Annexes - IPCC · The glossary and companion annexes were not submitted to the Panel for action, consistent with normal practice within the ... Martin de Zuviria Aeroterra S.A

An Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

The glossary and companion annexes were not submitted to the Panel for action, consistent with normal practice within the IPCC.

Climate Change 2001:Synthesis Report

A. Authors and Expert ReviewersB. Glossary of TermsC. Acronyms, Abbreviations, and UnitsD. Scientific, Technical, and Socio-Economic Questions Selected by the PanelE. List of Major IPCC Reports

Annexes

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Climate Change 2001 Synthesis Report

IPCC Third Assessment Report

Annex A. Authors and Expert Reviewers

ArgentinaDaniel Bouille Fundecion BarilocheMarcelo Cabido IMBIV, University of CordobaOsvaldo F. Canziani Co-Chair, WGIIRodolfo Carcavallo Department of EntomologyJorge O. Codignotto Laboratorio Geologia y Dinamica CosteraMartin de Zuviria Aeroterra S.A.Sandra Myrna Diaz Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biologia VegetalJorge Frangi Universidad Nacional de la PlataHector Ginzo Instituto de NeurobiologiaOsvaldo Girardin Fundacion BarilocheCarlos Labraga Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas, Centro Nactional PatagonicoGabriel Soler Fundacion Instituto Latinoamericano de Politicas Sociales (ILAPS)Walter Vargas University of Buenos Aires - IEIMAErnesto F. Viglizzo PROCISUR/INTO/CONICET

AustraliaSusan Barrell Bureau of MeteorologyBryson Bates CSIROIan Carruthers Australian Greenhouse OfficeHabiba Gitay Australian National UniversityJohn A. Church CSIRO Division of OceanographyOve Hoegh-Guldberg The University of QueenslandRoger Jones CSIRO Atmospheric ResearchBryant McAvaney Bureau of Meteorology Research CentreChris Mitchell CSIRO Atmosphere ResearchIan Noble Australian National UniversityBarrie Pittock CSIRO (Climate Impact Group)Andy Reisinger Ministry for the EnvironmentB. Soderbaum Greenhouse Policy Office, Australian Greenhouse OfficeGreg Terrill Australian Greenhouse OfficeKevin Walsh Principal Research Scientist CSIRO Atmospheric ResearchJohn Zillman Vice-Chair, WGI

AustriaRenate Christ IPCC SecretariatHelmut Hojesky Federal Ministry for EnvironmentK. Radunsky Federal Environment Agency

BangladeshQ.K. Ahmad Bangladesh Unnayan Parishad

BarbadosLeonard Nurse Coastal Zone Management Unit

BelgiumPhilippe Huybrechts Vrije Universiteit BrusselC. Vinckier Department of Chemistry, KULeuvenR. Zander University of Liege

BeninEpiphane Dotou Ahlonsou Service Météorologique NationalMichel Boko Universite de Bourgogne

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Annex A Authors and Expert Reviewers

BosniaPermanent Mission of Bosnia & Herzegovina

BotswanaPauline O. Dube University of Botswana

BrazilGylvan Meira Filho Vice-Chair, IPCCJose Roberto Moreira Biomass User Network (BUN )

CanadaBrad Bass Environment CanadaJames P. Bruce Canadian Climate Program BoardMargo Burgess Natural Resources CanadaWenjun Chen Natural Resources CanadaJing Chen University of TorontoStewart J. Cohen Environment CanadaPatti Edwards Environment CanadaDavid Etkin Environment CanadaDarren Goetze Environment CanadaJ. Peter Hall Canadian Forest ServiceH. Hengeveld Environment CanadaPamela Kertland Natural Resources CanadaAbdel Maaroud Environment CanadaJoan Masterton Environment CanadaChris McDermott Environment CanadaBrian Mills Environment CanadaLinda Mortsch Environment CanadaTad Murty Baird and Associates Coastal EngineersPaul Parker University of WaterlooJohn Robinson University of British ColumbiaHans-Holger Rogner University of VictoriaDaniel Scott Environment CanadaSharon Smith Natural Resources CanadaBarry Smit University of GuelphJohn Stone Vice-Chair, WGITana Lowen Stratton Dept. Foreign Affairs and International TradeRoger Street Environment CanadaEric Taylor Natural Resources CanadaG. Daniel Williams Environment Canada (retired)

ChileE. Basso Independent Consultant

ChinaDu Bilan China Institute for Marine Development StrategyZ. Chen China Meteorological AdministrationLiu Chunzhen Hydrological Forecasting & Water Control CenterZhou Dadi Energy Research InstituteQin Dahe China Meteorological AdministrationXiaosu Dai IPCC WGI TSULin Erda Chinese Academy of Agricultural ScienceMingshan Su Tsinghua UniversityYihui Ding Co-Chair, WGIGuangsheng Zhou Chinese Academy of SciencesZ.C. Zhao National Climate Center

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CubaRamon Pichs-Madruga Vice-Chair, WGIIIA.G. Suarez Cuban Environmental Agency

Czech RepublicJan Pretel Vice-Chair, WGII

DenmarkJesper Gundermann Danish Energy AgencyKirsten Halsnaes Riso International LaboratoryErik Rasmussen Danish Energy AgencyMartin Stendel Danish Meteorological Institute

FinlandTimothy Carter Finnish Environment InstituteP. Heikinheimo Ministry of EnvironmentRaino Heino Finnish Meteorological InstitutePekka E. Kauppi University of HelsinkiR. Korhonen VTT EnergyA. Lampinen University of JyväskylaI. Savolainen VTT Energy

FranceOlivier Boucher Universite de Lille IMarc Darras Gaz de FranceJane Ellis OECDJean-Charles Hourcade CIRED/CNRSJ.C. Morlot Environment DepartmentM. Petit Ecole Polytechnique

GambiaB.E. Gomez Department of Water ResourcesM. Njie Department of Water Resources

GermanyHeinz-Jurgen Ahlgrimm Institute for Technology & BiosystemsRosemarie Benndorf UmweltbundesamtPeter Burschel Technische Universitat MunchenUlrich Cubasch Max Planck Institut für MeteorologieU. Fuentes German Advisory Council on Global ChangeJoanna HouseMax Planck Inst. BiogeochemieJucundus Jacobeit Universitaet WuerzburgEberhard Jochem Vice-Chair, WGIIIHarald Kohl Federal Ministry of the EnvironmentPetra Mahrenholz Federal Environmental Agency of GermanyI. Colin Prentice Max Planck Institute for BiogeochemistryC. le Quéré Max Planck Institute for BiogeochemistrySarah Raper University of East AngliaFerenc Toth Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact ResearchManfred Treber GermanwatchR. Sartorius UmweltbundesamtMichael Weber Ludwig-Maximilians Universität MünchenGerd-Rainer Weber Gesamtverband des Deutschen Steinkohlenberghaus

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HungaryG. Koppany University of SzegedHalldor Thorgeirsson Ministry for the Environment

IndiaMurari Lal Indian Institute of TechnologyRajendra K. Pachauri Tata Energy Research InstituteN.H. Ravindranath Indian Institute of SciencesPriyadarshi Shukla Indian Institute of ManagementLeena Srivastava Tata Energy Research Institute

IndonesiaR.T.M. Sutamihardja Vice-Chair, WGIII

IsraelSimon Krichak Tel Aviv University

ItalyFilippo Giorgi Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP)Annarita Mariotti ENEA Climate Section

JapanKazuo Asakura Central Research Institute (CRIEPI)Noriyuki Goto University of Tokyo, KomabaMariko Handa Organization for Landscape and Urban Greenery Technology DevelopmentHideo Harasawa Social and Environmental Systems DivisionYasuo Hosoya Tokyo Electric Power CompanyY. Igarashi Ministry of Foreign AffairsTakeshi Imai The Kansai Electric Power Co., Inc.M. Inoue Ministry of Economy, Trade and IndustryHisashi Kato Central Research Institute of Electric Power IndustryNaoki Matsuo Global Industrial and Social Progress Research Institute (GISPRI)Hisayoshi Morisugi Tohoku UniversityTsuneyuki Morita National Institute for Environmental StudiesShinichi Nagata Environment AgencyS. Nakagawa Japan Meteorological AgencyYoshiaki Nishimura Central Research Institute of Electric Power IndustryIchiro Sadamori Global Industrial and Social Progress Research Institute (GISPRI)Akihiko Sasaki National Institute of Public HealthShojiro Sato Chuba Electric Power Co.A. Takeuchi Japan Meteorological AgencyKanako Tanaka Global Industrial and Social ProgressTomihiro Taniguchi Vice-Chair, IPCC

KenyaRichard S. Odingo Vice-Chair, WGIIIKingiri Senelwa Moi University

MalawiPaul Desanker University of Virginia

MexicoGustavo Albin Permanent Representative Mission of Mexico

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MoroccoAbdelkader Allali Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and FishingAbdalah Mokssit Centre National du Climat et de Recherchco Meteorologiques

NetherlandsAlphonsus P.M. Baede Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI)T.A. Buishand Royal Netherlands Meteorological InstituteW.L. Hare Greenpeace InternationalCatrinus J. Jepma University of GroningenE. Koekkoek Ministry of Housing, Spacial Planning and the EnvironmentRik Leemans National Institute of Public Health and Environmental ProtectionK. McKullen Greenpeace InternationalBert Metz Co-Chair, WGIIILeo Meyer Ministry of the EnvironmentMaresa Oosterman Ministerie van Buitenlandse ZakenM.B.A.M. Scheffers National Institute for Coastal and Marine ManagementRob Swart Head, WGIII TSUH.M. ten Brink ECNAad P. van Ulden Royal Netherlands Meteorological InstituteJ. Verbeek Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management

New ZealandJon Barnett Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, University of CanterburyVincent Gray Climate ConsultantWayne Hennessy Coal Research Association of New Zealand, Inc.Piers Maclaren NZ Forest Research InstituteMartin Manning Vice-Chair, WGIIHelen Plume Ministry for the EnvironmentA. Reisinger Ministry for the EnvironmentJ. Salinger National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd (NIWA)Ralph Sims Massey University

NigerGarba Goudou Dieudonne Office of the Prime Minister

NigeriaSani Sambo Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University

NorwayTorgrim Aspjell The Norwegian Pollution Control AuthoritiesOyvind Christophersen Ministry of EnvironmentEirik J. Forland Norwegian Meteorological InstituteS. Gornas University of BergenJarle Inge Holten Terrestrial Ecology ResearchSnorre Kverndokk Frischsenteret/Frisch CentreA. Moene The Norwegian Meteorological InstituteAudun Rossland The Norwegian Pollution Control AuthoritiesNils R. Saelthun Norwegian Water Resources and Energy AdministrationTom Segalstad University of Oslom NorwayS. Sundby Institute of Marine ResearchKristian Tangen The Fridtjof Nansen Institute

OmanMohammed bin Ali Al-Hakmani Ministry of Regional Municipalities, Environment & Water Resources

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PakistanTariq Banuri Sustainable Development Policy Institute

PeruEduardo Calvo Vice-Chair, WGIIINadia Gamboa Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru

PhillipinesLewis H. Ziska International Rice Research Institute

PolandJan Dobrowolski Goetel’s School of Environmental Protection & EngineeringZbyszek Kundzewicz Polish Academy of SciencesMiroslaw Mietus Institute of Meteorology & Water ManagementA. Olecka National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water ManagementM. Sadowski National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water ManagementWojciech Suchorzewski Warsaw University of Technology

RomaniaVasile Cuculeanu National Institute of Meteorology and HydrologyAdriana Marica National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology

RussiaYurij Anokhin Institute of Global Climate & EcologyOleg Anisimov State Hydrological InstituteIgor Bashmakov Centre for Energy Efficiency (CENEF)Igor Karol Main Geophysical ObservatoryAlla Tsyban Institute of Global Climate and EcologyYuri Izrael Vice-Chair, IPCC

SenegalAlioune Ndiaye Vice-Chair, WGII

Sierra LeoneOgunlade R. Davidson Co-chair, WGIII

Slovak RepublicMilan Lapin Comenius University

South AfricaGerrie Coetzee Department of Environmental Affairs and TourismBruce Hewitson University of CapetownSteve Lennon EskomRobert J. Scholes CSIR

SpainSergio Alonso University of the Balearic IslandsFrancisco Ayala-Carcedo Geomining Technological Institute of SpainLuis Balairon National Meteorological InstituteFelix Hernandez CSICDon Antonio Labajo Salazar Government of SpainMaria-Carmen Llasat Botija University of BarcelonaJosep Penuelas Center for Ecological Research & Forestry ApplicationsAna Yaber University, Complutense of Madrid

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Sri LankaMohan Munasinghe Vice-Chair, WGIIIB. Punyawardena Department of Agriculture

SudanNagmeldin Elhassan Higher Coucil for Environment & Natural Resources

SwedenMarianne Lillieskold Swedish Environmental Protection AgencyUlf Molau University of GothenburgNils-Axel Morner Paleogeophysics & Geodynamics Stockholm UniversityMarkku Rummukainen Swedish Meterorological and Hydrological Institute

SwitzerlandChristof Appenzeller Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology (MetroSwiss)Fortunat Joos Vice-Chair, WGIHerbert Lang Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH)José Romero Office Federal de l’Environnement, des Forets et du PaysageT. Stocker University of Bern

TanzaniaM.J. Mwandosya Centre for Energy, Environment, Science, and TechnologyBuruhani S. Nyenzi Vice-Chair, WGI

United KingdomNigel Arnell University of SouthamptonC. Baker Natural Environment Research CouncilTerry Barker University of CambridgeK. G. Begg University of SurreyS.A. Boehmer-Christiansen University of HullRichard Courtney The LibertK. Deyes Department for Environment, Food and Rural AffairsThomas E. Downing Environmental Change Institute

University of OxfordCaroline Fish Global Atmosphere DivisionChris Folland Met Office, Hadley CentreJonathan Gregory Hadley Climate Research CentreSteve Gregory Forestry CommissionDavid Griggs Head, WG-I TSUJoanna Haigh Imperial CollegeM. Harley English NatureSusan Haseldine Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA)John Houghton Co-Chair, WG-IMike Hulme University of East AngliaMichael Jefferson World Energy CouncilCathy Johnson IPCC, Working Group ISari Kovats London School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineDavid Mansell-Moullin International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA)Anil Markandya University of BathA. McCulloch ICI Chemicals & Polymers LimitedGordon McFadyen Global Atmospheric Division Deparment of the Environment, Transport and the RegionsA.J. McMichael London School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineAubrey Meyer Global Commons InstituteJohn Mitchell Hadley CenterMartin Parry Jackson Environment Institute

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J.M. Penman Department of the Environment, Transport and the RegionsS. Raper University of East AngliaKeith Shine Department of Meteorology, University of ReadingP. Singleton Scottish Environment Protection AgencyPeter Smith IACR-RothamstedP. Smithson University of SheffieldPeter Thorne School of Environmental Sciences, University of East AngliaP. van der Linden Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and ResearchDavid Warrilow Department of the Environment, Food and Rural AffairsPhilip L. Woodworth Bidston Observatory

United StatesDilip Ahuja National Institute of Advanced StudiesDan Albritton NOAA Aeronomy LaboratoryJeffrey S. Amthor Oak Ridge National LaboratoryPeter Backlund Office of Science and Technology Policy/Environment DivisionLee Beck U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyLeonard Bernstein IPIECADaniel Bodansky U.S. Department of StateRick Bradley US Department of EnergyJames L. Buizer National Oceanic & Amtospheric AdministrationJohn Christy University of AlabamaSusan Conard Office of Science and Technology Policy/Environment DivisionCurt Covey Lawrence Livermore National LaboratoryBenjamin DeAngelo U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyRobert Dickinson University of ArizonaDavid Dokken University Corporation for Atmospheric ResearchRayola Dougher American Petroleum InstituteWilliam Easterling Pennsylvania State UniversityJerry Elwood Department of EnegryPaul R. Epstein Harvard Medical SchoolPaul D. Farrar Naval Oceanographic OfficeHoward Feldman American Petroleum InstituteJosh Foster NOAA Office of Global ProgramsLaurie Geller National Research CouncilMichael Ghil University of California, Los AngelesVivien Gornitz Columbia UniversityKenneth Green Reason Public Policy InstituteDavid Harrison National Economic Research AssociatesDavid D. Houghton University of Wisconsin-MadisonMalcolm Hughes University of ArizonaStanley Jacobs Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia UniversityHenry D. Jacoby Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyJudson Jaffe Council of Economic AdvisersSteven M. Japar Ford Motor CompanyRussell O. Jones American Petroleum InstituteSally Kane NOAAT. Karl NOAA National Climatic Data CenterCharles Keller IGPP.SIO.UCSDHaroon Kheshgi Exxon Research & Engineering CompanyAnn Kinzig Arizona State UniversityMaureen T. Koetz Nuclear Energy InstituteRattan Lal Ohio State UniverstiyChris Landsea NOAA AOML/Hurricane Research DivisionNeil Leary Head, WGII TSU

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Sven B. Lundstedt The Ohio State UniversityAnthony Lupo University of Missouri - ColumbiaMichael C. MacCracken U.S. Global Change Research ProgramJames J. McCarthy Co-Chair, WGIIGerald Meehl NCARRobert Mendelsohn Yale UniversityPatrick Michaels University of VirginiaEvan Mills Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryWilliam Moomaw The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts UniversityBerrien Moore University of New HampshireJames Morison University of WashingtonJennifer Orme-Zavaleta USEP/NHEERL/WEDCamille Parmesan University of TexasJ.A. Patz Johns Hopkins UniversityJoyce Penner University of MichiganRoger A. Pielke Colorado State UniversityMichael Prather University of California IrvineLynn K. Price Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryV. Ramaswamy NOAARobert L. Randall The RainForest ReGeneration InstituteRichard Richels Electric Power Research InstituteDavid Rind National Aeronautics and Space AgencyCatriona Rogers U.S. Global Change Research ProgramMatthias Ruth University of MarylandJayant Sathaye Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryMichael Schlesinger University of Illinois-Urbana-ChampaignStephen Schneider Stanford UniversityMichael J. Scott Battelle Pacific Northwest Nat’l LaboratoryRoger Sedjo Resources for the FutureWalter Short National Renewable Energy LaboratoryJoel B. Smith Stratus Consulting Inc.Robert N. Stavins John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard UniversityRon Stouffer US Dept of Commerce/NOAAT. Talley Office of Global Change, U.S. Department of StateKevin Trenberth NCAREdward Vine Lawrence Berkeley National LaboratoryHenry Walker U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyRobert Watson Chair, IPCCHoward Wesoky Federal Aviation AdministrationJohn P. Weyant Energy Modeling Forum, Stanford UniversityTom Wilbanks Oak Ridge National Laboratory

VenezuelaArmando Ramirez Rojas Vice-Chair, WGI

ZimbabweChris Magadza University of ZimbabweM.C. Zinyowera MSU Zimbabwe Gvt

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Annex B Glossary of Terms

Annex B. Glossary of Terms

This Glossary is based on the glossaries published in the IPCCThird Assessment Report (IPCC, 2001a,b,c); however, additionalwork has been undertaken on consistency and refinement ofsome of the terms. The terms that are independent entries inthis glossary are highlighted in italics.

AcclimatizationThe physiological adaptation to climatic variations.

Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ)The pilot phase for Joint Implementation, as defined in Article4.2(a) of the United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change, that allows for project activity amongdeveloped countries (and their companies) and betweendeveloped and developing countries (and their companies).AIJ is intended to allow Parties to the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change to gain experiencein jointly implemented project activities. There is no creditingfor AIJ activity during the pilot phase. A decision remains tobe taken on the future of AIJ projects and how they may relateto the Kyoto Mechanisms. As a simple form of tradable permits,AIJ and other market-based schemes represent importantpotential mechanisms for stimulating additional resource flowsfor the global environmental good. See also CleanDevelopment Mechanism and emissions trading.

AdaptabilitySee Adaptive capacity.

AdaptationAdjustment in natural or human systems to a new or changingenvironment. Adaptation to climate change refers toadjustment in natural or human systems in response to actualor expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderatesharm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Various types ofadaptation can be distinguished, including anticipatory andreactive adaptation, private and public adaptation, andautonomous and planned adaptation.

Adaptation assessmentThe practice of identifying options to adapt to climate changeand evaluating them in terms of criteria such as availability,benefits, costs, effectiveness, efficiency, and feasibility.

Adaptation benefitsThe avoided damage costs or the accrued benefits followingthe adoption and implementation of adaptation measures.

Adaptation costsCosts of planning, preparing for, facilitating, and implementingadaptation measures, including transition costs.

Adaptive capacityThe ability of a system to adjust to climate change (including climatevariability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to takeadvantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences.

AdditionalityReduction in emissions by sources or enhancement of removalsby sinks that is additional to any that would occur in the absenceof a Joint Implementation or a Clean Development Mechanismproject activity as defined in the Kyoto Protocol Articles on JointImplementation and the Clean Development Mechanism. Thisdefinition may be further broadened to include financial,investment, and technology additionality. Under “financialadditionality,” the project activity funding shall be additionalto existing Global Environmental Facility, other financialcommitments of Parties included in Annex I, OfficialDevelopment Assistance, and other systems of cooperation.Under “investment additionality,” the value of the EmissionsReduction Unit/Certified Emission Reduction Unit shallsignificantly improve the financial and/or commercial viabilityof the project activity. Under “technology additionality,” thetechnology used for the project activity shall be the bestavailable for the circumstances of the host Party.

Adjustment timeSee Lifetime; see also Response time.

AerosolsA collection of airborne solid or liquid particles, with a typicalsize between 0.01 and 10 mm that reside in the atmospherefor at least several hours. Aerosols may be of either natural oranthropogenic origin. Aerosols may influence climate in twoways: directly through scattering and absorbing radiation, andindirectly through acting as condensation nuclei for cloudformation or modifying the optical properties and lifetime ofclouds. See indirect aerosol effect.

AfforestationPlanting of new forests on lands that historically have notcontained forests. For a discussion of the term forest and relatedterms such as afforestation, reforestation, and deforestation,see the IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change,and Forestry (IPCC, 2000b).

Aggregate impactsTotal impacts summed up across sectors and/or regions. Theaggregation of impacts requires knowledge of (or assumptionsabout) the relative importance of impacts in different sectors andregions. Measures of aggregate impacts include, for example, thetotal number of people affected, change in net primary productivity,number of systems undergoing change, or total economic costs.

AlbedoThe fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or object,often expressed as a percentage. Snow covered surfaces have

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a high albedo; the albedo of soils ranges from high to low;vegetation covered surfaces and oceans have a low albedo.The Earth’s albedo varies mainly through varying cloudiness,snow, ice, leaf area, and land cover changes.

Algal bloomsA reproductive explosion of algae in a lake, river, or ocean.

AlpineThe biogeographic zone made up of slopes above timberlineand characterized by the presence of rosette-formingherbaceous plants and low shrubby slow-growing woodyplants.

Alternative development pathsRefer to a variety of possible scenarios for societal valuesand consumption and production patterns in all countries,including, but not limited to, a continuation of today’s trends.In this report, these paths do not include additional climateinitiatives which means that no scenarios are included thatexplicitly assume implementation of the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change or the emissiontargets of the Kyoto Protocol, but do include assumptions aboutother policies that influence greenhouse gas emissionsindirectly.

Alternative energyEnergy derived from non-fossil-fuel sources.

Ancillary benefitsThe ancillary, or side effects, of policies aimed exclusively atclimate change mitigation. Such policies have an impact notonly on greenhouse gas emissions, but also on resource useefficiency, like reduction in emissions of local and regionalair pollutants associated with fossil-fuel use, and on issuessuch as transportation, agriculture, land-use practices,employment, and fuel security. Sometimes these benefits arereferred to as “ancillary impacts” to reflect that in some casesthe benefits may be negative. From the perspective of policiesdirected at abating local air pollution, greenhouse gasmitigation may also be considered an ancillary benefit, butthese relationships are not considered in this assessment.

Annex I countries/PartiesGroup of countries included in Annex I (as amended in 1998)to the United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange, including all the developed countries in theOrganisation for Economic Cooperation and Development,and economies in transition. By default, the other countriesare referred to as non-Annex I countries. Under Articles 4.2(a)and 4.2(b) of the Convention, Annex I countries committhemselves specifically to the aim of returning individually orjointly to their 1990 levels of greenhouse gas emissions bythe year 2000. See also Annex II, Annex B, and non-Annex Bcountries.

Annex II countriesGroup of countries included in Annex II to the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change, including alldeveloped countries in the Organisation for EconomicCooperation and Development. Under Article 4.2(g) of theConvention, these countries are expected to provide financialresources to assist developing countries to comply with theirobligations, such as preparing national reports. Annex IIcountries are also expected to promote the transfer ofenvironmentally sound technologies to developing countries.See also Annex I, Annex B, non-Annex I, and non-Annex Bcountries/Parties.

Annex B countries/PartiesGroup of countries included in Annex B in the Kyoto Protocolthat have agreed to a target for their greenhouse gas emissions,including all the Annex I countries (as amended in 1998) butTurkey and Belarus. See also Annex II, non-Annex I, and non-Annex B countries/Parties.

AnthropogenicResulting from or produced by human beings.

Anthropogenic emissionsEmissions of greenhouse gases, greenhouse gas precursors,and aerosols associated with human activities. These includeburning of fossil fuels for energy, deforestation, and land-usechanges that result in net increase in emissions.

AquacultureBreeding and rearing fish, shellfish, etc., or growing plantsfor food in special ponds.

AquiferA stratum of permeable rock that bears water. An unconfinedaquifer is recharged directly by local rainfall, rivers, and lakes,and the rate of recharge will be influenced by the permeabilityof the overlying rocks and soils. A confined aquifer ischaracterized by an overlying bed that is impermeable andthe local rainfall does not influence the aquifer.

Arid regionsEcosystems with less than 250 mm precipitation per year.

Assigned amounts (AAs)Under the Kyoto Protocol, the total amount of greenhousegas emissions that each Annex B country has agreed that itsemissions will not exceed in the first commitment period (2008to 2012) is the assigned amount. This is calculated bymultiplying the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions in1990 by five (for the 5-year commitment period) and then bythe percentage it agreed to as listed in Annex B of the KyotoProtocol (e.g., 92% for the European Union, 93% for the USA).

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Assigned amount unit (AAU)Equal to 1 tonne (metric ton) of CO2-equivalent emissionscalculated using the Global Warming Potential.

AtmosphereThe gaseous envelop surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphereconsists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume mixingratio) and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together witha number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93% volume mixingratio), helium, and radiatively active greenhouse gases suchas carbon dioxide (0.035% volume mixing ratio) and ozone.In addition, the atmosphere contains water vapor, whoseamount is highly variable but typically 1% volume mixingratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds and aerosols.

AttributionSee detection and attribution.

BankingAccording to the Kyoto Protocol [Article 3(13)], Partiesincluded in Annex I to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change may save excess emissionsallowances or credits from the first commitment period foruse in subsequent commitment periods (post-2012).

BarrierA barrier is any obstacle to reaching a potential that can beovercome by a policy, program, or measure.

BaselineThe baseline (or reference) is any datum against which changeis measured. It might be a “current baseline,” in which case itrepresents observable, present-day conditions. It might alsobe a “future baseline,” which is a projected future set ofconditions excluding the driving factor of interest. Alternativeinterpretations of the reference conditions can give rise tomultiple baselines.

BasinThe drainage area of a stream, river, or lake.

BiodiversityThe numbers and relative abundances of different genes(genetic diversity), species, and ecosystems (communities) ina particular area.

BiofuelA fuel produced from dry organic matter or combustible oilsproduced by plants. Examples of biofuel include alcohol (fromfermented sugar), black liquor from the paper manufacturingprocess, wood, and soybean oil.

BiomassThe total mass of living organisms in a given area or volume;recently dead plant material is often included as dead biomass.

BiomeA grouping of similar plant and animal communities into broadlandscape units that occur under similar environmentalconditions.

Biosphere (terrestrial and marine)The part of the Earth system comprising all ecosystems andliving organisms in the atmosphere, on land (terrestrialbiosphere), or in the oceans (marine biosphere), includingderived dead organic matter such as litter, soil organic matter,and oceanic detritus.

BiotaAll living organisms of an area; the flora and fauna consideredas a unit.

Black carbonOperationally defined species based on measurement of lightabsorption and chemical reactivity and/or thermal stability;consists of soot, charcoal, and/or possible light-absorbingrefractory organic matter (Charlson and Heintzenberg, 1995).

BogA poorly drained area rich in accumulated plant material,frequently surrounding a body of open water and having acharacteristic flora (such as sedges, heaths, and sphagnum).

Boreal forestForests of pine, spruce, fir, and larch stretching from the eastcoast of Canada westward to Alaska and continuing fromSiberia westward across the entire extent of Russia to theEuropean Plain.

Bottom-up modelsA modeling approach that includes technological andengineering details in the analysis. See also top-down models.

BurdenThe total mass of a gaseous substance of concern in theatmosphere.

Capacity buildingIn the context of climate change, capacity building is a processof developing the technical skills and institutional capabilityin developing countries and economies in transition to enablethem to participate in all aspects of adaptation to, mitigationof, and research on climate change, and the implementationof the Kyoto Mechanisms, etc.

Carbonaceous aerosolAerosol consisting predominantly of organic substances andvarious forms of black carbon (Charlson and Heintzenberg,1995).

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Carbon cycleThe term used to describe the flow of carbon (in various formssuch as as carbon dioxide) through the atmosphere, ocean,terrestrial biosphere, and lithosphere.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)A naturally occurring gas, and also a by-product of burningfossil fuels and biomass, as well as land-use changes and otherindustrial processes. It is the principal anthropogenicgreenhouse gas that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. Itis the reference gas against which other greenhouse gases aremeasured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential of 1.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilizationThe enhancement of the growth of plants as a result of increasedatmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. Depending on theirmechanism of photosynthesis, certain types of plants are moresensitive to changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration.In particular, plants that produce a three-carbon compound (C3)during photosynthesis—including most trees and agriculturalcrops such as rice, wheat, soybeans, potatoes, and vegetables—generally show a larger response than plants that produce afour-carbon compound (C4) during photosynthesis—mainlyof tropical origin, including grasses and the agriculturallyimportant crops maize, sugar cane, millet, and sorghum.

Carbon leakageSee leakage.

Carbon taxesSee emissions tax.

CatchmentAn area that collects and drains rainwater.

Certified Emission Reduction (CER) UnitEqual to 1 tonne (metric ton) of CO2-equivalent emissionsreduced or sequestered through a Clean DevelopmentMechanism project, calculated using Global WarmingPotentials. See also Emissions Reduction Unit.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)Greenhouse gases covered under the 1987 Montreal Protocoland used for refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging,insulation, solvents, or aerosol propellants. Since they are notdestroyed in the lower atmosphere, CFCs drift into the upperatmosphere where, given suitable conditions, they break downozone. These gases are being replaced by other compounds,including hydrochlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons,which are greenhouse gases covered under the Kyoto Protocol.

CholeraAn intestinal infection that results in frequent watery stools,cramping abdominal pain, and eventual collapse from dehydration.

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)Defined in Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, the CleanDevelopment Mechanism is intended to meet two objectives:(1) to assist Parties not included in Annex I in achievingsustainable development and in contributing to the ultimateobjective of the convention; and (2) to assist Parties includedin Annex I in achieving compliance with their quantifiedemission limitation and reduction commitments. CertifiedEmission Reduction Units from Clean DevelopmentMechanism projects undertaken in non-Annex I countries thatlimit or reduce greenhouse gas emissions, when certified byoperational entities designated by Conference of the Parties/Meeting of the Parties, can be accrued to the investor(government or industry) from Parties in Annex B. A share ofthe proceeds from the certified project activities is used tocover administrative expenses as well as to assist developingcountry Parties that are particularly vulnerable to the adverseeffects of climate change to meet the costs of adaptation.

ClimateClimate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the “averageweather” or more rigorously as the statistical description interms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over aperiod of time ranging from months to thousands or millionsof years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by theWorld Meteorological Organization (WMO). These relevantquantities are most often surface variables such as temperature,precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state,including a statistical description, of the climate system.

Climate changeClimate change refers to a statistically significant variation ineither the mean state of the climate or in its variability,persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer).Climate change may be due to natural internal processes orexternal forcings, or to persistent anthropogenic changes inthe composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note thatthe United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defines “climate change”as: “a change of climate which is attributed directly orindirectly to human activity that alters the composition of theglobal atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climatevariability observed over comparable time periods.” TheUNFCCC thus makes a distinction between “climate change”attributable to human activities altering the atmosphericcomposition, and “climate variability” attributable to naturalcauses. See also climate variability.

Climate feedbackAn interaction mechanism between processes in the climatesystem is called a climate feedback, when the result of an initialprocess triggers changes in a second process that in turninfluences the initial one. A positive feedback intensifies theoriginal process, and a negative feedback reduces it.

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Climate model (hierarchy)A numerical representation of the climate system based on thephysical, chemical, and biological properties of its components,their interactions and feedback processes, and accounting forall or some of its known properties. The climate system can berepresented by models of varying complexity—that is, for anyone component or combination of components a “hierarchy”of models can be identified, differing in such aspects as thenumber of spatial dimensions, the extent to which physical,chemical or biological processes are explicitly represented,or the level at which empirical parametrizations are involved.Coupled atmosphere/ocean/sea-ice general circulation models(AOGCMs) provide a comprehensive representation of theclimate system. There is an evolution towards more complexmodels with active chemistry and biology. Climate modelsare applied, as a research tool, to study and simulate theclimate, but also for operational purposes, including monthly,seasonal, and interannual climate predictions.

Climate predictionA climate prediction or climate forecast is the result of anattempt to produce a most likely description or estimate of theactual evolution of the climate in the future (e.g., at seasonal,interannual, or long-term time-scales). See also climateprojection and climate (change) scenario.

Climate projectionA projection of the response of the climate system to emission orconcentration scenarios of greenhouse gases and aerosols, orradiative forcing scenarios, often based upon simulations byclimate models. Climate projections are distinguished from climatepredictions in order to emphasize that climate projections dependupon the emission/concentration/radiative forcing scenario used,which are based on assumptions, concerning, for example, futuresocio-economic and technological developments that may or maynot be realized, and are therefore subject to substantial uncertainty.

Climate scenarioA plausible and often simplified representation of the futureclimate, based on an internally consistent set of climatologicalrelationships, that has been constructed for explicit use ininvestigating the potential consequences of anthropogenicclimate change, often serving as input to impact models.Climate projections often serve as the raw material forconstructing climate scenarios, but climate scenarios usuallyrequire additional information such as about the observedcurrent climate. A “climate change scenario” is the differencebetween a climate scenario and the current climate.

Climate sensitivityIn IPCC assessments, “equilibrium climate sensitivity” refersto the equilibrium change in global mean surface temperaturefollowing a doubling of the atmospheric (equivalent) CO2

concentration. More generally, equilibrium climate sensitivityrefers to the equilibrium change in surface air temperature

following a unit change in radiative forcing (°C/Wm-2). Inpractice, the evaluation of the equilibrium climate sensitivityrequires very long simulations with coupled general circulationmodels. The “effective climate sensitivity” is a related measurethat circumvents this requirement. It is evaluated from modeloutput for evolving non-equilibrium conditions. It is a measureof the strengths of the feedbacks at a particular time and mayvary with forcing history and climate state. See climate model.

Climate systemThe climate system is the highly complex system consistingof five major components: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere,the cryosphere, the land surface and the biosphere, and theinteractions between them. The climate system evolves in timeunder the influence of its own internal dynamics and becauseof external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations,and human-induced forcings such as the changing compositionof the atmosphere and land-use change.

Climate variabilityClimate variability refers to variations in the mean state and otherstatistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes,etc.) of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales beyondthat of individual weather events. Variability may be due tonatural internal processes within the climate system (internalvariability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenicexternal forcing (external variability). See also climate change.

CO2-equivalentSee equivalent CO2.

CO2 fertilizationSee carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilization.

Co-benefitsThe benefits of policies that are implemented for various reasonsat the same time—including climate change mitigation—acknowledging that most policies designed to addressgreenhouse gas mitigation also have other, often at leastequally important, rationales (e.g., related to objectives ofdevelopment, sustainability, and equity). The term co-impactis also used in a more generic sense to cover both the positiveand negative sides of the benefits. See also ancillary benefits.

Co-generationThe use of waste heat from electric generation, such as exhaustfrom gas turbines, for either industrial purposes or district heating.

ComplianceSee implementation.

Conference of the Parties (COP)The supreme body of the United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change (UNFCCC), comprising countries that haveratified or acceded to the UNFCCC. The first session of the

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Conference of the Parties (COP-1) was held in Berlin in 1995,followed by COP-2 in Geneva 1996, COP-3 in Kyoto 1997,COP-4 in Buenos Aires 1998, COP-5 in Bonn 1999, COP-6Part 1 in The Hague 2000, and COP-6 Part 2 in Bonn 2001.COP-7 is scheduled for November 2001 in Marrakech. Seealso Meeting of the Parties (MOP).

Cooling degree daysThe integral over a day of the temperature above 18°C (e.g., aday with an average temperature of 20°C counts as 2 coolingdegree days). See also heating degree days.

Coping rangeThe variation in climatic stimuli that a system can absorbwithout producing significant impacts.

Coral bleachingThe paling in color of corals resulting from a loss of symbioticalgae. Bleaching occurs in response to physiological shock inresponse to abrupt changes in temperature, salinity, and turbidity.

Cost-effectiveA criterion that specifies that a technology or measure deliversa good or service at equal or lower cost than current practice, orthe least-cost alternative for the achievement of a given target.

CryosphereThe component of the climate system consisting of all snow,ice, and permafrost on and beneath the surface of the earthand ocean. See also glacier and ice sheet.

Deepwater formationOccurs when seawater freezes to form sea ice. The local releaseof salt and consequent increase in water density leads to theformation of saline coldwater that sinks to the ocean floor.

DeforestationConversion of forest to non-forest. For a discussion of theterm forest and related terms such as afforestation,reforestation, and deforestation, see the IPCC Special Reporton Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (IPCC, 2000b).

Demand-side managementPolicies and programs designed for a specific purpose toinfluence consumer demand for goods and/or services. In theenergy sector, for instance, it refers to policies and programsdesigned to reduce consumer demand for electricity and otherenergy sources. It helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Dengue FeverAn infectious viral disease spread by mosquitoes often calledbreakbone fever because it is characterized by severe pain injoints and back. Subsequent infections of the virus may leadto dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shocksyndrome (DSS), which may be fatal.

Deposit–refund systemCombines a deposit or fee (tax) on a commodity with a refundor rebate (subsidy) for implementation of a specified action.Se also emissions tax.

DesertAn ecosystem with less than 100 mm precipitation per year.

DesertificationLand degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areasresulting from various factors, including climatic variationsand human activities. Further, the United Nations Conventionto Combat Desertification defines land degradation as areduction or loss in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areasof the biological or economic productivity and complexity ofrain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest,and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process orcombination of processes, including processes arising fromhuman activities and habitation patterns, such as: (i) soilerosion caused by wind and/or water; (ii) deterioration of thephysical, chemical, and biological or economic properties ofsoil; and (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation.

Detection and attributionClimate varies continually on all time scales. Detection of climatechange is the process of demonstrating that climate haschanged in some defined statistical sense, without providinga reason for that change. Attribution of causes of climatechange is the process of establishing the most likely causesfor the detected change with some defined level of confidence.

Disturbance regimeFrequency, intensity, and types of disturbances, such as fires,inspect or pest outbreaks, floods, and droughts.

Diurnal temperature rangeThe difference between the maximum and minimumtemperature during a day.

Double dividendThe effect that revenue-generating instruments, such as carbontaxes or auctioned (tradable) carbon emission permits, can (i)limit or reduce greenhouse gas emissions and (ii) offset atleast part of the potential welfare losses of climate policiesthrough recycling the revenue in the economy to reduce othertaxes likely to be distortionary. In a world with involuntaryunemployment, the climate change policy adopted may have aneffect (a positive or negative “third dividend”) on employment.Weak double dividend occurs as long as there is a revenuerecycling effect—that is, as long as revenues are recycledthrough reductions in the marginal rates of distortionary taxes.Strong double dividend requires that the (beneficial) revenuerecycling effect more than offset the combination of theprimary cost and, in this case, the net cost of abatement isnegative.

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DroughtThe phenomenon that exists when precipitation has beensignificantly below normal recorded levels, causing serioushydrological imbalances that adversely affect land resourceproduction systems.

Economic potentialEconomic potential is the portion of technological potentialfor greenhouse gas emissions reductions or energy efficiencyimprovements that could be achieved cost-effectively throughthe creation of markets, reduction of market failures, or increasedfinancial and technological transfers. The achievement ofeconomic potential requires additional policies and measuresto break down market barriers. See also market potential,socio-economic potential, and technological potential.

Economies in transition (EITs)Countries with national economies in the process of changingfrom a planned economic system to a market economy.

EcosystemA system of interacting living organisms together with theirphysical environment. The boundaries of what could be calledan ecosystem are somewhat arbitrary, depending on the focusof interest or study. Thus, the extent of an ecosystem may rangefrom very small spatial scales to, ultimately, the entire Earth.

Ecosystem servicesEcological processes or functions that have value to individualsor society.

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)El Niño, in its original sense, is a warmwater current that periodicallyflows along the coast of Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the localfishery. This oceanic event is associated with a fluctuation of theintertropical surface pressure pattern and circulation in the Indianand Pacific Oceans, called the Southern Oscillation. This coupledatmosphere-ocean phenomenon is collectively known as El NiñoSouthern Oscillation, or ENSO. During an El Niño event, theprevailing trade winds weaken and the equatorial countercurrentstrengthens, causing warm surface waters in the Indonesian areato flow eastward to overlie the cold waters of the Peru current.This event has great impact on the wind, sea surface temperature,and precipitation patterns in the tropical Pacific. It has climaticeffects throughout the Pacific region and in many other parts ofthe world. The opposite of an El Niño event is called La Niña.

EmissionsIn the climate change context, emissions refer to the releaseof greenhouse gases and/or their precursors and aerosols intothe atmosphere over a specified area and period of time.

Emissions permitAn emissions permit is the non-transferable or tradableallocation of entitlements by an administrative authority

(intergovernmental organization, central or local governmentagency) to a regional (country, sub-national) or a sectoral (anindividual firm) entity to emit a specified amount of a substance.

Emissions quotaThe portion or share of total allowable emissions assigned to acountry or group of countries within a framework of maximumtotal emissions and mandatory allocations of resources.

Emissions Reduction Unit (ERU)Equal to 1 tonne (metric ton) of carbon dioxide emissionsreduced or sequestered arising from a Joint Implementation(defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol) project calculatedusing Global Warming Potential. See also Certified EmissionReduction Unit and emissions trading.

Emissions taxLevy imposed by a government on each unit of CO2-equivalentemissions by a source subject to the tax. Since virtually all ofthe carbon in fossil fuels is ultimately emitted as carbon dioxide,a levy on the carbon content of fossil fuels—a carbon tax—isequivalent to an emissions tax for emissions caused by fossil-fuel combustion. An energy tax—a levy on the energy contentof fuels—reduces demand for energy and so reduces carbondioxide emissions from fossil-fuel use. An ecotax is designatedfor the purpose of influencing human behavior (specificallyeconomic behavior) to follow an ecologically benign path.International emissions/carbon/energy tax is a tax imposed onspecified sources in participating countries by an internationalagency. The revenue is distributed or used as specified byparticipating countries or the international agency.

Emissions tradingA market-based approach to achieving environmental objectivesthat allows, those reducing greenhouse gas emissions belowwhat is required, to use or trade the excess reductions to offsetemissions at another source inside or outside the country. Ingeneral, trading can occur at the intracompany, domestic, andinternational levels. The IPCC Second Assessment Reportadopted the convention of using “permits” for domestic tradingsystems and “quotas” for international trading systems. Emissionstrading under Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol is a tradablequota system based on the assigned amounts calculated fromthe emission reduction and limitation commitments listed inAnnex B of the Protocol. See also Certified Emission ReductionUnit and Clean Development Mechanism.

Emissions scenarioA plausible representation of the future development ofemissions of substances that are potentially radiatively active(e.g., greenhouse gases, aerosols), based on a coherent andinternally consistent set of assumptions about driving forces(such as demographic and socio-economic development,technological change) and their key relationships. Concentrationscenarios, derived from emissions scenarios, are used as input

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into a climate model to compute climate projections. In IPCC(1992), a set of emissions scenarios were used as a basis forthe climate projections in IPCC (1996). These emissionsscenarios are referred to as the IS92 scenarios. In the IPCCSpecial Report on Emissions Scenarios (Nakicenovic et al.,2000), new emissions scenarios—the so-called SRESscenarios—were published. For the meaning of some termsrelated to these scenarios, see SRES scenarios.

EndemicRestricted or peculiar to a locality or region. With regard to humanhealth, endemic can refer to a disease or agent present or usuallyprevalent in a population or geographical area at all times.

Energy balanceAveraged over the globe and over longer time periods, theenergy budget of the climate system must be in balance.Because the climate system derives all its energy from theSun, this balance implies that, globally, the amount of incomingsolar radiation must on average be equal to the sum of theoutgoing reflected solar radiation and the outgoing infraredradiation emitted by the climate system. A perturbation ofthis global radiation balance, be it human-induced or natural,is called radiative forcing.

Energy conversionSee energy transformation.

Energy efficiencyRatio of energy output of a conversion process or of a systemto its energy input.

Energy intensityEnergy intensity is the ratio of energy consumption to economicor physical output. At the national level, energy intensity is theratio of total domestic primary energy consumption or final energyconsumption to Gross Domestic Product or physical output.

Energy serviceThe application of useful energy to tasks desired by theconsumer such as transportation, a warm room, or light.

Energy taxSee emissions tax.

Energy transformationThe change from one form of energy, such as the energyembodied in fossil fuels, to another, such as electricity.

Environmentally Sound Technologies (ESTs)Technologies that protect the environment, are less polluting,use all resources in a more sustainable manner, recycle moreof their wastes and products, and handle residual wastes in amore acceptable manner than the technologies for which theywere substitutes and are compatible with nationally determined

socio-economic, cultural, and environmental priorities. ESTsin this report imply mitigation and adaptation technologies, hardand soft technologies.

EpidemicOccurring suddenly in numbers clearly in excess of normalexpectancy, said especially of infectious diseases but applied alsoto any disease, injury, or other health-related event occurring insuch outbreaks.

Equilibrium and transient climate experimentAn “equilibrium climate experiment” is an experiment in whicha climate model is allowed to fully adjust to a change in radiativeforcing. Such experiments provide information on the differencebetween the initial and final states of the model, but not on thetime-dependent response. If the forcing is allowed to evolvegradually according to a prescribed emission scenario, the time-dependent response of a climate model may be analyzed. Suchan experiment is called a “transient climate experiment.” Seealso climate projection.

Equivalent CO2 (carbon dioxide)The concentration of carbon dioxide that would cause the sameamount of radiative forcing as a given mixture of carbon dioxideand other greenhouse gases.

ErosionThe process of removal and transport of soil and rock byweathering, mass wasting, and the action of streams, glaciers,waves, winds, and underground water.

Eustatic sea-level changeA change in global average sea level brought about by analteration to the volume of the world ocean. This may be causedby changes in water density or in the total mass of water. Indiscussions of changes on geological time scales, this termsometimes also includes changes in global average sea levelcaused by an alteration to the shape of the ocean basins. In thisreport, the term is not used in that sense.

EutrophicationThe process by which a body of water (often shallow) becomes(either naturally or by pollution) rich in dissolved nutrients witha seasonal deficiency in dissolved oxygen.

EvaporationThe process by which a liquid becomes a gas.

EvapotranspirationThe combined process of evaporation from the Earth’s surfaceand transpiration from vegetation.

Exotic speciesSee introduced species.

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ExposureThe nature and degree to which a system is exposed tosignificant climatic variations.

ExternalitySee external cost.

External costUsed to define the costs arising from any human activity, whenthe agent responsible for the activity does not take full accountof the impacts on others of his or her actions. Equally, whenthe impacts are positive and not accounted for in the actionsof the agent responsible they are referred to as external benefits.Emissions of particulate pollution from a power station affectthe health of people in the vicinity, but this is not oftenconsidered, or is given inadequate weight, in private decisionmaking and there is no market for such impacts. Such aphenomenon is referred to as an “externality,” and the costs itimposes are referred to as the external costs.

External forcingSee climate system.

ExtinctionThe complete disappearance of an entire species.

ExtirpationThe disappearance of a species from part of its range; localextinction.

Extreme weather eventAn extreme weather event is an event that is rare within itsstatistical reference distribution at a particular place.Definitions of “rare” vary, but an extreme weather event wouldnormally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile.By definition, the characteristics of what is called extremeweather may vary from place to place. An extreme climateevent is an average of a number of weather events over a certainperiod of time, an average which is itself extreme (e.g., rainfallover a season).

FeedbackSee climate feedback.

FiberWood, fuelwood (either woody or non-woody).

Final energyEnergy supplied that is available to the consumer to be convertedinto usable energy (e.g., electricity at the wall outlet).

Flexibility mechanismsSee Kyoto Mechanisms.

Flux adjustmentTo avoid the problem of coupled atmosphere-ocean generalcirculation models drifting into some unrealistic climate state,adjustment terms can be applied to the atmosphere-ocean fluxesof heat and moisture (and sometimes the surface stresses resultingfrom the effect of the wind on the ocean surface) before thesefluxes are imposed on the model ocean and atmosphere. Becausethese adjustments are pre-computed and therefore independentof the coupled model integration, they are uncorrelated to theanomalies that develop during the integration.

Food insecurityA situation that exists when people lack secure access to sufficientamounts of safe and nutritious food for normal growth anddevelopment and an active and healthy life. It may be causedby the unavailability of food, insufficient purchasing power,inappropriate distribution, or inadequate use of food at thehousehold level. Food insecurity may be chronic, seasonal, ortransitory.

ForestA vegetation type dominated by trees. Many definitions of theterm forest are in use throughout the world, reflecting widedifferences in bio-geophysical conditions, social structure, andeconomics. For a discussion of the term forest and relatedterms such as afforestation, reforestation, and deforestation:see the IPCC Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change,and Forestry (IPCC, 2000b).

Fossil CO2 (carbon dioxide) emissionsEmissions of carbon dioxide resulting from the combustionof fuels from fossil carbon deposits such as oil, natural gas,and coal.

Fossil fuelsCarbon-based fuels from fossil carbon deposits, including coal,oil, and natural gas.

Freshwater lensA lenticular fresh groundwater body that underlies an oceanicisland. It is underlain by saline water.

Fuel switchingPolicy designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by switchingto lower carbon-content fuels, such as from coal to natural gas.

Full-cost pricingThe pricing of commercial goods—such as electric power—that includes in the final prices faced by the end user not onlythe private costs of inputs, but also the costs of externalitiescreated by their production and use.

Framework Convention on Climate ChangeSee United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

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General circulationThe large scale motions of the atmosphere and the ocean as aconsequence of differential heating on a rotating Earth, aimingto restore the energy balance of the system through transportof heat and momentum.

General Circulation Model (GCM)See climate model.

Geo-engineeringEfforts to stabilize the climate system by directly managingthe energy balance of the Earth, thereby overcoming theenhanced greenhouse effect.

GlacierA mass of land ice flowing downhill (by internal deformationand sliding at the base) and constrained by the surroundingtopography (e.g., the sides of a valley or surrounding peaks);the bedrock topography is the major influence on the dynamicsand surface slope of a glacier. A glacier is maintained byaccumulation of snow at high altitudes, balanced by meltingat low altitudes or discharge into the sea.

Global surface temperatureThe global surface temperature is the area-weighted globalaverage of (i) the sea surface temperature over the oceans (i.e.,the sub-surface bulk temperature in the first few meters of theocean), and (ii) the surface air temperature over land at 1.5 mabove the ground.

Global Warming Potential (GWP)An index, describing the radiative characteristics of well-mixedgreenhouse gases, that represents the combined effect of thediffering times these gases remain in the atmosphere and theirrelative effectiveness in absorbing outgoing infrared radiation.This index approximates the time-integrated warming effectof a unit mass of a given greenhouse gas in today’s atmosphere,relative to that of carbon dioxide.

Greenhouse effectGreenhouse gases effectively absorb infrared radiation, emittedby the Earth’s surface, by the atmosphere itself due to the samegases, and by clouds. Atmospheric radiation is emitted to all sides,including downward to the Earth’s surface. Thus greenhousegases trap heat within the surface-troposphere system. This iscalled the “natural greenhouse effect.” Atmospheric radiationis strongly coupled to the temperature of the level at which itis emitted. In the troposphere, the temperature generally decreaseswith height. Effectively, infrared radiation emitted to spaceoriginates from an altitude with a temperature of, on average,-19°C, in balance with the net incoming solar radiation, whereasthe Earth’s surface is kept at a much higher temperature of, onaverage, +14°C. An increase in the concentration of greenhousegases leads to an increased infrared opacity of the atmosphere,and therefore to an effective radiation into space from a higher

altitude at a lower temperature. This causes a radiative forcing,an imbalance that can only be compensated for by an increaseof the temperature of the surface-troposphere system. This isthe “enhanced greenhouse effect.”

Greenhouse gasGreenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere,both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiationat specific wavelengths within the spectrum of infrared radiationemitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and clouds. Thisproperty causes the greenhouse effect. Water vapor (H2O), carbondioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and ozone(O3) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere.Moreover there are a number of entirely human-made greenhousegases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons and otherchlorine- and bromine-containing substances, dealt with underthe Montreal Protocol. Besides CO2, N2O, and CH4, the KyotoProtocol deals with the greenhouse gases sulfur hexafluoride (SF6),hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).

GroinA low, narrow jetty, usually extending roughly perpendicularto the shoreline, designed to protect the shore from erosion bycurrents, tides, or waves, or to trap sand for the purpose ofbuilding up or making a beach.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)The sum of gross value added, at purchasers’ prices, by allresident and non-resident producers in the economy, plus anytaxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of theproducts in a country or a geographic region for a given periodof time, normally 1 year. It is calculated without deducting fordepreciation of fabricated assets or depletion and degradationof natural resources. GDP is an often used but incompletemeasure of welfare.

Gross Primary Production (GPP)The amount of carbon fixed from the atmosphere throughphotosynthesis.

Groundwater rechargeThe process by which external water is added to the zone ofsaturation of an aquifer, either directly into a formation orindirectly by way of another formation.

HabitatThe particular environment or place where an organism orspecies tend to live; a more locally circumscribed portion ofthe total environment.

HalocarbonsCompounds containing carbon and either chlorine, bromine,or fluorine. Such compounds can act as powerful greenhousegases in the atmosphere. The chlorine- and bromine-containinghalocarbons are also involved in the depletion of the ozone layer.

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Harmonized emissions/carbon/energy taxCommits participating countries to impose a tax at a commonrate on the same sources. Each country can retain the taxrevenue it collects. A harmonized tax would not necessarilyrequire countries to impose a tax at the same rate, but imposingdifferent rates across countries would not be cost-effective.See also emissions tax.

Heat islandAn area within an urban area characterized by ambienttemperatures higher than those of the surrounding area becauseof the absorption of solar energy by materials like asphalt.

Heating degree daysThe integral over a day of the temperature below 18°C (e.g., aday with an average temperature of 16°C counts as 2 heatingdegree days). See also cooling degree days.

HedgingIn the context of climate change mitigation, hedging is definedas balancing the risks of acting too slowly against acting tooquickly, and it depends on society’s attitude towards risks.

Heterotrophic respirationThe conversion of organic matter to CO2 by organisms otherthan plants.

Human settlementA place or area occupied by settlers.

Human systemAny system in which human organizations play a major role.Often, but not always, the term is synonymous with “society”or “social system” (e.g., agricultural system, political system,technological system, economic system).

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)Among the six greenhouse gases to be curbed under the KyotoProtocol. They are produced commercially as a substitute forchlorofluorocarbons. HFCs largely are used in refrigerationand semiconductor manufacturing. Their Global WarmingPotentials range from 1,300 to 11,700.

HydrosphereThe component of the climate system composed of liquidsurface and subterranean water, such as oceans, seas, rivers,freshwater lakes, underground water, etc.

Ice capA dome shaped ice mass covering a highland area that isconsiderably smaller in extent than an ice sheet.

Ice sheetA mass of land ice that is sufficiently deep to cover most ofthe underlying bedrock topography, so that its shape is mainly

determined by its internal dynamics (the flow of the ice as itdeforms internally and slides at its base). An ice sheet flowsoutward from a high central plateau with a small averagesurface slope. The margins slope steeply, and the ice isdischarged through fast-flowing ice streams or outlet glaciers,in some cases into the sea or into ice shelves floating on thesea. There are only two large ice sheets in the modern world,on Greenland and Antarctica, the Antarctic ice sheet beingdivided into East and West by the Transantarctic Mountains;during glacial periods there were others.

Ice shelfA floating ice sheet of considerable thickness attached to acoast (usually of great horizontal extent with a level or gentlyundulating surface); often a seaward extension of ice sheets.

(Climate) Impact assessmentThe practice of identifying and evaluating the detrimental andbeneficial consequences of climate change on natural andhuman systems.

(Climate) ImpactsConsequences of climate change on natural and humansystems. Depending on the consideration of adaptation, onecan distinguish between potential impacts and residual impacts.

Potential impacts: All impacts that may occur given aprojected change in climate, without considering adaptation.Residual impacts: The impacts of climate change thatwould occur after adaptation.

See also aggregate impacts, market impacts, and non-marketimpacts.

ImplementationImplementation refers to the actions (legislation or regulations,judicial decrees, or other actions) that governments take totranslate international accords into domestic law and policy.It includes those events and activities that occur after theissuing of authoritative public policy directives, which includethe effort to administer and the substantive impacts on peopleand events. It is important to distinguish between the legalimplementation of international commitments (in national law)and the effective implementation (measures that inducechanges in the behavior of target groups). Compliance is amatter of whether and to what extent countries do adhere tothe provisions of the accord. Compliance focuses on not onlywhether implementing measures are in effect, but also onwhether there is compliance with the implementing actions.Compliance measures the degree to which the actors whosebehavior is targeted by the agreement, whether they are localgovernment units, corporations, organizations, or individuals,conform to the implementing measures and obligations.

Implementation costsCosts involved in the implementation of mitigation options.These costs are associated with the necessary institutional

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changes, information requirements, market size, opportunitiesfor technology gain and learning, and economic incentivesneeded (grants, subsidies, and taxes).

Indigenous peoplesPeople whose ancestors inhabited a place or a country whenpersons from another culture or ethnic background arrived onthe scene and dominated them through conquest, settlement,or other means and who today live more in conformity withtheir own social, economic, and cultural customs and traditionsthan those of the country of which they now form a part (alsoreferred to as “native,” “aboriginal,” or “tribal” peoples).

Indirect aerosol effectAerosols may lead to an indirect radiative forcing of the climatesystem through acting as condensation nuclei or modifyingthe optical properties and lifetime of clouds. Two indirecteffects are distinguished:

First indirect effect: A radiative forcing induced by an increasein anthropogenic aerosols which cause an initial increasein droplet concentration and a decrease in droplet size forfixed liquid water content, leading to an increase of cloudalbedo. This effect is also known as the “Twomey effect.”This is sometimes referred to as the cloud albedo effect.However this is highly misleading since the second indirecteffect also alters cloud albedo.Second indirect effect: A radiative forcing induced by anincrease in anthropogenic aerosols which cause a decreasein droplet size, reducing the precipitation efficiency, therebymodifying the liquid water content, cloud thickness, andcloud lifetime. This effect is also known as the “cloudlifetime effect” or “Albrecht effect.”

Industrial RevolutionA period of rapid industrial growth with far-reaching socialand economic consequences, beginning in England during thesecond half of the 18th century and spreading to Europe andlater to other countries including the United States. Theinvention of the steam engine was an important trigger of thisdevelopment. The Industrial Revolution marks the beginningof a strong increase in the use of fossil fuels and emission of,in particular, fossil carbon dioxide. In this report, the terms“pre-industrial” and “industrial” refer, somewhat arbitrarily,to the periods before and after the year 1750, respectively.

InertiaDelay, slowness, or resistance in the response of the climate,biological, or human systems to factors that alter their rate ofchange, including continuation of change in the system afterthe cause of that change has been removed.

Infectious diseasesAny disease that can be transmitted from one person to another.This may occur by direct physical contact, by commonhandling of an object that has picked up infective organisms,

through a disease carrier, or by spread of infected dropletscoughed or exhaled into the air.

Infrared radiationRadiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, andclouds. It is also known as terrestrial or long-wave radiation.Infrared radiation has a distinctive range of wavelengths(“spectrum”) longer than the wavelength of the red color inthe visible part of the spectrum. The spectrum of infraredradiation is practically distinct from that of solar or short-waveradiation because of the difference in temperature betweenthe Sun and the Earth-atmosphere system.

InfrastructureThe basic equipment, utilities, productive enterprises,installations, institutions, and services essential for thedevelopment, operation, and growth of an organization, city,or nation. For example, roads; schools; electric, gas, and waterutilities; transportation; communication; and legal systemswould be all considered as infrastructure.

Integrated assessmentA method of analysis that combines results and models fromthe physical, biological, economic, and social sciences, andthe interactions between these components, in a consistentframework, to evaluate the status and the consequences ofenvironmental change and the policy responses to it.

Interaction effectThe result or consequence of the interaction of climate changepolicy instruments with existing domestic tax systems, includingboth cost-increasing tax interaction and cost-reducing revenue-recycling effect. The former reflects the impact that greenhousegas policies can have on the functioning of labor and capital marketsthrough their effects on real wages and the real return to capital.By restricting the allowable greenhouse gas emissions, permits,regulations, or a carbon tax raise the costs of production and theprices of output, thus reducing the real return to labor and capital.For policies that raise revenue for the government—carbon taxesand auctioned permits—the revenues can be recycled to reduceexisting distortionary taxes. See also double dividend.

Internal variabilitySee climate variability.

International emissions/carbon/energy taxSee emissions tax.

International Energy Agency (IEA)Paris-based energy forum established in 1974. It is linked withthe Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Developmentto enable member countries to take joint measures to meet oilsupply emergencies, to share energy information, to coordinatetheir energy policies, and to cooperate in the development ofrational energy programs.

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International product and/or technology standardsSee standards.

Introduced speciesA species occurring in an area outside its historically knownnatural range as a result of accidental dispersal by humans(also referred to as “exotic species” or “alien species”).

Invasive speciesAn introduced species that invades natural habitats.

Isostatic land movementsIsostasy refers to the way in which the lithosphere and mantlerespond to changes in surface loads. When the loading of thelithosphere is changed by alterations in land ice mass, oceanmass, sedimentation, erosion, or mountain building, verticalisostatic adjustment results, in order to balance the new load.

Joint Implementation (JI)A market-based implementation mechanism defined in Article6 of the Kyoto Protocol, allowing Annex I countries orcompanies from these countries to implement projects jointlythat limit or reduce emissions, or enhance sinks, and to sharethe Emissions Reduction Units. JI activity is also permitted inArticle 4.2(a) of the United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change. See also Activities Implemented Jointlyand Kyoto Mechanisms.

Known technological optionsRefer to technologies that exist in operation or pilot plant stagetoday. It does not include any new technologies that will requiredrastic technological breakthroughs.

Kyoto MechanismsEconomic mechanisms based on market principles that Partiesto the Kyoto Protocol can use in an attempt to lessen thepotential economic impacts of greenhouse gas emission-reduction requirements. They include Joint Implementation(Article 6), the Clean Development Mechanism (Article 12),and Emissions Trading (Article 17).

Kyoto ProtocolThe Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted at the Third Sessionof the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997 inKyoto, Japan. It contains legally binding commitments, in additionto those included in the UNFCCC. Countries included in AnnexB of the Protocol (most countries in the Organisation forEconomic Cooperation and Development, and countries witheconomies in transition) agreed to reduce their anthropogenicgreenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrousoxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfurhexafluoride) by at least 5% below 1990 levels in thecommitment period 2008 to 2012. The Kyoto Protocol hasnot yet entered into force (September 2001).

La NiñaSee El Niño Southern Oscillation.

Land useThe total of arrangements, activities, and inputs undertakenin a certain land cover type (a set of human actions). The socialand economic purposes for which land is managed (e.g.,grazing, timber extraction, and conservation).

Land-use changeA change in the use or management of land by humans, whichmay lead to a change in land cover. Land cover and land-usechange may have an impact on the albedo, evapotranspiration,sources, and sinks of greenhouse gases, or other properties ofthe climate system, and may thus have an impact on climate,locally or globally. See also the IPCC Special Report on LandUse, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (IPCC, 2000b).

LandslideA mass of material that has slipped downhill by gravity, oftenassisted by water when the material is saturated; rapidmovement of a mass of soil, rock, or debris down a slope.

LeakageThe part of emissions reductions in Annex B countries thatmay be offset by an increase of the emission in the non-constrained countries above their baseline levels. This canoccur through (i) relocation of energy-intensive production innon-constrained regions; (ii) increased consumption of fossilfuels in these regions through decline in the international priceof oil and gas triggered by lower demand for these energies;and (iii) changes in incomes (thus in energy demand) becauseof better terms of trade. Leakage also refers to the situation inwhich a carbon sequestration activity (e.g., tree planting) onone piece of land inadvertently, directly or indirectly, triggersan activity, which in whole or part, counteracts the carboneffects of the initial activity.

LifetimeLifetime is a general term used for various time scalescharacterizing the rate of processes affecting the concentrationof trace gases. In general, lifetime denotes the average lengthof time that an atom or molecule spends in a given reservoir,such as the atmosphere or oceans. The following lifetimesmay be distinguished:

“Turnover time” (T) or “atmospheric lifetime” is the ratioof the mass M of a reservoir (e.g., a gaseous compound inthe atmosphere) and the total rate of removal S from thereservoir: T = M/S. For each removal process separateturnover times can be defined. In soil carbon biology, thisis referred to as Mean Residence Time.“Adjustment time,” “response time,” or “perturbationlifetime” (Ta) is the time scale characterizing the decay ofan instantaneous pulse input into the reservoir. The termadjustment time is also used to characterize the adjustment

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of the mass of a reservoir following a step change in thesource strength. Half-life or decay constant is used to quantifya first-order exponential decay process. See response timefor a different definition pertinent to climate variations.The term “lifetime” is sometimes used, for simplicity, as asurrogate for “adjustment time.”

In simple cases, where the global removal of the compound isdirectly proportional to the total mass of the reservoir, theadjustment time equals the turnover time: T = Ta. An exampleis CFC-11 which is removed from the atmosphere only byphotochemical processes in the stratosphere. In more complicatedcases, where several reservoirs are involved or where the removalis not proportional to the total mass, the equality T = Ta nolonger holds. Carbon dioxide is an extreme example. Its turnovertime is only about 4 years because of the rapid exchange betweenatmosphere and the ocean and terrestrial biota. However, alarge part of that CO2 is returned to the atmosphere within afew years. Thus, the adjustment time of CO2 in the atmosphereis actually determined by the rate of removal of carbon fromthe surface layer of the oceans into its deeper layers. Althoughan approximate value of 100 years may be given for theadjustment time of CO2 in the atmosphere, the actualadjustment is faster initially and slower later on. In the case ofmethane, the adjustment time is different from the turnovertime, because the removal is mainly through a chemicalreaction with the hydroxyl radical OH, the concentration ofwhich itself depends on the CH4 concentration. Therefore theCH4 removal S is not proportional to its total mass M.

LithosphereThe upper layer of the solid Earth, both continental andoceanic, which is composed of all crustal rocks and the cold,mainly elastic, part of the uppermost mantle. Volcanic activity,although part of the lithosphere, is not considered as part ofthe climate system, but acts as an external forcing factor.

LeapfroggingLeapfrogging (or technological leapfrogging) refers to theopportunities in developing countries to bypass several stagesof technology development, historically observed in industrializedcountries, and apply the most advanced presently availabletechnologies in the energy and other economic sectors, throughinvestments in technological development and capacitybuilding.

Level of scientific understandingThis is an index on a 4-step scale (High, Medium, Low, andVery Low) designed to characterize the degree of scientificunderstanding of the radiative forcing agents that affect climatechange. For each agent, the index represents a subjectivejudgement about the reliability of the estimate of its forcing,involving such factors as the assumptions necessary to evaluatethe forcing, the degree of knowledge of the physical/chemicalmechanisms determining the forcing, and the uncertaintiessurrounding the quantitative estimate.

Local Agenda 21Local Agenda 21s are the local plans for environment anddevelopment that each local authority is meant to developthrough a consultative process with their populations, withparticular attention paid to involving women and youth. Manylocal authorities have developed Local Agenda 21s throughconsultative processes as a means of reorienting their policies,plans, and operations towards the achievement of sustainabledevelopment goals. The term comes from Chapter 28 ofAgenda 21—the document formally endorsed by allgovernment representatives attending the United NationsConference on Environment and Development (also knownas the Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

Lock-in technologies and practicesTechnologies and practices that have market advantages arisingfrom existing institutions, services, infrastructure, and availableresources; they are very difficult to change because of theirwidespread use and the presence of associated infrastructureand socio-cultural patterns.

MaladaptationAny changes in natural or human systems that inadvertentlyincrease vulnerability to climatic stimuli; an adaptation thatdoes not succeed in reducing vulnerability but increases itinstead.

MalariaEndemic or epidemic parasitic disease caused by species ofthe genus Plasmodium (protozoa) and transmitted by mosquitoesof the genus Anopheles; produces high fever attacks andsystemic disorders, and kills approximately 2 million peopleevery year.

Marginal cost pricingThe pricing of commercial goods and services such that theprice equals the additional cost that arises from the expansionof production by one additional unit.

Market barriersIn the context of mitigation of climate change, conditions thatprevent or impede the diffusion of cost-effective technologiesor practices that would mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.

Market-based incentivesMeasures intended to use price mechanisms (e.g., taxes andtradable permits) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Market impactsImpacts that are linked to market transactions and directlyaffect Gross Domestic Product (a country’s nationalaccounts)—for example, changes in the supply and price ofagricultural goods. See also non-market impacts.

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Market penetrationMarket penetration is the share of a given market that isprovided by a particular good or service at a given time.

Market potentialThe portion of the economic potential for greenhouse gasemissions reductions or energy-efficiency improvements thatcould be achieved under forecast market conditions, assumingno new policies and measures. See also economic potential,socio-economic potential, and technological potential.

Mass movementApplies to all unit movements of land material propelled andcontrolled by gravity.

Mean Sea Level (MSL)Mean Sea Level is normally defined as the average relativesea level over a period, such as a month or a year, long enoughto average out transients such as waves. See also sea-levelrise.

Methane (CH4)A hydrocarbon that is a greenhouse gas produced throughanaerobic (without oxygen) decomposition of waste inlandfills, animal digestion, decomposition of animal wastes,production and distribution of natural gas and oil, coalproduction, and incomplete fossil-fuel combustion. Methaneis one of the six greenhouse gases to be mitigated under theKyoto Protocol.

Methane recoveryMethod by which methane emissions (e.g., from coal minesor waste sites) are captured and then reused either as a fuel orfor some other economic purpose (e.g., reinjection in oil orgas reserves).

Meeting of the Parties (to the Kyoto Protocol) (MOP)The Conference of the Parties of the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change will serve as the Meeting ofthe Parties (MOP), the supreme body of the Kyoto Protocol,but only Parties to the Kyoto Protocol may participate indeliberations and make decisions. Until the Protocol entersinto force, MOP cannot meet.

MitigationAn anthropogenic intervention to reduce the sources orenhance the sinks of greenhouse gases.

Mitigative capacityThe social, political, and economic structures and conditionsthat are required for effective mitigation.

Mixed layerThe upper region of the ocean well-mixed by interaction withthe overlying atmosphere.

Mixing ratioSee mole fraction.

Model hierarchySee climate model.

Mole fractionMole fraction, or mixing ratio, is the ratio of the number ofmoles of a constituent in a given volume to the total numberof moles of all constituents in that volume. It is usually reportedfor dry air. Typical values for long-lived greenhouse gases arein the order of mmol/mol (parts per million: ppm), nmol/mol(parts per billion: ppb), and fmol/mol (parts per trillion: ppt).Mole fraction differs from volume mixing ratio, often expressedin ppmv, etc., by the corrections for non-ideality of gases. Thiscorrection is significant relative to measurement precision formany greenhouse gases (Schwartz and Warneck, 1995).

MonsoonWind in the general atmospheric circulation typified by aseasonal persistent wind direction and by a pronounced changein direction from one season to the next.

MontaneThe biogeographic zone made up of relatively moist, coolupland slopes below timberline and characterized by thepresence of large evergreen trees as a dominant life form.

Montreal ProtocolThe Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozonelayer was adopted in Montreal in 1987, and subsequentlyadjusted and amended in London (1990), Copenhagen (1992),Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997), and Beijing (1999). Itcontrols the consumption and production of chlorine- andbromine-containing chemicals that destroy stratospheric ozone,such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methyl chloroform,carbon tetrachloride, and many others.

MorbidityRate of occurrence of disease or other health disorder within apopulation, taking account of the age-specific morbidity rates.Health outcomes include chronic disease incidence/prevalence,rates of hospitalization, primary care consultations, disability-days(i.e., days when absent from work), and prevalence of symptoms.

MortalityRate of occurrence of death within a population within aspecified time period; calculation of mortality takes accountof age-specific death rates, and can thus yield measures of lifeexpectancy and the extent of premature death.

Net Biome Production (NBP)Net gain or loss of carbon from a region. NBP is equal to theNet Ecosystem Production minus the carbon lost due to adisturbance (e.g., a forest fire or a forest harvest).

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Net carbon dioxide emissionsDifference between sources and sinks of carbon dioxide in agiven period and specific area or region.

Net Ecosystem Production (NEP)Net gain or loss of carbon from an ecosystem. NEP is equal tothe Net Primary Production minus the carbon lost throughheterotrophic respiration.

Net Primary Production (NPP)The increase in plant biomass or carbon of a unit of a landscape.NPP is equal to the Gross Primary Production minus carbonlost through autotrophic respiration.

Nitrogen fertilizationEnhancement of plant growth through the addition of nitrogencompounds. In IPCC assessments, this typically refers tofertilization from anthropogenic sources of nitrogen such ashuman-made fertilizers and nitrogen oxides released fromburning fossil fuels.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)Any of several oxides of nitrogen.

Nitrous oxide (N2O)A powerful greenhouse gas emitted through soil cultivationpractices, especially the use of commercial and organicfertilizers, fossil-fuel combustion, nitric acid production, andbiomass burning. One of the six greenhouse gases to be curbedunder the Kyoto Protocol.

Non-point-source pollutionPollution from sources that cannot be defined as discretepoints, such as areas of crop production, timber, surfacemining, disposal of refuse, and construction. See also point-source pollution.

No-regrets opportunitiesSee no-regrets policy.

No-regret optionsSee no-regrets policy.

No-regrets policyOne that would generate net social benefits whether or notthere is climate change. No-regrets opportunities forgreenhouse gas emissions reduction are defined as thoseoptions whose benefits such as reduced energy costs andreduced emissions of local/regional pollutants equal or exceedtheir costs to society, excluding the benefits of avoided climatechange. No-regrets potential is defined as the gap betweenthe market potential and the socio-economic potential.

No-regrets potentialSee no-regrets policy.

Non-Annex B countries/PartiesThe countries that are not included in Annex B in the KyotoProtocol. See also Annex B countries.

Non-Annex I countries/PartiesThe countries that have ratified or acceded to the UnitedNations Framework Convention on Climate Change that arenot included in Annex I of the Climate Convention. See alsoAnnex I countries.

Non-linearityA process is called “non-linear” when there is no simpleproportional relation between cause and effect. The climatesystem contains many such non-linear processes, resulting ina system with a potentially very complex behavior. Suchcomplexity may lead to rapid climate change.

Non-market impactsImpacts that affect ecosystems or human welfare, but that arenot directly linked to market transactions—for example, anincreased risk of premature death. See also market impacts.

North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)The North Atlantic Oscillation consists of opposing variationsof barometric pressure near Iceland and near the Azores. Onaverage, a westerly current, between the Icelandic low pressurearea and the Azores high pressure area, carries cyclones withtheir associated frontal systems towards Europe. However,the pressure difference between Iceland and the Azores fluctuateson time scales of days to decades, and can be reversed at times.It is the dominant mode of winter climate variability in the NorthAtlantic region, ranging from central North America to Europe.

Ocean conveyor beltThe theoretical route by which water circulates around the entireglobal ocean, driven by wind and the thermohaline circulation.

OpportunityAn opportunity is a situation or circumstance to decrease thegap between the market potential of any technology or practiceand the economic potential, socio-economic potential, ortechnological potential.

Opportunity costsThe cost of an economic activity forgone by the choice ofanother activity.

Optimal policyA policy is assumed to be “optimal” if marginal abatement costsare equalized across countries, thereby minimizing total costs.

Organic aerosolAerosol particles consisting predominantly of organic compounds,mainly C, H, and O, and lesser amounts of other elements(Charlson and Heintzenberg, 1995). See carbonaceous aerosol.

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Ozone (O3)Ozone, the triatomic form of oxygen (O3), is a gaseous atmosphericconstituent. In the troposphere it is created both naturally and byphotochemical reactions involving gases resulting from humanactivities (photochemical “smog”). In high concentrations,tropospheric ozone can be harmful to a wide-range of livingorganisms. Tropospheric ozone acts as a greenhouse gas. In thestratosphere, ozone is created by the interaction between solarultraviolet radiation and molecular oxygen (O2). Stratosphericozone plays a decisive role in the stratospheric radiative balance.Its concentration is highest in the ozone layer. Depletion ofstratospheric ozone, due to chemical reactions that may be enhancedby climate change, results in an increased ground-level flux ofultraviolet-B radiation. See also Montreal Protocol and ozone layer.

Ozone holeSee ozone layer.

Ozone layerThe stratosphere contains a layer in which the concentrationof ozone is greatest, the so-called ozone layer. The layerextends from about 12 to 40 km. The ozone concentrationreaches a maximum between about 20 and 25 km. This layeris being depleted by human emissions of chlorine and brominecompounds. Every year, during the Southern Hemispherespring, a very strong depletion of the ozone layer takes placeover the Antarctic region, also caused by human-made chlorineand bromine compounds in combination with the specificmeteorological conditions of that region. This phenomenon iscalled the ozone hole.

ParameterizationIn climate models, this term refers to the technique of representingprocesses, that cannot be explicitly resolved at the spatial ortemporal resolution of the model (sub-grid scale processes),by relationships between the area- or time-averaged effect ofsuch sub-grid-scale processes and the larger scale flow.

Pareto criterion/Pareto optimumA requirement or status that an individual’s welfare could not befurther improved without making others in the society worse off.

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)Among the six greenhouse gases to be abated under the KyotoProtocol. These are by-products of aluminum smelting anduranium enrichment. They also replace chlorofluorocarbonsin manufacturing semiconductors. The Global WarmingPotential of PFCs is 6,500–9,200 times that of carbon dioxide.

PermafrostPerennially frozen ground that occurs wherever the temperatureremains below 0°C for several years.

Perturbation lifetimeSee lifetime.

PhotosynthesisThe process by which plants take carbon dioxide (CO2) fromthe air (or bicarbonate in water) to build carbohydrates, releasingoxygen (O2) in the process. There are several pathways ofphotosynthesis with different responses to atmospheric CO2

concentrations. See also carbon dioxide fertilization.

PhytoplanktonThe plant forms of plankton (e.g., diatoms). Phytoplanktonare the dominant plants in the sea, and are the bast of the entiremarine food web. These single-celled organisms are theprincipal agents for photosynthetic carbon fixation in theocean. See also zooplankton.

PlanktonAquatic organisms that drift or swim weakly. See alsophytoplankton and zooplankton.

Point-source pollutionPollution resulting from any confined, discrete source, suchas a pipe, ditch, tunnel, well, container, concentrated animal-feeding operation, or floating craft. See also non-point-sourcepollution.

Policies and measuresIn United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Changeparlance, “policies” are actions that can be taken and/or mandatedby a government—often in conjunction with business and industrywithin its own country, as well as with other countries—toaccelerate the application and use of measures to curbgreenhouse gas emissions. “Measures” are technologies,processes, and practices used to implement policies, which, ifemployed, would reduce greenhouse gas emissions belowanticipated future levels. Examples might include carbon orother energy taxes, standardized fuel-efficiency standards forautomobiles, etc. “Common and coordinated” or “harmonized”policies refer to those adopted jointly by Parties.

PoolSee reservoir.

Post-glacial reboundThe vertical movement of the continents and sea floorfollowing the disappearance and shrinking of ice sheets—forexample, since the Last Glacial Maximum (21 ky BP). Therebound is an isostatic land movement.

PrecursorsAtmospheric compounds which themselves are not greenhousegases or aerosols, but which have an effect on greenhouse gasor aerosol concentrations by taking part in physical or chemicalprocesses regulating their production or destruction rates.

Pre-industrialSee Industrial Revolution.

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Present value costThe sum of all costs over all time periods, with future costsdiscounted.

Primary energyEnergy embodied in natural resources (e.g., coal, crude oil,sunlight, uranium) that has not undergone any anthropogenicconversion or transformation.

Private costCategories of costs influencing an individual’s decision makingare referred to as private costs. See also social cost and total cost.

ProfileA smoothly changing set of concentrations representing apossible pathway towards stabilization. The word “profile”isused to distinguish such pathways from emissions pathways,which are usually referred to as “scenarios.”

Projection (generic)A projection is a potential future evolution of a quantity or setof quantities, often computed with the aid of a model.Projections are distinguished from “predictions” in order toemphasize that projections involve assumptions concerning,for example, future socio-economic and technologicaldevelopments that may or may not be realized, and aretherefore subject to substantial uncertainty. See also climateprojection and climate prediction.

ProxyA proxy climate indicator is a local record that is interpreted,using physical and biophysical principles, to represent somecombination of climate-related variations back in time.Climate-related data derived in this way are referred to as proxydata. Examples of proxies are tree ring records, characteristicsof corals, and various data derived from ice cores.

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)Estimates of Gross Domestic Product based on the purchasingpower of currencies rather than on current exchange rates. Suchestimates are a blend of extrapolated and regression-basednumbers, using the results of the International ComparisonProgram. PPP estimates tend to lower per capita GDPs inindustrialized countries and raise per capita GDPs in developingcountries. PPP is also an acronym for polluter-pays-principle.

Radiative balanceSee energy balance.

Radiative forcingRadiative forcing is the change in the net vertical irradiance(expressed in Wm-2) at the tropopause due to an internal changeor a change in the external forcing of the climate system, such as,for example, a change in the concentration of carbon dioxideor the output of the Sun. Usually radiative forcing is computed

after allowing for stratospheric temperatures to readjust toradiative equilibrium, but with all tropospheric properties heldfixed at their unperturbed values.

Radiative forcing scenarioA plausible representation of the future development ofradiative forcing associated, for example, with changes inatmospheric composition or land-use change, or with externalfactors such as variations in solar activity. Radiative forcingscenarios can be used as input into simplified climate modelsto compute climate projections.

RangelandUnimproved grasslands, shrublands, savannahs, and tundra.

RegenerationThe renewal of a stand of trees through either natural means(seeded onsite or adjacent stands or deposited by wind, birds,or animals) or artificial means (by planting seedlings or directseeding).

Rapid climate changeThe non-linearity of the climate system may lead to rapidclimate change, sometimes called abrupt events or evensurprises. Some such abrupt events may be imaginable, suchas a dramatic reorganization of the thermohaline circulation,rapid deglaciation, or massive melting of permafrost leadingto fast changes in the carbon cycle. Others may be trulyunexpected, as a consequence of a strong, rapidly changing,forcing of a non-linear system.

Rebound effectOccurs because, for example, an improvement in motorefficiency lowers the cost per kilometer driven; it has theperverse effect of encouraging more trips.

Reference scenarioSee baseline.

ReforestationPlanting of forests on lands that have previously containedforests but that have been converted to some other use. For adiscussion of the term forest and related terms such asafforestation, reforestation, and deforestation, see the IPCCSpecial Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry(IPCC, 2000b).

Regulatory measuresRules or codes enacted by governments that mandate productspecifications or process performance characteristics. See alsostandards.

ReinsuranceThe transfer of a portion of primary insurance risks to a secondarytier of insurers (reinsurers); essentially “insurance for insurers.”

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Relative sea levelSea level measured by a tide gauge with respect to the landupon which it is situated. See also Mean Sea Level.

(Relative) Sea level secular changeLong-term changes in relative sea level caused by eithereustatic changes (e.g., brought about by thermal expansion)or changes in vertical land movements.

RenewablesEnergy sources that are, within a short time frame relative tothe Earth’s natural cycles, sustainable, and include non-carbontechnologies such as solar energy, hydropower, and wind, aswell as carbon-neutral technologies such as biomass.

Research, development, and demonstrationScientific and/or technical research and development of newproduction processes or products, coupled with analysis andmeasures that provide information to potential users regardingthe application of the new product or process; demonstrationtests; and feasibility of applying these products processes viapilot plants and other pre-commercial applications.

ReservesRefer to those occurrences that are identified and measuredas economically and technically recoverable with currenttechnologies and prices. See also resources.

ReservoirA component of the climate system, other than the atmosphere,which has the capacity to store, accumulate, or release asubstance of concern (e.g., carbon, a greenhouse gas, or aprecursor). Oceans, soils, and forests are examples ofreservoirs of carbon. Pool is an equivalent term (note that thedefinition of pool often includes the atmosphere). The absolutequantity of substance of concerns, held within a reservoir at aspecified time, is called the stock. The term also means anartificial or natural storage place for water, such as a lake,pond, or aquifer, from which the water may be withdrawn forsuch purposes as irrigation, water supply, or irrigation.

ResilienceAmount of change a system can undergo without changingstate.

Resource baseResource base includes both reserves and resources.

ResourcesResources are those occurrences with less certain geologicaland/or economic characteristics, but which are consideredpotentially recoverable with foreseeable technological andeconomic developments.

RespirationThe process whereby living organisms converts organic matterto carbon dioxide, releasing energy and consuming oxygen.

Response timeThe response time or adjustment time is the time needed forthe climate system or its components to re-equilibrate to a newstate, following a forcing resulting from external and internalprocesses or feedbacks. It is very different for various componentsof the climate system. The response time of the troposphere isrelatively short, from days to weeks, whereas the stratosphere comesinto equilibrium on a time scale of typically a few months. Dueto their large heat capacity, the oceans have a much longer responsetime, typically decades, but up to centuries or millennia. Theresponse time of the strongly coupled surface-troposphere systemis, therefore, slow compared to that of the stratosphere, andmainly determined by the oceans. The biosphere may respondfast (e.g., to droughts), but also very slowly to imposed changes.See lifetime for a different definition of response time pertinentto the rate of processes affecting the concentration of trace gases.

Revenue recyclingSee interaction effect.

RunoffThat part of precipitation that does not evaporate. In somecountries, runoff implies surface runoff only.

S profilesThe carbon dioxide concentration profiles leading to stabilizationdefined in the IPCC 1994 assessment (Enting et al., 1994;Schimel et al., 1995). For any given stabilization level, theseprofiles span a wide range of possibilities. The S stands for“Stabilization.” See also WRE profiles.

Safe-landing approachSee tolerable windows approach.

SalinizationThe accumulation of salts in soils.

Saltwater intrusion/encroachmentDisplacement of fresh surfacewater or groundwater by theadvance of saltwater due to its greater density, usually in coastaland estuarine areas.

Scenario (generic)A plausible and often simplified description of how the futuremay develop, based on a coherent and internally consistent setof assumptions about key driving forces (e.g., rate of technologychange, prices) and relationships. Scenarios are neither predictionsnor forecasts and sometimes may be based on a “narrativestoryline.” Scenarios may be derived from projections, but areoften based on additional information from other sources. Seealso SRES scenarios, climate scenario, and emission scenarios.

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Sea-level riseAn increase in the mean level of the ocean. Eustatic sea-levelrise is a change in global average sea level brought about byan alteration to the volume of the world ocean. Relative sea-level rise occurs where there is a net increase in the level ofthe ocean relative to local land movements. Climate modelerslargely concentrate on estimating eustatic sea-level change.Impact researchers focus on relative sea-level change.

SeawallA human-made wall or embankment along a shore to preventwave erosion.

Semi-arid regionsEcosystems that have more than 250 mm precipitation per yearbut are not highly productive; usually classified as rangelands.

SensitivitySensitivity is the degree to which a system is affected, eitheradversely or beneficially, by climate-related stimuli. The effectmay be direct (e.g., a change in crop yield in response to a changein the mean, range, or variability of temperature) or indirect(e.g., damages caused by an increase in the frequency of coastalflooding due to sea-level rise). See also climate sensitivity.

Sequential decision makingStepwise decision making aiming to identify short-term strategiesin the face of long-term uncertainties, by incorporating additionalinformation over time and making mid-course corrections.

SequestrationThe process of increasing the carbon content of a carbonreservoir other than the atmosphere. Biological approachesto sequestration include direct removal of carbon dioxide fromthe atmosphere through land-use change, afforestation,reforestation, and practices that enhance soil carbon in agriculture.Physical approaches include separation and disposal of carbondioxide from flue gases or from processing fossil fuels toproduce hydrogen- and carbon dioxide-rich fractions and long-term storage in underground in depleted oil and gas reservoirs,coal seams, and saline aquifers. See also uptake.

SiltUnconsolidated or loose sedimentary material whose constituentrock particles are finer than grains of sand and larger thanclay particles.

SilvicultureDevelopment and care of forests.

SinkAny process, activity or mechanism that removes a greenhousegas, an aerosol, or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or aerosolfrom the atmosphere.

SnowpacksA seasonal accumulation of slow-melting snow.

Social costThe social cost of an activity includes the value of all the resourcesused in its provision. Some of these are priced and others are not.Non-priced resources are referred to as externalities. It is thesum of the costs of these externalities and the priced resourcesthat makes up the social cost. See also private cost and total cost.

Socio-economic potentialThe socio-economic potential represents the level of greenhousegas mitigation that would be approached by overcoming socialand cultural obstacles to the use of technologies that are cost-effective. See also economic potential, market potential, andtechnology potential.

Soil moistureWater stored in or at the land surface and available for evaporation.

Solar activityThe Sun exhibits periods of high activity observed in numbersof sunspots, as well as radiative output, magnetic activity, andemission of high energy particles. These variations take placeon a range of time scales from millions of years to minutes.See also solar cycle.

Solar (“11 year”) cycleA quasi-regular modulation of solar activity with varyingamplitude and a period of between 9 and 13 years.

Solar radiationRadiation emitted by the Sun. It is also referred to as short-wave radiation. Solar radiation has a distinctive range ofwavelengths (spectrum) determined by the temperature of theSun. See also infrared radiation.

Soot particlesParticles formed during the quenching of gases at the outer edgeof flames of organic vapors, consisting predominantly of carbon,with lesser amounts of oxygen and hydrogen present as carboxyland phenolic groups and exhibiting an imperfect graphitic structure(Charlson and Heintzenberg, 1995). See also black carbon.

SourceAny process, activity, or mechanism that releases a greenhousegas, an aerosol, or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or aerosolinto the atmosphere.

Southern OscillationSee El Niño Southern Oscillation.

Spatial and temporal scalesClimate may vary on a large range of spatial and temporal scales.Spatial scales may range from local (less than 100,000 km2),

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through regional (100,000 to 10 million km2) to continental(10 to 100 million km2). Temporal scales may range fromseasonal to geological (up to hundreds of millions of years).

Spill-over effectThe economic effects of domestic or sectoral mitigation measureson other countries or sectors. In this report, no assessment is madeon environmental spillover effects. Spillover effects can be positiveor negative and include effects on trade, carbon leakage, transfer,and diffusion of environmentally sound technology and other issues.

SRES scenariosSRES scenarios are emissions scenarios developed byNakicenovic et al. (2000) and used, among others, as a basisfor the climate projections in the IPCC WGI contribution tothe Third Assessment Report (IPCC, 2001a). The followingterms are relevant for a better understanding of the structureand use of the set of SRES scenarios:

(Scenario) Family: Scenarios that have a similar demographic,societal, economic, and technical-change storyline. Fourscenario families comprise the SRES scenario set: A1, A2,B1, and B2.(Scenario) Group: Scenarios within a family that reflect aconsistent variation of the storyline. The A1 scenario familyincludes four groups designated as A1T, A1C, A1G, and A1Bthat explore alternative structures of future energy systems.In the Summary for Policymakers of Nakicenovic et al.(2000), the A1C and A1G groups have been combined intoone “Fossil-Intensive” A1FI scenario group. The other threescenario families consist of one group each. The SRES scenarioset reflected in the Summary for Policymakers of Nakicenovicet al. (2000) thus consist of six distinct scenario groups, allof which are equally sound and together capture the range ofuncertainties associated with driving forces and emissions.Illustrative Scenario: A scenario that is illustrative for eachof the six scenario groups reflected in the Summary forPolicymakers of Nakicenovic et al. (2000). They includefour revised scenario markers for the scenario groups A1B,A2, B1, B2, and two additional scenarios for the A1FI andA1T groups. All scenario groups are equally sound.(Scenario) Marker: A scenario that was originally posted indraft form on the SRES website to represent a given scenariofamily. The choice of markers was based on which of the initialquantifications best reflected the storyline, and the featuresof specific models. Markers are no more likely than otherscenarios, but are considered by the SRES writing team asillustrative of a particular storyline. They are included inrevised form in Nakicenovic et al. (2000). These scenarioshave received the closest scrutiny of the entire writing teamand via the SRES open process. Scenarios have also beenselected to illustrate the other two scenario groups.(Scenario) Storyline: A narrative description of a scenario(or family of scenarios) highlighting the main scenariocharacteristics, relationships between key driving forces,and the dynamics of their evolution.

StabilizationThe achievement of stabilization of atmospheric concentrationsof one or more greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide or aCO2-equivalent basket of greenhouse gases).

Stabilization analysisIn this report, this refers to analyses or scenarios that addressthe stabilization of the concentration of greenhouse gases.

Stabilization scenariosSee stabilization analysis.

StakeholdersPerson or entity holding grants, concessions, or any other typeof value that would be affected by a particular action or policy.

StandardsSet of rules or codes mandating or defining product performance(e.g., grades, dimensions, characteristics, test methods, andrules for use). International product and/or technology orperformance standards establish minimum requirements foraffected products and/or technologies in countries where theyare adopted. The standards reduce greenhouse gas emissionsassociated with the manufacture or use of the products and/orapplication of the technology. See also regulatory measures.

Stimuli (climate-related)All the elements of climate change, including mean climatecharacteristics, climate variability, and the frequency andmagnitude of extremes.

StockSee reservoir.

Storm surgeThe temporary increase, at a particular locality, in the heightof the sea due to extreme meteorological conditions (lowatmospheric pressure and/or strong winds). The storm surgeis defined as being the excess above the level expected fromthe tidal variation alone at that time and place.

StorylineSee SRES scenarios.

StreamflowWater within a river channel, usually expressed in m3 sec-1.

StratosphereThe highly stratified region of the atmosphere above thetroposphere extending from about 10 km (ranging from 9 km inhigh latitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average) to about 50 km.

Structural changeChanges, for example, in the relative share of Gross DomesticProduct produced by the industrial, agricultural, or services sectors

•

•

•

•

•

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of an economy; or more generally, systems transformationswhereby some components are either replaced or potentiallysubstituted by other ones.

SubmergenceA rise in the water level in relation to the land, so that areas offormerly dry land become inundated; it results either from asinking of the land or from a rise of the water level.

SubsidenceThe sudden sinking or gradual downward settling of the Earth’ssurface with little or no horizontal motion.

SubsidyDirect payment from the government to an entity, or a tax reductionto that entity, for implementing a practice the government wishesto encourage. Greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced bylowering existing subsidies that have the effect of raisingemissions, such as subsidies to fossil-fuel use, or by providingsubsidies for practices that reduce emissions or enhance sinks(e.g., for insulation of buildings or planting trees).

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)One of the six greenhouse gases to be curbed under the KyotoProtocol. It is largely used in heavy industry to insulate high-voltage equipment and to assist in the manufacturing of cable-cooling systems. Its Global Warming Potential is 23,900.

SunspotsSmall dark areas on the Sun. The number of sunspots is higherduring periods of high solar activity, and varies in particularwith the solar cycle.

Surface runoffThe water that travels over the soil surface to the nearest surfacestream; runoff of a drainage basin that has not passed beneaththe surface since precipitation.

Sustainable developmentDevelopment that meets the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future generations to meet theirown needs.

Targets and time tablesA target is the reduction of a specific percentage of greenhousegas emissions from a baseline date (e.g., “below 1990 levels”)to be achieved by a set date or time table (e.g., 2008 to 2012).For example, under the Kyoto Protocol’s formula, the EuropeanUnion has agreed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by8% below 1990 levels by the 2008 to 2012 commitment period.These targets and time tables are, in effect, an emissions capon the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions that can beemitted by a country or region in a given time period.

Tax-interaction effectSee interaction effect.

Technological potentialThe amount by which it is possible to reduce greenhouse gasemissions or improve energy efficiency by implementing a technologyor practice that has already been demonstrated. See also economicpotential, market potential, and socio-economic potential.

TechnologyA piece of equipment or a technique for performing a particularactivity.

Technology or performance standardSee standards.

Technology transferThe broad set of processes that cover the exchange of knowledge,money, and goods among different stakeholders that lead to thespreading of technology for adapting to or mitigating climatechange. As a generic concept, the term is used to encompassboth diffusion of technologies and technological cooperationacross and within countries.

Thermal erosionThe erosion of ice-rich permafrost by the combined thermaland mechanical action of moving water.

Thermal expansionIn connection with sea level, this refers to the increase in volume(and decrease in density) that results from warming water. Awarming of the ocean leads to an expansion of the oceanvolume and hence an increase in sea level.

Thermohaline circulationLarge-scale density-driven circulation in the ocean, caused bydifferences in temperature and salinity. In the North Atlantic, thethermohaline circulation consists of warm surface water flowingnorthward and cold deepwater flowing southward, resultingin a net poleward transport of heat. The surface water sinks inhighly restricted sinking regions located in high latitudes.

ThermokarstIrregular, hummocky topography in frozen ground caused bymelting of ice.

Tide gaugeA device at a coastal location (and some deep sea locations)which continuously measures the level of the sea with respectto the adjacent land. Time-averaging of the sea level sorecorded gives the observed relative sea level secular changes.

Time scaleCharacteristic time for a process to be expressed. Since manyprocesses exibit most of their effects early, and then have a long

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period during which they gradually approach full expression,for the purpose of this report the time scale is numerically definedas the time required for a perturbation in a process to show atleast half of its final effect.

Tolerable-windows approachThese approaches analyze greenhouse gas emissions as theywould be constrained by adopting a long-term climate—ratherthan greenhouse gas concentration stabilization—target (e.g.,expressed in terms of temperature or sea level changes or therate of such changes). The main objective of these approachesis to evaluate the implications of such long-term targets for short-or medium-term “tolerable” ranges of global greenhouse gasemissions. Also referred to as safe-landing approaches.

Top-down modelsThe terms “top” and “bottom” are shorthand for aggregateand disaggregated models. The top-down label derives fromhow modelers applied macro-economic theory andeconometric techniques to historical data on consumption,prices, incomes, and factor costs to model final demand forgoods and services, and supply from main sectors, like theenergy sector, transportation, agriculture, and industry.Therefore, top-down models evaluate the system fromaggregate economic variables, as compared to bottom-upmodels that consider technological options or project specificclimate change mitigation policies. Some technology datawere, however, integrated into top-down analysis and so thedistinction is not that clear-cut.

Total costAll items of cost added together. The total cost to society ismade up of both the external cost and the private cost, whichtogether are defined as social cost.

Trade effectsEconomic impacts of changes in the purchasing power of abundle of exported goods of a country for bundles of goodsimported from its trade partners. Climate policies change therelative production costs and may change terms of tradesubstantially enough to change the ultimate economic balance.

Transient climate responseThe globally averaged surface air temperature increase, averagedover a 20-year period, centered at the time of CO2 doubling(i.e., at year 70 in a 1% per year compound CO2 increaseexperiment with a global coupled climate model).

TropopauseThe boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

TroposphereThe lowest part of the atmosphere from the surface to about10 km in altitude in mid-latitudes (ranging from 9 km in highlatitudes to 16 km in the tropics on average) where clouds and

“weather” phenomena occur. In the troposphere, temperaturesgenerally decrease with height.

TundraA treeless, level, or gently undulating plain characteristic ofarctic and subarctic regions.

Turnover timeSee lifetime.

Ultraviolet (UV)-B radiationSolar radiation within a wavelength range of 280-320 nm,the greater part of which is absorbed by stratospheric ozone.Enhanced UV-B radiation suppresses the immune system andcan have other adverse effects on living organisms.

UncertaintyAn expression of the degree to which a value (e.g., the futurestate of the climate system) is unknown. Uncertainty can resultfrom lack of information or from disagreement about what isknown or even knowable. It may have many types of sources,from quantifiable errors in the data to ambiguously definedconcepts or terminology, or uncertain projections of humanbehavior. Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitativemeasures (e.g., a range of values calculated by various models)or by qualitative statements (e.g., reflecting the judgment of ateam of experts). See Moss and Schneider (2000).

UndernutritionThe result of food intake that is insufficient to meet dietaryenergy requirements continuously, poor absorption, and/orpoor biological use of nutrients consumed.

Unique and threatened systemsEntities that are confined to a relatively narrow geographicalrange but can affect other, often larger entities beyond theirrange; narrow geographical range points to sensitivity toenvironmental variables, including climate, and thereforeattests to potential vulnerability to climate change.

United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC)The Convention was adopted on 9 May 1992 in New Yorkand signed at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro bymore than 150 countries and the European Community. Itsultimate objective is the “stabilization of greenhouse gasconcentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would preventdangerous anthropogenic interference with the climatesystem.” It contains commitments for all Parties. Under theConvention, Parties included in Annex I aim to returngreenhouse gas emissions not controlled by the MontrealProtocol to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The Conventionentered into force in March 1994. See also Kyoto Protocoland Conference of the Parties (COP).

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UptakeThe addition of a substance of concern to a reservoir. Theuptake of carbon-containing substances, in particular carbondioxide, is often called (carbon) sequestration. See alsosequestration.

UpwellingTransport of deeper water to the surface, usually caused byhorizontal movements of surface water.

UrbanizationThe conversion of land from a natural state or managed naturalstate (such as agriculture) to cities; a process driven by netrural-to-urban migration through which an increasing percentageof the population in any nation or region come to live insettlements that are defined as “urban centres.”

Value addedThe net output of a sector after adding up all outputs andsubtracting intermediate inputs.

ValuesWorth, desirability, or utility based on individual preferences.The total value of any resource is the sum of the values of thedifferent individuals involved in the use of the resource. Thevalues, which are the foundation of the estimation of costs,are measured in terms of the willingness to pay (WTP) byindividuals to receive the resource or by the willingness ofindividuals to accept payment (WTA) to part with the resource.

VectorAn organism, such as an insect, that transmits a pathogen fromone host to another. See also vector-borne diseases.

Vector-borne diseasesDisease that is transmitted between hosts by a vector organismsuch as a mosquito or tick (e.g., malaria, dengue fever, andleishmaniasis).

Volume mixing ratioSee mole fraction.

Voluntary agreementAn agreement between a government authority and one or moreprivate parties, as well as a unilateral commitment that isrecognized by the public authority, to achieve environmentalobjectives or to improve environmental performance beyondcompliance.

VulnerabilityThe degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable tocope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climatevariability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of thecharacter, magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which asystem is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity.

Water stressA country is water-stressed if the available freshwater supplyrelative to water withdrawals acts as an important constrainton development. Withdrawals exceeding 20% of renewablewater supply has been used as an indicator of water stress.

Water-use efficiencyCarbon gain in photosynthesis per unit water lost inevapotranspiration. It can be expressed on a short-term basisas the ratio of photosynthetic carbon gain per unit transpirationalwater loss, or on a seasonal basis as the ratio of net primaryproduction or agricultural yield to the amount of available water.

Water withdrawalAmount of water extracted from water bodies.

WRE profilesThe carbon dioxide concentration profiles leading to stabilizationdefined by Wigley, Richels, and Edmonds (1996) whose initialsprovide the acronym. For any given stabilization level, theseprofiles span a wide range of possibilities. See also S profiles.

ZooplanktonThe animal forms of plankton. They consume phytoplanktonor other zooplankton. See also phytoplankton.

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Annex C. Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Units

Acronyms and AbbreviationsAA Assigned AmountAAU Assigned Amount UnitAD Anno DominiAIJ Activities Implemented JointlyA-O Atmosphere-OceanAO Arctic OscillationAOGCM Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation ModelBern-CC Bern Carbon CycleBP Before PresentC2F6 Perfluoroethane / HexafluoroethaneC3 Three-Carbon CompoundC4 Four-Carbon CompoundCANZ Canada, Australia, and New ZealandCBA Cost-Benefit AnalysisCCC(ma) Canadian Centre for Climate (Modeling and Analysis) (Canada)CCGT Combined Cycle Gas TurbineCDM Clean Development MechanismCEA Cost-Effectiveness AnalysisCER Certified Emission ReductionCF4 Perfluoromethane / TetrafluoromethaneCFC ChlorofluorocarbonCGCM Coupled GCM from CCC(ma)CGE Computable General EquilibriumCGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural ResearchCH4 MethaneCHP Combined Heat and PowerCMIP Coupled Model Intercomparison ProjectCO2 Carbon DioxideCOP Conference of the PartiesDAF Decision Analysis FrameworkDES Development, Equity, and SustainabilityDES GP Guidance Paper on Development, Equity, and SustainabilityDHF Dengue Haemorrhagic FeverDMF Decision Making FrameworkDSS Dengue Shock SyndromeECE Economic Commission for EuropeEIT Economy in TransitionENSO El Niño Southern OscillationERU Emissions Reduction UnitES Executive SummaryESCO Energy Service CompanyEST Environmentally Sound TechnologyFCCC Framework Convention on Climate ChangeFSU Former Soviet UnionGCM General Circulation ModelGDP Gross Domestic ProductGFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (USA)GHG Greenhouse GasGNP Gross National ProductGP Guidance PaperGPP Gross Primary ProductionGWP Global Warming Potential

391

Annex C Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Units

H2O Water VaporHadCM Hadley Centre Coupled ModelHFC HydrofluorocarbonIAM Integrated Assessment ModelICSU International Council of Scientific UnionsIEA International Energy AgencyIET International Emissions TradingIGCC S Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle or SupercriticalIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIPCC TP3 Technical Paper on Stabilization of Atmospheric Greehouse Gases: Physical, Biological, and Socio-Economic ImplicationsIPCC TP4 Technical Paper on Implications of Proposed CO2 Emissions LimitationsISAM Integrated Science Assessment ModelJI Joint ImplementationLCC Land-Cover ChangeLSG Large-Scale Geostrophic Ocean ModelLUC Land-Use ChangeMAC Marginal Abatement CostMOP Meeting of the PartiesMSL Mean Sea LevelMSU Microwave Sounding UnitN2O Nitrous OxideNAO North Atlantic OscillationNBP Net Biome ProductionNEP Net Ecosystem ProductionNGOs Non-Governmental OrganizationNOx Nitrogen OxidesNPP Net Primary ProductionNSI National Systems of InnovationO2 Molecular OxygenO3 OzoneODS Ozone-Depleting SubstanceOECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentOPEC Organization of Petroleum-Exporting CountriesOPYC Ocean Isopycnal GCMPFC PerfluorocarbonPMIP Paleoclimate Model Intercomparison ProjectPPM Processes and Production MethodPPP Purchasing Power ParityR&D Research and DevelopmentRCM Regional Climate ModelSAR Second Assessment ReportSF6 Sulfur HexafluorideSME Small and Medium Sized EnterpriseSO2 Sulfur DioxideSPM Summary for PolicymakersSRAGA Special Report on Aviation and the Global AtmosphereSRES Special Report on Emissions ScenariosSRLULUCF Special Report on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and ForestrySRTT Special Report on the Methodological and Technological Issues in Technology TransferSST Sea Surface TemperatureTAR Third Assessment ReportTCR Transient Climate ResponseTHC Thermohaline CirculationTP Technical PaperTS Technical Summary

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TSI Total Solar IrradianceUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural OrganisationUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUV UltravioletVA Voluntary Agreement or Value-AddedVOC Volatile Organic CompoundsWAIS West Antarctic Ice SheetWGI TAR Working Group I Contribution to the Third Assessment ReportWGII SAR Working Group II Contribution to the Second Assessment ReportWGII TAR Working Group II Contribution to the Third Assessment ReportWGIII TAR Working Group III Contribution to the Third Assessment ReportWMO World Meteorological OrganizationWRE Wigley, Richels, and EdmondsWTA Willingness to AcceptWTP Willingness to PayWUE Water-Use Efficiency

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Annex C Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Units

Physical Quantitylengthmasstimethermodynamic temperatureamount of substance

Name of Unitmeterkilogramsecondkelvinmole

SymbolmkgsKmol

SI (Systeme Internationale) Units

Fraction10−1

10−2

10−3

10−6

10−9

10−12

10−15

Prefixdecicentimillimicronanopicofemto

Symboldcmµnpt

Multiple10102

103

106

109

1012

1015

Prefixdecahectokilomegagigaterapeta

SymboldahkMGTP

Physical Quantityforcepressureenergypowerfrequency

Name of SI Unitnewtonpascaljoulewatthertz

Symbol for SI UnitNPaJWHz

Definition of Unitkg m s−2

kg m-1 s−2 (=N m−2)kg m2 s−2

kg m2 s−3 (=J s−1)s−1 (cycles per second)

Special Names and Symbols for Certain SI-Derived Units

Physical Quantitylengthlengthareaforcepressurepressuremassmasscolumn densitystreamfunction

Name of SI UnitÅngstrommicronhectaredynebarmillibartonnegramDobson unitsSverdrup

Symbol for SI UnitÅµmhadynbarmbtgDUSv

Definition of Unit10−10 m = 10−8 cm10−6 m104 m2

10−5 N105 N m−2 = 105 Pa102 N m−2 = 1 hPa103 kg10−3 kg2.687x1016 molecules cm−2

106 m3 s−1

Decimal Fractions and Multiples of SI Units having Special Names

Units

°C

ppmvppbvpptvyrkybp

degree Celsius (0°C = 273 K approximately)Temperature differences are also given in °C (=K) rather than the more correct form of “Celsius degrees”parts per million (106) by volumeparts per billion (109) by volumeparts per trillion (1012) by volumeyearthousands of yearsbefore present

Non-SI Units

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Question 1What can scientific, technical, and socio-economic analysescontribute to the determination of what constitutes dangerousanthropogenic interference with the climate system as referredto in Article 2 of the Framework Convention on ClimateChange?

Question 2What is the evidence for, causes of, and consequences ofchanges in the Earth’s climate since the pre-industrial era?

Has the Earth’s climate changed since the pre-industrialera at the regional and/or global scale? If so, what part, ifany, of the observed changes can be attributed to humaninfluence and what part, if any, can be attributed to naturalphenomena? What is the basis for that attribution?What is known about the environmental, social, andeconomic consequences of climate changes since the pre-industrial era with an emphasis on the last 50 years?

Question 3What is known about the regional and global climatic,environmental, and socio-economic consequences in the next25, 50, and 100 years associated with a range of greenhousegas emissions arising from scenarios used in the TAR(projections which involve no climate policy intervention)?

To the extent possible evaluate the:Projected changes in atmospheric concentrations, climate,and sea levelImpacts and economic costs and benefits of changes inclimate and atmospheric composition on human health,diversity and productivity of ecological systems, and socio-economic sectors (particularly agriculture and water)The range of options for adaptation, including the costs,benefits, and challengesDevelopment, sustainability, and equity issues associatedwith impacts and adaptation at a regional and global level.

Question 4What is known about the influence of the increasing atmosphericconcentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, and theprojected human-induced change in climate regionally andglobally on:

The frequency and magnitude of climate fluctuations,including daily, seasonal, inter-annual, and decadalvariability, such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation cyclesand others?The duration, location, frequency, and intensity of extremeevents such as heat waves, droughts, floods, heavyprecipitation, avalanches, storms, tornadoes, and tropicalcyclones?

Annex D. Scientific, Technical, and Socio-Economic Questions Selected by the Panel

a)

b)

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b.

The risk of abrupt/non-linear changes in, among others,the sources and sinks of greenhouse gases, oceancirculation, and the extent of polar ice and permafrost? Ifso, can the risk be quantified?The risk of abrupt or non-linear changes in ecological systems?

Question 5What is known about the inertia and time scales associatedwith the changes in the climate system, ecological systems,and socio-economic sectors and their interactions?

Question 6How does the extent and timing of the introduction of arange of emissions reduction actions determine and affectthe rate, magnitude, and impacts of climate change, andaffect the global and regional economy, taking into accountthe historical and current emissions?

What is known from sensitivity studies about regional andglobal climatic, environmental, and socio-economicconsequences of stabilizing the atmospheric concentrationsof greenhouse gases (in carbon dioxide equivalents), at arange of levels from today’s to double that level or more,taking into account to the extent possible the effects ofaerosols? For each stabilization scenario, including differentpathways to stabilization, evaluate the range of costs andbenefits, relative to the range of scenarios considered inQuestion 3, in terms of:

Projected changes in atmospheric concentrations, climate,and sea level, including changes beyond 100 yearsImpacts and economic costs and benefits of changesin climate and atmospheric composition on humanhealth, diversity and productivity of ecological systems,and socio-economic sectors (particularly agricultureand water)The range of options for adaptation, including the costs,benefits, and challengesThe range of technologies, policies, and practices thatcould be used to achieve each of the stabilization levels,with an evaluation of the national and global costs andbenefits, and an assessment of how these costs and benefitswould compare, either qualitatively or quantitatively,to the avoided environmental harm that would beachieved by the emissions reductionsDevelopment, sustainability, and equity issues associatedwith impacts, adaptation, and mitigation at a regionaland global level.

Question 7What is known about the potential for, and costs and benefitsof, and time frame for reducing greenhouse gas emissions?

What would be the economic and social costs and benefitsand equity implications of options for policies and measures,

c.

d.

a)

b)

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Annex D Questions Selected by the Panel

and the mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol, that might beconsidered to address climate change regionally and globally?What portfolios of options of research and development,investments, and other policies might be considered thatwould be most effective to enhance the development anddeployment of technologies that address climate change?What kind of economic and other policy options might beconsidered to remove existing and potential barriers andto stimulate private- and public-sector technology transferand deployment among countries, and what effect mightthese have on projected emissions?How does the timing of the options contained in the aboveaffect associated economic costs and benefits, and theatmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases over thenext century and beyond?

Question 8What is known about the interactions between projectedhuman-induced changes in climate and other environmentalissues (e.g., urban air pollution, regional acid deposition, lossof biological diversity, stratospheric ozone depletion, anddesertification and land degradation)? What is known aboutenvironmental, social, and economic costs and benefits andimplications of these interactions for integrating climate changeresponse strategies in an equitable manner into broad sustainabledevelopment strategies at the local, regional, and global scales?

Question 9What are the most robust findings and key uncertaintiesregarding attribution of climate change and regarding modelprojections of:

Future emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols?Future concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols?Future changes in regional and global climate?Regional and global impacts of climate change?Costs and benefits of mitigation and adaptation options?

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Annex E. List of Major IPCC Reports

Climate Change—The IPCC Scientific AssessmentThe 1990 Report of the IPCC Scientific Assessment WorkingGroup (also in Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish)

Climate Change—The IPCC Impacts AssessmentThe 1990 Report of the IPCC Impacts Assessment WorkingGroup (also in Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish)

Climate Change—The IPCC Response StrategiesThe 1990 Report of the IPCC Response Strategies WorkingGroup (also in Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish)

Emissions ScenariosPrepared for the IPCC Response Strategies Working Group, 1990

Assessment of the Vulnerability of Coastal Areas to SeaLevel Rise–A Common Methodology1991 (also in Arabic and French)

Climate Change 1992—The Supplementary Report to theIPCC Scientific AssessmentThe 1992 Report of the IPCC Scientific Assessment WorkingGroup

Climate Change 1992—The Supplementary Report to theIPCC Impacts AssessmentThe 1992 Report of the IPCC Impacts Assessment Working Group

Climate Change: The IPCC 1990 and 1992 AssessmentsIPCC First Assessment Report Overview and PolicymakerSummaries, and 1992 IPCC Supplement

Global Climate Change and the Rising Challenge of the SeaCoastal Zone Management Subgroup of the IPCC ResponseStrategies Working Group, 1992

Report of the IPCC Country Studies Workshop1992

Preliminary Guidelines for Assessing Impacts of ClimateChange1992

IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas InventoriesThree volumes, 1994 (also in French, Russian, and Spanish)

IPCC Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate ChangeImpacts and Adaptations1995 (also in Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish)

Climate Change 1994—Radiative Forcing of Climate Changeand an Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission Scenarios1995

Climate Change 1995—The Science of Climate Change –Contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC SecondAssessment Report1996

Climate Change 1995—Impacts, Adaptations, andMitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-TechnicalAnalyses – Contribution of Working Group II to the IPCCSecond Assessment Report1996

Climate Change 1995—Economic and Social Dimensionsof Climate Change – Contribution of Working Group IIIto the IPCC Second Assessment Report1996

Climate Change 1995—IPCC Second Assessment Synthesisof Scientific-Technical Information Relevant to InterpretingArticle 2 of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change1996 (also in Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish)

Technologies, Policies, and Measures for MitigatingClimate Change – IPCC Technical Paper I1996 (also in French and Spanish)

An Introduction to Simple Climate Models used in the IPCCSecond Assessment Report – IPCC Technical Paper II1997 (also in French and Spanish)

Stabilization of Atmospheric Greenhouse Gases: Physical,Biological and Socio-economic Implications – IPCCTechnical Paper III1997 (also in French and Spanish)

Implications of Proposed CO2 Emissions Limitations –IPCC Technical Paper IV1997 (also in French and Spanish)

The Regional Impacts of Climate Change: An Assessmentof Vulnerability – IPCC Special Report1998

Aviation and the Global Atmosphere – IPCC Special Report1999

Methodological and Technological Issues in TechnologyTransfer – IPCC Special Report2000

Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry – IPCC SpecialReport2000

Emission Scenarios – IPCC Special Report2000

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Annex E List of Major IPCC Reports

Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Managementin National Greenhouse Gas Inventories2000

Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis – Contributionof Working Group I to the IPCC Third Assessment Report2001

Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, andVulnerability – Contribution of Working Group II to theIPCC Third Assessment Report2001

Climate Change 2001: Mitigation – Contribution ofWorking Group III to the IPCC Third Assessment Report2001

Enquiries: IPCC Secretariat, c/o World MeteorologicalOrganization, 7 bis, Avenue de la Paix, Case Postale 2300,1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland

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