjunction with computational analysis, opens new avenues of research on paleo-landscapes. It is now possible to differentiate regions with different paleo-topographic histories in East Greenland. One key to distinguishing topographic features in Greenland is to use computational methods to remove the covering ice-shields and to compute the isostatic response of this load removal. This allows, for example, to determine the pre-ice topography of


Greenland, which shows a remarkable asymmetry: a major mountain chain in the East favors erosion and drainage to the West (

Figure 1).

Figure 2: Stresses due to the gravitational potential, calculated using “Proto-Shell” (Medvedev and Nygård, work in progress). The top-left panel illustrates the topography/bathymetry and boundary conditions in the model. The solid line presents coastal line and the dashed line (900 m below sea level) separates continental and oceanic lithosphere in these simple test-models. In both the ‘Flat’ and ‘Spherical’ approach the stress distribution is smooth. In the ‘Crumpled Earth’ model, the topography and boundaries are included into the stress calculations. This results in a patchwork of minor local positive and negative stress perturbations, compared to the previous models. Such patchwork may account for the development of local domes and depressions in nature, but in order to be predictive the model should be run at higher resolution.

To overall tectonic framework of the Artic region is analyzed with new computational methods. Ideally, tectonic stresses should be computed with fully three-dimensional models but such simulations are still computational challenging - if possible at all. An elegant alternative is to use semi-analytical tools. For this purpose the proto-type code 'Proto-Shell' was developed, which combines the 'thin-sheet' approximation with the finite element method. Origins of tectonic stresses, feedbacks on and of topographic variations, and stress transfer between plates can now be much easier calculated and analyzed. Figure 2 shows an example of tectonic stress calculations for a flat, a spherical, and a spherical crumpled Earth.

References


Hartz, E.H., Kristiansen, S.N., Calvert, A, Hodges, K.V., & Heeremans, M., 2006, Structural, thermal and rheological control of the Late Paleozoic basins in East Greenland, Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Arctic Margins, 58-76 Medvedev, S., On the driving mechanisms of recent tectonics of Arctic region: the role of gravity (in prep) Medvedev, S., Y. Y. Podladchikov, M. Handy, and E. Scheuber, 2006 Controls on the deformation of the Central Andes (10–35°S): insight from thin-sheet numerical modelling. In: The Andes – active subduction orogeny; eds: O. Oncken et al. Frontiers in Earth Sciences Series, Vol. 1, Springer Verlag, 475–494 Nygård, K.V., 2006. Bending and crumpling of plates and shells: theory, numerical methods, and applications to lithospheric deformation. Master thesis, PGP, Oslo Univ

Passive margin and sedimentary basin evolution

Scientific problem Failed continental rifting is a classic example of a sedimentary basin forming processes. Extensional deformation leads to crustal thinning and subsequent isostatic compensation results in the formation of a surface depression that is filled up with sediments. A key parameter that controls vertical motion is the density distribution inside the lithosphere, which is a complex function of many parameters including crustal and mantle thinning, temperature, and mineralogical composition. We work on the next generation of sedimentary basin models that honor this complexity and allow for the coupling of deformation, heat transfer, and petrology.

Figure 3: Reconstruction of the Northern Viking Graben in the North Sea. (a) Shows the input stratigraphy, (b) the modeled

stratigraphy after the inversion, (c) the predicted present-day temperature field, and (d) the predicted heat flow through time.


Approach and results Our approach is to integrate geochemistry, petrology, and geodynamics in order to better understand the causes and consequences of geological processes that lead to vertical movement in extensional settings. We do this by formulating and exploring sedimentary basin models of increasing complexity. First, we have created a reference 2-D basin model for the Viking Graben in the North Sea (Figure 3). This model fits a number of structural and thermal observables like input stratigraphy, paleobathymetry, temperature, and vitrinite reflectance and predicts the structural and thermal evolution of the Viking Graben through time (Rüpke et al. 2007). It does not, however, include a coupling between petrology and basin formation and assumes density to be only temperature dependent. In order to quantify the influence of metamorphic phase transformations on basin subsidence, we have explored the key reactions in the lithospheric mantle that can cause density changes and thereby vertical motion (Simon and Podladchikov, 2007). The garnet-spinel and spinel-plagioclase transitions have the most profound effect on density. The amount of plagioclase in the mantle is directly controlled by the bulk Al2O3 content and the location of the plagioclase-in reactions by the bulk Na2O content (Figure 4). Simon and Podladchikov (2007) made a detailed study of these processes and could show that phase transitions have the biggest effect for a fertile mantle composition and can be equally important as thermal effects. Another important finding is that subtle variations in mantle chemistry (caused e.g. by partial melting or infiltration of fluids) might cause substantial vertical movements at the surface.

Figure 4: Comparison of effective lithosphere density for different stretching factors and mantle compositions. Note that for a depleted mantle composition the effective density of a lithospheric column can be approximated by the simple temperature dependent density formulation (TDD).

Finally, we have combined and successfully tested these concepts in a pilot study of the Norwegian Sea where we have been able to simulate uplift and subsidence pattern across the Gjallar ridge (Vøring basin) with a joint petrologic and geodynamic model (Rüpke et al. 2006).

References


Rüpke L., Schmalholz S.M., Schmid D., Podladchikov Y., (2007), Automated reconstruction of sedimentary basins using two-dimensional thermo-tectono-stratigraphic forward models - tested on the Northern Viking Graben, AAPG Bulletin, (in review) Simon N.S.C. and Podladchikov Y., (2007), The effect of mantle composition on density in the extending lithosphere, (in prep.) Rüpke L., Podladchikov Y. Schmalholz S.M., Simon, S.C., (2006), Late syn-rift (65-55 Ma) uplift in the Voering Basin, Norwegian Sea - was it a 'hot' or a 'cold' event? Eos (Transactions, American Geophysical Union), 87(52), Fall Meet. Suppl.

Fluids, reactions, and large scale geodynamics

Scientific problem The response of geodynamic systems like plate margins to tectonic stresses is controlled by the effective rock properties. Some of these properties vary with rock composition and mineral assemblage and can thus be affected by metamorphic and metasomatic processes. The most prominent example of such a feedback mechanism is the eclogitization of subducted oceanic crust. It is this densification reaction that makes plate subduction self-sustained. Another example for interactions between large scale geodynamics and grain scale metamorphic processes is fluid cycling beneath convergent margins. During plate subduction, fluids are released by metamorphic dehydration reactions. These fluids flux the mantle wedge, trigger arc melting, and ultimately result in the formation of a volcanic arc at the surface. Exploring how fluids migrate under high pressure and low permeability conditions and studying how fluid flow affects reaction rates and element redistribution is therefore crucial for better understanding the large geodynamical cycles at convergent margins.

Figure 5: Cartoon of fluid cycling beneath convergent margins. Key scientific questions are how fluids migrate inside the subducting slab, catalyze metamorphic reactions, lead to melting in the mantle wedge and how all this is related to deformation and seismicity.

Approach and results We use a combined field, modeling, and laboratory based approach to explore fluid flow


under high pressure / low permeability conditions and how fluid flow interacts with rock deformation. During the initial phase of this project, we focus on the Kråkenes Gabbro as an example of a partially deformed and transformed igneous body located in the HP/UHP zone of the Western Gneiss Region. The body is transected by a swarm of cm-wide hydrous eclogite-facies shear zones associated with pseudotachylites and represents a prime field example, where to study the interactions between reactions, fluid flow, deformation, and seismicity.

Figure 6: Sample of a highly localized shear zone from the Kråkenes Gabbro. The shear zones are highly hydrated; the green color stems from eclogite-facies amphiboles.

Key observations are that the water-bearing minerals are highly concentrated in shear zones (Figure 6). Deformation in the shear zone is more intense at the sites where the more reactive mineral assemblage occurred. Fluid infiltration into the less deformed parts apparently occurred both along grain boundaries and through reactive minerals. Complementary work on reactive fluid flow in a dehydration regime has been done in the Tianshan mountains in China. Here it is possible to study initial eclogitization, (i.e. dehydration) of blueschists and the associated fluid flow regime (Figure 7).


Figure 7: Eclogite-facies vein formed between blueschist-facies pillows of different compositions (one mica-, the other garnet-rich). Eclogite-facies reaction selvages developed along interfaces between vein and wall-rock lithologies. Figure is taken from Zack and John, 2007.

To quantify the interrelations between fluid flow, hydration reactions, and shear zone formation, work is being done to adapt a recently developed model at PGP (Braeck and Podladchikov, 2007) for shear failure to this setting. The initial results suggest that localization in shear zones and seismic failure are facilitated by hydration reactions.

References Braeck S. and Podladchikov Y., (2007) Spontaneous Thermal Runaway as an Ultimate Failure Mechanism of Materials, Physical Review Letters, 98. Zack T., John T., (2007) An evaluation of reactive fluid flow and trace element mobility in subuducting slabs, Chemical Geology (in press) Prestvik, T and Austrheim, H, (2007), Rodingite in Layered Gabbro of the Leka Ophiolite Complex, North-Central Caledonides of Norway, Eos (Transactions, American Geophysical Union), 87(52), Fall Meet. Suppl. Gao J., John T., Klemd R., Xiong X., (2007) Mobilization of Ti-Nb-Ta during subduction: evidence from rutile-bearing dehydration segregations and veins hosted in eclogite, Tianshan, NW China, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta (in review)

Additional projects


In addition to the work described above, a number of complementary geodynamic research projects are ongoing. One major additional research direction is the tectonic evolution of mountains belts and of the Caledonides in particular. Other projects include numerical simulations of cratonic lithosphere stability, studies of transform margins, a reevaluation of the average composition of oceanic lithosphere, and studies of emplacement mechanisms and magma flow in sill complex intrusions in sedimentary basins. Osmundsen, P.T., Eide, E., Haabesland, N.E, Roberts, D., Andersen, T.B., Kendrick, M., Bingen, B., Braathen, A., & Redfield, T.F., 2006, Kinematics of the Høybakken detachment zone and the Møre-Trøndelag Fault Complex, central Norway. Jl. Geol. Soc. London, 163, 2, 303-31. Corfu, F., Torsvik, T.H., Andersen, T.B., Ashwall, L., Ramsay, D.M. and Roberts, R.J.: 2006, Early Silurian mafic-ultramafic and granitic plutonism in contemporaneous flysch, Magerøy, northern Norway: U-Pb ages and regional significance. Jl. Geol. Soc. London, 163, 2, 291-301. (in press) Young D.J., Hacker B.R. Andersen, T. B., Corfu F., Gehrels, G.E., Grove M. (2007): Prograde Amphibolite to Ultrahigh-Pressure Transition in Western Norway: Implications for Exhumation, Tectonics, 26, TC1007, doi:10.1029/2004TC001781. (in press) Johnston S., Hacker B.R. & Andersen, T.B. (in press): Exhuming Norwegian Ultrahigh-Pressure Rocks: Overprinting Extensional Structures and the Role of the Nordfjord–Sogn Detachment Zone. Tectonics (in press). Lisker, F., John, T. & Hayford, E.K., 2007, How much denudation at the Ghana transform margin? – A critical review of the offshore apatite fission track record., Earth Surface Processes and Landforms., in review Lisker, F. & John, T. 2007, Cretaceous rifting of the Ghana transform margin - evidence from onshore apatite fission track data. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, in review


Fluid Section contribution to PGP 2006 Annual Report:

Organization into 4 headings:1. Venting and Climate Effects.2. Fluidized and Partly Fluidized Systems3. Sill Emplacement4. Violent Processes

Then within each subheading:Central Scientific ProblemApproach and Results

Field ObservationsNumerical ModelingLaboratory Experiments

References

Fluid processes

1. Venting and climate effects

Central Scientific ProblemThe production of gaseous chemical compounds from natural processes in hydrothermal

complexes is important for the economic exploitation of hydrocarbon reservoirs. In addition, when these gases are leaked to the atmosphere they can contribute strongly to climate change, whether the leakage occurs naturally or by human intervention. Natural production of greenhouse gases has been implicated as an agent of climate change in several mass extinction episodes throughout the geological record. It is therefore important to determine how gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and more complex compounds are produced in hydrothermal complexes, how natural leakages, whether gradual or explosive, develop, and how human activities influence these.

Approach and ResultsField Observations

A study of hydrothermal vent complexes in the Karoo Basin was published in mid 2006 (Svensen et al., 2006). The main finding is that the vent structures were formed due to gas release from contact metamorphic aureoles just prior to the onset of flood volcanism. This study is now followed by a work on the implications of breccia pipe formation in the western parts of the Karoo Basin. There, thousands of breccia pipes are rooted in contact metamorphic shale. Detailed geochemistry and dating suggests that the metamorphism and venting could have triggered the Early Jurassic global warming about 183 million years ago. The work is in press in Earth and Planetary Science Letters. The aureole project will continue to work on contact metamorphism and dating in the Karoo Basin to improve the timing of venting and the volumes of gases released to the atmosphere.

The end Permian extinction is associated in geological time with the development of the Siberian traps. A field campaign in August 2006 was targeted at contact aureoles around sill

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intrusions and boreholes through explosion pipes with crater sediments. About 200 kg of high quality samples were collected and will be analyzed in 2007. The analytical program ranges from petrography to biostratigraphy and isotope studies. The new data will be incorporated in to the existing data from the 2004 PGP Siberia fieldwork. Preliminary results were presented at the AGU Fall meeting in San Francisco with the title: “Magma-salt interactions and degassing from the Tunguska Basin, Siberia: Towards a new killer model for the P-Tr mass extinction.” Alexander Polozov from Irkutsk was a guest researcher at PGP in November and December working on samples collected in 2004 and on preparing material for a manuscript draft.

In Southern California, the sea floor spreading of the East Pacific Rise merges with the San Andreas Fault. In the Salton Sea area, a thick package of sedimentary rocks is heated by recent magmatic intrusions at depth. The resulting hydrothermal system is characterized by a very high heat flow, and is exploited for geothermal energy. The hydrothermal system is forcing hot waters and gases out of the sediments, causing seepage at the surface in several places. The setting is a relevant analogue both for the venting project and the aureole projects at PGP, and a paper in Geology was published in January 2007 (Svensen et al., 2007). The results have relevance for understanding the formation of petroleum in sedimentary basins with magmatic intrusions, and may also be applied to understand submarine analogue systems like in the Guaymas Basin in the Gulf of California. Field work was continued in December 2006 aimed at understanding the link between seep activity and seismicity.

Investigation of pockmarks and mounds in the Norwegian Sea has revealed numerous carbonate deposits and gas hydrate deposits, with bubbling of methane and carbon dioxide at some locations. These deposits are evidently of biogenic origin. Though there is no evidence locally of recent extensive free-gas flows, the hydrate stability field is such that relatively small changes could trigger the release of significant amounts of methane.

In sampling of a mound in the northern Black Sea complex plumbing systems including tubular and chimney-shaped conduits were found in carbonate units associated with vents and seeps, suggesting focussed fluid venting from chambers (Figure 1). These samples are providing valuable benchmarks for subsequent laboratory experiments and numerical simulations to aid our understanding of the processes involved.

Figure 1. Example of a carbonate from the northern Black Sea showing caverns, pipes, and vesicles through which degassing occurred.

Since the gases involved in vent systems are likely of biotic origin, the study of the biological activity within pockmarks is of interest as well. The activity cycles that produce raw materials for the maturation of hydrocarbons have been studied in situ in the Oslofjord, in the Norwegian Sea, and offshore New Zealand (Webb).

Numerical ModelingA new discrete particle dynamics and fluid diffusion code has been developed and is being used

for the characterization of vent morphology with discrete particle model, to be compared with continuous models and experiments. The goals are to determine parameters of vent formation (venting number, duration), to describe dynamics of vent initialization (fracture velocity, granular velocity, ejecta, energy), look at post-formation morphology (crater diameter, refill slope) and the dynamics as a result of periodic fluidization (secondary fluid migration / channel formation).

The same code is also being used to analyse the statistics of the distribution of vents in the field. The discrete particle model results will be compared with an analytical model for the spacing, and we will test to find additional parameters distribution.

The Los Alamos multifluid hydrocode SAGE is also being applied to the study of vent development, and a study of the influence of matrix rheology on the evolution and morphology of the complex is underway (Figure 2).

Figure 2. A weakened pre-established vent complex is subject to a sudden increase in fluid pressure at its base. Subsequent development produces a large crater and propagates fractures into the surrounding rock.

Laboratory ExperimentsExperiments have been conducted using a Hele-Shaw cell filled with sand or glass beads with

an inlet at bottom and a hose fitted to a source of pressurized fluid, usually air. In one series of experiments, the sand is separated into two regions by an impermeable clay layer (Figure 3). Injection of air at the bottom leads to fluidization of a cone-shaped region of sand that stops at the clay layer. Then a cavity develops, pushing up the clay, which eventually fragments at a particular point and develops a leak to the atmosphere.

Figure 3. Laboratory experiment of vent development through an impermeable clay layer.

The aureole projectThe “aureole project” financed by NFR started with the Siberia field trip and with the

employment of one post doc (Stephane Polteau) and one PhD (Ingrid Aarnes). The aims include detailed geochemical investigations of contact aureoles and modeling of organic maturation in black shale.

ReferencesMazzini, A., Aloisi, G., Akhmanov, G.G., Parnell, J., Cronin, B. and Murphy, P., 2005. Integrated petrographic and geochemical record of hydrocarbon seepage on the Vøring Plateau. Geological Society, 162: 815-827.Mazzini, A., Svensen, H., Hovland, M. and Planke, S., 2006. Comparison and implications from strikingly different authigenic carbonates in a Nyegga complex pockmark, G11, Norwegian Sea. Marine Geology, 231: 89-102.Mazzini, A., Svensen, H., Hovland, M., and Planke, S., 2006. Carbonate morphology and geochemistry within a pockmark from the Norwegian Sea: Implications for pockmark dynamics.

Marine Geology 231: 89-102.

2. Fluidized and partly fluidized systems

Central Scientific ProblemMuch of the activity in hydrothermal systems such as vents involves a phase of fluidization,

when the injection of fluid at some temperature and pressure interacts with the surrounding matrix and causes a portion of it to act itself as a fluid. Entrainment of the surround costs the initiating fluid some of its energy, but the subsequent mobilization of material with significant inertia and limited compressibility can have important environmental consequences. This activity within PGP has recently focussed on the phenomenon of mud volcanoes. Studying the activity of these systems can provide important insight about the subsurface plumbing system and the origin of the fluids and mud breccia expelled.


A comprehensive field study was carried out on six onshore mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan (Figures 4-6), revealing that seepage of fluids and mud breccia occurs with different dynamics at closely spaced sites forming diverse features such as gryphons, pools and salsa lakes. The seeping gas has a general mixed thermogenic-biogenic signature, with the thermogenic gas arising at greater depths. Different features in the same area suggest the presence of an interconnected and intricate plumbing system consisting of branched conduits and chambers that develop in the near subsurface of the crater.

Figure 4. Mud Volcano at Dashgil, Azerbaijan, with PGP researcher Adriano Mazzini.

Figure 5. Satellite mud volcano in the Bahar field, Azerbaijan.

Figure 6. Dashgil mud volcano, patterns. Mud volcanism is common phenomenon in the Southern part of the Island of Trinidad.

Geological features such as faults and anticlines appear to control the distribution of the numerous mud volcanoes. Water collected from such structures can help to establish the origin of fluids expelled from the mud volcanoes by chemical and isotopic composition analysis which is in progress.

A newly born mud volcano, known as Lusi, appeared in May 2006 close to an active magmatic complex in a backarc sedimentary basin in Northeast Java, Indonesia (Figures 7-8). Thousands of people were evacuated due to the mud flood hazards from the eruption. Since the initial eruption of 100˚C mud, the flow rate escalated from 5000 to 120,000 m3/day during the first eleven weeks. Then the erupted flux pulsated between zero and 120,000 m3/day in the period August 14 to September 10, whereas it increased dramatically following swarms of earthquakes in September, before reaching 200,000 m3/day in December 2006. The initial eruption followed an earthquake that may have fractured rocks and depressurized hot fluids at depth which then erupted geyser-like.

Figure 7. Panorama of the LUSI mud volcano in Indonesia.

Figure 8. Flooding of villages caused by the LUSI eruption.

Numerical ModelingA two-dimensional finite element code that allows the modeling of hydraulic fracturing process

in porous medium and subsequent eruption of fluidized substance towards the surface (vent formation) was developed. The initial fracture direction is found to depend only on one non-dimensional parameter, which allows scaling to both field and experimental studies of vent structures. The further evolution of the system with increasing fluid overpressure is described by two non-dimensional parameters (Figure 9). These in turn can predict the evolution of various vent morphologies in space and time and determine the fluid overpressure required for vent formation. Consequently, the model can be used to classify the different vent structures observed in nature, ranging from centimeter scale seeping structures to kilometer scale Kimberlite pipes. This work is further supported and extended by analytical studies of the formation of an elliptical fracture in a poroelastic medium.

Figure 9. Numerical simulation of different outlet structures which are formed by tensile and shear fracturing mode in an extension and compression stress field. Here, hotter color means a higher fluid pressure.

A new discrete particle dynamics code is also being developed to study the sedimentation of fluidized, cohesive media. There exist several analytical models for sedimentation of fluidized, porous media, as well as geological data and lab experiments, but so far many of the computer models have not included cohesion between particles. The model will be used to characterize sedimentation rate, velocity and final packing fraction with regard to cohesive forces, as well as fluid parameters.

Laboratory ExperimentsExperiments using fluid injection into silicon powder, glass beads, or sand are used to explore

the formation of different vent morphologies in matrices of different rheologies (Figure 10). In the two-dimensional cells, only opening and sliding mode fractures (Mode I and Mode II) occur, while tearing mode is excluded by the symmtry. Hence two-dimensional simulations are equally appropriate for the modeling of these experiments. The parameters under experimental control are fluid overpressure, elastic and cohesive properties of the medium.

Figure 10. Various outlet morphologies in fluid injection experiments result when the rheological properties of the medium are changed.

ReferencesMazzini, A., Svensen, H., Hovland, M., and Planke, S., 2006. Carbonate morphology and geochemistry within a pockmark from the Norwegian Sea: Implications for pockmark dynamics. Marine Geology 231: 89-102.

3. Sill emplacement

Central Scientific ProblemMagmatic intrusions in sedimentary basins often form horizontal sills and frequently exhibit

saucer-shaped morphologies. These affect oil maturation and migration pathways, form traps for petroleum and sometimes act as water reservoirs. They are therefore of significant economic interest. Because they are often associated with the large igneous provinces that have produced climate changes, they are also of high scientific importance. Very often injected sands form similar morphologies, are presumably formed in similar ways. It is of central importance to study the ways in which both magmatic intrusions and injected sands adopt these morphologies.


The Karoo Basin of South Africa hosts the best exposed complexes of saucer-shaped sills. The Golden Valley Sill is exceptionally well-exposed and displays the connections with adjacent and nested saucers. The aim of this study is to determine the magma flow geometry within the Golden Valley Sill Complex. Detailed fieldwork observations and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility method were used to identify strain markers that can be interpreted in terms of magma flow directions. This and similar studies elsewhere can establish the process of formation of these sills. Together with analogue and numerical modelling these studies reveal a common set of mechanisms that control the final morphology of the intrusions. Additionally, this opens the possibilities of identifying similar geometries on other planets, with implications for understanding their hydrothermal histories.

Numerical ModelingA numerical model was developed to explain geochemical whole-rock profiles in mafic

intrusions that form sills. When the pressure gradient is strong and persistent enough to initiate the porous magma flow through a partly solidified crystal network, the profiles exhibit more evolved composition towards the margins and least evolved in the center of the intrusion. On the other hand

when rapid cooling occurs, the composition will be relatively homogeneous across the sill.

Laboratory ExperimentsExperiments simulating basin-scale processes were scaled down by replacing rock and magma

with fine-grained silica flour and molten vegetable oil, respectively (Figure 11). The oil was injected at constant flow-rate within the silica flour. The oil pressure and the topography of the model surface were constantly monitored. The oil initially propagated horizontally into the silica powder to form an inner sill. Outwardly this was manifested by a smooth dome structure forming at the surface of the model (Figure 12). Subsequently, the oil propagated upwards to form inclined sheets; the dome almost stopped widening but kept lifting up, and its rims became sharper and steeper. As outward propagation of the oil proceeded, the sheets gradually flattened close to the surface and developed into an outer sill; the dome slightly widened and lifted up. The experiment stopped when the oil finally erupted at the surface at the edge of the dome. Then, the oil solidified, and the intrusion was unburied. The final shape of the intrusion was saucer-like, similar to sill complexes observed in nature (Figure 13).

Our experiments showed that the emplacement of the oil controlled the evolution and the shape of the dome. In contrast, the deforming upper free surface and overburden generated stresses that most likely influenced oil propagation. Our results support the working hypothesis where the emplacement of sills, and especially saucer-shaped sills, results from a complex mechanical interplay between over-pressured magma and deforming host.

Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the experimental device. Oil (dark grey) is injected at constant flow rate by volumetric pump into the silica powder (white).

Figure 12. Example of surface view at the end of an experiment. Smooth doming occurs at the surface. The oil erupts at the rim of the dome.

Figure 13. Example of scan of the upper surface of a solidified oil intrusion. It consists of an axially symmetric feature, made of a flat inner sill, inclined sheets and flat outer sill. Such a shape is very similar to saucer-shaped sill compexes observed in sedimentary basins.

ReferencesGalland, O., Cobbold, P.R., Hallot, E., de Bremond d'Ars, J. and Delavaud, G., 2006, Use of vegetable oil and silica powder for scale modelling of magmatic intrusion in a deforming brittle

crust, Earth Planet. Sci. Let., vol. 243, pp. 786-804. Polteau S. Moore J.M., and Tsikos H. (2006) –The geology and geochemistry of the Palaeoproterozoic Makganyene diamtictite- Precambrian Research (148), 257-274.

4. Violent processes

Central Scientific ProblemMany of the processes that produce large-scale patterns in the earth’s crust are violent; indeed

our planet’s most striking and beautiful landscapes are those that are produced by violent processes. Fortunately for us, violent events are relatively infrequent, but a significant fraction of earth’s human population lives in areas that are highly vulnerable when they do occur. The cost of over 200,000 human lives of the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and tsunami at the end of 2004, or the 80,000 lost in the earthquake in Pakistan in October 2005 remind us that we have a compelling moral interest in understanding these events with the ultimate goal of protecting and saving human lives.

The underwater mass motions that can cause tsunamis have also been found associated with hydrocarbon deposits, notably in the Storegga/Ormen Lange region of the North Sea. Whether the landslide that caused the tsunami was triggered by gas hydrate eruptions or the other way around, the association is of great importance for the petrochemical industry, and investigation of turbidite deposits from these slides should aid in the understanding of how undersea reservoirs are formed and dveloped.

Some of the most violent and catastrophic events in earth’s history have been wrought by impacts of asteroids. At least one of these, the event at Chicxulub, Mexico, has been implicated in one of the largest mass extinctions in the geological record.

Approach and ResultsNumerical Modeling

Kick-em Jenny, in the Eastern Caribbean, is a submerged volcanic cone that has erupted a dozen or more times since its discovery in 1939. The most likely hazard posed by this volcano is to shipping in the immediate vicinity (through volcanic missiles or loss-of-buoyancy), but it is of interest to estimate upper limits on tsunamis that might be produced by a catastrophic explosive eruption. To this end, two-dimensional numerical simulations of such an event were performed with the SAGE hydrocode. Even for extremely catastrophic explosive eruptions, tsunamis from Kick-em Jenny are unlikely to pose significant danger to nearby islands. In general, explosive eruptions do not couple well to water waves. The waves that are produced from such events are turbulent and highly dissipative, and don't propagate well (Figure 14).

Figure 14. Examples of three different simulations of explosive eruptions at the Kick-em Jenny submarine volcano. Such events generate highly turbulent waves that are not good at propagating long distances.

The Cumbre Vieja Volcano on La Palma in the Canary Islands has an unstable western flank that may someday collapse. Such an event has been proposed as a potential source for a catastrophic trans-Atlantic tsunami. SAGE calculations of the hypothetical worst case, in two and three dimensional geometries, show that while high-amplitude waves are produced that would be highly dangerous to nearby communities (in the Canary Islands, and the shores of Morocco, Spain, and Portugal), the wavelengths and periods of these waves are relatively short, and they do not propagate efficiently over long distances.

SAGE calculations of tsunamis produced by submarine landslides illustrate the relation between fluid rheology and the resultant morphology of the turbidite deposits seen afterwards on the seafloor. Tsunamigenic underwater landslides can have a variety of triggers: a seismic event that pushes a stable slope of granular material past its angle of repose, an underwater volcano that admixes lubricating fluids into an otherwise stable granular slope, or a gas hydrate release that accomplishes the same thing but over a longer timescale. The unmodified slope rheology will depend of course upon the nature and size of the granules that make up the slope, but additional lubrication or fluidization may also occur once the landslide is underway due to granule fragmentation. The interaction of the heavy fluid of slide material with the overlying water leads to the development of fluid instabilities that result in considerable intermixing in vortex whirls with characteristic sizes that depend upon the fluid rheology (Figure 15). These whirls govern the subsequent deposition of slide material onto the seafloor, and may remain in place for eons afterwards until disturbed by other such events. Such deposits are frequently seen around volcanically active islands and on continental slope margins, and are the principal indicators for

prehistoric tsunami sources. The point made here is that the deposition patterns depend fundamentally upon the fluid-fluid interaction during the tsunamigenic event, and geomorphological studies of turbidite deposits can in principle yield good information about the source itself, given a good database of fluid simulation results for various rheologies. These studies may help to determine the causes of tsunamis that have occurred in the past and have left deposits on the seafloor, and may therefore help in understanding the potential for future such events and in preparing communities for them.

Figure 15. Four runs of a submarine landslide at the same physical time, with different rheologies for the slide material, producing different turbidity whirls and subsequent deposits.

Oceans cover three-quarters of the Earth’s surface, yet geological evidence for deep ocean asteroid impact events is scarce. Tectonic subduction has wiped away essentially all of the oceanic crust that is older than 150 million years, and most of the seafloor crust that remains is still very poorly mapped. In fact much of the evidence we have regarding ocean impacts is from ejecta and tsunami deposits on nearby shores, essentially only from the Eltanin and Mjølnir events. In an effort to understand what kinds of signatures we might expect from deep-ocean impacts, a large number of numerical calculations have been performed with SAGE. In these calculations, a substantial fraction of the impact energy is immediately carried away into the atmosphere by explosive vaporization, and therefore impacts are very inefficient generators of long-wavelength tsunamis. The conclusion of this work is that asteroids of size smaller than about 500 m diameter do not pose a significant risk for the production of ocean-wide tsunamis, although such an impact could be very dangerous if it occurred near a populated coastline.

In continuing studies of the Chicxulub impact event with SAGE, the excavation efficiency and subsequent worldwide dispersal of ejecta is found to depend strongly on impact angle and that

therefore fairly steep angles are preferred.

ReferencesG Gisler, R Weaver, M Gittings, Sage Calculations of the Tsunami Threat from La Palma, Science of Tsunami Hazards, 24, 288-301 (2006).G Gisler, R Weaver, M Gittings, Two-Dimensional Simulations of Explosive Eruptions of Kick-Em Jenny and Other Submarine Volcanos, Science of Tsunami Hazards, 25, 34-41 (2006).G Gisler, R Weaver, M Gittings, Excavation Efficiencies in Three-Dimensional Simulations of the Chicxulub Meteor Impact, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Impact Cratering in the Solar System, (2006).

5. I don’t know where to put this contribution from Stephane, but it belongs somewhere in the Annual Report:

A tool for public outreach and media diffusion of scientific results:

the art-science collaboration.

IntroductionThe dissemination of scientific results to the general public should represent one of the main

scientific goals, but is commonly not fulfilled. However, the education of the community, when carried out, is generally accomplished through the use of visual arts. Visual arts often involve the community by simplifying complex scientific concepts that will then be grasped by everyone. The tradition of popularising scientific results date from when artists first accompanied the explorers on many of the great voyages of scientific and geographic discoveries. Artists returned to our society with numerous illustrations and sculptures representing their observations. Picturesque or documentary landscapes represented most of their work and artists had little or nothing to say about geological subjects.

The terms “Earth art” or “land art” define a new form of art that came to prominence in the late 1960s and is primarily concerned with natural environments. The Earth art is an ambitious form of art that tries to match the landscape and is now part of the mainstream public art. Perhaps the best known artist who worked in Earth art movement was the American Robert Smithson whose 1970 Spiral Jetty consists of arranged rocks, soil and algae forming a 500m-long spiral-shaped jetty protruding into the Great Salt Lake in Utah. How much of the work, if any, is visible depends on the fluctuating water-levels. Still, the ties between Earth art and geosciences are not clear.

At PGP, we consider that visual art is a powerful tool to reach and educate communities. Already PGP sponsored the successful “80˚” and “Geotrykk” art exhibitions, both related to the Antarctic Mars analogue Svalbard expedition (AMASE), and a second ongoing art-science project entitled “stein søkes”.

The three-year sill emplacement project focuses on saucer-shaped magmatic intrusions. The project is now in its final phase, which consists of sharing our results to the scientific community through publications in specialised international journals. Unfortunately, the dissemination of our research was not initially aimed at the general public. In order to rectify this missing point in our original project proposal, we want to develop a community outreach program that will be achieved

helle

Cross-Out

C. Localization processes

Reaction induced hierarchical fracturing

Scientific problem Fluid migration into rocks of low initial permeability is often assisted by reaction induced fracturing processes driven by reaction generated volume changes. We have previously studied how individual hydration fronts may propagate by such a mechanism. On a larger scale however, incipient hydration often starts from and around an initial set of fractures. These may be produced by tectonic or thermal stresses depending on the geological setting. Progressive hydration leads to an evolving stress field and an associated sequence of fracturing events that continuously divide the rocks into an increasing number of unfractured domains. This reaction-induced hierarchical fracturing process may provide first order controls on important geological processes, such as serpentinization and weathering. In PGP this problem has been addressed by a combined field and modelling approach.

Approach and results Polygonal crack patterns formed during hierarchical fracturing are abundant in both natural and man-made systems such as permafrost terranes, basin playas, limestone, basalt, concrete, varnish and ceramic glazes. In all these systems, the fracturing is produced by contraction of cooling or drying sheets or layers undergoing desiccation processes that, to variable degrees, are attached to some non-fracturing substrate. When the fracture pattern is dominated by fracture propagation, and joining of cracks of different generations, orthogonal fracture junctions form during successive fracturing events that results in a pattern dominated by 4-sided domains. Through studies of serpentinized ultramafic rocks and weathered basaltic intrusives, we have demonstrated how hydration-produced stresses lead to hierarchical fracturing at an ever accelerating rate. This process produces the highly characteristic polygonal fracture patterns observed in partly serpentinized rocks (Fig. L1) and exhibited during spheroidal weathering (Fig. L2). We have presented simple mechanical and geometric models that provide a satisfactory explanation both to the statistical characteristics of these patterns, as well as the sequence of events that lead to their formation.

References • Iyer, K., Jamtveit, B., Mathiesen, J., Malthe-Sørenssen, A., and Feder, J., Reaction-

induced hierarchical fracturing during serpentinization. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, (submitted)

• Malthe-Sørenssen, A., Jamtveit, B., and Meakin, P., 2006, Fracture patterns generated by diffusion-controlled volume changing reactions. Phys. Rev. Letters, 96, art no. 245501

• Røyne, A., Jamtveit, B., Malthe-Sørenssen, A., Iyer, K., Mathiesen, J., and Feder, J., Controls on weathering rates by reaction-induced hierarchical fracturing. Nature (submitted)


Figure L1. Polygonal fracture pattern formed in an orthopyroxene dyke in a dunite matrix.

Fracturing is caused by expansion of the dunite during hydration (serpentinization).

Figure L2. Boulders of fresh basalt (dolerite) in a matrix of extensively weathered material.

The pattern is controlled by continuous (hierarchical) fracturing of the fresh boulders as they

are squeezed by the expansion associated with the formation of the weathering product.


Figure L 1. Polygonal fracture pattern formed in a orthopyroxene dyke in a dunite matrix. Fracturing is caused by expansion of the dunite during hydration (serpentinization).

Figure L 2. B oulders of fresh basalt (dolerite) in a matrix of extensively weathered material. T he pattern is controlled by continuous (hierarchical) fracturing of the fresh boulders as they are squeezed by the expansion associated with the formation of the weathering product.

Shear heating and deformation localisation

Scientific problem Extreme localization of deformation onto narrow regions such as shear bands or asperties on a fault plane is often accompanied by extensive heating or melting. Geological observations of melted rock, known as pseudotachylytes, are generally attributed to rapid slip of large earthquakes. In the brittle regime, frictional heating (with or without melting) may provide an important weakening mechanism required for continued slip. For intermediate and deep focus earthquakes (e.g. Andersen and Austrheim, 2006), the processes responsible for localization and melting are poorly understood since brittle faulting and frictional heating should not operate at these depths. In both deformation regimes, a very important question is how energy gets dissipated during localization? We are currently investigating this issue through field observations of pseudotachylytes, thermal imaging of simulated faults in the laboratory and most recently, theoretical studies of possible failure mechanisms in viscoelastic materials.

Approach and results We have now demonstrated theoretically, using a continuum mechanics approach, that catastrophic material failure can occur by a self localizing thermal runaway (Braeck and Podladchikov, 2006). We show that the condition for the thermal runaway process to occur is controlled by two dimensionless variables (fig. L3a). During the thermal runaway, strain and temperature progressively localize in space (fig. L3b) producing a localized shear band with substantial heating. Based on this thermal runaway failure mechanism we can calculate the maximum shear strength of viscoelastic materials, yielding strengths that are much below Frenkel’s limit and hold for a wide range of spatial scales from nanometers (e.g. metallic glasses) to kilometres (e.g. deep focus earthquakes). Importantly for geological systems, this mechanism highlights the possibility that extreme localization and substantial heating may develop spontaneously without the need for a pre-existing fault or discontinuity.

References • Braeck, S., and Podladchikov, Y.Y., 2007, Spontaneous thermal runaway as an

ultimate failure mechanism of materials. Phys. Rev. Letters, 98(9), art no. 095504. • Braeck, S., Podladchikov, Y.Y., and Medvedev S., Spontaneous dissipation of elastic

energy by thermal runaway., Phys. Rev. B (soon to be submitted) • Andersen T. B. and Austrheim, H., 2006, Fossil earthquakes recorded by

pseudotachylytes in mantle peridotite for the Alpine subduction complex of Corsica. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 242,1-2, 58-72.

• Mair, K., Renard, F., and Gundersen, O., 2006, Thermal imaging on simulated faults during frictional sliding, Geophysical Research Letters, vol 33, L19301, doi:10.1029/2006GL027143.

• Mair, K., and Renard, F., Thermal imaging and surface roughness evolution on simulated faults during slip, Journal of Geophysical Research (in preparation)


10-4 10-2 100 102 10410

-5

10-3

10-1

101

103

10-8

10-6

10-4

10-2

100

∆Tmax

∆Tmax

Stable Self-localizingthermal runaway

Adiabaticthermal runaway

σ0

/σc

τ r/τd

a

Criticalboundary

+

a

-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 110

-3

10-1

101

10 3

xh/2

∆T∆Tmax Self-localizing

thermal runaway

b

∆Tmax

a

Adiabaticthermal runaway

FIG. L3: Dependence of the maximum temperature rise ∆ Tmax on the dimensionless variables σ0 /σ c and τr /τ d . a , Contourplot of ∆ Tmax scaled by the adiabatic temperature rise ∆ T a

max as a function of σ0 /σ c and τr /τ d . The dark lines are contourlines. Due to the computational e�ort o� ully resolving the entire self-localizing thermal runaway processes, the tem peratureat the very late stages of these processes are not presented i n this plot. b , Pro�les of the temperature rise ∆ T = T − T 0

inside the initially perturbed zone |x | ≤ h/ 2 at the time when the maximum temperature is reached. The sol id line illustratesthe self-localizing thermal runaway process at the locatio n of the cross in a . The dashed line illustrates the adiabatic thermalrunaway at the location of the dot in a .

Fault zone evolution

Scientific problem To better understand fault zone dynamics that can dramatically influence the mechanical behaviour of major brittle faults, we need an improved understanding of the underlying micro-processes responsible for fault zone evolution. Our main data is gleaned from observations of structural fabrics in natural fault systems. However, such datasets generally record a final state, from which it is challenging to discern the dynamic micro-scale processes involved or the macro-mechanical behaviour of a fault. Laboratory experiments can highlight links between microscale processes and macro-mechanical behaviour. Similarly, numerical simulations are very useful tools for visualising dynamic grain-scale interactions not readily visible from nature. At PGP we are currently combining these techniques to identify and isolate first order parameters that are relevant for the brittle faulting process.

Approach and results A crucial requirement in this work is to obtain a good quantitative characterization of natural and experimental fault rocks. To this end, we have developed a new image analysis tool (Bjørk, 2006; Rønjom, 2006) to characterise grain shape and grain size distributions from rock thin sections of fault rock material. The semi-automatic tool utilises a greyscale thresholding method to identify, differentiate and characterise individual grains. Once grains have been identified, their size, shape and preferred orientation are easily determined (fig L4). Initial studies on fault rocks from the Hornelen basin, Western Norway show that the combination of size, shape and phase differentiation is a powerful discriminator for determining degree of deformation and competing deformation mechanisms (fig L5). The tool will now be used to analyse fault rocks generated in laboratory experiments where mechanical and in some cases acoustic ‘cracking’ behaviour is monitored. These structural characterisations are valuable for direct comparison with our recent 3D discrete simulations (Abe and Mair, 2005) that implement realistic fault gouge evolution during shear. The particle based simulations include breakable elastic bonds between individual particles allowing fracture of aggregate grains composed of many bonded particles. With accumulated strain, aggregate grains gradually evolve in size and shape to produce a textural signature reminiscent of natural faults. Importantly, we see a strong correlation between strain localization and grain size reduction. If model outcomes can be quantitatively validated by natural and laboratory fault rocks, closer investigation of dynamic processes operating in the models may help isolate key deformation mechanisms and interactions that are highly relevant for evolving natural fault zones.

References • Bjørk, T.E., Mair, K., and Austrheim H., Quantifying fault rocks and deformation:

advantages of combining grain size, shape and phase differentiation. Journal of Structural Geology (soon to be submitted)


• Bjørk, T.E., 2006, Quantification and Modeling of Deformation Processes: Motivated by Observations From the Contact to the Hornelen Basin, Bremangerland. Masters thesis, PGP, University of Oslo.

• Rønjom, S.F., 2006, Quantification and Modeling of Localized Deformation in Shear Zones and Faults: Motivated by Observations From the Contact to the Hornelen Devonian Basin, Bremangerland. Masters thesis, PGP, University of Oslo.

• Abe, S., and Mair, K., 2005, Grain fracture in 3D numerical simulations of granular shear, Geophysical Research Letters, vol 32, L05305, doi: 1029/2004GL022123.

• Mair, K. and Abe, S., 3D simulations of fault gouge evolution during shear: Strain partitioning and particle size reduction, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, (in preparation)

• Mair, K., Marone, C., and Young, R.P., Rate dependence of acoustic emissions generated during shear of simulated fault gouge, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America (submitted)

Figure

Fig L4. (a) Original SEM image and (b) Convexity (a measure of surface roughness) obtained from image analysis of (a) plotted as a colour gradient. The different mineral phases are plotted by colours: Epidote (red), K-feldspar(green), and quartz & plagioclase (blue). Dark colours indicate smooth particles, light colours indicate irregular (rough) particles.

Fig L5. Outline of particle size vs. convexity (roughness) and circularity (nearness to a circle) for a fault gouge sample and sandstone dike (pull apart fracture) sample. Smooth, and circular grains are interpreted as due to abrasion mechanism whereas rough non circular grains are attributed to fracture along cleavage planes. The two samples are differentiable on the basis of grain size and shape. Note for the fault gouge sample, the large irregular and non-spherical grains have been abraded into smaller smooth and spherical grains but importantly that some of the rough non spherical grains survive intact.


a

Fig L 4. (a) Original SE M image and (b) Convexity (a measure of surface roughness)

obtained from image analysis of (a) plotted as a colour gradient. T he different mineral

phases are plotted by colours: E pidote (red), K -feldspar(green), and quartz &

plagioclase (blue). Dark colours indicate smooth particles, light colours indicate

irregular (rough) particles.

ba

Fig L 5. Outline of particle size vs. convexity (roughness) and circularity (nearness to

a circle) for a fault gouge sample and sandstone dike (pull apart fracture) sample.

Smooth, and circular grains are interpreted as due to abrasion mechanism whereas

rough non circular grains are attributed to fracture along cleavage planes. T he two

samples are differentiable on the basis of grain size and shape. Note for the fault

gouge sample, the large irregular and non-spherical grains have been abraded into

smaller smooth and spherical grains but importantly that some of the rough non

spherical grains survive intact.

Additional projects In addition to the projects described above, work is ongoing in: Stress induced redistribution of elements during faulting; geochemistry and modelling of metasomatism in Ultra High Pressure rocks; classification of deformation bands in sandstones; force chain characterization in sheared granular systems; stylolites dynamics, and rock deformation in the presence of carbon dioxide.

References • Röhr, T., Austrheim, H. and Erambert, M. Stress induced redistribution of Yttrium

and HREE in garnet during high-grade polymetamorphism. Am. Mineralogist (in press)

• Vrijmoed, J. C., van Roermund, H. L. M. and Davies, G. R., 2006. Evidence for diamond-grade ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism and fluid interaction in the Svartberget Fe-Ti garnet peridotite-websterite body, Western Gneiss Region, Norway. Mineralogy and Petrology, 88, 381-405.

• Fossen, H., Schultz, R.A., Shipton, Z.K., and Mair, K., Deformation bands in sandstone - a review, Journal of the Geological Society (in press)

• Mair, K. and Hazzard, J.F., Nature of stress accommodation in sheared granular material: Insights from 3D numerical modelling. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, (submitted)

• Koehn, D., Renard, F., Toussaint, R., and Passchier, C. (2007) Growth of stylolite teeth patterns depends on normal stress and finite compaction, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, in press.

• Rossi, M., Vidal, O., Wunder, B., and Renard, F. (2007) Experimental study of ductile deformation under isotropic conditions, Tectonophysics, (in press).

• Le Guen, Y., Renard, F., Hellmann, R., Collombet, M., Tisserand, D., Brosse, E., and Gratier, J.-P. (2007) Creep weakening of limestones in the presence of a high CO2-fugacity fluid: crucial effect of the fluid composition, Journal of Geophysical Research, in press.

• Brouste, A., Renard, F., Gratier, J.-P., Schmittbuhl, J. (2007) Variety of stylolite morphologies and statistical characterization of the amount of heterogeneities in the rock, Journal of Structural Geology, doi:10.1016/jsg.2006.09.014.


D. Microstructures

Spinodal Patterns

Motivation

Figure 8 Examples of a) mineral exsolution (perthite, i.e. alkali-feldspar unmixing) and b) symplectite (garnet finger print texture). Field of view in both examples ca. 1mm.

Most rocks and minerals found at or near the earth surface have a complex history and were formed at completely different pressure and temperature conditions than those that prevail at the surface of our planet. Minerals that form solid solutions may, under certain conditions, adjust to the lowered temperatures by unmixing or exsolution. The resulting textures are often spectacular intergrowth patterns of minerals that grew simultaneously at the location where the host mineral became thermodynamically unstable, illustrated in Figure 8. Since solid solution minerals are quite abundant exsolution textures can be found frequently in rocks from the earth, moon, mars, and in many iron meteorites, e.g. Widmanstatten figures. A related phenomenon to mineral exsolution is symplectitic growth, which yields similar intergrowth pattern. In contrast to mineral exsolution, which is a solid-state process in a closed system, symplectites may involve fluids and small amounts of residual magma in an open system. The patterns and chemical compositions of mineral exsolution and symplectites potentially contain crucial information for the reconstruction of the geological history of an outcrop or region. However, this geological history reconstruction can only be performed if adequate quantitative tools are available.


Approach and Results We exploit the similarity between mineral exsolution to related processes in alloys and polymers where homogeneous mixtures undergo phase separation, also called spinodal decomposition, when thrust into a two-phase region by, for example, a thermal quench. Obviously, the underlying process of phase separation requires uphill diffusion in which material moves against concentration gradients. Accordingly, the classical Fickian diffusion equation which tends to generate uniform concentration profiles is no longer applicable. The governing fourth order diffusion equation is typically attributed to Cahn and Hilliard although the basic ideas of a surface energy can already be found in the earlier work of van der Waals.

( )2

3021 Fc Dc c c c

t cκ

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞∂∂= ∇ ⋅ − ∇ − ∇⎜ ⎟⎜∂ ∂⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠

⎟ (0.1)

The Cahn-Hilliard equation, eqn. (0.1), governs the initial exsolution process as well as later-stage domain coarsening driven by the reduction of the total interfacial free energy. The parameters are concentration , tracer diffusivity ( )c ( )D , the configurational free energy

, and gradient energy ( 0F ) ( )κ . We choose to solve the Cahn-Hilliard equation with the finite element method (FEM). However, the high order of the derivatives causes problems and we therefore split it into a system of two second order equations in order to solve it. Exsolution in natural minerals often shows regular patterns that are most likely due to material property anisotropy. This can either be anisotropic elastic properties, diffusivities, or gradient energies. While anisotropic elastic properties are the standard explanation we studied the influence of anisotropic diffusion. The developed model allows us to study the entire process of pattern formation from the early stages of exsolution to the final stages of ripening. In particular we have been able to show that anisotropic diffusion is an efficient method of creating lamellae patterns. However, there exists a competition between the surface minimization due to the gradient energy term and the anisotropic diffusion that causes the lamellae to disappear in the late stages of ripening.


Figure 9 Examples of spinodal decomposition with anisotropic diffusion. a) & b) show different ripening stages in a system that would usually exhibits worm like patterns. The preferential diffusion aligns the pattern in the four grains. c) and d) show the same stages of ripening in a system that would develop bubble like patterns. The anisotropic diffusion succeeds in aligning the initial stages. However, the late stages of ripening are surface energy controlled and show no preferential alignment.

Outlook The study of exsolution has three components: 1) numerical methods, 2) field and laboratory studies, 3) generalization of the method. The numerical methods to model the process are the most developed component and collaboration will be continued with E. Kuhl, Stanford. In order to study real examples internal and external collaborative work will be performed; in particular with the group of R. Abart at the FU Berlin. The overall goal of the project is to derive a method that is capable of handling general reactions, which requires the participation of all collaborative members.


References Kuhl E, Schmid D.W., 2007. Computational modeling of mineral unmixing and growth - An application of the Cahn-Hilliard equation, Computational Mechanics 39 (4): 439-451.


Reaction and deformation in multiphase systems

Motivation Much growth and dissolution of minerals takes place under conditions of macroscopically non-hydrostatic stress. It has long been recognized that mineral reactions and non-isostatic stress may interfere. Grain scale stress heterogeneity and anisotropy may be internally produced through volume changes associated with phase transformation and mineral reactions. The interplay between net transfer mineral reactions and reaction induced stress is, however, poorly understood.

Figure 10 Example of rim growth from the Kråkenes gabbro, western Norway. The olivine (bright center) reacts with the plagioclase (black) and forms (from the center) orthopyroxene, garnet, and amphibole. (Photo T. John).

Approach and Results We study the interaction between reactions and deformation in simple multiphase systems with a combination of real rock experiments and analytical theories. The experiments are conducted at the ETH Zurich, and then analyzed at the FU Berlin. The analytical theory is derived here at PGP in collaboration with the group of R. Abart, Berlin. In the experimental setup rim growth in the MgO-SiO2 system is studied by means of two end-member cases. 1) Forsterite inclusions inside a quartz matrix are subjected to 1000°C and 1GPa for a duration of 80 hours. 2) The experiment is run for quartz inclusions in a forsterite matrix. The rim thickness of enstatite, the product of this reaction, varies by almost


a factor two between the two different configurations. Given that both experiments are actually run simultaneously inside the same capsule we can rule out the following explanations: different ambient conditions, fluid availability, and different mobilities. The large volume change of the reaction also rules out elastic strain energy as the dominant factor because the bulk of the deformation must be accommodated differently. Our theoretical analysis shows that creep of the matrix is not only responsible for the accommodation of the volume change of the reaction but also controls the progress of the reaction. Figure 11 shows how for a particular reaction (here the enstatite forming case) the velocity of the rim growth depends on the effective matrix viscosity. For small viscosities the reaction progress is entirely diffusion controlled. However, for realistic mantle viscosities creep starts to control the speed of the reaction and effectively halts the reaction. This mechanism is a possible explanation for the frequent observation of incomplete reactions in nature. In fact we can show that this reaction halting mechanism is important for a broad range of reactions.

Figure 11 Reaction progress as a function of matrix viscosity and given size, diffusivity, reaction energy gain, and volume change.

Outlook The project has been successfully solved the specific case of enstatite growth. The developed theory, however, is applicable to a broad range of reactions and it is important to establish the relevance with field studies conducted by PGP members. We will continue to collaborate with the group of R. Abart and also involve R. Fletcher, Pennstate, who holds a professor II position at PGP. Furthermore the project is closely related to the weathering project of PGP.


References Matrix rheology effects on reaction rim growth II: Coupled diffusion and deformation models, Schmid, D.W., Podladchikov, Y.Y., Abart,R., and Milke, R., submitted to EPSL. Keller, L., Abart, R., Wirth, R., Schmid D.W., and Kunze, K., 2006. Enhanced mass transfer through short short-circuit diffusion: Growth of garnet reaction rims at eclogite facies conditions, American Mineralogist, 91, 1024-1038.


Effective properties and deformation of multiphase systems

Motivation Rocks on all scales are heterogeneous aggregates. Projects like the above described “Reaction and deformation in multiphase systems” show how intricate the processes in such aggregates are. However, it is usually not possible to resolve the exact details explicitly due to the large number of heterogeneities involved. Therefore, bulk effective properties are required that accurately describe the material and/or process properties implicitly.

Approach and Results The employed method is a combination of analytical and numerical methods. The main focus is on deformation properties. The problem characteristics are: the involved geometries must be resolved explicitly, large numbers of heterogeneities must be resolved, the materials are non-linear, and large strain must be achieved. Therefore the task is computationally quite challenging, both in terms of hardware and software development. With the acquisition of a 128Gb 16CPU shared memory machine by PGP we are capable of calculating 2D problems with the required size and resolution. In 3D this is much more difficult to achieve. Here we employ code parallelization through MPI so that the required results can be achieved on cluster computers. Consequently we bought a share of the TITAN cluster of the University of Oslo and collaborate with groups at the University of Vienna and the Minnesota Supercomputing Institute on cluster computing. The developed codes are unstructured, adaptive mesh, finite element codes. We have been able to show that the implementation of the cluster version scales up to 1024 CPUs, the maximum number that was available to us for testing. In addition to the production codes that are written in C we also developed a project called “MILLAMIN”. MILLAMIN stands for “MILLion A MINute” and is a native MATLAB finite element code that is capable of setting up, solving, and post-processing a problem with one million degrees of freedom on unstructured meshes. This greatly reduces the development time for new projects as the entire prototyping, development, and production can be done in MATLAB and no translation to a compiler language is required for production code.


Figure 12 120 strong inclusions in incompressible viscous matrix subjected to constrictional loading. Visualization shows interaction through pressure chains. Total number of degrees of freedom is 100 million. Calculated in parallel on 512 Opteron CPUs. Average time per time step is 2 hours, achieved performance is 200GFlops.


Figure 13 Effective viscosity evolution in a sheared two-phase aggregate of hard inclusions in a weak matrix. Overall the material stiffens. Local bumps are “force chains”. The higher the fraction of hard material is, the larger the amplitude of the effective material response. Even after a shear strain of 10 no steady state is reached.

Outlook So far we have mainly focused on code development and investigations of the performance of various hardware platforms. In addition we have developed ties with the supercomputing experts at the university of Oslo, nationally in Norway (we have several applications for CPU hours on the national resources), Vienna university, and the MSI in Minnesota. The next step is to employ the developed tools and apply them to the scientific problem posed.

References Schmid, D.W., and Podladchikov, Y.Y., 2006. Fold amplification rates and dominant wavelength selection in multilayer stacks, Philosophical Magazine, 86, 3409-3423. Marques, F.O., Schmid, D.W., and Andersen, T.B. Application of inclusion behaviour models to a major shear zone system: The Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone in Western Norway, submitted to Journal Structural Geology. Dabrowski, M., Krotkiewski, M. and Schmid, D.W. MILAMIN: MATLAB-based FEM solver for large problems, submitted to Computers and Geoscience.


E. Interface processes group

Compaction

Scientific problem Compaction is the process by which granular material rearranges and increases the packing density. It plays an important role in many industrial powder-processing techniques, and is an ubiquitous part of our everyday life. In geological systems compaction occurs in sedimentary basins, in metamorphic rocks undergoing devolatilization reactions and in partly molten magmatic rocks. Compaction has a first order effect on rock porosity and permeability and other petrophysical properties. In this project we aim at developing a theory for the compaction of ductile, granular materials.

Approach and results The modelling of compaction in sedimentary systems has evolved little since Athy proposed an exponential porosity/depth equation in 1930. Compaction has been studied in a combined approach involving fieldwork, analogue modeling, analytical investigations and numerical modeling. We have performed a series of creep experiments, both in two and three dimensions, as well as numerical simulations to address this problem. Surprisingly, both experimental and numerical simulations reveal a logarithmic dependence of the inverse porosity on compaction time. 3-D compaction experiments also show logarithmic dependence of the porosity on compaction pressure. The experimental study has been used to address the structure of a compacting packing of ductile grains. We found that the structure deviates significantly from that of hard disks and spheres, and we developed new techniques in the form of the three-particle correlation function to address structure evolution (See figure ). The temporal evolution of a compacting system of ductile grains also produces surprising and interesting results. We observed oscillations in the weight measured at the bottom of a self-compacting packing of ductile grains. The oscillations developed during the first part of the experiment and typically last throughout the experiement, which may run for a week. The oscillations are related to the grain-wall contact, and directly related to the observed strain evolution and the dynamics of grain-wall contacts. Figure (7.4 from 2005 report). Ductile Play-Doh balls have been deformed during an experiment, forming flat edges where the grain-grain contacts have been.


Figure (corr.gif) Visual illustration of the probability of a third grain position for two grains at a given distance. (a) r = 1.645-1.745 d and (b) r = 1.865-1.965 d at two different packing fractions c=0.89 for the top images and c=0.99 for the bottom images.

Figure (oscil.gif) (a) Schematic illustration of the setup. Ductile grains were filled to a height h in a cylinder and left to compact while the weight at the bottom of the packing was measured. (b) A typical recording of the oscillations in the measured mass shows a clearly periodic behavior, but also includes smaller-scale fluctuations.


References Uri, Lina Lutnes; Walmann, Thomas; Alberts, Luc; Dysthe, Dag Kristian; Feder, Jens. Structure of plastically compacting granular packings. Physical Review E 2006;73 Uri, Lina Lutnes; Dysthe, Dag Kristian; Feder, Jens . Oscillatory ductile compaction dynamics in a cylinder. Physical Review E 2006;74 Uri, Lina Lutnes; Feder, Jens ; Jøssang, Torstein Fossan. Compaction of ductile granular media: an experimental study.: Unipub forlag 2006. 91 s. Dissertation for the Degree Dr. Philos. ISSN 1501-7710 ; 499

Complexity of mineral growth and dissolution

Scientific problem Growth and dissolution processes are part of the basic processes that shape the Earth. Patterns caused by these processes are found on length scales from nanometers to kilometers. We have systematically used the static and dynamic patterns to understand the fundamental processes. The special focus common to all our recent studies of patterns from the nanometer to 100 meter length scale has been the coupling of dissolution and growth mechanisms with symmetry breaking factors like fluid flow and solid stresses. At Earth’s surface minerals may grow freely into stagnant or moving fluids. Inside the Earth’s crust, the rocks are, more often than not, nonhydrostatically stressed, and the rock forming minerals respond by intragranular plastic flow or by deformation through dissolution and reprecipitation mediated by the interstitial fluid.

Approach and results Complex carbonate growth dynamics Mineral deposits precipitated at the Earth's surface or in subsurface fractures and cavities, often exhibit complex growth morphologies over a wide range of scales. Common examples include stromatolites and a variety of spherulitic or ‘botryoidal’ carbonates, oxides, phosphates and other minerals. A thorough understanding of such precipitation patterns is important because these surfaces not only reflect the kinetics of mineral precipitation, but they are often the interfaces across which the geosphere interacts with the hydrosphere and the biosphere. Travertine dams are common in caves, springs and rivers worldwide, and they represent one of the most striking examples of geological pattern formation on the Earth's surface. The dams form over a wide range of scales, from millimeters to tens of meters. Their origin has been poorly understood, but was hypothesized to involve a coupling between the precipitation rate and hydrodynamics. Microbial activity was also thought to play a role. Our main field example has been the Troll and Jotun hot springs located along the Bockfjorden fault zone on Svalbard which represent the northernmost thermal springs documented on land. We have sampled botryoidal carbonate structures from inside the Sverrefjell volcano and carbonates from the travertine dams around the springs. High-


resolution micro-drilling techniques have allowed detailed stable isotope profiles to be obtained from selected travertine cross-sections. The data reflect seasonal fluctuations in temperatures during travertine growth and constrain the travertine growth rate. Oxygen isotope variations among the travertine terraces partly reflect fluctuations in the spring source composition. These fluctuations have been used to constrain the temporal evolution of the terrace system. We have demonstrated how a simple surface normal growth (SNG) process may produce microstructures and surface morphologies very similar to those observed in some natural carbonate systems. A simple SNG model was used to fit observed surfaces, thus providing information about the growth history and also about the frequency and spatial distribution of nucleation events during growth. The SNG model can be extended to systems in which the symmetry of precipitation is broken, for example by fluid flow. We have shown how a simple modification of the SNG model in which the local growth rate depends on the distance from a fluid source and the local slope or fluid flow rate, produces growth structures with many similarities to natural travertine deposits. The two remaining modeling approaches have been used explicitly to understand travertine formation on different length scales. The first study used a depth averaged hydrodynamic code, coupled with an empirical precipitation model where surface normal growth rate is proportional to local flow rate. The dynamics of the resulting formation, coarsening and migration of crests was demonstrated and compared with field observations. The second study finds the explanation for the empirical precipitation model used in the first study. We modeled the solution chemistry of the carbonate system and the associated precipitation kinetics of calcite under laminar, open-channel flow across an obstruction, including hydrodynamics and degassing. The model output was compared with experimental results using a calcite oversaturated solution. Precipitation rate was observed to increase on the obstruction, leading to a growth instability which causes the formation of terraces. Carbonate growth and dissolution The above mentioned field, modeling and experimental studies have all been applied to patterns in carbonate growth. We have also performed AFM studies of carbonate dissolution and recrystallization with and without elastic stress in the solid. The larger scale patterns we have studied have previously been attributed to biological activity, but we have shown that they can be explained in full by inorganic models. By applying our models and approaching growth and dissolution on smaller scales we can now approach the question of how life (that does not create its own skeleton structures) may modify patterns in carbonates. This has been a central question since the Allen Hills carbonate globules were identified with similar globules from Sverrefjell on Spitsbergen; and it has been a background theme in the Amase expeditions. Stress response of surfaces by dissolution and precipitation We have for several years studied the response to surface normal stress of mineral-water systems, so-called pressure solution creep or dissolution-precipitation creep. We recently presented a novel method, using synchrotron X-ray reflectivity, to study the roughness development of surfaces undergoing pressure solution creep. The main results were 1) the


technique is reliable and can be used on sub-optical length scales in confinement were surface probe techniques or electron microscopy is of no use and 2) There was a marked roughening of halite surfaces under normal stress on length scales less than the ATG length scale. We have also investigated the dissolution behavior of polished calcite surfaces in situ using a fluid-cell atomic force microscope. Compressive surface stresses of up to 50 MPa were applied to some of the thin-section samples by means of elastic concave bending. Experiments were carried out in semi-stagnant deionized water under mainly transport limited dissolution conditions. Dissolution of the miscut samples led to stepped or rippled surface patterns on the nanometer scale that coarsened during the first 30–40 min of the experiments. Possible reasons for the pattern-coarsening were: (i) progressive bunching of retreating dissolution steps and (ii) surface energy driven recrystallization (Ostwald ripening) under transport limited dissolution conditions. A flat polished miscut surface in calcite may recrystallize into a hill-and-valley structure in a (near-)saturated solution so as to lower its total surface free energy in spite of a larger surface area. In contrast to the halite experiments under surface normal stress, no clear effect of applied stress on dissolution pattern formation was observed at these length scales below the ATG length scale. We also presented new in situ observations of stress-induced instabilities for length scales longer than the ATG length scale on miscut surfaces of NaClO3 single crystals. that were uniaxially stressed perpendicular to the step edge direction and placed in a saturated aqueous solution. The wavelength � of the stress-induced surface instability increased continuously in experiments up to 9 days after placed in the solution. There were three successive regimes of coarsening: (i) one-dimensional step bunching with �~t1/4 until an undulation transition was reached, (ii) a two dimensional coarsening mechanism with �~t1/2, and a gradual transition to (iii) Ostwald ripening-like coarsening with �~t1/3. The coarsening of the surface patterns towards a stable, flat surface implies the spontaneous formation of a stress-free skin on the surface of the stressed solid.

References E. Jettestuen, B. Jamtveit, Y.Y. Podladchikov, S. deVilliers, H.E.F. Amundsen and P. Meakin, Growth and characterization of complex mineral surfaces Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 249, Issues 1-2, 108-118 (2006). Øyvind Hammer, Dag Kristian Dysthe, Bastien Lelu, Halvor Lund and Bjørn Jamtveit, Calcite precipitation instability under laminar open-channel flow, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, submitted. Øyvind Hammer, Dag Kristian Dysthe and Bjørn Jamtveit, The dynamics of travertine dams, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, in press. Bjørn Jamtveit, Øyvind Hammer, Carin Andersson, Dag Kristian Dysthe, Jennifer Heldmann, Marilyn L. Fogel, Travertines from the Troll thermal springs, Svalbard, Norw. J. Geol. 86, 387-395. (2006).


Bisschop, J; Dysthe, DK; Putnis, CV; et al., In situ AFM study of the dissolution and recrystallization behaviour of polished and stressed calcite surfaces, Geochim. Cosmochim Acta 70 (7): 1728-1738 (2006). D.K. Dysthe, R.A. Wogelius, C.C. Tang and A.A. Nield, Evolution of mineral–fluid interfaces studied at pressure with synchrotron X-ray techniques, Chemical Geology, Volume 230, Issues 3-4, 232-241 (2006). D.K. Dysthe and R.A. Wogelius, Confined fluids in the Earth's crust — Properties and processes, Chemical Geology, Volume 230, Issues 3-4, 175-181 (2006). Bisschop, J; Dysthe, DK, Instabilities and coarsening of stressed crystal surfaces in aqueous solution, Phys. Rev. Lett. 96 (14): Art. No. 146103 (2006).


Figure (model_experiment.png): Calcite precipitation instability, A: Fluid flow over rectangular obstacle, colors indicate calcite supersaturations B: Precipitation rate predicted by the model C: Precipitation height over rectangular obstacle at 10, 30, 50 and 70 minutes as recorded in experiments.


Figure (afm.png): Afm image of calcite crystal under stagnant distilled water showing growth hillocs that demonstrate recrystallization in undersaturated conditions. Width of image is 5 micrometers.


Figure (trav_mod.png): Travertine dam structure produced by hydrodynamic travertine model with empirical precipitation rate model.


Figure (scaling.png): Coarsening dynamics of a stressed NaClO3 surface.


Mechano-chemical weathering processes

Scientific problem Transformation of rocks from one state to another is often driven by fluid infiltration, and the dynamics of such a process is to a large extent controlled by a ‘reaction front’ where the phase content and composition of the rock is changing. The reaction front is a moving interface that may be associated with both mechanical and chemical processes, and its advance is an example of interface growth. The widths of reaction fronts may range from atomic scales to scales much larger than the size of a mineral grain, and in some cases, the reaction front may consist of multiple well or poorly defined zones. Investigation of reactive transport in porous media has grown into a major industry, but so far this work has focused only on the hydrodynamic and chemical aspects of front advancement. This is clearly not adequate for the alteration of rocks with very low porosities and permeabilities, or reactions associated with major changes in solid volume. We have previously invested considerable effort in studying the advancement of infiltration fronts at great depths in the Earth’s crust, but this process is equally important near the surface. Perhaps the most important of all processes associated with reactive transport is weathering – the transition from solid rocks to soil. Weathering is a process with important geological, environmental and practical consequences, during which the couplings between fracturing, fluid migration, reactive transport, and even biological processes play crucial, but to date poorly understood, roles.

Approach and results PGP-researchers have recently undertaken field studies of weathering (of dolerite intrusions in the Karoo basins of South Africa, and of ultramafic boulders in Devonian conglomerates from Western Norway). The South African examples display extensive fracturing as an integral component of the weathering process. The examples from Western Norway on the other hand are characterized by massive mass transfer and chemical change at the reaction front. The main goal of the project is to understand the processes and environmental conditions that determine the relative importance of physical and chemical processes and their coupling during weathering. We will study how weathering depends on stresses, fluid transport and chemical reactions. We have already made important progress in the theoretical understanding of similar processes during our studies of deep crustal rocks, and our studies of stress distributions in heterogeneous media in general. Based on this framework we will develop new theoretical and computer modelling methods that will enable us to predict, understand and analyze the coupling between fracturing and reactive transport in general, and during weathering in particular. This activity connects the research on interface growth with investigations of the dynamics of microstructures. It will also open up new areas of research, such as the role of geological and biological degradation processes on large-scale geomorphology and the release of nutrients to the environment.


Figure (anja): Co-existing hierarchical and spheroidal fracture patterns found in weathering sills in Karoo, South Africa.

References Malthe-Sørenssen, Anders; Jamtveit, Bjørn; Meakin, Paul. Fracture patterns generated by diffusion controlled volume changing reactions. Physical Review Letters 2006;96

Other activities

Micro-pore experiments We have started to rebuild a high sensitivity micropore instrument (Berge, Phys. Rev. E 1994) where we can track the dynamics of a single nano-scale particle (in a small pore) both optically and using capacitance. Using this system we will measure, with high precision, the growth (precipitation) and dissolution of nano-particles from solution. Data will be combined with numerical simulations using the methods developed to model interface processes.

Software components for modeling interface processes We have recently initiated the development of numerical and theoretical models that couple bulk flow and deformation and the molecular scale behaviour of a thin layer of fluid adjacent to solid surfaces (Wagner et al., Comp. Phys.Com. 2002). We are now developing new software components for this coupling, and addressing a series of 1d problems of relevance to PGP where the interface coupling is important: 1) Friction, 2) Adhesion, 3) Frictional melting, 4) Precipitation in thin, narrow channels, 5) Dissolution in stressed systems. We have also developed software for image analysis of real surfaces and level set methods for simulation of complex surface growth dynamics.

Formation of stylolites Stylolites are a series of alternating, interpenetrating columns of stone which form an irregular, interlocked parting or suture in rock strata. The term stylolite applies to each individual, penetrating column. Where this parting is cut across, as in the wall of a quarry or in a hand specimen, it presents a rough, jagged line called stylolitic seam or stylolitic line. This line resembles somewhat the tracing of a stylus, hence the term applied to this geological structure. Stylolites are thought to form by dissolution during compaction of sediments, but their formation are still a mystery. Based on our extensive experience with both compaction and dissolution processes we have recently initiated an effort to theoretically and numerically model stylolites and to reproduce them experimentally in the laboratory.


Education …


Petromax & Industry funded projects PGP 2006 industry report

One of PGPs aims is to provide “short and effective channels from basic research to education, industry, and the public”. Many of PGPs core activities involve the understanding of processes relevant for the petroleum industry. PGP has been awarded with three research grants from the NFR petroleum programs the last three years, linked to PGP core activities. PGPs industry-relevant research is both aimed at the industry (reports, seminars, excursions) and to the international research community (publications, conferences). PGP industry-related activities in 2006 are listed in Table X1, and include workshops, research-related innovation, and basic research aimed at the petroleum industry. We have four industry-related projects running at PGP per December 2006 (Table X2). Two are funded by NFR and two directly from the petroleum industry. Among the highlights in 2006 are the funding of the Petrobar project (PetroMaks) led by J.I. Faleide at Dept. of Geosciences (UiO) where PGP will get funding for one post doc and one PhD. The work at PGP is led by Nina Simon. Several PGP project participants have collaborated with the industry via Volcanic Basin Petroleum Research, and in that respect emphasizes PGP’s relevance for the industry. Statoil has been the main collaborator, and activities range from meetings, seminars and project report presentations. The involved PGP projects include the “venting project”, the “pockmark project”, the “sill project”, and the “aureole project”. Table x1. Industry relevant activities in 2006. Activity Client Primary

contact Other PGP participants

Time

Troll project research (including industry seminars)

Statoil via VBPR

Sverre Planke Henrik Svensen, Karen Webb, Øyvind Hammer, Adriano Mazzini

2006

Tulipan project research (including industry seminars)

Statoil via VBPR

Sverre Planke Henrik Svensen, Stephane Polteau, Anders Malthe-Sørenssen

Fall

AAPG Hedberg Conference: "Mobile Shale Basins - Genesis, Evolution and Hydrocarbon Systems"

Adriano Mazzini, Sverre Planke

Henrik Svensen, Anders Malthe-Sørenssen

June

Greenland field trip and report

Husky Energy, BHP, DONG, GEUS,

Sverre Planke Stephane Polteau, Christophe Galerne, Henrik Svensen

Summer/Fall


EnCana, ExxonMobil, Shell, via VBPR

Force seminar (industry collaboration for scientific drilling)

NPD + 11 oil companies

Sverre Planke Spring

Research & technology development

Spectraseis Yuri Podladschikov

Fall

Table x2. Industry related PGP projects in 2006. Ongoing projects Funding Primary investigator

(PGP) Resources Duration

The piercement project PetroMaks Anders Malthe-Sørenssen

2 postdocs, 1 PhD, 2 MSc

2004-2007

East Greenland exhumation

Chevron Ebbe Hartz 1 research assistant

2004-2006

Mineral phase transitions control on basin subsidence

Statoil Yuri Podladschikov 1 postdoc 2005-2007

Mineral phase transitions control on basin subsidence

PetroMaks Yuri Podladschikov 2 postdocs, 2 PhD

2004-2007

The aureole project PetroMaks Henrik Svensen 1 postdoc, 1 PhD

2005-2008

The Petrobar project PetroMaks Nina Simon 1 postdoc, 1 PhD

2006-2009

Picture: Industry and academic interests merging in Greenland summer 2006. Sverre Planke and Henrik Svensen are discussing and planning the basalt sampling strategy of the day.



Public relations PGP is one of the most active Norwegian research environments in promoting science to the general public. We have an active relationship to both national and international media. Our outreach is both related to the media’s interest in our activities and to popular science contributions from our researchers. Furthermore, PGP is making a new frontier in supporting and encouraging artist-scientist collaboration. The 2006 media statistics show that PGP researchers have participation in 3 TV programs and 16 radio programs, and received coverage in 48 newspaper and magazine articles. The highlights of 2006 include: Extensive coverage of PGP fieldwork in Java, Indonesia, where a mud volcano all of the sudden appeared the 27th May 2006. Vast amounts of mud are till erupting from the LUSI site, and more that 10,000 people have so far been displaced. PGP postdoc Adriano Mazzini led an expedition to Java in September 2006, and the results of the work have received worldwide attention in TV, scientific magazines (including Nature and Science) and international magazines and newspapers (including Der Spiegel, Herald Tribune). The scientific results of the expedition will be published in 2007. The art and science projects 80 º and Geotrykk. The exhibition 80 º was arranged at the University of Oslo (Galleri Sverdrup) in March 2006, and presented the works of three artists working in close relationship with the PGP AMASE expeditions. The artists Ellen Karin Mæhlum, Kjell Ove Storvik og Eamonn Shaw have participated in three Svalbard expeditions. In September 2006, the geologically inspired works of Ellen Karin Mæhlum (Geotrykk) were shown at Galleri Norske Grafikere in Oslo. Publication of the popular science book “Enden er nær. Om naturkatastrofer og samfunn” by Henrik Svensen. Svensen has in addition participated in numerous radio programs, and has also written several chronicles on the topic of natural disasters and societies (Ny Tid and Dagbladet). He gave an invited talk at the 2006 Norwegian Research Council “research evening”, where the Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg gave the key note lecture. The topic of the talk was a combination of how natural disaster affects societies and the new results of PGP research on the environmental effects of Large Igneous Provinces.


Figure: Media coverage of PGP research in Nature, February 2007.


Organization

Employees An important objective of PGP is to balance its staff between scientists with backgrounds in physics and earth science. The scientific approaches employed by our staff members include field-studies, laboratory experiments, computer simulations and theory. A list of staff and students at PGP can be found in the Appendix. In total the scientific and technical work force constituted 45.5 man-years in 2006. Guests and collaborations have contributed with 3.6 man-years. In all, 49.1 man-years of PGP-work have been done in 2006. As of 31.12.2006, PGP has 56 staff members from 15 different countries. These include

• 27 senior researchers. 15 of the 27 are professors (including 3 emiritii). 16 of the 27 are currently present at PGP 100% of the time.

• 10 post-doctoral associates, • 19 PhD students, • 5 technical and administrative staff members (not including the physics workshop).

7 master students are associated with PGP. 4 PGP employees left the centre during 2006. 3 PhD students visited PGP for 3-5 months in 2006. 9 other foreign guests stayed at the centre for at least a week, and in addition to this, numerous short-term visitors in 2005 visited the centre in 2006. Figure: Employee chart 2003-2006

PGP employees 2003-2007

0.02.04.06.08.0

10.012.014.016.018.020.0

Professors and researchers

Postdoctoral fellows Doctoral students Other personnel

Man

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The PGP Board The PGP board has seven members. Four of them are senior scientific members of which two are geologists and two are physicists; two are University representatives and one is industry representative: Name Institution Research

Area Country

1

Prof. I. Giæver (Chairman)

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY Physics USA

2 Prof. A. Aharony Tel Aviv University Physics Israel 3 B. Kruse University of Oslo NA Denmark 4 Prof. S. O’Reilly Macquarie University Geology Australia 5 Prof. A. Putnis University of Münster Geology Germany 6 Prof. E. Roaldset Natural History Museum, UiO Geology Norway 7 K. Åm Industry representative Geophysics Norway The Board meetings of 2006 took place on January 13 and June 23.

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Scientific networking • …


Associated projects

Startpackage Podladchikov Yuri Podladchikov Funding by: University of Oslo Period: 01.07.2004-30.06.2007 Annual grant: 600 kNOK

Startpackage Malthe-Sørenssen Funding by: University of Oslo Period: 01.01.2006-31.12.2008 Annual grant: 400 kNOK

Startpackage Mathiesen Funding by: University of Oslo Period: 01.07.2006-30.06.2009 Annual grant: 400 kNOK

YFF-grant Podladchikov Yuri Podladchikov Funding by: Norwegian Research Council Period: 01.01.2005-31.12.2007 Annual grant: 600kNOK

YFF-grant Hammer Øyvind Hammer Funding by: Norwegian Research Council Period: 01.01.2005-31.12.2007 Annual grant: 600kNOK

Emplacement mechanisms and magma flow in sheet intrusions in sedimentary basins Else-Ragnhild Neumann Funding by: Norwegian Research Council, PetroMaks programme Period: 01.01.2004-31.12.2007 Annual grant: 1.115/1.309/714/185 kNOK

Formation of piercement structures in sedimentary basins Anders Malthe-Sørenssen


Funding by: Norwegian Research Council, PetroMaks Period: 01.09.2004–31.08.2007 Annual grant: 453/1.584/1.634/1.006 kNOK

Mineral phase transitions control on basin subsidence Yuri Podladchikov Funding by: Norwegian Research Council, PetroMaks Period: 01.07.2004–31.12.2007 Annual grant: 80/3.318/1.585/1.130 kNOK

The influence of mantle processes on passive margin formation – a case study from the island of Zabargad, Red Sea, Egypt Else-Ragnhild Neuman Funding by: Norwegian Research Council Period: 01.01.2005-31.12.2006 Annual grant: 808/738 kNOK

Hydrocarbon maturation in contact aureoles Henrik Svensen Funding by: the Norwegian Research Council/Petromaks Period: 2005-2009 Annual grant: 494/2.000/2.862/1.096 kNOK

Mineral phase transitions control on basin subsidence: the role of temperature, pressure, fluids & melting Yury Podladchikov Funding by: Statoil Period: 01.01.2005–31.12.2006 Annual grant: 1.454/954 kNOK

Exhumation and burial of high pressure rocks, East Greenland Ebbe Hartz Funding by: ChevronTexaco Period: 2005-2006 Annual grant: 1.000/150 kNOK

Interferometer instrument grant Dag Kristian Dysthe Funding by: Norwegian Research Council Annual grant: 1.600 kNOK


Microstructural analyses of gouge from the San Andreas fault observatory at depth (SAFOD) borehole in relation to brittle fault mechanics: a collaborative study Karen Mair (co-PI) Funding by: US National Science Foundation, Earthscope science Amount: 489,423 US dollars (award held at University of Louisville) Recommended for funding 29.11.2005 Duration: 36 months to start 30.05.2006

Arctic Mars Analog Svalbard Expedition (AMASE) Hans E.F. Amundsen Funding by: NASA funds US collaborators, no funding on Norwegian side Period: 01.01.2003–31.12.2008 Annual grant: 6.950/6.488/6.963 kNOK to US collaborators in '06 - '08

Infrastructure and laboratories

Computer and network support …

Laboratory equipment Experimental facilities In 2006 the experimental facilities were upgraded in several respects: The new interface lab was finalized, all the labs were reorganized, the database over our scientific equipment was finalized, new instruments were acquired and recently purchased instruments have begun producing good results. Interface lab A new room has been completely renovated (according to our specifications) by the Faculty of sciences and handed over to PGP. This new interface lab has high temperature and mechanical stability, low noise ventilation system, high purity compressed air and water supply, a fume hood, UPS protected electrical outlets and Ethernet outlets at 8 different work places, 4 of the work places are “islands” with vibration free tables adjacent to instrumentation platforms. The neighbouring room has had a new fan-coil installed for temperature control. The two romms also have a closed network behind a common server with firewall for the instrumentation PCs to avoid common problems of communication with the outside world versus complete control of computer settings needed for experimental work. The interface lab still lacks a Laminar flow cabinet for sample preparation under


extremely clean conditions. The instruments installed and under development in the two rooms of the interface lab are

• Long term paper crumpling experiments • Motorized polarization microscope for stress imaging • White light interferometer microscope • Imaging Mach-Zehnder interferometer with phase shifting • Inverted microscope with acusto-optic tunable light source for phase shifting of

Newton fringes • High resolution capacitance dilatometer • Calcite growth instabililty experiment

Instruments In 2006 the AstroCam, the second of two high spatial and intensity resolution cameras stopped working. Since high resolution imaging has been central to the experimental activity for the last 2 decades this is a great loss. It is outside normal laboratory budgets to replace this camera. On the other hand we finally made a purchase of a state of the art white light interference microscope. Instead of spending money on automation and motorization we bought some highly specialized objectives to allow the use of this instrument inside fluid cells. We also spent time (and money) developing models for new phase shift algorithms to unwrap interferograms of surfaces very close together (<100nm). If we succeed, the instrument will have the unique ability to resolve the interface topography of “contacting” surfaces. The two other instrument investments the later years: the IR camera and the stress imaging polarization microscope have now begun producing scientific results.


Finances

PGP Accounting and Balance for 2006 PGP is still doing well, financially. The funding from Other (ie. other projects, guests and collaborations) is well above what was anticipated in the original funding plan. The PGP has some reserves by the end of 2005. These are partly planned reserves for future salaries, partly due to delayed start-up and time-consuming purchasing processes for the Other projects. The table below presents an overview of the 2005 accounting at PGP: Amounts in 1000 NOK. Negative numbers represent income, positive numbers are costs.

Funding 2006 PGP Total UiO

Total Other

GRAN TOTAL

Income accounted for at the Centre PGP -16,409 -6,211 -9,893 -32,513 Income NOT accounted for at the Centre PGP 0 -4,703 -2,707 -7,410

Sum, Income 2006 -16,409 -10,914 -12,600 -39,923 Income according to the original funding plan -14,410 -11,002 -8,307 -33,719 Deviation from the funding plan -1,999 88 -4,293 -6,204 Transfer 2005-2006 -2,952 -4,630 -7,582

SUM, Income and transfer 2006 -30,275 -17,230 -47,505 Expenses 2006 Personel and Overhead 10,642 4,659 8,064 23,365 Scientific Equipment 574 295 177 1,046 Other Running Costs 5,011 972 2,776 8,759

Sum, Costs accounted for at the Centre 16,227 5,926 11,017 33,170

Costs NOT accounted for at the Centre (Personnel & OH) 0 4,703 2,707 7,410

SUM, Costs 16,227 10,629 13,724 40,580 Transfer 2006-2007 -3,419 -3,506 -6,925

Comments to the table: The ‘funding plan’ is the original 10-year budget in the Centre of Excellence contract. Under Transfers, the PGP Centre of Excellence grant and the UiO basis grant are treated as one grant (as it is done in practice). Thus only the sum of the transfers from one year to the other is presented here.


The Transfer 2006-2007 for PGP+UiO consist of commitments for futures salaries and heavy equipment (interferometer). The Transfer 2006-2007 for Others is due to delayed startup of the projects and to delayed purchasing processes of heavy equipment.


The PGP Budget for 2007 The PGP budget process is comprehensive and involves the PGP scientific staff, in particular the different group coordinators and coordinators of support functions, responsible of their own budget shares. All budget wishes are evaluated based on their scientific value added. The management makes the final prioritization. The budget was approved by the Board in a Board meeting in January 2006.

TOTA

L SF

F/PG

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IncomeSum, Income 28,875 15,125 13,750 7,551 2,750 39,176

CostsI. Personnel and overhead

Sum, Personnel and overhead (I) 18,577 8,749 9,828 0 2,750 21,327

II. Consultants/Ext. services (FoU) 0 0

III. Scientific equipment 2,305 1,600 705 2,305

IV. Operating costsSum, Operating costs (IV) 6,293 661 5,632 7,551 0 13,844

Transfer 2007-2008 1,700 1,700 0Sum, Total costs 28,875 12,710 16,165 7,551 2,750 39,176

Comments to the table: (1) Other includes projects funded by the Research Council or externally, by the industry.

Other is accounted for at the Centre. (2) Cooperation includes associate professors not paid by PGP or UiO, collaborators and

guests. Cooperation is not accounted for at UiO. The PGP budget has had significant transfers from one year to another. This has mainly been due to late start-up of projects, and are important means for future salaries. The excess is gradually decreasing.


Appendices


2005 List of staff and students


PGP Staff Name Financing Research Area Country %

Professors1 Aharony, Amnon UiO Physics Israel 202 Andersen, Torgeir B. UiO Geology; tectonics, structural geology Norway 753 Austrheim, Håkon UiO Geology; metamorphism, earthquakes Norway 754 Gjæver, Ivar Vista Physics; biophysics Norway/USA 205 Feder, Jens UiO Physics; Interface processes, stat. physics, fractals Norway 1006 Fletcher, Raymond PGP Geophysics USA 207 Hardy, Rocky PGP Physics USA 208 Jamtveit, Bjørn PGP Geology; Fluid migration, geological processes Norway 759 Jøssang, Torstein Emeritus Physics; Stat. physics, phase transitions, dislocations Norway 75

10 Langtangen, Hans Petter Simula Computer science, mechanics Norway 2011 Lothe, Jens Emeritus Physics; dislocations, surface waves, nucleations Norway 2012 Malthe-Sørensen, Anders UiO Physics; deformation, discrete elements, friction Norway 7513 Meakin, Paul Other Physics USA 2014 Neumann, Else-Ragnhild UiO Geology; magmatic petrology Norway 7515 Podladchikov, Yuri UiO Geology; computational geodynamics Russia 10016 Renard, Francois PGP Geophysics; fracture healing, CO2 storage France 20

Senior researchers

1 Amundsen, Hans Erik Foss PGP Geology; Mars analogy, hydrothermal processes Norway 752 Dysthe, Dag Kristian UiO Physics; compaction, plastic deformation Norway 1003 Gisler, Galen PGP Physics; USA 1004 Hammer, Øyvind PGP Geology; patterns, carbonate precipitations Norway 505 Hartz, Ebbe Hvidegård PGP Geology; continental margins Norway 1006 Mair, Karen PGP Geology; faulting and friction UK 1007 Mathiesen, Joachim PGP Physics; statistical physics Denmark 1008 Planke, Sverre PGP Geophysics; seismicity, sills, reservoir leakage Norway 209 Rüpke, Lars Statoil Geology; geodynamics Germany 100

10 Schmid, Daniel W. PGP Geology; deformation Switzerland 10011 Svensen, Henrik PGP Geology; hydrothermal vents, climate effects Norway 100

Postdocs

1 Bisschop, Jan (left June '06) PGP Geology; stress and surface interaction Netherlands 1002 Enger, Håkon UiO Physics Norway 1003 Galland, Olivier Other NRC Geology; sill emplacements France 1004 Jettestuen, Espen UiO Physics; complex growth Norway 1005 John, Timm (from Aug '06) Other NRC Geology; geodynamics Germany 1006 Mazzini, Adriano Other NRC Geology; vents Italy 1007 Medvedev, Sergei Other NRC Geology Russia 1008 Molenaar, David PGP Physics; surface patterns Norway 1009 Polteau, Stephane Other NRC Geology; sill complexes France 100

10 Rossi, Magali Other NRC Geology France 10011 Simon, Nina S.C. Other NRC Geology; craton evolution Germany 100

Technical/Administrative staff

1 Brastad, Karin PGP Adm. Secretary Norway 1002 Christopher, Jesmine (from May '06) PGP IT support Norway 603 Erambert, Muriel PGP Research technician Norway 304 Gundersen, Olav PGP Lab engineer Norway 1005 Kristiansen, Storm Niklas (left April '06) Chevron/PGP Research assistant Norway 1006 Øverbye, Helle PGP Adm. Manager Norway 1007 Wien, Nils Petter (Feb-April '06) PGP IT support


PGP Students Name Financing Research Area Country %

PhD students, completed in 2006 1 Uri, Lina Lutnes (left June '06) PGP Physics; compaction, plastic deformation Norway 100

PhD students

1 Angelutha, Luiza UiO Physics Rumania 1002 Beuchert, Marcus Other NRC Geology; basin evolution Germany 1003 Bræck, Simen PGP Physics; heat generation on faults Norway 1004 Dabrowski, Marcin Other NRC Geophysics; deformation Poland 1005 De Villiers, Simon PGP Physics; rough surfaces UK 1006 Galerne, Christophe Other NRC Geology; sill complexes France 1007 Iyer, Karthik Herman PGP Geology; fluid migration and fracturing India 1008 Korslund, M. Nikolai UiO Physics; Norway 1009 Krotkiewski, Marcin PGP Geophysics; computational geodynamics Poland 100

10 Nermoen, Anders UiO Physics Norway 10011 Nicolaisen, Filip Ferris Other NRC Physics; vents Norway 10012 Røyne, Anja PGP Physics; weathering Norway 10013 Rozhko, Alexander Other NRC Geophysics; hydrofracture Russia 10014 Tanzerev, Evgenyi UiO Physics; inverse modelling Russia 10015 Vrijmoed, Hans UiO Geology; fracturing and fluid flow Netherlands 10016 Webb, Karen E. Other NRC Geology; bio-geo coupling UK 10017 Yarushina, Victoria Other NRC Geophysics; computational geophysics Russia 10018 Aarnes, Ingrid Other NRC Geology Norway 100

Master students, completed in 2006

1 Aarnes, Ingrid Geology Norway2 Bjørk, Torbjørn Geology Norway3 Haaberg, Kirsten Geology Norway4 Mattson, Berit Geology Norway5 McGrath, Eoin Geology Ireland6 Nermoen, Anders Physics Norway7 Nygård, Helena K. Physics Norway8 Rønjom, Solveig Geology Norway9 Waag, Grunde Physics Norway

Master students

1 Eriksen, Ola Kaas Physics Norway2 Henriksen, Hilde Geology Norway3 Phillips, Bradley B. Physics USA4 Sarwar, Munib Physics Norway5 Villalobos, David Geology Mexico6 Yu-men Hsiao, Allen Physics USA7 Ydersbond, Yngve W. Physics Norway


2006 Fieldwork PGP-Fieldwork 2006 PGP has carried out 30 field-projects (expeditions, small and large field-projects, student field-training and excursions) in 2006. The fieldwork has taken place in 11 countries on 6 continents (Europe, Central America, North America, Greenland, Asia and Africa). Approximately half of the field studies have involved included both field geologist and modelers and/or experimentalists. In addition to PGP staff and students, the fieldwork has included collaborating participants from a large number of national/international institutions, companies and participants from a number of nationalities including USA, UK, Russia, Portugal, Germany, France and Norway. A short summary of all the fieldwork activities is given below. In order to improve the PGP fieldwork safety we have arranged a field safety week (week 9) with internal PGP instruction and review of the UiO/Faculty's HMS (health-environment-safety) rules for field activities (Hartz and Andersen). The field safety week was ended with a 2 days course focusing on life-saving first aid with instructors from Norwegian Peoples Aid (Norsk folkehjelp). Five first-aid-kits of various sizes have were purchased to ensure supply of emergency equipment for fieldwork activities. The fieldstudies have been carried out without accidents. An health-issue on an expedition (infection) was dealt with by appropriate field-medication first aid and later by professional healt services. A short summary of field activities are numbered (#) chronologically with headings: a) Location and duration; b) Participants, c) Short statement of problem and results, d) Short statement of follow up work and results. 1 a) Azerbaijan, 8 - 25. January b) A. Mazzini, E. Poludetkina, O. Barvalina. c) Study of mud volcanism in Azerbaijan, Dashgil peninsula. d) Despite extreme conditions (rain-snow storm) and temperatures below zero we successfully sampled and mapped four structures, and deployed thermometers to be collected next expedition. Particularly interesting were the measurements conducted during with air temperatures below zero, to be compared with measurements collected during the summer time. 2 a) Karoo, South - Africa, 4 - 11. March b) B. Jamtveit, A. Malthe-Sørenssen, D. Dysthe, A. Røyne c) Studies of spheroidal weathering of dolerite sills. Focus on coupling between fracturing, fluid migration and weathering reactions. Supervision of PhD student. d) Part of A. Røyne's PhD project. 3 a) Western Norway, Holsnøy, 15 - 16. March b) H. Austrheim, T.B. Andersen, Y.Y. Podladchikov, S. Medvedev, J.C. Vrijmoed, L. Rüpke, T. John, Q. Gautier and N. Simon c) Pseudotachylyte/shear heating in eclogites. d) Stress changes during seismic events, shear heating; a field seminar for PGP modelers and


field-based geologists. 4 a) Central Norway Leka, Nord-Trøndelag, 29. April - 1. May b) H. Austrheim, T. Prestvik (NTNU) c) Identification of zones of rhodingitisations within the ultra-mafic rocks of the Leka ophiolite complex. d) Fluid-rock interaction, new areas for detailed studies on rhodigitisation. 5 a) Western Norway, Holsnøy, 5 - 8. May b) H. Austrheim, K. Mair, D. Schmid, R. Fletcher, S. Schmalholz, M. Dabrowski, Marcus Buchert, and 2 visitors from NGU. c) Post- Kongsberg conference excursion on localization and deep crustal deformation processes. d) Field excursion, sampling. 6 a) Western Norway, Sunnfjord - Bergen Area, 7 - 15. May b) T.B. Andersen, H. Austrheim, and Q. Gautier + 4 geoscience master-students c) Field-teaching on tectonics and regional metamorphism d) Obligatory field-teaching for UiO courses, Geo4840/4830 7 a) Western Norway, Solund Devonian Basin, 10 - 11. May b) H. Austrheim c) Serpentinisation of conglomerate boulders in the Devonian basin d) Final collection of field data in connection with finalizing paper on the Mg-leaching from ultramafic boulders in the Devonian Solund and Bryknes basins 8 a) Spain, Cape de Creuz, 19 - 21. May b) H. Austrheim, T.B. Andersen, S. Medvedev, R. Fletcher, and 3 coworkers from Univ. Berlin c) Cape de Creuz shear zones, evidence for shear heating? d) Background study and constraints on shear heating problematic and modeling. 9 a) Western Gneiss Region, Bud-Fræna, Molde area, 25. May - 18. June b) J.C. Vrijmoed, H. Austrheim. From Amsterdam: F. Beunk with 3 students c) Fieldwork for PhD from combined with guiding undergraduate students from Amsterdam PhD project, origin of infiltrating fluids of the UHP Svartberget peridotite. Highly detailed structural mapping, resulting in updated map and orientation of fractures in the peridotite. Sampling. d) Petrography and microprobe work. Modeling of fractures and metasomatism in the UHP body. Sr-isotope work by students in Amsterdam. 10 a) Trinidad, South America, 29. May -10. June b) A. Mazzini c) Study of mud volcanoes in Southern Trinidad. d) Many of the structures were situated in the tropical forest and difficult to be found. Despite extremely hot temperatures eight structures including a large tar lake where mapped and sampled. Samples collected will implement our collection and could be useful to constrain mud volcano modeling. 11 a) Western Norway, Holsnøy, Bergen Area, 14. June c) H. Austrheim + NGF-Bergen members d) NGF- field excursion lead by H. Austrheim c) None 12 a) Kragerø area, Telemark, 15 - 17. June


b) H. Austrheim and A. Engevik, NGU c) Scapolitization/fluid-rock interaction d) Participation in NGU project on scapolitization 13 a) Western Norway, Drøsdal, 19 - 21. June b) T.B. Andersen and J.C. Vrijmoed c) Drill-sampling of large kyanite-veins in the Drøsdal eclogite d) PhD work of J.C. Vrijmoed 14 a) Western Norway Almklovdalen, Åheim, 21 - 24 June b) H. Austrheim, G. Yaxley and PhD student c) Field supervision of PhD student d) PhD work by student 15 a) Western Norway, Byrknesøyane, 2 - 7. July b) T.B. Andersen c) Reconnaissance mapping of previously little studied ortho- and paragneisses, mafic plutons, high-pressure metamorphism and decompression structures of the Byrknes archipelago, Western Gneiss Region d) Preparations for detailed studies in the area. 16 a) Offshore Norway (Nyegga region), June - July b) Participants and duration: A. Mazzini, c) The offshore expedition in the Storegga-Nyegga region aimed to study seepage features and pockmarks close the Storegga Slide. Six structures were studied and sampled. d) For the first time in the area gas hydrates, inferred by many but never sampled, have been successfully collected and studied. Currently we are studying composition of gas and water. The composition of gas hydrates has been so far unknown and has only been speculated. 17 a) Western Norway, Kråkeneset- Flatraket, Sogn og Fjordane, 17. -21 July b) H. Austrheim, T. John, M. Rossi, J.C.Vrijmoed d) Fluid-rock interaction, garnet veining, scapolitization, Sampling c) Phd/post.doc work on fluid rock interaction 18 a) PGP, East-Greenland expedition, 2006, 3 weeks July - August b) E.H. Hartz, N. Hovius, N. (U. Cambridge, UK) N. Onderdonk Cal.State, US), H. Brueckner, (Columbia Univ, US) M. Dabrowski, L. Mehl, (MIT, US) S. Johnson (UCSB, US) c) Studies involve 3 main topics 1) Force balanced paleotopography. Identify and describe the paleotopography of the area. Sample profiles through the upper 3 km of the crust to unravel its thermal history. Sample characteristic topographic features for analysis of cosmogenic exposure. These results are being compared to force balanced topographic models in progress. Modeling and sample analysis is ongoing. Comprehensive industry reports are filed. A first paper is expected to be submitted in the late winter. 2) Deep crustal presure-temperature-strain-time paths. We map and describe a vast ultra high pressure domain, and discuss evidence for stress-strain influenced pressure and temperature excursions. Sample rocks for rheological, pressure, temperature and age analysis. The results are being compared to ongoing force and energy-balanced deformational models. Analysis and modeling are ongoing on all topics, one paper is submitted and one is in progress.


3) Erosion driven climatic forcing. We sample rivers for analysis of dissolved climatic agents, with the aim to quantify and model the anti-greenhouse effects of rapid erosion of a large igneous province.

The project is an initial test, for potential future research. Analysis is expected during the winter. Further action will depend on these results

d) For results and further work, see short descriptions above. 19 a) PGP- West Greenland (Disco) 26 July – 2. August b) H. Svensen and S. Planke c) The main aim was to study an exhumed oil reservoir and two areas that have been affected by natural rock fires in shales and coals. d) A range of analyses will be performed on the samples, and we aim at 1) understand how basalts can act as reservoir rocks, and 2) why fires initiate in shales. 20 a) Central-South- to Western Norway 7 - 15. August b) T.B. Andersen and coworkers from UCSB (Hacker+2 PhD students) c) Regional compilation of field observation and collection of new material from selected localities, primarily for dating (U-Pb, Lu/Hf) d) Preparation for regional compilations and for new detailed PhD studies. 21 a) Central Norway Røros-Røragen area,, 17 - 19. August b) H. Austrheim, O. Nilsen, M. Erembert c) Sampling of ultramafic material from the Devonian conglomerate, Røragen d) Part of Mg-leaching study of ultramafic conglomerate clasts. 22 a) East Siberia in Russia (Norilsk, Bratsk) , 12 - 19. August b) H. Svensen, S. Planke, S. Polteau, A. Polozov (Russia), N. Arndt (France), C. Ganino (France), and L. Elkins-Tanton (USA). c) Main aim is to understand the processes related to sediment metamorphism and degassing during the P-Tr magmatic event in Siberia. d) Analyses of contact aureoles and crater lake deposits will be performed, including geochemistry and biostratigraphy. Results are expected to be relevant to understand the P-Tr global warming and mass extinction events. 23 a) AMASE- expedition 2006, Billefjord, Bockfjord, Murchison Fjord, Svalbard, 8- 24. August b) H.E.F. Amundsen(PGP), I. Midtkandal (IG), H. Koren (AMASE), S. Johansen (EMGS), K. O. Storvik (AMASE), D. Potts (OpticVerve), L. Benning (UL), A. Steele(CIW), M. Fogel (CIW), J. Maule (CIW), J. Eigenbrode (CIW), M. Fries (CIW), V. Starke (CIW), A. Treiman (LPI), P. R. Mahaffy (JHU), K E. Fristad (JHU), O. Botta (JHU), D. Blake (NASA-ARC), D. Bish (NASA-ARC), T. Hoehler (NASA-ARC), P. Conrad (NASA-JPL), E. Harju (NASA-JPL), A. L. Lane (NASA-JPL), R. Bhartia (NASA-JPL), T. Huntsberger (NASA-JPL), P. Younse (NASA-JPL), A. W. Stroupe (NASA-JPL), M. Garrett (NASA-JPL), C. Sharkey (NASA-JPL), J. C. Beck (NASA-JPL), F. Renard (PGP), J. Mathiesen (PGP), E. Hausrath (PSU), E. Vicenzi (SI). c) Carbonate deposition, organic synthesis, fossil biomarkers and microbial activity in Mars analog sites on Svalbard (i.e. Bockfjord Volcanic Complex, Ebbaelva Mb. evaporate


sediments, Akademikerbreen Gp. stromatolites). Testing of strategies and instruments for future “Search for Life” missions to Mars. Tested payload instruments (SAM, CheMin) onboard NASA’s 2009 Mars Science Laboratory Mission and ESA’s 2011 ExoMars mission (Life Marker Chip), as well as a robotic platform (CliffBot) and space suite. Studies on pressure-solution and preseipitation related to stylolites. d) Continue analytical work at CIW and JPL aimed at understanding organic synthesis and possibilities for Life on other planets. Establish Astrobiology as science discipline in Norway and develop Svalbard as preferred site for verification of planetary mission concepts. Plan testing of additional NASA and ESA instruments on AMASE 07. 24 a) Western Norway, Våsøy-Kråkenes, 27 - 31. August b) H. Austrheim, T. John, L. Rüpke, T.B. Andersen, M. Rossi and 2 undergraduate students from Kiel c) Brittle deformation zones, scapolittization and fluid activity in the Kråkeneset gabbro d) Detailed, mapping and sampling of transitions from pristine to altered gabbro at eclogite facies conditions, and scapolitization phenomenon in amphibolites. 25 a) Western Norway, Leka, Nord-Trøndelag, 4 - 9. September b) H. Austrheim, B. Jamtveit, K. Lyer, T. Prestvik (NTNU) c) Serpentinisation and rhodingitisation sampling and mapping in the ultramafic rocks of the Leka Ophiolite Complex d) PhD supervision, new work on rhodingitisation. 26 a) Serifos, Greece, 10 - 15. September b) D. Schmid and M. Krotkiewski, c) Study of small scale extensional structures in the frame work of a metamorphic core complex. Serifos has exceptional outcrops that allow for studies of the structures in three dimensions d) We will include the observations made in a paper where we compare the 3- Dimensionality of extensional structures with compressional ones. 27 a) Portugal, Lisboa, 14 - 17. September b) H. Svensen, B. Jamtveit, I. Aarnes, O. Galland, F.O. Marques c) Reconnaissance study of basalt-sediment interactions and sill intrusions. d) We will do U-Pb dating of sills and petrographic and geochemical work on vent/breccia structures. This is relevant for understanding basalt-carbonate interactions. 28 a) Indonesia, Djakarta-Surabaja, 13 - 29. September b) A. Mazzini, A. Nermoen c) Reconaissance work in connection with the eruptions in a new and catastrophic mud-volcano near Surabaya, Eastern Java. d) Report and paper on the new mudvolcano formation. 29 a) PGP-Corsica 2006, France, 7-12. October b) T.B. Andersen, H. Austrheim, K. Mair, G. Gisler, Q. Gautier c) Detailed sampling and mapping of pseudotachylytes and rhodingites in the mantle/ultramafic rocks of Alpine Corsica d) Two manuscripts are in prep from this and previous work. 30 a) Salton Sea, USA, 16 - 19. December b) H. Svensen, S. Polteau, A. Mazzini, N. Onderdonk (USA), A. Sturz (USA) c) Geochemical mapping and sampling at a seep site in the Salton Sea area, California. d) We will do temperature monitoring of surface seeps, and correlate temperature


measurements with seismicity in the region.


2006 Education 2006 Education Geology: Andersen, T.B.; GEL2130, Structural geology 44 hours lecturing, 14 hours practical, and 2 days field teaching 20 students 10 study points GEO4840, Tectonics 36 hours lecturing, 2 hours student seminars, 7 days field teaching 10 study points 5 students Austrheim H.O.; GEL2110, Mineralogy, petrology and geochemistry 10 hours lecturing, 3 hours practical, 1 day field teaching 10 study points 15 students GEO4830, Analytical methods in Geochemistry No formal teaching 10 study points 1 student Austrheim H.O. Neumann, E.R.; GEO4860 Advanced petrology 42 hours lectures, 21 hours lab/exercises, 3 days field teaching 10 study points 4 students Hammer Ø.; GEO1020 Geological processes and materials 10 hours of lecture, 4 days field teaching 50 students Biology: Hammer Ø.; BIO4210 Classification and phylogeny 2 hours of lecture, 3 hours of computer laboratory 10 study points 10 students BIO4230 Biogeography and biodiversity. 4 hours of lecture, 3 hours of computer laboratory 10 study points 10 students Fys-Geo/Physics/Mathematics Dysthe, D.K.; FYS 2150


10 study points, 80 students FYS 1000 Lab - 3 weeks of 10 study points, ca 100 students FYS 1120 Lab - 3 weeks of 10 study points, ca 50 students FYS 2160 Lab - 1 week 10 study points ca 50 students Mathiesen, J.; FYS3110 - Kvantemekanikk; 30 hours exercises; 60 participants; 10 study-points; Malthe-Sørensen, A. FYS4460 Disordered systems and percolation 10 study points 5 students Fys-mek1110, Mechanics 3 Hours pr.week 10 study points 20 students Feder, J. FYS4460 Nano and microscale processes in pores. 10 study points 7 students Podladchikov, Y.Y., FYS-GEO4510 - Introduction to mechanical geomodeling 10 study points 10 students External teaching Schmid, D.W. (University of Vienna) 280440 VO+UE Introduction to finite difference and finite element modeling in geosciences 4.4 ECTS-Punkte 280530 VO+UE Geodynamic modeling using MatLab and Mathematica 4.4 ECTS-Punkte Master students: Completed 2006 Eoin McGrath


Supervision: Andersen, T.B., Onderdunk, N., Schmid, D.W. Solveig Rønjom Supervision: Austrheim, H.O., Mair, K., Schmid, D.W. Torbjørn Bjørk Supervision: Austrheim, H.O., Mair, K., Schmid, D.W. Helena Kvamme Nygaard (exam autumn 2006) Supervision: Malthe-Sørensen, A. Ingrid Aarnes, Supervision: Neumann, E.R., Malthe-Sørensen, A., Svensen, H Kirsten Haaberg, Supervision: Neumann E.R., Planke, S., Malthe-Sørensen, A. Grunde Waag Supervision: Feder, J., Malthe-Sørensen, A., Walmann, T.) Students Ola Kaas Eriksen Hilde Henriksen geology Allen Yu-men Hsiao physics Bradley R Phillips physics Munib Sarwar physics David Z Villalobos physics Yngve W. Ydersbond physics Master studenter PhD completed 2006 Lina Uri, (Supervision: Dysthe, D.K. Feder, J. PhD students Aarnes, Ingrid, Geology, Metamorphic processes around sill intrusions (Supervision: Jamtveit, B., Svensen, H., Podladchikov, Y.Y. Angheluta, Luiza, Physics; (Supervision: Mathiesen, J.) Bjørk, Torbjørn, Geology, modeling (Supervision: Mair, K., Schmid, D.W.) Beuchert, Marcus, Geology, Crust-mantle interactions (Supervision: Podladchikov, Y.Y., Rüpke, L., Simon, N) Bræck, Simen, Physics, Heat generation on faults (Supervision: Mair, K. Podladchikov, Y.Y.) Dabrowski, Marcin, Geology, Deformation modeling (Supervision: Podladchikov, Y.Y., Schmid, D.W,) Galerne, Christophe, Geology, Sill intrusions (Supervision: Neumann, ER, Planke, S.) Iyer, Karthik H., Geology, Serpentinization, modeling (Supervision: Jamtveit, B., Podladchikov, Y.Y., Austrheim, H.O.) Korslund, M. Nicolay, Physics


(Supervision: Jamtveit, N., Malthe-Sørensen, A.) Krotkiewski, Marcin, Geophysics; computational geodynamics (Supervision: Podladchikov, Y.Y., Schmid, D.W.) Nermoen, Anders, Physics, Particle flow in micropores (Supervision: Feder, J., Jamtveit, B. Malthe-Sørensen, A.) Nicolaisen, Filip Ferris, Physics; Piercement project (Supervision: Malthe-Sørensen, A, Svensen, H.) Rozhko, Alexander, Geophysics; Hydro-fracture (Supervision: Podladchikov, Y.Y., Renard, F.) Røyne, Anja Physics; weathering (Supervision: Dysthe, D., Jamtveit, B, Malthe-Sørensen, A.) Tanzerev, Evgenyi, Applied mathematics; inverse modelling (Supervision: Podladchikov, Y.Y., Schmid, D.W.) de Villiers, Simon, Physics; Crumpled sheets (Supervision: Feder, J.) Vrijmoed, J.C., Geology; fracturing and fluid flow (Supervision: Austrheim, H.O., Andersen, T.B. Podladchikov, Y.Y.) Webb, Karen E. Marine biology; bio-geo coupling (Supervision: Grey, J., Hammer Ø.) Yarushina, Victoria, Geophysics; computational geophysics (Supervision: Jamtveit, B., Podladchikov, Y.Y.)


2006 Product list


Publications in international journals 2006

1. Abu El-Rus, M.A., Neumann, E.-R. and Peters, V., 2006. Serpentinization and dehydration in the upper mantle beneath Fuerteventura (eastern Canary Islands): Evidence from mantle xenoliths. Lithos 89, 24-46.

2. Alshits, V.I., and Lothe, J., 2006. Acoustic axes in trigonal crystals. Wave Motion, 43, 177 -192.

3. Andersen T. B. and Austrheim, H., 2006. Fossil earthquakes recorded by pseudotachylytes in mantle peridotite fro the Alpine subduction complex of Corsica. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 242,1-2, 58-72.

4. Bisschop, J. and Dysthe, D.K., 2006. Instabilities and coarsening of stressed crystal surfaces in aqueous solution. Physical Review Letters, 96 (14): Art. No. 146103 APR 14 2006.

5. Bisschop. J., Dysthe, D.K., Putnis, C.V., and Jamtveit, B., 2006. In-situ AFM study of the dissolution and recrystallization behaviour of polished and stressed calcite surfaces. Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta, 68, 3317-3328.

6. Bjørnerud, M.G., and Austrheim, H., 2006. Hot fluids in eclogite metamorphism? Nature 440, E4-E4.

7. Corfu, F., Torsvik, T.H., Andersen, T.B., Ashwall, L., Ramsay, D.M. and Roberts, R.J., 2006. Early Silurian mafic-ultramafic and granitic plutonism in contemporaneous flysch, Magerøy, northern Norway: U-Pb ages and regional significance. Journal of the Geological Society London, 163, 2, 291-301.

8. Dysthe, D.K. and Wogelius, R.A., 2006. Confined fluids in the Earth's crust -Properties and processes. Chemical Geology, 230, 175-181.

9. Dysthe, D.K., Wogelius, R.A., Tang, C.C. and Nield, A.A., 2006 .Evolution of mineral–fluid interfaces studied at pressure with synchrotron X-ray techniques. Chemical Geology, 230, 232-241.

10. Enger, Håkon; Recknagel, Andreas; Roggenkamp, Daniel., 2006. Permutation branes and linear matrix factorisations. Journal of High Energy Physics, 1 Art. No. 087.

11. Ferkinghoff-Borg, J., Jensen, M.H., Mathiesen, J. and Olesen, P., 2006. Scale Free Cluster Distributions from Conserving Merging-Fragmentation Processes Europhysics Letters, 73, 422-428.

12. Galerne, C., Caroff, M., Rolet, J., Le Gall, B., 2006. Magma-sediment mingling in an Ordovician rift basin: The Plouézec-Plourivo half-graben, Armorican Massif, France. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 155, 164-178.

13. Galland, O., Cobbold, P. R., Hallot, E.., de Bremond d'Ars, J. and Delavaud, G., 2006a. Use of vegetable oil and silica powder for scale modelling of magmatic intrusion in a deforming brittle crust. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 243, 786-804.

14. Gernigon, L., Lucazeau, F., Brigaud, F., Ringenbach, J-C., Planke, S., Le Gall, B., 2006. A moderate melting model for the Vøring margin ( Norway) based on structural observations and a thermo-kinematical modelling: Implication for the meaning of the lower crustal bodies. Tectonophysics, 412, 255-278.

http://www.fys.uio.no/pgp/index2.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=159&pop=1&page=0&Itemid=241

15. Gisler, G., Weaver, R. and Gittings, M., 2006. Sage calculations of the tsunami threat from La Palma. Science of Tsunami Hazards, Vol 24, No 4, pages 288-301.

16. Gisler, G., Weaver, R. and Gittings, M., 2006. Two-Dimensional Simulations of Explosive Eruptions of Kick-Em Jenny and Other Submarine Volcanoes. Science of Tsunami Hazards, Vol 25, No 1, pages 34-41.

17. Hammer, Ø. & Bucher, H. 2006. Generalized ammonoid hydrostatics modelling, with application to Intornites and intraspecific variation in Amaltheus. Paleontological Research 10:91-96.

18. Heijst, G.J.F. van, Clercx, H.J.H. and Molenaar, D., 2006. The effects of solid boundaries on confined two-dimensional turbulence. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 2006; 554:411-431.

19. Hirth, J.P., Pond, R.C., and Lothe, J. Disconnections in tilt walls. Acta Materialia, 54, 4237-4245.

20. Hovland, M., and Svensen, H., 2006. Submarine pingoes: Indicators of shallow gas hydrates in a pockmark at Nyegga, Norwegian Sea. Marine Geology 228, 15-23.

21. Jamtveit, B., Hammer, Ø., Anderson, C., Dysthe, D.K., Heldmann, J., and Vogel, M., 2006. Travertines from the Troll thermal springs, Svalbard. Norwegian Journal of Geology , 86, 387-395.

22. Jettestuen, E., Jamtveit, B., Podladchikov, Y.Y., deVillier, S., Amundsen, H.E.F., and Meakin, P., 2006. Growth of complex carbonate surfaces. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 249, 108-118.

23. Joedicke H., Jording A., Ferrari L., Arzate J., Mezger K., and Ruepke L., 2006. Fluids release from the subducted Cocos plate and partial melting of the crust deduced from magnetotelluric studies in Southern Mexico: Implications for the generation of volcanism and subduction dynamics. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111(B08102), doi:10.1029/2005JB003739.

24. Kaus, B.J.P and Podladchikov, Y.Y., 2006. Initiation of localized shear zones in viscoelastoplastic rocks. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111 (B4): Art. No. B04412 APR 25.

25. Keller, L., Abart, R., Wirth, R., Schmid, D. W. and Kunze, K., 2006. Enhanced mass transfer through short short-circuit diffusion: Growth of garnet reaction rims at eclogite facies conditions. American Mineralogist, 91:1024-1038.

26. Koehn, D; Malthe-Sørenssen, Anders; Passchier, CW., 2006 The structure of reactive grain-boundaries under stress containing confined fluids. Chemical Geology, 230, 207-219

27. Mair, K., Renard, F. and Gundersen, O., 2006. Thermal imaging on simulated faults during frictional sliding. Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L19301, doi:10.1029/2006GL027143.

28. Malthe-Sørenssen, A., Jamtveit, B., and Meakin, P., 2006. Fracture patterns generated by diffusion-controlled volume changing reactions. Physical Review Letters, 96, art no. 245501.

29. Mazzini, A., Svensen, H., Hovland, M. and Planke, S., 2006. Comparison and implications from strikingly different autigenic carbonates in a Nyegga complex pockmark, G11, Norwegian Sea. Marine Geology 231, 89-102.

30. Osmundsen, P.T., Eide, E., Haabesland, N.E, Roberts, D., Andersen, T.B., Kendrick, M., Bingen, B., Braathen, A., and Redfield, T.F., 2006. Kinematics of the Høybakken detachment zone and the Møre-Trøndelag Fault Complex, central Norway. Journal of the Geological Society London, 163, 2, 303-318.

31. Polteau S., Moore J.M., and Tsikos H., 2006. The geology and geochemistry of the Palaeoproterozoic Makganyene diamtictite. Precambrian Research, 148, 257-274.

32. Renard, F., Voisin, C, Marsan, D and Schmittbuhl, J., 2006. High resolution 3D laser scanner measurements of a strike-slip fault quantify its morphological anisotropy at all scales. Geophysical Research Letters, 33, Art. No. L04305.

33. Schmalholz, S.M., 2006. Finite amplitude folding of single layers: elastica, bifurcation and structural softening. Philosophical Magazine 86, 3393-3407.

34. Schmid, D.W. and Podladchikov, Y.Y., 2006. Fold amplification rates and dominant wavelength selection in multilayer stacks. Philosophical Magazine, 86, 3409-3423.

35. Svensen, H., Jamtveit, B., Planke, S., and Chevallier, L., 2006. Structure and evolution of hydrothermal vent complexes in the Karoo Basin, South Africa. Journal of the Geological Society London, 163, 671-682.

36. Uri, L., Dysthe, D. K. and Feder, J., 2006. Oscillatory ductile compaction dynamics in a cylinder. Physical Review E, 74, art. no. 031301.

37. Uri, L., Walmann, T., Alberts, L., Dysthe, D. K. and Feder, J., 2006. Structure of plastically compacting granular packings. Physical Review E, 73, art. no. 051301.

38. Vrijmoed, J. C., van Roermund, H. L. M. and Davies, G. R., 2006. Evidence for diamond-grade ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism and fluid interaction in the Svartberget Fe-Ti garnet peridotite-websterite body, Western Gneiss Region, Norway. Mineralogy and Petrology, 88, 381-405.

39. Young D.J., Hacker B.R. Andersen, T. B., Corfu F., Gehrels, G.E., Grove M.: Prograde amphibolite facies to ultrahigh-pressure transition along Nordfjord, western Norway: Implications for exhumation tectonics, Tectonics, 26, TC1007, doi:10.1029/2004TC001781.

In books and proceedings 2006

1. • Fossen, H; Dallman, W; Andersen, T.B. Fjellkjeden går til grunne. Kaledonidene brytes ned; 405-359 millioner år. I: Landet blir til. Norges geologi. Trondheim: Norsk Geologisk Forening 2006. ISBN 82-92394-31-1. s. 230-257

2. • Gisler, G., Weaver, R. and Gittings, M., 2006. Excavation Efficiencies in Three Dimensional Simulations of the Chicxulub Meteor Impact. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Impact Cratering in the Solar System, ESTEC, Noordwijk.

3. • Hartz, E.H., Kristiansen, S.N., Calvert, A, Hodges, K.V., & Heeremans, M., 2006. Structural, thermal and rheological control of the Late Paleozoic basins in East Greenland, in R.A. Scott and D.K. Thurston (eds.) Proceedings of the Fourth International conference on Arctic margins, OCS study MMS 2006-003, U.S. Department of the Interior, pp 58-76.

4. • Medvedev, S. and Beaumont, C.. Growth of continental plateaus by channel injection: Models designed to address constraints and thermomechanical consistency. Geological Society of London Special Publication 2006(268):147-164.

5. • Medvedev, S., Podladchikov, Y. Y., Handy, M. and Scheuber, E., 2006. Controls on the deformation of the Central Andes (10v35¦S): insight from thin-sheet numerical modelling. Submitted to: eds O. Oncken, G. Chong, G. Franz, P. Giese, H.-J. Getze, V. Ramos, M. Strecker, P. Wigger, Monography series Frontiers in Earth Sciences, Vol. 1, Springer Verlag. pp 475-494.

6. • Renard, Francois Marie Paul L; Bernard, D.; Desrues, J.; Plougonven, E.; Ougier-Simonin, A.. Characterization of hydraulic fractures in limestones using X-ray microtomography. I: Advances in x-ray tomography for geomaterials. London: ISTE 2006. ISBN 1 905209 60 6. 8 s.

7. • Rüpke, L, H., Morgan, J. P. and Dixon, J. E. 2006. Implications of Subduction Rehydration for Earth's Deep Water Cycle. Geophysical Monograph 2006(168):263-276.

Talks and posters at conferences

1. Aarnes, I.; Numerical modeling on cooling processes through a saucer-shaped sill.; LASI II, Isle of Sky, Scotland; March 31 - 4. april 2006 (Talk).

2. Andersen, T. B.; Ultra-mafic pseudotachylytes and the strength of the upper mantle during collision and low-temperature-high-pressure metamorphism; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

3. Austrheim, H.; Are the mineralogy and rheology of the lower continental crust and upper mantle fluid controlled?; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

4. Austrheim, H.; Are the mineralogy and rheology of the lower continental crust and upper mantle fluid controlled?; EGU - Vienna, Austria; April 2 - 7, 2006.

5. Austrheim, H.; The granulite - ulogitefaries transition in the Bergen Arcs; EGU - Vienna, Austria; April 2 - 7, 2006.

6. Beuchert, M.; A viscoelastic geodynamic model for the examination of craton stability; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

7. Bisschop, J.; Instabilities and coarsening of stressed crystal surfaces in aqueous solution; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

8. Braeck, S.; Spontaneous dissipation of elastic energy by self-localizing thermal runaway; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

9. Bræck, S.; Spontaneous dissipation of elastic energy by self-locating thernal runaway; EGU, Vienne, Austria; April 2 - 7, 2006.

10. Bobyl, A.V.; Podladchikov, Y.Y., Austrheim, H., Jamtveit, B. Johnsen, T.H. and Santsev, D.V. Magnetic Field Visualization of Magnetic minerals and Grain Boundary regions using Magneto-optical Imageing . EGU 06-A-05081.

11. Christophe, G.; Geochemical Architecture of the Golden Valley Sill Complex, South Africa: Iplication for Saucer-Shaped Sill Emplacement in Sediment in Sedimetary Basins; LASI II, Isle of Sky, UK; March 31 - 4. april 2006.

12. Dabrowski, M.; Complete three dimensional solution for deformable ellipsoidal particles subjected to shear over large strain.; EGU, Vienna; April 2 - 8, 2006 (Talk and poster).

13. Dabrowski, M.; Complete three-dimensional solution for deformable ellipsoidal particles subjected to shear over large strain; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

14. Dysthe, D. K.; Response to stress of reactive crystal surfaces; The 19th Kongsberg Semina; May 3 - 6, 2006.

15. Engvik, A.K., Korneliussen, A. and Austrheim,H. Mineralogical evolution during albitisation and scapolitisation of the Ödegaarden metagabbro Bamble, South Norway. EGU 06-A-06531

16. Fletcher, R. C.; Coupling of deformation, transport by diffusion, and growth / dissolution kinetics; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

17. Galland, O.; Analogue modelling of magmatic intrusion in a brittle crust with special reference to thrusting.; LASI II, Isle of Skye, Scotland; March 31 - April 2, 2006.

18. Galland, O.; Magma ascent during thrusting: insight from Tromen volcano (Argentina) and laboratory experiments; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 3 - 9, 2006.

19. Galland, O.; "Magma emplacement in the upper corst: insights from experimental modelling"; Le Mans, Poitier, Lyon, France; June 29, 2006.

20. Galland, O.; Measuring local strain rates in ductile shear zones: a new approach from deformed syntectonic dykes; AGU 2006, San Francisco; December 9 - 22, 2006.

21. Galland, O.; Mechanisms of Saucer-Shaped Sill Emplacement: Insight from Experimental Modeling; AGU 2006, San Francisco; December 9. - 22, 2006.

22. Galland, O.; Silica powder and vegetable oil for modelling magma emplacement into a deforming brittle crust; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 3 - 9, 2006.

23. Galland, O.; Silica powder and vegetable oil for modelling magma emplacement into a deforming brittle crust; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3-6, 2006.

24. Gisler, G.; Cratering Efficiencies in simulations of the Chicxulub Meteor Impact; ESA Cratering Conference Noordwijk, Nederland; May 7 - 12, 2006.

25. Gisler, G.; Excavation effeciencies in three-dimensional simulations of the Chicxulub meteor impact; The 19th Kongsberg Semina; May 3 - 6, 2006.

26. Gisler, G.; Mulh Fluid Hydrodynamic Colinlations of Turbiditite Dyeosits from Submarine landslide Tusnamis; Los Alamos, NM, Santa Cruz, Ca, AGU, San Francisco; December 2 - 15, 2006.

27. Haaberg, K.; Analogue modeling of the formation of wrinkles on the upper surface of saucer-shapet sill intrusions; LASI II, Isle of Sky, Scotland; March 31 - April 4, 2006 (Talk).

28. Hartz, E.; Dejavu of East Gl plaloosuface; EGU - Vienna, Austria; April 2 - 7, 2006.

29. Hartz, E.; Toasting the jelly sandwich; EGU - Vienna, Austria; April 2 - 7, 2006. 30. Hartz, E. H.; Arctic topography: force-balanced landscapes through time; The

19th Kongsberg Semina; May 3 - 6, 2006. 31. Hsiao, A.; Coupled evolution of 3D seismic response:fluid pressure / porosity of

simulated reservoir; The 19th Kongsberg Semina; May 4 - 5, 2006.

32. Iyer, K.; Mechanism of serpentinization; The 19 Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

33. Jamtveit, B.; Fracturing - assisted metamorphison; AGU 2006, San Francisco; December 10 - 17, 2006.

34. Jamtveit, B.; "Growth of complex carbonate surfaces"; EGU Conference; April 2 - 5, 2006.

35. Jettestuen, E.; A study of SOC models by the use of joint distributions; APS March Meeting, Boltimor, Maryland, USA; March 3 - 18, 2006 (Poster).

36. Jettestuen, E.; Modeling of carbonate surfaces; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 2 - 7, 2006.

37. Jettestuen, E., Jamtveit, B., Podladtchikov, Y.Y, deVilliers, S., Amundsen, H.E.F. and Meakin, P.; Growth and Characterization of Complex Mineral Surfaces; AGU Fall Meeting, San Francisco, CA, USA Dec 10-16, 2006 (poster)

38. John, T.; A metamorphic view on earthquakes and fluid pathways in subducting oceanic plates; AGU 2006, San Francisco; December 10 - 17, 2006.

39. Krotkiewski, M.; Efficient 3D geo-modeling on commodity harware; The 19 Kongsberg Seminar; May 4 - 6, 2006.

40. Krotkiewski, M.; Efficient 3D modelling; Zürich, Switzerland; April 19 - 22, 2006.

41. Krotkiewski, M.; High-performance geo-computing with canality korrdware/ordritecture; EGU, Vienna; April 2 - 8, 2006 (Poster).

42. Mair, K.; Watching fault zones evolve; Tectonic studies group meeting 2006 (Rutter 60th birthday), University of Manchester; January 4-6, 2006.

43. Mair, K.; "Watching granular fault zones evolve"; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 2 - 6, 2006.

44. Mair, K. and Abe, S.; 'Strain partitioning and structural development in evolving fault zones: 3D numerical simulations'; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 2 - 6, 2006 (Talk).

45. Mair, K. and Renard, F.; "Thermal Imaging and Surface Roughness Evolution of Simulated Faults During Slip"; AGU, Fall Meeting, San Francisco, USA; December 10. - 16., 2006.

46. Marques, F.O.; Andersen, T.B.; Schmid, D.W.. Assessing flow vorticity of a major ductile shear zone using rigid inclusions: a case study from the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone in Western Norway [Poster]. EUG general assembly 2006; 02.04.2006 - 07.04.2006

47. Mattson, B.; "Structure and formation of hydrothermal vent complexes from 3D seismic interpretation and analouge modelling"; LASI-konferanse, Isle of Sky, Storbritania; March 31 - April 4, 2006 (Poster).

48. Mazzini, A.; Complex plumbing systems for authgeniccarbonates: Black Sea; UNESCO Conference, Geological Processes on Deep Water-European Margins, Moscow - Russia; January - February 2006.

49. Mazzini, A.; Sediment and fluid migration in mud volcanoes: Dahshgil - Bakhar area, Azarbaizan; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 2 - 8, 2006.

50. Mazzini, A., Nermoen, A., and Akhmanov, G.; Mud volcanoes: implications for sediment and fluid migration in active piercement structures; Oil company Lapindo Brantas Inc., East Java, Sodoarjo; September 13 - October 1, 2006.

51. Mazzini, A., Svensen, H., Planke, S., Akhmanov, G.G., Guliyev, I., Johansen, H., Fallick, T., 2006, Plumbing system dynamics of mud volcanoes (Azerbaijan), AGU, 11 15 December 2006, San Francisco, CA, USA

52. Medvedev, S.; Develpment of a mylonitic shear zone by shear heating instability: application of numerical model to natural examples of Cap de Creus, Spain; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

53. Medvedev, S.; Modelling of shear zones of Cap de Greus; EGU, Vienna, Austria; March 31 - April 9, 2006.

54. Molenaar, D; Buchanan M, de Villiers, S; Evans R M L; Band patterns in thin film suspensions. 59th APS, DFD meeting, Nov 19-21, 2006. (Talk)

55. Nermoen, A.; Piercement structures in granular media; LASI II, Isle of Sky, Storbritania; March 31 - April 4, 2006 (Poster).

56. Neumann, E.-R.; The tectonic and magmatic evolution of the Oslo Graben and associated areas.; IAVCE I, Gungzhou, Kina; May 12 - 20, 2006.

57. Nicolaisen, F.; Vent computer simulations using flow in granualr media; LASI II, Isle of Skye, UK; March 31 - April 4, 2006.

58. Nicolaisen, F.; Simulations of hydrothermal venting systems - granular flow with hudrodynamic interaction; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

59. Planke, S.; Fluid flow in volcanic basins: the Vøring and Møre basins, mid-Norwegian margin, and the Karoo Basin, South Africa; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

60. Planke, S; Mazzini, A; Svensen, H; Akhmanov, G G; Malthe-Sørenssen, A. Implications for Sediment and Fluid Migration in Active Piercement Structures. AAPG/GSTT HEDBERG CONFERENCE “Mobile Shale Basins Genesis, Evolution and Hydrocarbon Systems” June 4-7, 2006 Port of Trinidad & Tobago

61. Podladtchikov, Y. Y.; Structural versus material softening; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

62. Polteau, S.; Post-emplacement processes of saucer-shaped sills constrained by detailed fieldwork. AMS analyses and numerical modeling of the Golden Valley Sill Complex, South Africa; Portree, Isle of Mull, Scotland; March 31 - April 4, 2006 (1 day post-conference field-trip in the Isle of Mull).

63. Polteau, S; Mazzini, A; Bunger, A; Galland, O; Planke, S; Neumann E-R; Malthe-Sørenssen, A; Svensen, H; Ferre E C. (2006) Saucer morphologies of magmatic intrusions and sand injectites. EOS Trans., 87(52, Fall Meet Supp, Abstract V23D-0664.

64. Renard, F.; Transition from stick-slip to stable sliding: the crucial effect of asperities deformation; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

65. Rossi, M.; Stable isotopie evidence of multi-scale fluid flow in shear zones of the Mount Blanc Massif; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 1 - 7, 2006.

66. Rossi, M.; Experimental study of ductile deformation processes under isotopic pressure.; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 1 - 7, 2006.

67. Rossi, M.; Experimental study of ductile deformation processes under isotropic pressure; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

68. Rozhko, A.; Modeling and classification of overpressure-driven vent structures in sedimentary basins; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 2. - 7, 2006 (Poster).

69. Rozhko, A.; Modeling and classification of overpressure-driven vent structures in sedimentary basins; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

70. Rønjom, S.; Finite strain development and multi-article interaction in chear zones; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6.

71. Rønjom, S.; Bulk rheology, finite strain development, and multi particle interaction in shear zone; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 2 - 7, 2006 (Poster).

72. Røyne, A.; Spheriodal weathering of Karoo dolerite; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

73. Rüpke, L.; Rifting and Hydrocarbon Maturation in the Northern Viking Graben; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

74. Rüpke, L.; Rifting in the Viking Graben; EGU, Vienna, Austria; March 31 - April 9, 2006 (Poster).

75. Schmid, D.; Effective material properties of heterogeneous rocks; Gordon Conference, Big Sky, USA; September 1. - 10., 2006 (Poster).

76. Simon, N.; The effect of mantle petrology on lithosphere dynamics during extension; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 3 - 5, 2006.

77. Simon, N.; A strongly melt-deprived oceanic lithosphere: what does it mean for geodynamics?; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

78. Simon, N.; A strongly melt-depsired oceanic lithosphere: what does it mean for geodynamics?; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

79. Svensen, H.; Breccia pipes in the Karoo Basin: sediment-dolerite interactions and the consequences for the Toarcian greenhouse; The LASI II conference, Portree, Scotland; March 31 - April 6, 2006.

80. Svensen, H., Planke, S, Polozov, A., and Schmidbauer, N. (2006) Magma-salt interactions and degassing from the Tunguska Basin, Siberia: Towards a new killer model for the P-Tr mass extinction. Eos Trans. AGU, 87(52), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract V53A-1744

81. Tantserev, E. V.; Numerical approaches to the solution of some inverse problems in Geology; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

82. Uri, L. L.; Ërosion instabilities: from ripples to dunes"; Lille Fy auditorium, UiO; March 3, 2006.

83. Uri, L. L.; "Foams"; Lille Fy auditorium, UiO, PGP; January 31, 2006. 84. Vrijmoed, J. C.; Fluid-rock interaction (metasomatism) and ultra-high pressure

metamorphism (UHPM) of the Svartberget peridotite, Western Gneiss region, Norway; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

85. Webb, K.; Describing pockmarks in the Oslofjord and their potential as areas of marine biodiversity; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

86. Yarushina, V.; Analytical solutions and numer; modelling of nonhydrostatic conpaction and decompaction; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 2 - 7, 2006 (Poster).

87. Yarushina, V.; Modelling of non-hydrostatic compaction and decompaction; The 19th Kongsberg Seminar; May 3 - 6, 2006.

88. Yarushina, V.; Modelling of non-hydrostatic compaction and decompaction; "Fundamental and Applied problems in Mechanics" Vladivostok, Russia; September 15 - 20, 2006.

89. Yarushina, V.; "Non hydrostatic compaction and deconpaction"; Meehanies, Nijniy Noogorod, Russia; August 20. - 30, 2006.

Invited talks

1. Andersen, T. B., Austrheim, H., Mair, K., Malthe-Sørensen, A., Podladchikov, Y. Y., Simon, N., and Vrijmoed, J. C.; Ultra-mafic pseudotachylytes and the strength of the upper mantle during collision and low-temperature - high-pressure metamorphism; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 4 - 7, 2006

2. Andersen, T. B. Tectonic evolution of the Scandinavian Caledonides: an overview. Invited talk, University of Basel, Switzerland; 01.02.2006 - 01.02.2006

3. Andersen, T. B. Tectonic evolution of the Scandinavian Caledonides: An overview with special reference to continental subduction and exhumation of HP/UHP- rocks Invited talk, University of Strasbourg, France; 24.11.2006 - 24.11.2006

4. Andersen, T. B.; Austrheim, H. Seismic faulting in deep crust and lithospheric mantle; examples from the Caledonides and Alpine Corsica Invited talk, University of Freiburg, Germany; 31.01.2006 - 31.01.2006

5. Andersen, T. B.; Austrheim, H. Brittle deformation and strength in the lower crust and upper mantle during collision/subduction: the lesson from geological observations. Invited talk, University of Strasbourg, France; 24.11.2006 - 24.11.2006

6. Austrheim ,H. Partial eclogitization of granulites in the Bergen Arcs, Western Norway and geodynamic consequences. EGU 06-A-05116

7. Feder, J.; Tiltredelsesforelesning for Hans Fogedby, Nordita; University of Copenhagen, Danmark; April 26, 2006.

8. Feder, J.; Secondary Migration in 2 &3 dimensions; Workshop on Petroleum Sciences, Brasília, March 28th - 30th, 2006

9. Feder, J.; Real Space Renormalization of Two Phase-Flow; Workshop on Petroleum Sciences, Brasília, March 28th - 30th, 2006

10. Gisler, G.; Calculation of the Chicxulub impact event; International Supercomputer Conference, Dresden Germany; June 27 - July 1, 2006.

11. Gisler, G.; Chicxulub impact simulations; UiO, Astrophysicsts - Svein Rosselands hus; April 28, 2006.

12. Hartz, E. H. and Hovius, N.; Paleo-landscapes of East Greenland: Pathways and barriers for sediment transport.; Norwegian Petroleum Directorate; March 14 - 15, 2006

13. Mair, K.; Title tba; Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble, Frenca; November 2006.

14. Mair, K. and Renard, F.; 'Heat dissipation during frictional sliding on simulated faults'; EGU, Vienna, Austria; April 2 - 6, 2006 (Talk).

15. Mathiesen, J.; Visiting; Weizmann Institute, Rehovot, Israel; July 25 - August 8, 2006.

16. Mathiesen, J.; “Diffusion, Fragmentation and Merging: Rate Equations, Distributions and Critical Points”; SIMAI, Sicily, Italy; May 2006.

17. Mathiesen, J.; “New tools for analysing quasi-static and dynamical fracture ”, Statistical Physics in Mechanics,; Grasse, France; June 11 - 23, 2006.

18. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G., Nermoen, A., and ; LUSI: manifestation from Nature, East Java, Sodoarjo; Indonesian Association of Geologists. September 28, 2006.

19. Molenaar, David. Thin film flows in complex fluids. DSM Research seminar; 27.10.2006

20. Molenaar, David. Two-dimensional Navier-Stokes flows in a bounded domain . Rensellaer Polytechnical Institute, Mathematical Sciences Colloqium; 17.11.2006

21. Neumann, E.-R.; The abyssal lithosphere as indicated by xenoliths from ocean islands; EGU Conference; April 3 - 8, 2006 (Talk).

22. Polteau, S.; Post-emplacement processes in a saucer-shaped sill inferred from field observations, AMS and numerical modeling. name: Stephane Polteau; NGU, Trondhiem; September 1, 2006.

23. Renard, F., Bernard, D., Desrues, J., Plougonven, E., and Ougier-Simonin, A.; "Characterization of hydraulic fractures in limestones using X-ray microtomography"; GeoX 2006, 2nd International Workshop on X-ray mCT for Geomaterials Aussois, France; October 4 - 7, 2006.

24. Renard, F., Guen, Y. L., Hellmann, R., and Gratier, J.-P.; Ënhanced deformations of limestones in the presence of high pCO2 fluids"; AGU, San Francisco, USA; December 11-15, 2006.

25. Schmid, D. W.; "Rotation and stabilization of particles in shear zones"; Geological Department, University Tromsø; January 6, 2006.

26. Svensen, H.; Branner som geologisk prosess; Geological Society of Norway, Oslo; Nov. 2, 2006.

27. Svensen, H.; "Fremragende aften" Än evening of excellence"; Norwegian Research Council, Oslo Concert Hall; September 27, 2006.

28. Svensen, H.; Global climate changes and mass extinctions caused by intrusive volcanism?; WUN horizons in earth science systems (video conference seminar broadcasted at universities in the UK, the Netherlands, Norway and the USA)., PGP; February 8, 2006

29. Svensen, H.; Global climate changes and mass extinctions caused by intrusive volcanism?; ESOF 2006. Münich, Germany; June 17, 2006.

30. Uri, L.; "Foams"; UMB; May 5, 2006. 31. Yarushina, V.; "Nonhydrostatic compaction and decompaction of porous

materials"; Schlumberger Moscow Research Center; October 9, 2006.

In the media

TV

1. Amundsen, H.E.F. AMASE (Artic Mars Analog Svalbard Expedition) project. Breakfast TV, NRK1; August 22, 2006.

2. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. LUSI: manifestation from Nature. National-International TV- press conference, Jakarta, Indonesia, September, 25, 2006

3. Svensen, H. Katastrofe-forsker reiser jorda rundt; NRK Østfold; November 1, 2006.

4. Svensen, H. Katastrofe-forsker reiser jorda rundt; NRK1; November 2, 2006.

Radio

1. Amundsen, H.E.F. AMASE. Verdt a vite, NRK P2; February 15, 2006. 2. Amundsen, H.E.F. Saturn’s moon Enceladus, Verdt a vite, NRK P2; April 27,

2006. 3. Amundsen, H.E.F. Hvordan lete etter liv på Mars, Morgensendingen, Kanal 24,

September 29, 2006. 4. Andersen, T. Earthquakes and the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth,

Verdt a vite, NRK P2; April 18, 2006. 5. Jamtveit, B. and Meakin, P. Naturens monster, Verdt a vite spesial, NRK P2;

February 28, 2006. 6. Jamtveit, B., Storvik, K.O. and Mæhlum, E.K., The exhibition 80° is presented;

March 1, 2006. 7. Jamtveit, B. A recent drilling through the seafloor off Costa Rica, ‘Om havbunn

og dype borhull’, Verdt a vite, NRK P2; April 28, 2006. 8. Jamtveit, B. Leirvulkanisme på Java, Verdt a vite, NRK P2; October 23, 2006 9. Svensen, H. Enden er nær, Verdt å vite, NRK P2; May 4, 2006 (Interview). 10. Svensen, H. Om katastrofer og samfunn, Sånn er livet, NRK P2; May 5, 2006

(Interview). 11. Svensen, H. Enden er nær, NRK Østfold, May 15, 2006 (Interview). 12. Svensen, H. Katastrofene og oss, Før frokost, P4; May 20, 2006 (Interview). 13. Svensen, H. Hva naturkatastrofer gjør med oss, Radioselskapet, NRK P2; May,

30, 2006 (Interview). 14. Svensen, H. Katastrofer og massedød, Verdt å vite, NRK P2; September 7, 2006

(Interview). 15. Svensen, H. Gud i ekstremværet, Mellom himmel og jord, NRK P1; October 1,

2006 (Interview). 16. Svensen, H. Naturkatastrofer som tidens speil, P2-Akademiet, NRK P2,

December 30, 2006 (Lecture)

Magazines

1. Amundsen, H.E.F. Is anybody out there?, Science News No. 3; January 21, 2006.

2. Mazzini, A. Java mud volcano seems unstoppable, Nature; September, 29, 2006 (interview)

3. Mazzini. A. Javako lokatz olde geldiezina. Berria Info; October, 08, 2006 (interview)

4. Mazzini. A. Eruptions Displace Thousands in Indonesia. Der Spiegel. October, 09, 2006 (interview)

5. Mazzini. A. Mudflows inundate Indonesian villages. Geotimes, December 2006 6. Svensen, H. Når verden rystes, Vårt Land; May 30; 2006 (Book comment) 7. Svensen, H. Imponerende kunnskap, GEO Nr. 4; June 2006 (Review). 8. Svensen, H. Naturkatastrofer på tvers av landegrensene, Apollon, June 6, 2006

(Book review) 9. Svensen, H. Naturen slår tilbake, Prosa, November 1, 2006 (Book review)

Newspapers

1. Amundsen, H.E.F. Utforsker Sola og Mars på Svalbard, Dagbladet, September 20, 2006.

2. Jamtveit, B. Møtested 80 grader nord, Uni Forum; February 16, 2006. 3. Jamtveit, B. 80° Exhibition, Dagbladet; March 1, 2006. 4. Jamtveit, B. and Svensen, H. Idyll på randen av katastrofe, Aftenposten; July 31,

2006. 5. Hammer, Ø. Her er geologenes drommeomrader, Aftenposten; September 2,

2006. 6. Mazzini. A. Un «promemoria» di fango a Jakarta. Il manifesto, 28 September

2006 7. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Catastrophic mudslide could last

100 years, say scientists. The Guardian; September, 26, 2006 (interview) 8. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. European geologists say stopping

Indonesian mud flow could be impossible. Pravda; September, 25, 2006 (interview)

9. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. European geologists say stopping Indonesian mud flow could be impossible. Union Tribune; September, 25, 2006

10. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. European geologists say stopping Indonesian mud flow could be impossible. Canadian Press; September, 26, 2006

11. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Indonesia mudflow breaks barriers, injures six. Reuters Alerts; September, 26, 2006 (interview)

12. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Catastrophic mudslide could last 100 years, say scientists. Water Conserve; September, 26, 2006

13. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Indonesia to relocate 3,000 families close to mud flow on Java island. Herald Tribune; September, 27, 2006

14. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Mud nightmare ooks unstoppable. Gulf Times; September, 27, 2006

15. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Indonesian mudflow may last a century. Taipey Times; September, 27, 2006

16. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. European geologists say stopping Indonesian mud flow could be impossible. Saudi Press Agency; September, 27 2006

17. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Java faces drill flood catastrophe. The Age; September, 27, 2006

18. Mazzini, A. Muddy waters. The Economist; October, 5, 2006 (interview) 19. Simon, N. Petrobar, Aftenposten; July 14, 2006. 20. Svensen, H. Katastrofen og oss, Aftenposten; May 7, 2006 (Book review). 21. Svensen, H. Katastrofegranskeren, Fredrikstad Blad; May 7, 2006 (Interview). 22. Svensen, H. Ukens navn, Morgenbladet, May 12, 2006 (Interview). 23. Svensen, H. Enden er nær, Sunnmørsposten; May 16, 2006 (Book review). 24. Svensen, H. Naturkatastrofer, religion og klimaendringer, Dagbladet.no,

November 9, 2006 (Interview and internet meeting) 25. Svensen, H. Når naturen løper løpsk, Fredrikstad Blad, December 31, 2006

(Book review).

Online Newspapers and Magazines

1. Amundsen, H.E.F. Mars science laboratory shakedown in the high Arctic, NASA Astrobiology, September 26, 2006.

2. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Mudslide could last 100 years, say scientists, Mail and Guardian online; September, 26, 2006 (interview)

3. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. European geologists say stopping Indonesian mud flow could be impossible. CNnews; September, 25, 2006

4. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Hot mudflow 'unstoppable natural phenomenon. IOL South Africa; September, 26, 2006

5. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Mudslide could last 100 years, say scientists. Indahnesia; September, 26, 2006

6. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Mud volcano gums up Indonesian island. Globeandmail; September, 25, 2006

7. Mazzini, A. Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Indonesia to relocate 3,000 families close to mud flow on Java island. Brandon Sun; September, 25, 2006

8. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Catastrophic mudslide could last 100 years, say scientists. Buzzle; September, 25, 2006

9. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen. A. Indonesia mudflow breaks barriers, injures six. Antara News; September, 26, 2006

10. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Catastrophic mudslide could last 100 years, say scientists. Common Dreams News Center; September, 26, 2006

11. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Indonesia mud threatens environment. Mission and Justice; September, 28, 2006

12. Mazzini, A., Akhmanov, G. and Nermoen, A. Indonesia mud threatens environment. Al Jazeera; September, 29, 2006

13. Svensen, H. Katastrofene er over oss!, Forskning.no; May 11, 2006 (Interview). 14. Torsvik, T.H., Roaldseth, E., Bjørlykke, A., Gabrielsen, R.H., and Jamtveit., B.,

Tøvete om platetektonikk, Forskning.no (webjournal); September 26, 2006.

Other

1. Austrheim, H. Alexander von Humboldt Preis, October 2006. 2. Jamtveit, B., Organizer of the exhibition: ‘Møtested 80 grader nord’ at Gallery

Sverdrup, UiO; 1 March - 7 April, 2006.

Documents

Annual Report 2006 PGP - Forside · •PGP is a major partner (1 postdoc and 1 PhD student) in a new large-scale project (‘PETROBAR’) funded though the PETROMAKS program of the