An Overview of International Conflict

8/10/2019 An Overview of International Conflict

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An Overview of

International Con ict

Of all the social processes, conflict is perhaps the mostuniversal and potentially the most dangerous. A featureof every society and every form of relationship, conflictcan be found at all levels of human interaction, from siblingrivalry to genocidal warfare. We all face conflictingemotions and impulses as we respond daily to situationsof conflict in our personal relationships. The groups we

belong toschools, clubs, companies, churches, associations,

unionscontinually undergo conflict. Some conflictsare internal, such as the infighting between old andnew members of an association; some are e ternal, suchas disputes with other groups, which might include stri!es

by unions against employers or environmental groups remonstratingwith oil companies. The largest humangroupthe state, or nationalso encounters conflict. Attimes the conflict is internal, as when different groups opposethe government or its policies, and at times the conflictis e ternal, as when two states go to war."onflict is not only universal but also normal and necessary

in the sense that every person and every group hasneeds, e pectations, and ways of behaving that it regardsas appropriate. #iven this diversity, and given that welive in a world of limited resources and opportunities, itis not surprising that conflict is a normal part of life. $nfact, we could argue that conflict is necessary for our growth, both as individuals and as groups. $t is onlythrough conflict and its resolution in productive and creativeways that new ideas emerge, higher levels of understandingare reached, and obstacles are surmounted.$n other words, conflict should not be viewed as awholly negative phenomenon. $ndividuals face a myriadof conflicts every day, and, for the most part, these problemsare settled in a positive manner or at least in a waythat is not harmful. $t is only when people use coercion or violencephysical or psychologicalthat conflict devolvesinto something negative and destructive. Althoughthis result is relatively rare in terms of the total number of conflicts that occur every day, it is fre%uent and destructive


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enough to warrant careful study.We recogni&e that conflicts, unless properly understood,may pose the greatest threat to the internationalenvironment, and we see this boo! as part of an effort togenerate socially useful !nowledge, in particular, !nowledge

about international conflictits scope, patterns,outcomes, and management. We do not presume thatsuch !nowledge will enable us to move apparently intractableconflicts toward a solution; rather, we believethat a lac! of !nowledge about international conflictmay preclude its successful management."onceptual clarity and a measure of verbal precisionare preconditions for understanding conflict. $f we see! to describe a range of behavior, we must begin by distinguishingit from related phenomena. 'oing so is particularlynecessary with conflict, which is a ubi%uitous

process and easily confused with other processes, such asaggression, violence, coercion, and so forth.

What Is Conflict?$n everyday language, conflict denotes overt, coercive interactionsin which two or more contending parties see! to impose their will on one another. Fights, violence, andhostility are the terms customarily used to describe aconflict relationship. The range of conflict phenomena is,however, much wider than that. The term conflict is usedto describe inconsistencies as well as the process of tryingto solve them; it has physical and moral implications; itembraces opinions as well as situations and a wide rangeof behavior. For the most part, the conventional usage of the term does not fully capture the range of conflictphenomena."onflict is defined as a process of interaction betweentwo or more parties that see! to thwart, in(ure, or destroytheir opponent because they perceive they have incompatibleinterests or goals. The conflict relationship ischaracteri&ed by a specific set of attitudes and behaviors,and the conflict process implies a level of interdependenceand dynamism between the parties. "onflict attitudesengender conflict behaviors which in turn foster afurther hardening of attitudes in a cyclical fashion.

The different components of a conflict relationship


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may be thought of in terms of three interrelated elements)*+ a specific conflict situation; *- motives and the partiescognitive structure; and */ the behavioral0attitudinaldynamics of a conflict process. These elements can beconsidered (ointly or separately. A conflict situation refers

to a circumstance that generates incompatible goals or values among different parties. Conflict attitudes consistof the psychological and cognitive processes that engender conflict or are subse%uent to it. And conflict behavior consists of actual, observed activities underta!en

by one party and that are designed to in(ure, thwart, or eliminate its opponent.$nternational relations can be defined as the interactionor behavior and interdependence among actors, inthis case, nations. And the interdependence we refer to isamong nations. Their organi&ation determines the configuration

of the international system and the e tent andintensity of conflict within that system. $nterdependencecan be negativefor e ample, the relationship between#reece and Tur!ey, or positivefor e ample, the 1nitedStates and "anada. Negative interdependence implies a

preponderance of competitive interests in the relationship,resulting in suspicious and hostile attitudes thatdefine conflict as a win0lose situation. Positive interdependence,on the other hand, is characteri&ed by largelycooperative interests.$nternational conflict, li!e peace, is a process rather than an end state. $t is active and dynamic rather than

passive and static. $ts behavior consists of one nation sorgani&ed and collective effort to influence, control, or destroy the persons and property of another nation. $nternationalconflict is also a multicausal and multifaceted

phenomenon. 1nless it is violent, its occurrence shouldnot be ta!en as an interruption of 2normal3 interactions,

but as a natural and probable conse%uence of the e istenceof actors with different values and interests. #ivena system with fairly autonomous and diverse units,lin!ed in a relationship both competitive and cooperative,the potential for conflict is unbounded. This doesnot mean that every relationship displays conflict. $nternationalconflict depends on a diffuse set of structures,attitudes, and feelings.Although other !inds of conflict may be annoying or disruptivesuch as public transport stri!es at the municipallevelthey rarely produce e tensive violence or numerous casualties. 4oreover, the parties themselves


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or legal authorities can resolve such conflicts. $n other words, they are regulated. The same is not true of states,which e ist in an anarchical environment without enforceablelaws or norms, where conflicts are unregulatedand can %uic!ly spiral out of control. $n such an environment,

some conflicts will inevitably escalate intolarge0scale violence or war. 4ost international conflicts,however, are resolved peacefully and constructivelythrough regular channels of diplomacy and internationalforums such as the 1nited 5ations. 6ery few conflictsescalate to the point of war. 7ere we want to e aminethe almost si ty years since the end of World War $$ not only to ascertain the pattern, characteristics, anddescriptions of conflict, but also to determine how conflictwas managed.International Conflict, !"#$%&&'

Since +89: somewhere between -: million and / million people have been !illed as a result of war0related violenceor by the famine and disease brought on by war. 4ost of those deaths have occurred in the eighty or so ma(or conflictsin Africa, Asia, and the 4iddle +8:/ , Sudan *+8?/>+8@-, +8 /> , 6ietnam*+8?9>+8@: , Bangladesh *+8@+>+8@9 , 4o&ambi%ue*+8@:>+88- , Afghanistan *+8 > , and $ran and $ra%*+8 >+8 8 each !illed more than a million people.Others, li!e the genocidal ethnic conflict in Cwanda *September +88 >Ongoing and the Angolan civil war *+8@:>+88: , each resulted in at least half a million deaths.On top of this, more than - other armed conflicts betweenstates have been recorded. Although many of thesedid not result in e tensive casualties, they had other destructiveeffects such as economic and environmental dislocation,

political instability, tension, ethnic hatred, foodcrises, and the creation of vast refugee populations.A total of /9/ international conflicts occurred over the period from +89: to - /. These /9/ internationalconflicts have for the most part been related to the twomain fault0lines of the postwar periodnamely, theWest conflict, which divided states into the "ommunistSouth conflict, which divided the advancedindustrial countries of the 5orth from the developingworld of the South.The Cold War The cold war split the world into two hostile camps, or spheres of influence, after the late +89 s, with each


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sphere dominated by one of the superpowersthe1nited States or the Soviet 1nion *1SSC . Both countriesvied for influence in &ones outside their control, andmany of the conflicts from +8: to +8 8 reflect this competition.$n the 6ietnam War *+8?9>+8@: , 1.S. forces

fought directly against "ommunist forces supported bythe 1SSC. $n the Afghanistan conflict *+8 > , the Sovietsfought directly against 1.S.0bac!ed mu(ahideenrebels.Other conflicts that e hibit signs of this rivalry includethe =orean War *+8: >+8:/ , the wars between+8 : , the civil wars in Angola*+8@:>+88: , 4o&ambi%ue *+8@:>+88- , and the"ambodian conflict *+8@8 , and many of the conflicts in

"entral America, such as #uatemala *+8:9>+88: , +88- , and 5icaragua *+8 >+889 . $neach case, one or both superpowers intervened with asignificant show of force, producing a crisis with a high

potential for escalation. DecolonizationThe other ma(or postwar fault line, the 5orth0South divide,

produced a series of conflicts related to decoloni&ation.$n some cases, the conflicts were essentially wars of independence from +89 ; in the Eortuguese African territoriesof 4o&ambi%ue *+8?+>Fuly +8@: and Angola *+8?+>Fuly+8@: , in ChodesiaGHimbabwe *+8?@>Fanuary +8 ,South West AfricaG5amibia *+8??>4arch +88 , Drench$ndochina *'ecember +89:>Fuly +8:9 , the 'utch 5ovember +898 , and 4alayaG4alaysia*Fune +89 >Fuly +8? .$n other cases, war bro!e out when new statesemerged from colonial domination and upset local

power balances. $srael s war of independence *4ay+89 >Fanuary +898 and subse%uent conflicts with itsneighbors resulted directly from British decoloni&ation.$n other cases, conflicts grew out of colonial policies thatfailed to consider local sensibilities and conditions. The


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ethnic violence between the 7utu and Tutsi tribes, whichhas plagued Cwanda and Burundi since their independence,can be directly lin!ed to Belgium s colonial policies,which not only e ploited tribal animosities but alsodrew boundaries for the new nations without regard for

tribal land settlements. The intense violence between$ndia and Ea!istan following independence was largelycaused by the hapha&ard boundary demarcations duringthe +89@ partition of the $ndian Subcontinent.The end of the cold war in the late +8 s %uelled anumber of conflicts. The Soviets withdrew fromAfghanistan, and the Americans stopped aiding the mu(ahideenrebels. The 1nited States and Soviet 1nion bothwithdrew support from the warring parties in Angolaand 4o&ambi%ue and forced them to the negotiatingtable. Wars ended in "ambodia, Ongoing , Armenia *August+88 >Ongoing , Ta(i!istan *4ay +88->Fune +88@ , and"hechnya *October +88->Ongoing are also e amples. $neach case, ethnic groups vie for power and resources in aspiral of violence laced with hatreds and grievances thatoften go bac! centuries. Other ethnically based conflictsare Sudan s civil war *Fanuary +8 /> being waged betweenthe 4uslim Arabic northerners and the blac! African "hristians and animists in the south, the Ehilippines*Fanuary +8@ >Ongoing , Burundi *August+8 >Ongoing , Bougainville *October +8 >Ongoing ,Jiberia *'ecember +8 8>Ongoing , Cwanda *September +88 >Ongoing , and 4oldova *October +88 >Fuly+88- .Another characteristic of post>cold war conflicts isthat they ta!e place largely within, not between, states.


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As such, they are called civil conflicts. The fighting in theformer Iugoslavia erupted when Serb militias sought to

prevent "roatia and Bosnia07er&egovina from secedingfrom the federation and becoming new states. All thefighting too! place within the borders of what used to be

Iugoslavia, although at times it threatened to spill over into neighboring states, and the conflict involved manyoutside powers in the search for a settlement.TerrorismSeptember ++, - +, mar!ed a ma(or turning point in contemporaryinternational relations. The well0orchestratedterrorist attac!s against the 1nited States changed perceptionsof conflict and conflict prevention. Terroristattac!s had occurred previously, but nothing on thescale or the sophisticated planning, which involved hi(ac!ingfour commercial aircraft, had ever been seen

before. Two of the planes crashed into the twin towersof the World Trade "enter in 5ew Ior! "ity; another flew into the Eentagon, which is (ust outside of Washington,'.". The fourth plane, its target still un!nown,crashed in Eennsylvania when the passengers apparentlyovercame the hi(ac!ers. A total of /, :? peopledied as a result of these synchroni&ed terrorist attac!s,and many more were in(ured. The casualties were predominantlycivilian.As television cameras captured both the horrificevents as they unfolded and the worldwide condemnationfor the premeditated acts of terrorism, the events of September ++ drastically changed commonly held perceptionsof international security. The events also providedthe momentum for many states to introducesweeping changes in strategic and defense policy

including the idea of a preemptive war to prevent futuresuch attac!s.Two more decisive international events occurred in directresponse to the events of September ++) the war onterrorism in Afghanistan * see conflict 9./8 and the war on $ra% * see pp. i and -?/ .The 1nited States launched a retaliatory war, the socalledwar on terrorism, beginning with 2Operation


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terrorist networ! al Kaeda and its leader, Osama binJaden. Substantial evidence indicated that this groupwas responsible for the attac!s on the World Trade"enter and the Eentagon.With counterterrorist operations ongoing in

Afghanistan, the 1.S. government asserted that clear lin!s e isted between bin Jaden and $ra%i leader Saddam7ussein and his weapons of mass destruction *W4'capabilities. These allegations culminated in a 1.S.0ledwar in $ra%, labeled 2Operation $ra%i Dreedom.3 The1nited States assembled a 2coalition of the willing3)thirty states that agreed to supportmilitarily, diplomatically,

politically, and economicallya possible 1.S.0ledinvasion of $ra%.-After the initial victory, $ra%i insurgents began a continuingresistance with an average of twenty0si attac!s

against coalition forces occurring daily. As of Fuly +?,- 9, there had been +, +- coalition combat deaths in$ra%, including 8- Americans, ? Britons, ? Bulgarians,+ 'ane, + 'utch, +


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incidents in Bali in October - - *!illing + - and4adrid in 4arch - 9 *!illing +8 demonstrated thatthe 1nited States was no longer the only terrorist target.The matter of utmost concern to all governments in the

post>September ++ environment is the potential for terrorists

to use chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear *"BC5 weapons to devastating ends.The second problem facing counterterrorism efforts isto identify the terrorist. 1nder current classifications,separatist, secessionist, and independence movementsthat resort to violence as a means of political influenceare also classified as terrorists. $ndeed, one of the maincriticisms of the war on terror rests on the difficulty associatedwith identifying and targeting the terrorist) littledistinction is made between the freedom fighter, who employsnonconventional guerrilla warfare, and the terrorist,

who also employs methods of nonconventionalwarfare. To illustrate the dilemma, 5obel Eeace Eri&ewinners 5elson 4andela *+88/ , Sean 4cBride *+8@9 ,4enachem Begin *+8@ , and Iasser Arafat *+889 wereall labeled terrorists before each was awarded this internationalhonor *Fac!son - - .The third issue, formulating counterterrorism measures,

becomes an uncertain business of trying to identifythe terrorists, understand the comple ity of the terroristsaims, and evaluate their actions with a level of detachedclarity and perspective. What counterterroristmeasures are most effective in different situationsL Areconventional methods of warfare effective against unconventionalformsL $n the end, terrorism is an effective

but deadly tool) effective because it generally achieves itsmain aim, creating a level of fear that is often disproportionateto the terrorist attac!, and deadly because fatalitiesusually result. And, because terrorism is invariably atool used to elicit an emotional response, dealing with itob(ectively becomes difficult.

Types of International Conflict$nternational conflicts can be categori&ed in variousways. 7ere we divide them into four main types, whichhelp to e plain their causes and the form they ta!e. Thefour types are *+ conflicts between states, or interstateconflict; *- internationali&ed civil conflicts; */ militari&edconflicts; and *9 political incidents. The followingdiscussion will help us distinguish among these different


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!inds of conflicts. Interstate Conflict $nterstate conflicts usually involve territory held in conflict

by contiguous states. Somalia and

+8 :, +8 @>+8 over the Ogaden region, an arearuled by


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intervention in a civil conflict include Saudi Arabia s invasionof Iemen on the side of the royalists and +8@ civil war. Also, in +8?: the 1nited Statesinvaded the 'ominican Cepublic on the side of the government,

which was then fighting a civil war against theconstitutionalists, who wanted to restore to power FuanBosch, a former president ousted in a military coup.$ndirect support, on the other hand, ta!es manyforms. $t may involve sending arms and providingtraining and advisers for one faction in the conflict, suchas the 1.S aid to the contra rebels fighting the

5icaraguan government *+8 >+889 . $t may also involveallowing rebels to use territory from which tolaunch attac!s. Hambia supported the Chodesian rebels

by allowing the Himbabwe African Eeople s 1nion

*HAE1 one of the African nationalist factions thatfought Chodesia s white minority government in the war of independence *+8?@>+8 to have bases andtraining camps on Hambian territory. HAE1 guerrillaswould launch attac!s across the Hambe&i border intoChodesia and then cross bac! into the relative safety of Hambia.$n e treme cases, superpower rivals can fight 2pro y3wars by supporting opposing factions in a civil conflict.Dor e ample, the 1nited States supported Fonas Savimbi s

5ational 1nion for the Total $ndependence of Angola*15$TA guerrilla group in Angola, while the Soviets

bac!ed the governing 4ovimento Eopular de JibertaMNode Angola *4EJA . This way, the superpowers couldstri!e at each other indirectly without ris!ing all0out war.A similar conflict too! place in late +88- , but here the 1nited States supported thegovernment, and "uba and the Soviet 1nion bac!ed theleft0wing rebels.Some civil conflicts last for decades and ta!e the formof guerrilla insurgencies. Often the guerrillas live in denseforest in border areas and move across borders at will, attac!inggovernment targets and then disappearing into the

(ungle again. The insurgencies in Burma *+898> by ethnic=aren guerrillas and in "olombia *+8?:> by 4ar ist insurgentshave gone on for decades because neither side hasthe ability to completely defeat the other. Other civil conflictsresult from attempts by particular ethnic groupsliving in one area to brea! away, or secede, and form their own state. The Biafran war *+8?@>+8@ , the +8@: invasion


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of +8 9 , the 1nited States and "ambodia *the


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Mayaguez incident in +8@: , and #uatemala and 4e ico*+8 ->+8 /, +8 9 .

Political IncidentsThe fourth and final type of international conflict is the

political incident, which can be defined as an interstate

conflict that escalates beyond the normal day0to0day conflicts between states, such as disputes over trade, visas,diplomatic eti%uette, and so forth. Eolitical incidents usuallyinvolve verbal and political demonstrations, such asdenunciations, propaganda, name0calling, diplomatic insults,and maybe even threats and ultimatums. $n a veryfew cases, armed incidents may occur. Eolitical incidentshappen, however, between states that are normallyfriendly. Durthermore, the disputants tend to be democracies,and there is no history of violence or the li!elihoodthat the conflict will escalate into a war.

< amples of what we consider to be a political incidentinclude the Anglo0$celandic fishing conflict, whichoccurred over +8@- and +8@/. This event involved severalacrimonious verbal and political demonstrations, aswell as the use of naval vessels to prevent boats fromfishing in conflicted waters. Although force was used inthis case, no real threat of war was in the air, and theconflict too! place in the conte t of otherwise friendlyrelations between two democracies. $n recent years, similar fishing conflicts between "anada and Spain andBritain and Spain have also escalated into political incidents.We e clude them from the boo! because, in our view, they posed no threat to international peace and securityand do not %ualify as true armed internationalconflicts.(atterns of International Conflict,!"#$%&&'Our survey of the period from +89: to - / found /9/international conflicts that conformed to these four categoriesinterstate conflicts, internationali&ed civilconflicts, militari&ed conflicts, or political incidents.Durther analysis of these conflicts revealed some importantfacts. Dor e ample, the ma(ority of conflicts too!

place from +8:? to +8 :, during the era of decoloni&ationand superpower confrontation * see Table + . Another feature of these conflicts is that both cold war conflicts


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arose from the disintegration of the Soviet 1nion andthe conse%uent collapse of


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and what was formerly Soviet Asia are all between statesthat have only (ust (oined international society.When we loo! at the types of international conflicts*civil conflicts and interstate conflicts in the conte t of their system periods, it becomes clear how important interstate

conflicts became during the cold war. The coldwar had the effect of suppressing many civil conflicts, e ceptthose e ploited by the superpowers. $t was onlyafter the collapse of the Soviet 1nion in +88+ that manycivil conflicts once again emerged.$n regional terms, Africa has suffered by far the most* see Table - , which is not surprising, because colonial

policies in Africa often placed historically hostile ethnicgroups together in a single state. The civil war in "had*+8 -> between Arabic 4uslim northerners and blac! African "hristian southerners is a direct result of a colonial

boundary that placed rival groups in the samecountry. Cwanda and Burundi were both deeply affected by colonial policies that favored one tribe over another,leading to postindependence rivalry and, eventually,genocidal conflict.Similarly, the 4iddle


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blood and treasure to give in or that they can still winand decide to press on.These considerations were at wor! in $ran and $ra% sdecision to pursue a long and costly war *+8 >+8 8

after $ra% failed to reach its ob(ective soon after invadingthe Shattal Arab Waterway. Similarly, the conflict between$ndonesia and the 5etherlands over West $rian*+8?- could have resulted in a long and costly war of liberation, but the 15 s %uic! and effective mediation

prevented such an outcome, and the conflict was resolvedin a few months.States that do not resolve their conflicts early on tendto invest a great deal in their effort to win, and, in the end,these conflicts prove costly in terms of human life. 4ostconflicts resolve themselves before thousands of fatalities

occur, but, when conflicts go unchec!ed, fatalities mayreach huge proportions * see Table 9 . Since +89:, si ty internationalarmed conflicts have resulted in the loss of more than + , lives. The =orean War, the 6ietnamWar, the Bangladesh war of independence, the Sudan and4o&ambi%ue conflicts, "ambodia, and Afghanistan eachcost more than + million lives. 4ost of the dead werecivilians, who were seen as legitimate targets, and manymore died of disease and starvation brought about by war conditions.When we loo! at why states resort to war, we see thatterritory and sovereignty are by far the most potent motivatingfactors * see Table : . The fundamental basis of every state is its territory and the control it has over thatland. This ma!es it a most compelling issue whenever itis in conflict. States will go further in defending their territorythan they will over defending access to resources,for e ample. Dor this reason, most international conflictsthat reach the point of armed confrontation are aboutterritory. is a case in point. The area under conflict isremote, barren, and difficult to reach. 4any of the soldierssent there die of the cold, avalanches, and accidents in thesnow and ice. 'espite the conditions and the unli!elihoodof either side gaining a significant advantage, both sideshave invested vast amounts of resources and troops tocontinue fighting. $n contrast, no states went to war over


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$t is noteworthy that, of the /9/ conflicts, only about :resulted in victories for one side or the other * see Table ? .$n other words, although the li!elihood of victory is fairlyremote *at least based on these statistics , states are stillwilling to initiate hostilities in pursuit of their goals. Of the

few conflicts that did produce victory for one side, that sidegenerally had a massive advantage over the other, for e ample,the 1.S. invasions of #renada, 7aiti, and Eanamaand "hina s invasion of the Spratly $slands.Dor the most part, however, the usual pattern is for states to go to war, for a stalemate to develop either immediatelyor after a long campaign, and for negotiationsto begin with the goal of ending the conflict. Acase in point) the war being waged by the Eolisario*Drente Eopular para la Jiberati n de Saguia el07amray Cio de Oro to free the Western Sahara from 4oroccan

control *+8@9> has resulted in an impasse, despite4auritania s support for the rebels. After thirtyyears of fighting, the 1nited 5ations is still trying to resolvethe conflict.Also of interest here is that nearly a third of these conflictswere at least partly settled through conflict managementtechni%ues such as mediation and negotiation.This is a significant achievement given the high number of international armed conflicts and their potential andreal capacity for destruction. Of more pressing concernat present are the forty0two ongoing conflicts, of whichmanysuch as Afghanistan, Angola, "ambodia,


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othersare ripe for renewed military confrontationgiven the right circumstances.The )eed for Conflict *anagement$nternational conflicts can be very costly, particularly if they are not managed early on. We have already mentioned

the millions of people, mainly civilians, who die because of fighting between states; other millions die as aresult of starvation, disease, and e posure to the elements.War also produces refugee populationsvastnumbers of people on the move to escape the violence,without ade%uate food or shelter, who have to be caredfor by neighboring countries and aid agencies. $n - 9the 15 estimated that there were some -+ millionrefugees worldwide. The war in 4o&ambi%ue uprooted+.@ million people, + million of whom fled to 4alawi,one of the world s poorest countries that can hardly feed

its own population.Another cost of international conflict is the environmentaldamage caused by modern weapons. 'o&ens of =uwaiti oil wells were blown up by retreating $ra%iforces in +88+, polluting the air; devastating oil slic!sran up onto Eersian #ulf beaches. $n "ambodia, the=hmer Couge forces have strip0mined vast areas under their control to finance their insurgency with emeralds.$n the +8@ s the 1nited States defoliated 6ietnameseforests using the powerful herbicide, Agent Orange."onflicts are also e pensive. $t costs a great deal of money to finance armies and their offensives. War divertsresources from education, health care, and infrastructuredevelopment. Dor e ample, it cost around P9

billion to finance the 1.S.0led "oalition forces that defeated$ra% in the #ulf War *+88 >+88+ . The cost of thewar on terrorism in $ra% is estimated to be around P:

billion to P? billion with an additional budget of P @ billion approved by the 1.S. "ongress in 5ovember - /. The postwar costs of reconstruction are also enormous,especially in the poorer countries of Africa

and Jatin America, where instability and insecurityhave led to the financing of large armies at the e penseof the poor.States also lose out in trade opportunities if neighborsclose their borders and refuse any e change.


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in the late +8? s, Hambia routed nearly all itscopper e ports through white0dominated Chodesia*Himbabwe . When Himbabwean nationalist guerrillaswaged their war of independence *+8?@>+8 , Hambiansupport for the rebel forces led to the closure of the

then0Chodesian0Hambian border. Hambia was thereforeforced to devote vast sums to reroute its copper throughother countries.Dinally, the international community usually has todonate millions or even billions of dollars toward emergencyaid for postwar reconstruction. Dor e ample, morethan P+ billion has been pledged to rebuild the successor states of the former Iugoslavia."osts are also felt on the political level. "onflicts leadto tension, instability, and the threat of escalation. Coutinegovernance becomes e ceedingly difficult. The

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Documents

An Overview of International Conflict