Ancient Activity of Gold Mining in the Eastern Desert

Research group;

- Esraa Sabry Ahmed (110501)

- Shady Shokri Mohammed (110612)

- Mohammed Magdy Mohammed (110726)

- Mahmood Mohammed Ramadan (110752)

Gold was among the first metals to be mined because it commonly occurs in its native form, that is, not combined with other

elements, because it is beautiful and imperishable, and because exquisite objects can be made from it. Artisans of ancient

civilizations used gold lavishly in decorating tombs and temples, and gold objects made more than 5,000 years ago have

been found in Egypt. The legendary wealth in gold of ancient Egypt seems to correspond with an unexpected high number

of gold production sites in the Eastern Desert of Egypt and Nubia. This presentation discusses the geology of the different

varieties of the primary gold occurrences (always related to auriferous quartz mineralization in veins or shear zones) as

well as the variable physico-chemical genesis of the gold concentrations. The main issue in the ancient gold mineralization is

the development of mining tools rather than geological challenge, owing to the gold abundance in the non-excavated sites in

the eastern desert in the ancient times. The development of gold mining over time, from Predynastic (ca. 3000 BC) until the

end of Arab gold production times (about 1350 AD), including the spectacular Pharaonic periods is outlined, with examples

of its remaining artifacts, settlements and mining sites in remote regions of the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Briefly, this

presentation outlines the main geologic conditions that form the gold ore concentrations in the eastern desert region, the

history of gold exploitation in this region & Nubia , the advance in gold mineralization tools, & an inventory for the mining

sites in the eastern desert , discussing in sum the major mining sites there. Finally, some estimates on the scale of gold

production are presented.

ShadyNoteassistant in plotting the appendix of minning sites in the ED

ShadyNotereport designer, main text

ShadyNoteplotiing the table of mining sites in ED

ShadyNote photographs, accessory information

title Page no.

introduction 1

Modes of occurrence of gold ore concentrations

2

Index of ancient peroids of mining activity in the eastern desert

6

Gold mining in the earliest hunter peroid

7

Gold production in pre & early dynastic times

10

Gold production in old & middle kingdom age

14

Gold production in new kingdom age

19

Gold production in ptolemaic (greek) age

28

Gold production in kushitic times in nubia

32

Gold production in roman & byzantine times

34

Gold production in arab times 37

Estimation of gold amount produced in the pharaonic egypt

39

Appendix of mining sites in the eastern desert

40

refernces 49

arge parts of this Eastern Desert belong geologically to the Precambrian basement of the Arabian Nubian shield and host around 250 gold production sites, which were mined during different periods of ancient Egyptian history. Most of these sites were visited by the authors during field campaigns between 1960s and 1999; at the locations of all economically significant gold anomalies they discovered traces of extant mining such as stone mills, remains of settlements and mine-shafts, indicating a long history of ancient extraction.

L

Two main general geological environments of gold mineralization exploited by the ancient miners in the

Egyptian eastern desert

1

Gold mineralization associated with mafic to ultramafic units of ophiolitic affinity, such as basalts andesites (amphibolites) & serpentinites with remains of pyroxenites &/or with their clastic erosion products such as greywackes and conglomerates.

Two main general geological environments of gold mineralization exploited by the ancient miners in the

Egyptian eastern desert

2 Towards the southern part of the Egyptian Eastern Desert, mainly in NE Sudan, the gold environment changes to more rhyoliticandesitic volcanic rocks with less common intercalations of clastic sedimentary rocks and marbles.

This environment was penetrated By late granitoids producing the perfect tectonic setting to allow for gold-quartz vein-mineralization.

The only present-day gold producer in NE Sudan is the Sudanese-French joint venture operation of Ariab*. At this locality high quality gold ore is mined in extreme intensively leached SEDEX* (sedimentary-exhalative) deposits, occurring in a sequence of highly folded acid volcanics of mainly rhyolitic character. Due to superficial leaching, only a sponge type whitish silica residue remains from the former SEDEX-deposit, enriched up to 50 ppm in Au.

Geographic position: 184152N,352334E

Ariab (Arabic: ) is a region of Sudan, located in

the Nubian Desert. It is inhabited by the Beja people, and is home to the countrys only commercial gold mine, run by French giant Areva. Gold mining has historically been crucially important for the desert region since Pharaonic times.

Sedimentary exhalative deposits (SedEx deposits) are ore deposits which are interpreted to have been formed by release of ore-bearing hydrothermal fluids into a water reservoir (usually the ocean), resulting in the precipitation of stratiform ore. SedEx deposits are the most important source of lead, zinc and barite, a major contributor of silver, copper, gold, bismuth and tungsten.

According to drill core results, this leached zone changes gradually into a pyrite dominated massive sulphide ore body, which is stratabound and folded, with only an average of 0.5 ppm Au. It appears quite likely that sulphidic SEDEX occurrences or their oxidized remains might have been the primary gold source of this second type, hydrothermally leached and redeposited, forming the gold-bearing quartz mineralization investigated during our studies.

Index of ancient periods of mining activity in the eastern desert

1. Earliest Hunters Period (fourth mill. BC).

2. Pre-and Early Dynastic Period (two-hand hammer period) (~30002700 BC).

3. Old and Middle Kingdom (~27001800 BC).

4. New Kingdom to the third Intermediate Period (~15501070 BC).

5. Ptolemaic Period (~30030 BC).

6. Kingdoms of Kush & Mero in Nubia (~700 BC100 AD).

7. Roman-Byzantine Period (~30 BC641 AD).

8. Early Arab Period (ninth to eleventh century AD).

In the Eastern Desert of Egypt, remains of gold production sites were dated to the time of Earliest Hunters* of Winkler (1938), who classified this nomadic population as part of the Amratiens*, in the middle of the fourth millennium BC. During this time, obviously only small nuggets were picked from the wadi grounds.

Yet, as accumulation of gold nuggets in the recent wades free of continually flowing river systems is not pertinent, the occurrence of visible nuggets must have been restricted to the few remaining wadi grounds from Pleistocene times.

Such a system is preserved in the area around Umm Eleiga* in the southern part of the central Eastern Desert of Egypt, where stone fields bearing decorations of the Earliest Hunters could be detected.

Amratiens: Prehistoric period between ca. 4500 and 3500 BC. Named after the site at Amra in Upper Egypt.

Umm Eleiga; Geographic position: Large building complex: 243706 N, 345916 E Mine area: 243644 N, 350319 E

The large Early Arab Period building complex at Umm Eleiga. Relatively small room units are crossed by a central road.

Winkler(1938) ascribes this Predynastic group to the so-called Earliest Hunters of the Amratian culture & dates it to the middle of the fourth millennium BC. They specifically depict wild animals, such as ostriches & elephants in loosely arranged compositions. The high density of the rock art representations seems on any account to suggest a long period of occupation as well as to some extent an area quite wealthy in gold.

In the beginning, the earliest discoveries of gold nugget s in the Eastern Desert of Egypt had probably been relatively sporadic and fortuitous. Such gold placers from the wadi beds are rare relics (secondary deposits) from the Pleistocene that had formed in the drainage system around auriferous quartz veins (primary deposits). Nuggets are typically much richer in gold than the gold from primary deposits. This is explained by the forging action provoked by mechanical transport of wadi rubble in flowing water, which also engenders the exsolution of their natural silver contents that are present in all Egyptian gold deposits.Published analyses carried out on Egyptian gold artifacts have so far had relatively discouraging results as to the golds origin in either primary or secondary deposits.

Established gold-silver proportions seem to vary unsystematically within samples from various periods. Natural gold occurrences were probably not methodically sought for as opposed to later periods. It may rather have found its way into the Nile Valley as placer gold sporadically bartered by desert nomads. Winkler (1938 ) ascribes this Predynastic group to the so-called Earliest Hunters of the Amratian culture and dates it to the middle of the fourth millennium BC. They specifically depict wild animals, such as ostriches and elephants in loosely arranged compositions. The high density of the rock art representations seems on any account to suggest a long period of occupation as well as to some extent an area quite wealthy in gold.

Discoveries of gold artifacts, dating back as far as the Predynastic time (about 3500 BC) demonstrate that gold production must have taken place in Ancient Egypt as well.

Furthermore, discoveries of the oldest mining tools are connected to mining sites associated with superficially altered quartz vein systems, which originally contained a variable copper-sulphide mineralization, that is almost completely leached out and which has been re-deposited as typical green malachite (and some other green secondary copper minerals) within the host rocks joint system.

Statistical analysis of the geological environments around Pre- and Early dynastic mining sites indicate unambiguously that the earliest prospectors concentrated their mining activities on well-selected geological targets of gold enriched quartz veins, mainly in granodioritic rims of Neoproterozoic granitic intrusions, belonging to the so called older and younger granites of the Eastern Desert.

Obviously this green staining guided early prospectors to the auriferous quartz veins. Apart from gold, those malachite enriched sites also were mined for copper.

Gold mining sensu strictu in Ancient Egypt started in Predynastic time with open pits and moderate underground activities (Fig.1).

Trench of an Early Dynastic gold mining site at Abu Mureiwat, Eastern Desert, Egypt. Both sides of the formerly protruding quartz vein are filled up by waste, including broken stone hammers and ceramic fragments.

(Fig.1)

During this early period, the gold-bearing quartz veins were crushed in situ to a fine powder fraction by huge calabash-shaped stone hammers of 610 kg weight, which must have been held with both hands (Fig.2)

(Fig.2)

Abandoned fine-grained granodioritic two-handed stone hammers from Pre- to Early Dynastic Higalig gold mine, southern Eastern Desert, Egypt. Modern hammer: 30 cm.

In this way the gold slivers within the quartz were liberated for later processing. This mining method formed conspicuous smooth surfaces, both at the walls and the stopes of the underground operations. However, until now no convincing field evidence for a gold concentration procedure could be discovered.

Apart from the large two handed stone hammers, different types of discus-shaped hammers have also been found within Predynastic sites. This hammer type obviously was used only to gain lumpy quartz ore from the brittle vein systems, which was powdered later by the large hammers.

Heavy duty two-hand hammers used for crushing quartz ores during extraction. Higalig mine, Egypt

Fist hammers (on the right) with originally pointed impact surfaces for chipping off ore fragments. Old Kingdom, Abu Mureiwat, Egypt

Lumpy quartz

During the Old (27002160 BC) and Middle Kingdom (21191794 BC) the previously described prospecting method of searching for malachite staining in the host rocks continued in general, but in addition hematite enriched quartz veins (in places with barite) became important for exploration and, in case of gold discovery, for subsequent mining targets.

(Fig.3)

Ergonomically formed one-handed andesitic stone hammers used in Old and Middle Kingdom times. Abu Mureiwat gold mining site, Eastern Desert, Egypt.

With the advantage of these new mining implements a more effective exploitation of the auriferous quartz veins could be established.

vein systems, but two new basic types of stone hammer were developed: an oval stone axe of 25 kg weight with a chiseled notch for a forked wooden stick and a more or less cylindrical one-handed stone hammer with a chiseled, ergonomically formed handle (Fig.3).

Mortar from red granite and pounder used for crushing quartz ores. Middle Kingdom, Daghbag, Egypt

Old Kingdom gold mining techniques ontinued with in situ crushing of the gold-bearing quartz

During the Middle Kingdom this tool inventory in general continued, but additional stone mortars were introduced, allowing for the lumpy quartz ore to be crushed first to about pea-sized grains and then for grinding it to a powder fraction. Again, no archaeological evidence for further gold recovery treatments during this period could be discovered, but the remark of the nomarch* (provincial ruler) Ameni, who is quoted in his Beni Hassan * tomb as having said I forced their (Nubian) chiefs to wash the gold gives a clear hint that hydro-metallurgical concentration processes were well established during these periods. The majority of miners in these times were most probably members of desert tribes and not Egyptians of the Nile valley. This is suggested by the ergonomically formed handle of the one-hand stone hammers, fitting best in a hand of 1820 cm in size, rather than one of 11 13 cm, which was the average for the Nile valley population at that time. Furthermore, this could be verified by sporadic finds of typical Nubian pottery. On the other hand, it has to be emphasized that typical Egyptian pottery of that time, such as red polished Medium bowls were also frequently discovered in the surveyed surface remains, which can be seen as a hint for stronger Egyptian control of the mining operations, in contrast to the previous Egyptian restriction on gold trading.

Beni Hasan; Coordinates: 2756N 3053E / 27.933N 30.883E

(Arabic: ) is an Ancient Egyptian cemetery

site. It is located approximately 20 kilometers to the south of modern-day Minya in the region known as Middle Egypt, the area between Asyut and Memphis. While there are some Old Kingdom burials at the site, it was primarily used during the Middle Kingdom, spanning the 21st to 17th centuries BCE (Middle Bronze Age).

Nomarches (Ancient Egyptian: heri-tep a'a) were the semi-feudal rulers of Ancient Egyptian provinces. Serving as provincial governors, they each held authority over one of the 42 nomes (Egyptian: sepat) into which the country was divided. Nome is derived from the Greek nomos, meaning a province or district, and nomarch is derived from the Greek title nomarches (), the ruler of a nomos.[1] The nomarches exercised considerable power. The division of the kingdom into nomes can be documented as far back as the Old Kingdom (in the 3rd millennium BCE) and continued even up until the Roman period.

In Fig. 4, only a few gold mining sites for both Pre- and Early dynastic times and Old and Middle Kingdom periods are shown.

Distribution of the Pre- and Early dynastic, Old and Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom gold production sites in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Note the wide activities all over the Desert regions even into the very southernmost parts.

(Fig.4)

This corresponds with the low number of known gold artifacts from those early periods, compared to the later periods. However, quite a few of the early mining sites might have been so intensively overprinted by later operations that today no older surface remains are still visible. The first military campaign in the 18th year of Sesostris I* (19561911 BC), at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, was most probably organized to gain access to the Nubian gold. It is recorded by the Sesotoris I nomarch Ameni, in his tomb at Beni Hassan, that he undertook expeditions to Nubia from where he returned with gold and gold ore for his king. However, almost all ancient gold mines of these early times are more or less collapsed, and any estimation of the maximum depth without archaeological excavations is debatable; nevertheless, depths in open trenches of up to about 25 m seem realistic.

Senusret I (also Sesostris I and Senwosret I) was the second pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1971 BC to 1926 BC, and was one of the most powerful kings of this Dynasty. He was the son of Amenemhat I and his wife Nefertitanen. His wife and sister was Neferu. She was also the mother of the successor Amenemhat II.

Distribution of the New Kingdom and Early Arab gold production sites in NE Sudan. Note the concentration of the sites along the river Nile, but also the widely scattered localities all over the vast distances of the Nubian Desert. Note further that the Arab gold production sites never passed westwards the line situated at approximately Wadi Halfa Abu Hamed.

(Fig.5)

From the New Kingdom (15501070 BC) period onwards, gold mining operations concentrated more in the central Eastern Desert, predominantly south of the Qena-Safaga road, and were also spread over the eastern portion of the Red Sea hills. Due to the conquest of Nubia, exploitation of the Wadi Allaqi area and deep into the NE Sudan (Figs. 4 & 5) also became possible. Moreover, the gold prospecting targets were significantly enlarged: in the vicinity of the older mining sites quartz vein systems free of hematite and green copper aureoles were also successfully prospected. More detailed studies of the quartz vein systems exploited during New Kingdom periods indicate the profound knowledge of the

ancient prospectors. They obviously were aware of the general structural control of gold-bearing veins, which despite showing different strike-patterns in different parts of the Eastern Desert, have a general tendency of northsouth or eastwest strike directions. The prospectors followed only veins of these known productive orientations and ignored the many others running divergently within the same prospecting area.

Characteristic blue-green malachite linings in the cleft structures of the wall rock had probably been the most important indicators for copper and gold ores in the period of Old/Middle Kingdom. Umm Soleimat

In addition, unexplored new areas with an enlarged geological framework were prospected during New Kingdom times. Particular emphasis was placed on geological environments characterized by basaltic(amphibolitic) and serpentinitic lithologies with or without black shales, in the vicinity of granitoid batholiths. Furthermore, due to the systematic exploration of remote desert regions during New Kingdom times, graniticgranodioritic areas in the southern and eastern parts of the Eastern Desert became new and important prospecting and mining targets. These were extended to the Wadi Allaqi and even to the North-Eastern Sudan. As an important innovation, intensive gold prospecting and processing were extended to include wadi-working operations, where gold-bearing quartz samples were systematically picked from the coarse grained fractions of the wadi sediments. At these sites, the simultaneous employment of hundreds of workers was possible, in contrast to the severely limited number of

miners in underground workings. Archaeologically these wadi works are preserved in extended settlements along the exploited wadis. Normally house ruins remain only at the wadi boundaries, parallel to the hillsides as the remainder of the settlements was mostly washed away by sporadic floods, but in a few cases ruins still cover entire wadi sites. Consequently these sites led to an enormous increase in gold production, documented by an increase of known gold artefacts from those times.

Cubic New Kingdom pounding stone with six impact hollows, Wadi Allaqi Region

In addition to the greatly expanded mining activities, a radically new milling technique had a strong impact on gold production at the onset of the New Kingdom: mill stones up to 80 cm long and 3050 cm wide, with a flat and oval-shaped grinding plane, and differently sized sets of mill stones used with one or both hands (Fig. 6) were introduced. These stone mills are similar to the flour mills commonly used in the Nile valley since very early times. The introduction of these flour

milling techniques into the gold ore processing industry can be regarded as an indication that only from New Kingdom times onwards were the majority of miners Egyptians from the Nile valley. This assumption is also confirmed by the predominant occurrence of typical New Kingdom pottery remains within mining sites in the Egyptian Eastern Desert, but partly also in Nubia.

New Kingdom oval shaped andesitic stone mill with a selection of grinding stones from Hairiri gold mining site, Wadi Allaqi, southern Eastern Desert, Egypt (scale is 10 cm).

(Fig.6)

Flat grinding mill and fi st grinder from the New Kingdom for producing quartz powder. Marahig, Wadi Allaqi

Before milling, the initial lumpy ore was crushed down to about bean-sized particles with a double-sided stone anvil of about 30*30 cm and a rounded stone pestle of 0.52 kg weight. Demonstrably, the separation of barren and gold-bearing quartz fragments exclusively by eye was perfected by the workers, as small and uncommon remaining mine dump heaps in the wadi grounds today contain only milky white and translucent barren quartz gravels (Fig. 7).

Separation of gold from the fine-milled quartz powder fraction was managed by washing as attested by preserved tailing dumps. At first view these tailings appear as mostly pink to reddish heaps of quartz sand, analogous to normal desert sand.

Remaining New Kingdom waste dam heaps from wadi workings at Umm Garaiyat, Wadi Allaqi, southern Eastern Desert, Egypt. Note that parts of the wadi ground became flooded later, destroying most of the ancient situation.

(Fig.7)

Anvil slab and pestle for reducing ore chunks. Neguib, Wadi Allaqi

Tailing consisting of processed sand residues. El-Sid mining district, Egypt

Gold cyanidation; (also known as the cyanide process or the MacArthur-Forrest process) is a metallurgical technique for extracting gold from low-grade ore by converting the gold to a water soluble coordination complex. It is the most commonly used process for gold extraction.

Ball-and-stick model of the aurocyanide or dicyanoaurate(I) complex anion, [Au(CN)2]

Investigation with a simple hand lens, however, reveals both sharp edged quartz grains which are artificial products as well as remaining gold concentrations of about 35 g/t. This rather high residual gold content unfortunately caused the destruction of many ancient gold production sites at the beginning of the 20th century, when modern gold production started with cyanide leaching* of the old tailings, thus destroying most of the preserved and untouched original archaeological sites. At quite a few of the New Kingdom gold production sites, inclined gold washing tables constructed of stone fragments, consolidated by primitive clay/sand mortar and with a surface covered by a layer of the same material, can be observed. The lengths of these washing tables vary between 2.2 and 4 m, and they are 4060 cm wide and 80100 cm high, corresponding with an inclination angle of 1520 (Fig.8).

(Fig.7)

Inclined Arab period washing table. This type of washing table could be archaeologically assigned in use from New Kingdom times on, but might have been in use already since earlier periods. Due to the intensive obliteration of these very old usages, they can no longer be recognized.

At the end of this slope the washing water was recovered in a box about 60 cm deep and wide, walled by stone slabs and sealed again with the described mortar. Here also the detritus of the quartz tailings was deposited, from where it was dumped close by, at the tailing heaps, still partly preserved in many cases today.

New Kingdom tailing heap and remains of an inclined washing table within the Heimur mining area

In Greek mythology, the Golden Fleece (Greek: chrysmallon dras) is the fleece of the gold-hair winged ram, which was held in Colchis. The fleece is a symbol of authority and kingship. It figures in the tale of the hero Jason and his band of Argonauts, who set out on a quest for the fleece by order of King Pelias, in order to place Jason rightfully on the throne of Iolcus in Thessaly. Through the help of Medea, they acquire the Golden Fleece.

A mortar-sealed and stone slab protected gutter conducted the water back to a large, 80-60 cm basin, from where the water was recycled for further gold washing processes, most probably with primitive shadoufs (a scooping bucket conveyor, still in use in Egypt and Nubia today).

The question remains, however, as to how the planar surface of the inclined table was prepared, to separate the fine-grained gold particles liberated by the grinding process from the quartz ore. No direct archaeological evidence exists for this important step in ancient gold recovery. Due to the lack of any archaeological relicts in this respect it might be assumed that the covers of these inclined tables were of organic materials. Here in general two possibilities are likely, either a wooden grid or simply sheepskins, as both were commonly used in the more recent past for separation of gold slivers and quartz sand fractions. The sheepskin hypothesis is supported by the supposition that sheep were available at the mining sites as food, & further, both the lanolin grease & the

washed fibers of the sheepskins would have trapped the sharp-edged gold particles whereas the barren quartz particles were carried off with the water suspension. The legend of the Golden Fleece*, therefore, may have been of Egyptian origin & of far greater antiquity than the voyage of the Argonauts. Finally, burning the pelts containing the gold particles yields a raw gold product, but obviously no witness to this last possible step of the gold recovery procedure would remain. In the early New Kingdom times, approximately between the reigns of Thutmosis I* (15041492 BC) & Amenophis IV* (13511334 BC), Nubia was conquered & incorporated into the Egyptian NK empire. Most probably the name Nubia is alliterated from nub, the ancient Egyptian word for gold.

Thutmose I (sometimes read as Thothmes, Thutmosis or Tuthmosis I, meaning Thoth-Born) was the third Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt. He was given the throne after the death of the previous king Amenhotep I. During his reign, he campaigned deep into the Levant and Nubia, pushing the borders of Egypt further than ever before. He also built many temples in Egypt and built a tomb for himself in the Valley of the Kings; he is the first king confirmed to have done this (though Amenhotep I may have preceded him).

Akhenaten (/kntn/; also spelled Echnaton, Akhenaton, Ikhnaton, and Khuenaten; meaning Effective for Aten") known before the fifth year of his reign as Amenhotep IV (sometimes given its Greek form, Amenophis IV, and meaning Amun is Satisfied), was a pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt who ruled for 17 years and died perhaps in 1336 BC or 1334 BC. He is especially noted for abandoning traditional Egyptian polytheism and introducing worship centered on the Aten, which is sometimes described as monotheistic or henotheistic. An early inscription likens the Aten to the sun as compared to stars, and later official language avoids calling the Aten a god, giving the solar deity a status above mere gods.

Geographic position: 192757 N, 325939 E

As already mentioned above, the NK-nomarch Ameni forced the chiefs of the Nubians to perform gold washing. As alluvial river gold is still panned today in parts of Nubia, especially in the area around Shamkhiya*, some 30 km west of Abu Hamed, this or a similar technique may already have been known during Pharaonic times. Inscriptions on dedication lists at NK Egyptian temples like Medinet Habu*, where gold of the water is registered, support gold extraction from alluvial (wadi and river sediments) sources (Fig. 9). Nevertheless, no convincing archaeological evidence exists for panning or equivalent techniques having been applied during Pharaonic periods. The unique, probable gold washing plant reported by Vercoutter (1959)

from the vicinity of Faras* (now under the water of Lake Sudan), is doubtful, as the author himself was puzzled whether this could not possibly have been an installation for wine production. The well-organized housing areas of the various gold working sites of New Kingdom times are constructed mainly of 34 roomed houses, with dry stone walls about 30 cm wide and up to 1.5 m high &, in many cases, with a front terrace (Fig.10). The lack of any protective enclosing walls indicates that during this period the Eastern Desert of Egypt was peaceful and under the direct control of Pharaonic Egypt.

Coordinates: 254310.92N 32362.52E / 25.7197000N 32.6007000E Medinet Habu is the name commonly given to the Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III, an important New Kingdom period structure in the location of the same name on the West Bank of Luxor in Egypt. Aside from its intrinsic size and architectural and artistic importance, the temple is probably best known as the source of inscribed reliefs depicting the advent and defeat of the Sea Peoples during the reign of Ramesses III.

Faras (formerly Ancient Greek: , Pakhras; Latin: Pachoras) was a major city in Lower Nubia. The site of the city, on the border between modern Egypt and Sudan at Wadi Halfa Salient, was flooded by Lake Nasser in the 1960s and is now permanently underwater. Before this flooding, extensive archeological work was conducted by a Polish archeological team.

(Fig.9)

Nubians (upper part) bringing gold in pochettes and ring ingots. Copy of wall painting remains in the tomb of Huy, viceroy of Kush (Nubia) under Tutankhamun, end of 18th dynasty, New Kingdom.

(Fig.10) Remains of a five roomed stone house from the New Kingdom settlement of Tilat Gadalla, Eastern Desert, Egypt.

Mining technique improved significantly in NK times, mainly of the introduction of bronze chisels, which allowed a much more selective separation of the gold-bearing quartz generations of a multiphase quartz vein from the barren parts of the host rocks. The miners followed selectively the most promising ore shoots, which resulted locally in a somewhat chaotic pattern of the underground operations. Fortunately, in most mines supporting pillars at sufficiently

safe spacings ensured the safety of the ancient miners as well as our recent samplers. During NK time no sophisticated ventilation of the underground operations was developed, limiting the maximum depth of operation to about 30 m, the maximum depth for maintaining a sufficient oxygen level by normal circulation for men and burning oil lamps. In Figs. 5 & 6 the distribution of the many NK gold production sites in Egypt and NE Sudan provides an impression of the very extensive gold production operations carried out during New Kingdom times. However, it should be emphasized that in Nubia these activities were restricted only to the rather limited period between about the reign of Thutmosis III* and Amenophis III*. From the weak Egyptian government of

Amenophis IV onwards, throughout the Ramesside* (about 13001100 BC) period, no archaeological evidence for Pharaonic gold mining within the Nubian Desert, south of Wadi Allaqi could be detected. In the Egyptian Eastern Desert, primary NK gold production started already early in the 18th dynasty and collapsed completely by the end of the Ramesside period, and seems to have been suspended throughout the entire Late Period, until early Ptolemaic times.

The Ramesside period; is so-called after the eleven kings with the name Ramesses, who ruled in the Nineteenth to the Twentieth Dynasties. Ramesses II (about 1279-1213 BC) faced the armies of the Hittite empire at the Battle of Kadesh and as a result became a role model for his successors. Partly in response to the threat of foreign incursions, he founded a capital in the Nile Delta, known as Piramesse.

Thutmose III (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis III, Thothmes in older history works, and meaning "Thoth is born) was the sixth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. During the first twenty-two years of Thutmoses reign he was co-regent with his stepmother and aunt, Hatshepsut, who was named the pharaoh. After her death and his later rise to pharaoh of the kingdom, he created the largest empire Egypt had ever seen; no fewer than seventeen campaigns were conducted, and he conquered from Niya in North Syria to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in Nubia.

Amenhotep III (Hellenized as Amenophis III; Egyptian Amna-tpa; meaning Amun is Satisfied) also known as Amenhotep the Magnificent was the ninth pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty. According to different authors, he ruled Egypt from June 1386 to 1349 BC or June 1388 BC to December 1351 BC/1350 BC[4] after his father Thutmose IV died. Amenhotep III was the son of Thutmose by a minor wife Mutemwiya.

(Fig.11)

Remains of a five roomed stone house from the New Kingdom settlement of Tilat Gadalla, Eastern Desert, Egypt.

It is very likely that in Ptolemaic & also in Roman times essentially no new prospecting strategies were developed & that only the ancient NK Pharaonic mining sites were reorganized & mined out. The mining was again limited by underground shaft termination at a final ventilation depth, approximately 30 m below surface (below which oil lamps are no longer able to function). Only those mines which were located close to the desert roads were further exploited or re-established in Ptolemaic & Roman times (Fig. 11). Klemm et al investigations within the Wadi Allaqi area, in contrast to Castiglioni & Vercoutter (1995) did not confirm any Ptolemaic mining site & it is most doubtful whether during that period any gold mining activity was feasible in this area, due to the aggressive desert tribes dominating the entire southern Eastern Desert & reaching deep into what is now NE Sudan. Most probably the common placing of Agatharchides* border of Ethiopia by Egyptologists at the Wadi Allaqi is misleading & the relevant locality must be sought much further towards the north. In fact, the known Ptolemaic gold mining sites cluster mainly within the central Eastern Desert around the more or less west-east running Qena-Safaga, Quft-Qoseir, Edfu-Berenice & Laqeita-Berenice roads, where fortifications guaranteed at least some safety (see Fig. 11).

Agatharchides or Agatharchus (Greek: or , Agatharchos) of Cnidus was a Greek historian and geographer (flourished 2nd century BC). and the work of Artemidorus.

A dramatic improvement in milling technique & ore processing was introduced by the Ptolemees. They used concave shaped mill stones of 7080 cm length & 30 40 cm width, with parallel incised, 2 mm deep grooves on the milling plane. Semi-circular two-lugged mill stones of 510 kg weight were moved by hand over the grinding plane, milling the pea-sized crushed quartz into a powder fraction & setting free the fine gold slivers (Fig. 12).With this swinging milling method the whole process was about five times more effective than earlier methods. Based on Agatharchides, reported by Diodor III*, 12 gold mining sites took place in the southern part of Egypt, close to the border of Ethiopia. In spite of justified

doubts about the authenticity of Agatharchides description it is generally accepted that gold mining took place in the Wadi Allaqi district during Ptolemaic times, although the exact area is not mentioned literally. For crushing, the old anvil and pestle system remained, but with an enlarged size of the crusher stone. Most probably this new design of a concave shaped milling stone is not an original

Greek invention but derived from the Minoan island of Crete, where we have discovered this mill type within the ruins of the Minoan cities of Gournia and Festos.

Diodorus Siculus (/dadrsskjls/; Greek: - Diodoros Sikeliotes) or Diodorus of Sicily was a Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history Bibliotheca historica, much of which survives, between 60 and 30 BC. It is arranged in three parts. The first covers mythic history up to the destruction of Troy, arranged geographically, describing regions around the world from Egypt, India and Arabia to Greece and Europe. The second covers the Trojan War to the death of Alexander the Great. The third covers the period to about 60BC. The title Bibliotheca, meaning 'library', acknowledges that he was drawing on the work of many other authors.

(Fig.12)

Concave shaped Ptolemaic gold mill with a two handled mill stone, with a two handled grinding stone, together producing a swinging milling technique and thereby increasing the fineness of the quartz ore powder fraction. Gidami gold mining site, Eastern Desert, Egypt.

Concave Ptolemaic grinding mill with apron shaped runner stone. Hangaliya, Egypt

Concave cereal mill from the Minoan city of Gournia, Crete

Obviously, based on the Greek mining experience, Ptolemaic underground mining in Egyptian gold mines became significantly improved. Thus, in gently dipping gold quartz vein workings, dome shaped mine ceilings allowed for the reduction of supporting pillars, to separation distances of 46 m, which increased the minable output. Another important improvement was the adaptation of circular concentration washing plants from the Laurion mining district in Attica.

Due to this development it became possible to process also primary gold-bearing sulphidic ores with pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite & arsenopyrite, hitherto not extractable. Remains of such concentration plants (Fig. 13) are well preserved at Daghbag, Bokari &, in spite of recent destruction, also at Barramiya. The reasons for the reduced Ptolemaic gold mining activities in the Central Eastern Desert of Egypt are not reported in historical documents, but we know from Roman sources that large parts of the Eastern Desert & Nubia were not to be subdued due to the aggressive attitudes of the local nomadic tribes, which the Romans called Blemmyes*. The Bisharin tribes* inhabiting this region today are regarded as their descendants, & still

habitually carry swords & daggers.

The Blemmyes (Latin Blemmyae) were a nomadic Nubian tribal kingdom that existed from at least 600 BC to the 8th century AD. They were described in Roman histories of the later empire. From the late 3rd century on, along with another tribe, the Nobadae, they repeatedly fought the Romans. They were said to live in Africa, in Nubia, Kush, or Sudan. They also became fictionalized as a legendary race of acephalous (headless) monsters who had eyes and mouths on their chest.

Circular installation for gravity separation of heavy minerals in Laurion/Attica, ~400 BC

(Fig.13)

Remains of a circular heavy mineral concentrator from Daghbag gold mine, Eastern Desert, Egypt, introduced during Ptolemaic times into Egyptian gold ore processing, but originally designed in the Laurion district, Attica, Greece.

The Bisharin are an ethnic group inhabiting Northeast Africa. They are one of the major divisions of the Beja nomadic population. The Bisharin speak the Beja language, which belongs to the Afro-Asiatic family.

In Nubia quite a few NK gold mining sites became reworked later, reusing the older tools, especially the stone mills. At these sites one can observe that the typical, rather flat NK oval, trough-shaped stone mills bear a distinct deeper secondary concavity, indicating a different and later type of handling of the milling technique. The most probable age for renewed mining of these sites was during the strong Kushitic Kingdom (about 800400 BC). Unfortunately, at these sites only local Nubian ceramics, hard to assign to a distinct period, have been found and more detailed excavations are needed to yield a better chronology. The relatively few sites where this reworked mill stone variety, dating to the Kushitic period, was identified might not have been the only gold source of this time, because according to Amenis report, washing of gold took place in Nubia at least since Middle Kingdom times.

New Kingdom ore mill, displaying considerable use wear, probably from secondary utilisation later in the Kushite Period. Wadi Amur

Originally evenly worn New Kingdom stone mill from Nubt, probably reclaimed and worn down in the Kushite Period

During Roman & Byzantine times, gold production decreased dramatically due to continuous attacks by the desert tribes of the Blemmyes. The Roman presence in the Eastern Desert was restricted exclusively to well protected desert roads, with fortifications spaced at about a days walk. It became economically ineffective to protect the many gold mining sites scattered all over the desert. Only a few highly productive sites close to the protected roads remained operable during Roman times. In spite of the highly evolved Roman prospecting experience, the gold mining activities in the Eastern Desert dropped nearly to zero in contrast to other regions of the Roman empire. The final improvement in the effectiveness of gold processing was the import of the Roman

quern technology, originally a Celtic invention. This type of a round mill, of 3045 cm in diameter, consists of a basal stone with a disc-shaped hollow in which a round convex upper turning stone was fitted that had a central axial hole and a lateral one for the handle stick (Fig. 14). The quern produced an even finer powder fraction with an improved gold recovery in about a third of the time required by the earlier method. The crushing stones are of characteristic small size (about 15*15 cm) and were used as both hammers and anvils. The same tools remained in use until Arab times and querns are still used today within rural areas as flour mills.

Spatial distribution of the Roman-Byzantine gold mining sites in the Egyptian Eastern Desert. The extremely low number may result from instability caused by attacks from belligerent Blemmyes-tribes.

Cylindrical granitic rotation stone mill (quern) with wellpreserved upper rotation stones for central & peripheral handle sticks, introduced by the Romans but predominantly used in Arab times. Gabatilo Arab mining camp, Nubian Desert, NE Sudan.

(Fig.14)

Round mill Also referred to as rotation mill or quern. It consists of a lower stone base with a round grinding surface & an upper rotating disc referred to as rotor stone. It was used to grind crushed quartz pebbles down to a powder fraction from which gold flitters were separated.

For Byzantine times, only very poor archaeological evidence for gold mining exists. Even for the settlement at Bir Umm elFawakhir which was inhabited during Byzantine times, and despite the assumption of Meyer and Heidorn (1998), no unequivocal proof for gold ore dressing could be found by us during an extended survey. The Bedouin tribes, dominating the entire Eastern Desert of Egypt and the Nubian Desert, traditionally were not interested in mining and so they still are today refusing any digging in the ground, including even simple agriculture in sufficiently watered wadi grounds

Detail of the environment around Bir Umm el-Fawakhir (modified Google-Earth image).

Elongated Roman/Byzantine settlement, being the largest and best preserved in the Bir Umm el-Fawakhir district (pos. 3).

Well-preserved ruins of dry walled houses near the Roman granite quarries (pos. 2) where un fi nished ashlars still scatter in the plain (arrow).

For the early Arab times no field evidence for primary underground gold prospection could be detected & only existing ancient mining sites became reactivated all over the entire Eastern Desert. In contrast, in NE Sudan away from areas close to the River Nile, extensive wadi working operations in secondary gold deposits were started in the Eastern Desert regions at many

new sites. In general, it seems that the mining activities during this period became more concentrated in the southern parts of the Egyptian Eastern Desert including the Wadi Allaqi & especially in the NE Sudan. Within these areas gold mineralization is found predominantly in meta-sedimentary & acid volcanogenic host rocks intruded by granitoids. The abundant wadi works in secondary gold deposits formed part of huge fortified settlements, & inclined washing tables surrounded by tailings are found. The peak of the early Arab mining activities took place from the 10th to 11th centuries AD, beginning under A. Ibn Tulun* (about 990 AD) until the Fatimitic* time in Egypt & until about 1350 AD in NE Sudan (Fig. 11).

Ahmad ibn ln (September 835 March 884) was the founder of the Tulunid dynasty that ruled Egypt between 868 and 905 AD. Originally sent by the Abbasid caliph as governor to Egypt, ibn ln established himself as an independent ruler.

The Fatimid Caliphate (Arabic: al-Fimyn;

) was a Shia Islamic caliphate, which

spanned a large area of North Africa, from the Red Sea in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. The dynasty ruled across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of the caliphate. At its height, the caliphate included in addition to Egypt varying areas of the Maghreb, Sudan, Sicily, the Levant, and Hijaz

Spatial distribution of the Early Arab Period gold mining sites in the Nubian Eastern Desert. Their limitation to eastern regions with an evident distance to the Nile may possibly be linked to an opposition by the Christian Kingdoms of Nobatia and Makuria until the middle of the fourteenth century. Washing table for gold processing in the Early Arab Period

settlement at Umm Balad

Well-preserved Early Arab period washing table and tailing heap in Wadi el-Urf

Mitanni (/mtni/); also called Hanigalbat, in Assyrian or Naharin in Egyptian texts was a Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria and southeast Anatolia from ca. 1500 BC1300 BC. Founded by an Indo-Aryan ruling class governing a predominantly Hurrian population, Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of Amorite Babylon and a series of ineffectual Assyrian kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia.

Tutankhamun (/tutnkmun/) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty (ruled ca. 13321323 BC in the conventional chronology), during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom. He is popularly referred to as King Tut. His original name, Tutankhaten, means Living Image of Aten", while Tutankhamun means Living Image of Amun". The 1922 discovery of Tutankhamuns nearly intact tomb received worldwide press coverage. It sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamuns burial mask, now in Cairo Museum, remains the popular symbol. Exhibits of artifacts from his tomb have toured the world.

The wealth of gold in Pharaonic Egypt is legendary, as illustrated when in about 1340 BC a Mesopotamian Mitanni* ruler asked Pharaoh Amenhotep III, in an urgent letter, for a larger gold consignment, arguing that gold occurs in Egypt like sand on the roads. After our inspections of nearly all of the many known Pharaonic gold production sites in Egypt & NE Sudan all these imaginative expectations must be rejected. During the entire Egyptian history of roughly 6000 years tradition in gold production, less than the monthly gold output of present South Africa was achieved. The total tonnage of the entire ancient mined trenches & underground operations is of the order of 400 000600 000 t of quartz ore. Assuming a recovery of 10 g/t, which is about two thirds of the maximum concentration mined, a maximum of 6000 kg Au would have been produced. The production of the wadi works is far more problematic to estimate, but might have been of the same order, or maximally

double. This results in a maximum total gold production of 18 t. roughly 40% of this gold was gained during Pharaonic times, yielding around 7 t Au. The rest is equally distributed between both Ptolemaic & Arab times, neglecting the very low production rates of Predynastic & RomanByzantine times. This estimation, of course, does not correspond with the expectations of archaeologists when projecting the gold inventory of untouched tombs, like the one of Tutankhamun*, and inferred from royal dedication lists in temples from the entire Pharaonic history. The only solution to this discrepancy might be seen in intensive recycling of gold more or less constantly throughout the Pharaonic history, but with an increasing tendency from about the 12th century BC on. The famous tomb robbery papyrus* gives an impression of the destitution of justice & of implicit governmental agreement to these robberies, presumably also necessary for the supply of the public gold demand.

The Abbott Papyrus serves as an important political document concerning the tomb robberies of the twentieth dynasty of the New Kingdom in Ancient Egypt. It also gives insight into the scandal between the two rivals Pewero and Paser of Thebes. The Abbott Papyrus dates back to the 20th

dynasty around 1100BC under the reign of Ramesses IX in his 16th year. According to Peet, the papyrus content takes place in a four-day period from the 18th to the 21st of the third month of the inundation season, Akhet. The Abbott Papyrus is 218 cm in width and 42.5 cm in height. It is written in hieratic. The main document consists of seven pages on the recto side, and on the verso side there are two lists of thieves, which have been called the Abbott dockets.

mine Geographic position: age

Wadi Dara

Main settlement:

2754' 53' N, 3251' 02 E

Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom

Subordinate settlement:

2755' 11' N, 3251' 05 E

Smelting furnaces :

2755' 38 N, 3251' 27 E

Wadi Dara

2754' 49 N, 3252' 24 E Early Arab Period

Umm Balad 2751' 08 N, 3247' 09 E the Early Arab Period

Wadi el-Urf South of Gebel Mongul

Northern Central Group

Wadi Qena: 2709' 44 N, 3249' 27 E

Wadi Hammad West:

2709' 10 N, 3254' 47 E

Wadi Hammad: 2706' 43 N, 3257' 20 E

Wadi el-Atrash: 2710' 41 N, 3308' 48 E

Ghozza 2652' 08 N, 3306' 29 E Ptolemaic Period.

Fatira (Abu Zawal)

2640' 32 N, 3314 `33' E earliest occupation to the New Kingdom.

Abu Shehat 2635' 09 N, 3311' 55 E Ptolemaic Period.

Wadi Abiyad 2633' 16 N, 3354' 29 E

Abu Mureiwat 26 31' 02 N, 3338' 41 E Pre- and Early Dynastic Periods

Wadi Gasus

Early Arab settlement with tailing-site:

2630' 15 N, 3351' 05 E

Early Arab Period

Bir Semna 2628' 13 N, 3335' 46 E from the New Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Period


Wadi Margh-West

2626' 00 N, 3331' 28 E New Kingdom

Wadi Bahlog

Early Arab settlement:

2624' 09 N, 3330' 12 E

Early Arab Period

Mine: 2624' 05 N, 3330' 06 E

Tailing site: 2623' 58 N, 3330' 13 E

Kab Amiri 2623' 53 N, 3330' 29 E

Gidami

Modern tailing: 2623' 13 N, 3326' 59 E

New Kingdom Ptolemaic Period

Ptolemaic settlement: 2623' 30 N, 3327' 08 E

North mine: 2623' 07 N, 3327' 15 E

Abu Gaharish

2622' 27 N, 3338' 48 E (northern settlement) 2622' 10 N, 3338' 43 E (southern settlement)

New Kingdom

Abu Gerida 2621' 38 N, 3321' 15 E Early Arab Period,

Hamama I 2621' 59 N, 3320' 32 E

Deep New Kingdom Ptolemaic Period

Aradiya-East

2620' 36 N, 3330' 03 E Early Arab Period.

Wadi Sagia 2620' 59 N, 3334' 27 E the Old Kingdom and even earlier

Abu Had 2616' 30 N, 3330' 58 E

Wadi Atalla el-Mur

2612' 46 N, 3331' 22 E Early Arab Period.

Umm Esh el-Zarqa I

2610' 04 N, 3334' 38 E Old/Middle Kingdom.


Umm Esh el-Zarqa II

2609' 38 N, 3334' 38 E New Kingdom

Wadi Sodmein

New Kingdom-main settlement:

2610' 39 N, 3354' 38 E

New Kingdom

Ptolemaic complex: 2610' 55 N, 3454' 02 E

Umm el-Fawakhir and El-Sid

Fawakhir mine: 2600' 48 N, 3336' 10 E

Old Kingdom

Centre of the Roman/ Byzantine settlement:

2600' 36 N, 3336' 27E

El-Sid mine, administrative building:

2559' 15 N, 3336' 23 E

New Kingdom settlement in Wadi el-Sid:

2558' 47 N, 3337' 04 E

Umm Soleimat (also known as Hamuda)

2554' 54 N, 3344' 46 E Old/Middle Kingdom

Wadi Karim Ptolemaic settlement remains and modern plant:

2555' 55 N, 3403' 23 E

Ptolemaic

Kab el-Abiad

(New Kingdom settlement):

2555' 26 N, 3401' 00 E

New Kingdom

Wadi Zeidun I

2542' 41 N, 3344' 42 E

El-Nur 2552' 09 N, 3341' 57 E Early Arab Period.

Sigdit and Wadi Miyah

Sigdit, settlement: 2527' 25 N, 3404' 47 E

Roman Period

Bir Sigdit: 2527' 35 N, 3404' 45 E

Wadi Miyah (fort): 2524' 42 N, 3405' 06 E


Daghbag

Daghbag I Fort:

2523' 52 N, 3349' 07 E

Ptolemaic Period New Kingdom

Daghbag II, mine:

2524' 29 N, 3351' 17 E

Daghbag II (house ruins):

2524' 07 N, 3351' 34 E

Daghbag III, mine:

2524' 27 N, 3351' 45 E

Daghbag IV, mine:

2522' 39 N, 3348' 30 E

Wadi Raheiya

2526' 24 N, 3341' 34 E New Kingdom

Umm Rus

Modern and ancient main mine:

2527' 50 N, 3434' 54 E New Kingdom

Gadalla New Kingdom

Middle position in Wadi Gadalla:

2523' 19 N, 3343' 32 E

Gadalla southern settlement:

2522' 26 N, 3343' 32 E

Abu Muawad

2518' 36 N, 3342' 08 E (New Kingdom


Abu Muawad

2518' 36 N, 3342' 08 E (New Kingdom

El-Hisinat

N settlement: 2517' 42 N, 3348' 28 E

New Kingdom

SE settlement: 2516' 52 N, 3348' 59 E

Mine area: 2516' 53 N, 3349' 17 E

Abu Dabab

2519' 04 N, 3433' 33 E

Umm Samra

Mine: 2517' 38 N, 3407' 07 E New

Kingdom New Kingdom settlement:

2517' 08 N, 3407' 23 E

Bokari

Early Dynastic Period to the Early Arab Period, New Kingdom

New Kingdom settlement in Wadi Bokari:

2515' 44 N, 3345' 07 E

Ptolemaic processing site: 2515' 08 N, 3345' 22 E

New Kingdom settlement in Wadi Miyah:

2515' 07 N, 3346' 10 E

Geographic position (Bokari II)

2513' 15 N, 3343' 57 E

mine Geographic position: Age

Abu Qareiya

2513' N, 34 02' E (Koshin and Bassyuni 1968 )

Gadalla

Middle position for the mines:

2523' 16 N, 3342' 37 E

New Kingdom

Middle position in Wadi Gadalla:

2523' 19 N, 3343' 32 E

Gadalla southern settlement:

2522' 26 N, 3343' 32 E

El-Hisinat

N settlement: 2517' 42 N, 3348' 28 E

New Kingdom

SE settlement: 2516' 52 N, 3348' 59 E

Mine area: 2516' 53 N, 3349' 17 E

Abu Dabab

2519' 04 N, 3433' 33 E

Umm Samra

Mine: 2517' 38 N, 3407' 07 E New

Kingdom New Kingdom settlement:

2517' 08 N, 3407' 23 E

Bokari

Early Dynastic Period to the Early Arab Period, New Kingdom

New Kingdom settlement in Wadi Bokari:

2515' 44 N, 3345' 07 E

Ptolemaic processing site:

2515' 08 N, 3345' 22 E

New Kingdom settlement in Wadi Miyah:

2515' 07 N, 3346' 10 E

Geographic position (Bokari II)

2513' 15 N, 3343' 57 E

Abu Qareiya

2513' N, 34 02' E (Koshin and Bassyuni 1968 )


Abu Muawad

2518' 36 N, 3342' 08 E (New Kingdom

Bitan Geographic position: 2337' 53 N, 3503' 39 E

the Early Arab

Heimur Geographic position: 2238' 04 N, 3318' 14 E

date to the New Kingdom.

Wadi Murra

Geographic position: 2231' 03 N, 3354' 13 E

date to the Early Arab Period.

Atud

Geographic positions (mine): 2 501'1 8 N, 3425'0 3 E (Ptolemaic settlement): 2501' 18 N, 3424' 13 E Atud-East 1 (large New Kingdom settlement): 2501' 31 N, 3424' 49 E Arab settlement: 2 501'1 3 N, 3425' 02 E Atud-East 2 (New Kingdom settlement + mine): 2500' 37 N, 3425' 56 E Atud-West 1 (New Kingdom settlement): 2500' 57 N, 3423' 02 E Atud-West 2 (New Kingdom settlements): 2502' 11 N, 3421' 36 E Head of Wadi Atud 2458' 49 N, 3428' 56 E

ancient extraction phases can each be attributed to the New Kingdom, the Ptolemaic, and Early Arab Period.

Umm Tundub

Geographic position (mine): 2454' 55 N, 3445' 58 E

Early Arab

Marwat (Abu Mureiwa)

Geographic position: 2459' 22 N, 3356' 34 E Mureiwa 2: 2459' 03 N, 3357' 00 E

Early Arab Period

Hangaliya-West


in the Early Arab Period

Hamash Geographic position: 2440' 55 N, 3405' 41 E

It presumably dates to the Ptolemaic Period


Wadi el-Hudi


richly painted Nubian pottery dating to a period between the ninth and thirteenth centuries AD the Early Dynastic Period

Abu Fas Geographic position: 2208' 79 N, 3352' 50 E

the Early Arab Period

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Klemm, R., Klemm, D., 1994. Chronologischer Abriss der antiken

Goldgewinnung in der Ostwuste Agyptens. Mitt. Deutsch. Arch- aolog.

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Kroeper, K., Wildung D., 1994. Minshat Abu Omar I, Mainz, p. 162 with pl.

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Meyer, C., Heidorn, L., 1998. Three seasons at Bir Umm Fawakhir in the

Central Eastern Desert. In: Kaper, O.E. (Ed.), Life on the Fringe. Research

School CNWS, Leiden, pp. 197209.

Murray, G.W., 1925. The Roman roads and stations in the Eastern Desert

of Egypt. JEA11, 138150.

Newberry, P.E., 1893. Beni Hassan I. Arch. Surv. Egypt (ASE) 1, pl. 8.

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Schweinfurth, G., 1904. Die Wiederaufnahme des alten

GoldminenBetriebs in Agypten und Nubien. Ann. Service Antiquit. Egypt 4,

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Sidebotham, S.E., 1991. Romische Straen in der Agyptischen W uste. In:

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1_page cover.pdf2_abstract.pdf3_table of contents.pdf4_introduction.pdf5_Modes of occurrence.pdf8_index of ages.pdf9_earliest hunter peroid.pdf12_pre & early dynastic age.pdf16_old & middle age.pdf20_new kingdom age.pdf25_greek times.pdf27_kush age.pdf29_byzantine times.pdf32_arab times.pdf34_gold production.pdf35_apendix.pdf37_References.pdf

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Ancient Activity of Gold Mining in the Eastern Desert