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WOOL ECONOMY IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST
AND THE AEGEAN
From the Beginnings of Sheep Husbandryto Institutional Textile Industry
edited by
Catherine Breniquet and CĂŠcile Michel
ANCIENT TEXTILES SERIES VOL. 17
Oxbow BooksOxford & Philadelphia
An offprint from
Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-1-78297-631-8Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78297-632-5
Š 2014
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Š Oxbow Books and the individual authors 2014
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Front cover: Sheep arriving at AĹĄĹĄur, drawing by W. Andrae; Sketch of the animal frieze on the ritual limestone basin, Ebla, Temple D.Back cover: Logogram LANA
Contents
Foreword and Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. v
Wool Economy in the Ancient Near East and the Aegean .......................................................... 1 Catherine Breniquet and CĂŠcile Michel
1 Bronze and Iron Age Wools in Europe ......................................................................................... 12 Antoinette Rast-Eicher
2 The Expansion of Sheep Herding and the Development of Wool Production in the Ancient Near East: An Archaeozoological and Iconographical Approach .................. 22 Emmanuelle Vila and Daniel Helmer
3 Sheep, Wool and Textile Production. An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Complexity of Wool Working ............................................................................................. 41 Eva Andersson Strand
4 The Archaeology of Wool in Early Mesopotamia: Sources, Methods, Perspectives ............. 52 Catherine Breniquet
5 Lambs of the Gods. The Beginnings of the Wool Economy in Proto-Cuneiform Texts ....... 79 Petr CharvĂĄt
6 The Value of Wool in Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia. On the Control of Sheep and the Handling of Wool in the Presargonic to the Ur III Periods (c. 2400 to 2000 BC) ... 94 Walther Sallaberger
7 Wool in the Economy of Sargonic Mesopotamia ...................................................................... 115 Benjamin R. Foster
8 From Weighing Wool to Weaving Tools. Textile Manufacture at Ebla during the Early Syrian Period in the Light of Archaeological Evidence ............................ 124 Luca Peyronel
9 Some Aspects of the Wool Economy at Ebla (Syria, 24th Century BC) ................................. 139 Maria Giovanna Biga
Contentsiv
10 Making Textiles at Arslantepe, Turkey, in the 4th and 3rd Millennia BC. Archaeological Data and Experimental Archaeology ............................................................... 151 Romina Laurito, Cristina Lemorini and Assunta Perilli
11 Wool Economy in the Royal Archive of Mari during the Ĺ akkanakku Period ..................... 169 Laurent Colonna dâIstria
12 All Wool and a Yard Wide. Wool Production and Trade in Old Babylonian Sippar ............ 202 Katrien De Graef
13 Wool Trade in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria According to Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian Texts .................................................................................................................. 232 CĂŠcile Michel
14 Wool in Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Period ............................................................................ 255 Agnete Wisti Lassen
15 Wool Economy in Minoan Crete before Linear B. A Minimalist Position ............................ 264 Pietro Militello
16 Wool in the Nuzi Texts .................................................................................................................. 283 Philippe Abrahami
17 Wool Production and Economy at Ugarit .................................................................................. 310 ValĂŠrie MatoĂŻan and Juan-Pablo Vita, with a contribution by Ătienne Bordreuil
18 Sheep Rearing, Wool Production and Management in Mycenaean Written Documents ........................................................................................................................ 340 Françoise Rougemont
19 Mycenaean Wool Economies in the Latter Part of the 2nd Millennium BC Aegean .......... 371 Marie-Louise Nosch
20 Wool, Hair and Textiles in Assyria .............................................................................................. 401 Nicholas Postgate
21 âIf you have a sheep, you have all you needâ. Sheep Husbandry and Wool in the Economy of the Neo-Babylonian Ebabbar Temple at Sippar ...................................... 428 Stefan Zawadzki
22 Fabrics and Clothes from Mesopotamia during the Achaemenid and Seleucid Periods: The Textual References .......................................................................... 453 Francis Joannès
6.â TheâValueâofâWoolâinâEarlyâBronzeâAgeâMesopotamia.âOnâtheâControlâofâSheepâandâtheâHandlingâofâWoolâinâtheâPresargonicâtoâtheâUrâIIIâPeriodsâ(c.â2400â2000âBC)
Walther Sallabergerďż˝
1. Export of wool from a farming regionInâEarlyâBronzeâAgeâMesopotamia,âinâtheâ3rdâmillenniumâBC,âtextilesâwereâgenerallyâmadeâofâwool,âwhileâlinenâgarmentsâwereâmostlyârestrictedâtoâculticâuse.âHerdsâofâsheepâcouldâbeâkeptânotâonlyâinâtheâalluvialâplains,âbutâalsoâinâtheâsteppeâandâinâtheâhillyâandâmountainousâregionsâsurroundingâtheâlowlands.âGroupsâspecializedâinâsheep-herdingâlivedâprimarilyâinâthoseâregionsâwhichâwereâlessâsuitableâforâagriculture.âTheâneedâforâtranshumance,âannual,âseasonalâmigrationsâtoâreachâregions with sufficient food for the herds, also conditions a specialized lifestyle. These pastoralists had to live off of their flocks of sheep, using the milk, meat and wool for their own consumption, andâexchangingâanyâsurplusâinâtheâcitiesâtoâobtainâotherânecessaryâgoods.âTheyâthusâdependedâeconomicallyâonâaâconstantâexchangeâwithâtheâagriculturalistsâlivingâinâtheâalluvialâplain.âSuchâanâexchangeâisâdocumentedâforâOldâBabylonianâ(MiddleâBronzeâAge)âMari,âforâexample,âinâtheâformâofâtributeâtoâtheâstate.2âEarlier,âinâtheâUrâIIIâperiodâatâtheâendâofâtheâ3rdâmillennium,âsheepâandâcattleâwereâsentâtoâSumer,âtheâsouthernâpartâofâtheâalluvialâplain,âfromâtheâeasternâregionsâalongâtheâZagrosâmountainsâasâregularâtribute.3âBootyâfromâmilitaryâexpeditionsâtoâtheâmountainâlandsâandâtoâtheââMarduâlandââoftenâincludedâsheepâasâwell.4âShipmentsâofâsheepâinâtheâotherâdirectionâareâunknown,âwhereasâbarleyâisâexportedâfromâSumer,âforâexampleâtoâbuyâcopper,âwhichâinâtheâ3rdâmillenniumâarrivedâfromâOmanâviaâtheâPersianâGulf.ďż˝
One might easily interpret this flow of goods as reflecting the economies of greater Mesopotamia: theâirrigationâagricultureâofâtheâalluvialâplainsâproducedâaâsurplusâofâgrain,âwhereasâsheepâwereâimported from the hilly flanks or the steppe, which appear less suitable for large-scale farming. ďż˝âââThisâarticleâowesâcentralâinsightsâtoâAntoinetteâRast-EicherâandâEvaâAnderssonâStrandâatâtheâESFâExplanatoryâWorkshopâinâNanterre,âwhoâhaveâpointedâoutâtoâmeâtheâimportanceâofâcontrolâinâbreedingâandâtheâworkânecessaryâtoâobtainâwoolâforâspinning.âFurthermore,âtheâdiscussionsâandâpresentationsâatâtheâworkshopâhaveâledâtoâaâbetterâunderstandingâofâtheâpreparationâofâwoolâandâaâcompleteârevisionâofâmyâoriginalâpaper.âIâheartilyâthankâCĂŠcileâMichelâforâherâcommentsâandâChristanâHessâforârevisingâtheâEnglish.2ââSeeâe.g.âStreckâ2002;âMartiâ2008;âMichelâthisâvolume.âPorterâ20ďż˝3,âchapterâďż˝âarguesâconvincinglyâforâanâintegrativeâviewâonâtheâvariousâshadesâofâlifestylesâandâeconomies.3ââSteinkellerâďż˝987;âMaedaâďż˝992âonâgun2âma-da.â4ââSallabergerâ2007,â447;âMichalowskiâ20��,âďż˝00âďż˝04;âbothâwithâfurtherâliterature.ďż˝ââOnâbarleyâusedâtoâbuyâcopperâinâUmmaâmerchantâaccountsâseeâOuyangâ20ďż˝3,âďż˝20,âfootnoteâ383.
9�6. The Value of Wool in Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia
Toâbeâcertain,âcropsâmustâalsoâhaveâbeenâharvestedâthere,âjustâasâtheâalluvialâplainsâalwaysâkeptâsheep,âasâattestedâinâwrittenâdocuments.âButâbasedâonâtheseâgeneralâpatternsâofâexchange,âweâfaceâtheâparadoxâthatâSumerianâmerchantsâofâtheâ24thâandâ2ďż˝stâcenturiesâalsoâsoldâwool.âMoreover,âtheyâsoldâwoolâitself,ânotâtextilesâproducedâinâtheâweavingâworkshopsâofâtheâlargeâcities.âItâwouldâbeâeasierâ toâacceptâ theâexportâofâhighâqualityâproductsâ fromâtheâspecializedâworkshopsâofâ theâcities,âjustâasâtheâmerchantsâofâAĹĄĹĄurâsoldâtextilesâinâAnatoliaâaâfewâcenturiesâlater.6âAtâleastâsomeâofâtheâgoodsâtheâSumerianâmerchantsâimported,âlikeâhoney,âminerals,âstones,âmetals,âorâresins,âarrivedâfromâorâthroughâtheâZagrosâmountains.7âThisâcouldâleadâtoâtheâimpressionâthatâwoolâwasâsoldâ preciselyâ toâ thoseâ peoplesâ whoâ specializedâ inâ sheep-herding.â Thoughâ theâ merchantsâ mayâhaveâsoldâtheâwoolâlocallyâorâtoâtheâGulfâregionâ(seeâbelow),âtheâsaleâofâwoolâasâaârawâmaterialâinstead of finished garments and textiles is puzzling. In addition, wool remained an export good duringâtheâUrâIIIâperiod,âwhenâtheâdeclineâofâurbanâsettlementsâinâUpperâMesopotamia8âmightâpossiblyâhaveâledâtoâaâsurplusâofâwoolâproducedâbyâtheâpastoralistsâinâtheâsteppe.âNevertheless,âevidenceâforâtheâimportâofâwoolâcannotâbeâfoundâinâtheâdenseâtextualârecord.
In the following discussion of this conundrum, I have selected three different corpora of evidence: first, for the Presargonic period (24th century BC), the archive of the Emunus of Girsu, theâorganizationâofâtheâwifeâofâtheâcityârulerâorâkingâofâLagaĹĄ,âtheââLadyâofâGirsuâ,âwhichâprovidesâtheâmostâcomprehensiveâviewâofâallâaspectsâofâtheâeconomy;âsecond,âtheâtabletsâfromâTellâBeydar,âancient Nabada, in Upper Mesopotamia, which derive from an ecologically different region with aâsimilarâsocio-economicâbasis;âandâthird,âtheâmassiveâUrâIIIâevidenceâ(2ďż˝stâcenturyâBC),âwhichâallowsâ theâ mostâ detailedâ investigation.â Theâ similaritiesâ inâ theâ internalâ organizationâ ofâ societyâandâeconomyâbetweenâtheâPresargonicâandâUrâIIIâperiodsâhaveâoftenâbeenâpointedâout.9âCulturalâsimilarities are also reflected in the use of the archaeological designation of the âEarly Bronze Ageâ,âwhichâincludesâallâofâtheseâperiods.âCulturalâcontinuityâisâobviousâinâtheâcontinuedâexistenceâofâtheâsameâurbanâcentresâandâtheirâsurroundingâregions,âsuchâasâGirsu,âLagaĹĄ,âUmma,âAdab,âUrâorâUruk.âTheâearlyâcityâstatesâbecameââprovincesââofâtheâUrâIIIâstate,âremainingâautonomousâinâmanyârespects,âexceptâforâstateâmattersâsuchâasâtheâmilitary.âWithâtheâdownfallâofâUr,âtheâpoliticalâlandscapeâchangedâcompletely.âTheâcityâstatesâthatâdominatedâtheâ3rdâmillenniumâdisappearedâandâ newâ territorialâ statesâ emerged.â Theâ resultsâ ofâ thisâ studyâ pertainâ toâ theâ Earlyâ Bronzeâ Age,âmore specifically to the second half of the 3rd millennium, but similar patterns of control of sheepâandâtheirâwoolâwereâmostâlikelyâalsoâatâworkâinâtheâearlierâcityâstatesâofâtheâFaraâperiodâ(EDâIIIa)âandâtheâUrâarchaicâtextsâ(EDâI/II).â
2. Sumerian merchants selling wool2.1. Merchants in Presargonic GirsuInâtheâPresargonicâcityâstateâofâLagaĹĄ,âwoolâappearsâasâaâtrade-goodâhandedâoverâtoâmerchants.âInâtheâorganizationâofâtheâLadyâofâGirsu,âtheârulerâsâwifeâlivingâinâtheâcapitalâatâGirsu,âtradeâactivitiesâ
6ââMichelâandâVeenhofâ20ďż˝0âwithâearlierâliterature,âalsoâdiscussingâtheâimportâofâtextilesâtoâAĹĄĹĄurâfromâBabylonia.â7ââAârecentâsummaryâofâtheâgoodsâofâtheâUrâIIIâmerchantsâaccountsâisâOuyangâ20ďż˝3;âsheâdoesânot,âhowever,âdiscussâtheâprovenanceâofâtheâvariousâgoods.âForâtheâcaseâofâresinsâwhichâwereâbothâimportedâandâfarmedâlocally,âseeâBrunkeâandâSallabergerâ20ďż˝0.8ââSallabergerâ2007.9 Only two examples are cited here: Maekawa 1987, Selz 2010.
Walther Sallaberger96
areâ onlyâ rarelyâ documented,â thoughâ moreâ shouldâ beâ expectedâ fromâ theâ archivesâ ofâ theâ ruler.âWoolâwasâusedâtoâacquireâspicesâbyâtheâmerchantâUr-emuĹĄ.ďż˝0âWoolâandâsilverâwereâhandedâoverâtoâthisâseafaringâmerchant��âor,âmostâimportantly,âconsignedâtogetherâwithâsilverâtoâbuyâcopperâarrivingâfromâMaganâthroughâtheâPersianâGulf.ďż˝2âWoolâwasâapparentlyâoneâofâtheâmostâimportantâcommoditiesâ thatâ Sumeriansâ couldâ exchangeâ toâ acquireâ foreignâ goods.â Woolâ wasâ barteredâ forâbarley,âwhichâwasâthenâsentâtoâElam.ďż˝3
DiscussingâtheâcommercialâexchangeâofâtheâhouseholdâofâtheâLadyâofâGirsu,âwhichâspecializedâin textile production, R. Prentice writes:ďż˝4â
Oneâwouldâexpectâwoollenâgarmentsâ toâhaveâbeenâanâ importantâexportâproduct.âLagaĹĄâpossessedâlargeâherdsâofâsheepâandâtheânumberâofâwomenâweavingâandâspinning��âwasâcontinuallyâgrowing.âHowever,âthereâisâonlyâoneâdocumentâwhichârecordsâtheâexportâofâtextiles.â
Theâ oneâ documentâ mentionedâ byâ Prenticeďż˝6â isâ DPâ ��8,â accordingâ toâ whichâ threeâ standardâbar-dulďż˝-garments (probably kilts) were given together with five minas of silver to the seafaring merchant ĹirinibatuĹĄ for barter (niĹ2-sam2)âwithâDilmun.â
Toâsummarizeâ theâevidenceâ fromâPresargonicâGirsu,âwoolâwasâoneâofâ theâprimaryâproductsâexportedâbyâtheâEmunus,âbutâtheâmainâexportâgoodâinâquantityâandânumberâofâreferencesâwasâclearlyâbarley,âwhichâcouldâeasilyâbeâshippedâtoâneighbouringâregions.âBesidesâlocallyâproducedâwool and barley, fish, lard and scented oils were also exported.ďż˝7
2.2. Merchants in Ur III UmmaTurningânowâtoâtheâendâofâtheâ3rdâmillennium,âtheâperiodâofâtheâThirdâDynastyâofâUr,âtheâtextualâevidence allows two perspectives: first, a comparison of sales and purchases executed by the institutionalâ economyâ ofâ Umma,â directedâ byâ theâ governor;â andâ secondly,â anâ evaluationâ ofâ theâaccountsâofâtheâmerchantsâwhoâprovidedâgoodsâbothâfromâlocalâandâfromâexternalâmarkets.
ďż˝0ââNik 1 300 (Lugalanda 3): 42.5 minas (c. 22 kg) of wool worth 21.25 shekels to buy spices (ĹĄem bulugx).��ââ DP 518 (Lugalanda 6): 5 minas of wool together with 5 minas of silver for the searfaring merchant (gaeĹĄ3
ga)âĹirinibatuĹĄ.ďż˝2ââFoster,âASJ 19, 61 YBC 12130 (Lugalanda 6): 10 minas of silver and 300 minas of wool. It is no coincidence that the three PresargonicâLagaĹĄâreferencesâdateâtoâtheâtimeâofâLugalanda,âsinceâunderâhisâsuccessor,âUrukagina,âforeignâcommercialârelationsâsoonâcameâtoâanâend;âseeâSchrakampâ(inâprint).ďż˝3ââ(ďż˝)âNik 1 310 iii 8: 50 ma-na siki ĹĄe â50 minas of wool (for) grainâ handed over to an Elamite in the context of a long listâofâgrainâgivenâtoâElamitesâ(Prenticeâ20ďż˝0,âďż˝07,âfootnoteâ434âerronouslyâcallsâsikiâĹĄeâaâtypeâofâwool;âthereâisâprobablyâaâconfusionâwithâsikiâuduâĹĄeâgu7-a).â(2)âNik 1 85 (Lug 1): (i) 4,30.0.0* ĹĄe gur-saĹ-Ĺal2 / niĹ2-sam2âsiki-kamâ/âur-e2-muĹĄ3â/âgalâdam-gara3âensi2-ka-ke4â(ii)âen-u4-da-naâ/âdam-gara3âe2-munus-raâ/âe-na-ĹĄum2â/âelamki-ĹĄe3â(iii)âba-de6ââ270âstandardâkor, barter for wool: UremuĹĄ, the chief merchant of the city ruler gave it to Enudana, the merchant of the Emunus. ItâisâbroughtâtoâElamâ.âClearlyâtheâbarleyâisâgivenâtoâtheâmerchantâofâtheâEmunusâtoâbeâbroughtâtoâElam,âasâinâotherâdocuments;âtheâadditionalânoteâthatâitâisâ âbarterâforâwoolââindicatesâthatâtheâchiefâmerchantâUremuĹĄâhadâexchangedâtheâgrainâforâwool.âPrenticeâ(20ďż˝0,âďż˝07âwithâfootnoteâ433),âhowever,âsuggestsâanââ(intended)âimportationâofâwoolâ;âthisâwouldâremainâaâuniqueâreferenceâtoâtheâimportâofâwool.âďż˝4ââPrenticeâ20ďż˝0,â���â��2.��ââPrenticeâ20ďż˝0âinterpretsâ k i -s ik i â asââweavingââandâ ki-guâasââspinningâ;âhowever,âtheânumberâofâpersonsâemployedâspeaksâagainstâthisâinterpretation,âsinceâspinningâneedsâďż˝0âtimesâmoreâworkâthanâweaving,âbutâtheânumberâofâpersonsâemployedâatâ k i -guâ isâmuchâlower.âThereforeâtheâtraditionalâ interpretationâofâwomenâworkingâwithâwoolâ(k i -s ik i )âor flax for linen (ki-gu) is maintained.ďż˝6ââPrenticeâ20ďż˝0,â��2.ďż˝7ââPrenticeâ20ďż˝0,â��0â���.
976. The Value of Wool in Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia
TheâreferencesâtoâwoolâinâinstitutionalâpurchasesâandâsalesâareâextractedâfromâtheâlistsâprovidedâbyâWilckeâ(Tableâ6.ďż˝).ďż˝8âConcerningâtheâbalanceâbetweenâwoolâsoldâandâboughtâinâtheseâreferences,âthe conclusions drawn by Ouyang on the purchase of wool are worth citing in full:ďż˝9â
Aâshortageâofâwoolâinâtheâinstitutionalâsectorâmightâhaveâledâtoâthisâdemand,âforâtheâsuppliesâofâwoolâfromâtheâmerchantsâappearâdocumentedâduringâtheâreignâofâKingâĹ u-Sin,âwhenâtheyâreceivedâonlyâsmallâamountsâofâtheirâcapital.ââ Theâadministrators,âwhoâwithdrewâwoolâfromâtheâmerchants,âatâtheâsameâtimeâtookâwoolâfromâtheâinstitutionalâeconomyâinâUmmaâtoâmeetâtheirâneeds.â[...]âTheseâwoolâtransactionsâsuggestâthatâincidentalâshortagesâcouldâhaveâcompelledâtheâUmmaâinstitutionalâeconomyâtoâfallâbackâonâtheâmerchantsâ forâ supplementaryâ suppliesâ ofâ goodsâ inâ whichâ itâ specialized.â Theâ evidenceâ doesâ notâpointâoutâtheâsourceâofâtheâwoolâpurchasedâbyâtheâmerchantsâthough.
Soâ itâ seemsâ thatâ temporaryâ shortagesâ forcedâ theâ governorâsâ organizationâ toâ buyâ woolâ fromâanotherâsource,âprobablyâotherâorganizationsâwithinâtheâsameâorâanotherâprovince.âImportantly,âtheâ highestâ amountâ ofâ woolâ spentâ byâ Ummaâsâ administrationâ wasâ usedâ toâ buyâ gold,â theâ mostâprecious metal of the period and therefore used to fulfil the demands of annual taxes to the state. Woolâ wasâ alsoâ exchangedâ forâ bitumen,â whichâ wasâ importedâ fromâ Madgaâ inâ theâ Easternâ Tigrisâregion,âsomewhereâinâtheâareaâofâtheâmodernâoil-producingâcentreâofâKirkuk,âtheâregionâwhereâmostâresearchersâwouldâlocalizeâaâcentreâofâtheâMarduâ(Amorite)âland.20âInâtheseâcases,âwoolâwasâclearlyâinvestedâinâtheâsuperregionalâmarket,âsinceâgoldâandâbitumenâhadâtoâbeâimportedâtoâSumer.ďż˝8ââWilckeâ2008,â267â28ďż˝.ďż˝9ââOuyangâ20ďż˝3,âďż˝46âďż˝47.20ââStolâ20ďż˝2,âďż˝7âďż˝8.
Table 6.1. Wool bought and sold by the governorâs institutional economy at Umma in chronological order..
Values are rounded. Estimated prices (indicated by â) are calculated according to the standard price relationship of 1/10 shekel of silver per mana of wool, or 6 shekels of silver per 1 talent (following Snell, 1982, 178â179).References for the purchase of wool: a) MVN 18, 125; b) Nisaba 11, 17 i 18â19; c) TCL 5, 5680; d) MVN 1, 241; e) TCL 5, 6037; f) Nisaba 11, 6 iv 3â4. 6.References for the sale of wool: a) AAICAB 31 Ashm. 1911â217, b) MVN 1, 220; c) Studies Jones 216:15â17 (11th month, i.e. period before harvest with shortage of grain), d) and e) NATN 805; f) Nisaba 9, 46; g) AAICAB 41f. Ashm. 1911â237b.References from Wilcke (2008, 267â281), with one addition (sale reference c) taken from Ouyang (2013, 239â241, table 5.2.C: Wool received by Umma merchants; and 292â294, table 5.2.M-2: Animal parts and by-products supplied by Umma merchants).
Purchase of wool Silver value in shekels
Sale of wool Amount of wool in talents
Silver value in shekels
a)â43âshekelsâofâsilverâ(ASâďż˝) 43a)âforâbitumenâ(Ĺ â37)â 2 â ďż˝2b)âforââmerchandiseââ(Ĺ â47) 9 â ďż˝4
b)â6âkorâofâgrainâ(ASâ7) 6c)âforâgrainâ(ASâ3) ďż˝0d)âforâdryâbitumenâ(ASâ7) 4 â 24e)âforâgoldâ(ASâ7) ��� â 690
c)â2ďż˝âshekelsâofâsilverâ(Ĺ Sâďż˝) 2ďż˝d)âsilverâforâ23âÂźâtalentsâofâwoolâ(Ĺ Sâ2) â ďż˝40 f)âforâeggsâ(?)â(Ĺ Sâ3) â â ďż˝e)â420âkorâofâgrainâ(Ĺ Sâ6) 420f)âgrainâforâ30âtalentsâofâwoolâ([x]) â ďż˝80 g)âforâaâwoman,â2âchildrenâ
(ISâ2)3 â ďż˝8
Walther Sallaberger98
TheâdistributionâofâsalesâandâpurchasesâofâwoolâagreesâwithâtheâfactâthatâwoolâappearsâasâoneâofâtheâstapleâgoodsâofâtheâprovinceâofâUmmaâthatâwereâhandedâoverâtoâmerchantsâtravellingâonâbehalfâofâtheâstate.âTheâbalancedâaccountsâwrittenâtoâcontrolâtheâbusinessâofâtheâmerchantsânotâonlyâ provideâ theâ quantitiesâ andâ valueâ ofâ woolâ spent,â butâ allowâ usâ toâ calculateâ theâ amountâ ofâwool in the merchantsâ capital: Between 7% and 62%, mostly a quarter to half of the capital given toâmerchants,âcameâfromâwoolâ(seeâTableâ6.2).â Interestingly,âgarmentsâorâtextilesâneverâappearâasâ capitalâ goods.â Onlyâ theâ rawâ product,â theâ woolâ itself,â wasâ usedâ byâ theâ merchantsâ toâ acquireâgoods. Besides silver, goods handed over to the merchants included barley, dates, fish and fish oil, sheepskins and leather products, wood, sesame oil, or alkaline plants and various foodstuffs.2ďż˝â
Inâthreeâcases,âtheâUmmaâscribesâindicatedâtheâgoodsâtheâwoolâwasâbudgetedâfor.âOnce,âSeskalaâshouldâsupplyâku-mul,ââfennel,âanisâ(?),22âaâplantâthatâwasâalsoâgrownâlocally.âInâtwoâotherâinstances,âtheâmerchantâhadâtoâbuyâgoldâforâwool,âinâeachâcaseâforâanâamountâofâďż˝âtalentsâofâwool,âworthâ
2ďż˝ââMostârecentlyâOuyangâ20ďż˝3,â��7âďż˝23âandâ233â247âwithâTabletsâďż˝.2.Aâtoâďż˝.2.G.22ââASâ6/��,âNisabaâ6,â2.
Table 6.2. Wool belonging to the capital of merchants employed by the governor of Umma (Ur III) in balanced accounts about merchants. Values are rounded. References in Ouyang 2013, 239â240, table 5.2.C, which also includes other documents.
Date Capital, total (saĹ niĹ2-
gur11-ra-kam) in shekels (rounded)
Silver value of wool in shekels
(rounded)
Percentage of wool as part of the capital
(rounded)
Merchant Text
ASâ3/0ďż˝ 927 262 28% Ur-Dumuzida Studies Jonesâ2ďż˝6ASâ4/â 846 300 35% âmerchantsâ,â
dam-gara3-neTCLâďż˝,â6046
ASâ4/â 4ďż˝3 238 24% Ur-Dumuzida Ledgersâno.â3â=âYOSâďż˝8,âďż˝22
ASâďż˝/â 228 40 16% Enimanizi TCLâďż˝,â60ďż˝2ASâďż˝/â ��6 40 26% Pada Ledgersâno.4ASâďż˝/â 20ďż˝ 40 20% Seskala TCLâďż˝,â60ďż˝6ASâďż˝/â 77 40 52% Seskala Ledgersâno.â6ASâďż˝/�� 267 ��7 44% Pada AAICAB,â
Ashm.ďż˝924â0667AS 6/â 113 33 29% KateĹĄa SNATâ36ďż˝AS 6/02 â233â 40 17% Kuda Ledgersâno.â8AS 6/11 197 85 43% Seskala Nisabaâ6,â2ASâ6/�� 27ďż˝ ďż˝20 44% Pada STAâ23ASâ6/�� 369 228 62% Ur-Dumuzida Ledgersâno.â9ASâ7/07 26ďż˝ ��� 57% Ur-Dumuzida Ledgersâno.âďż˝0ASâ7/09 2ďż˝2 88 35% Pada Ledgersâno.â��ASâ8/07 304 96 32% Ur-Dumuzida STAâďż˝ASâ9/â 869 33ďż˝ 38% Ur-Dumuzida YOSâďż˝8,âďż˝23Ĺ Sâ2/â 336 2ďż˝ 7% Ur-Dumuzida TCLâďż˝,âďż˝680Ĺ S 5/â 13 2 13% Pada Ledgersâno. 12
996. The Value of Wool in Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia
30âshekelsâofâsilver.23âAgain,âasâ inâtheâcasesâcollectedâinâTableâ6.ďż˝,âwoolâwasâinvestedâtoâ importâgoldâtoâSumer.
Besidesâ gold,â theâ merchantsâ importedâ silverâ byâ sellingâ stapleâ goodsâ onâ foreignâ markets,âfurthermoreâmetals,âespeciallyâcopperâandâtin,âalkalineâplants,âgypsum,âbitumen,âhoney,24âandâresins,âwhichâpartlyâcameâfromâforeignâregions.âWool,âwhichâwasâprovidedâmostlyâbyâtheâgovernorâhimself,âhis wife (Ninmelam) and more rarely by officials,2ďż˝âwasâthusâinvestedâinâinterregionalâtrade.
ItâcanâbeâassumedâthatâtheâgoodsâtradedâbyâtheâmerchantsâwereâusuallyâtransportedâbyâboatâonâtheâriversâandâcanalsâandâonâtheâseaâtoâElamâorâotherâregionsâviaâtheâPersianâGulf.âAlthoughâwoolâwasâoneâofâtheâmainâproductsâsoldâbyâtheâUmmaâmerchantsâ(seeâTableâ6.2),âitâdidânotâserveâasâmeans of payment in the same way as silver or, to a lesser degree, barley: wool is not mentioned asâaâpriceâinâsaleâdocumentsâorâasâaâcommodityâinâloans.
Theâroleâofâwoolâasâmerchandiseâ inâsomeârespectsârecallsâtheâOldâBabylonianâsituationâthatâmerchantsâsoldâtheâwoolâyieldedâbyâtheâstateâsâherds.26âPerhapsâtheâwoolâbusinessâexplainsâtheâbackgroundâofâoneâofâtheâbestâknownâmoney-lendersâofâtheâUrâIIIâperiod,âSi.A-a,âwhoâwasâaâna-gadaââshepherdââbyâprofession.27
3. The urban control of sheep herds in Upper Mesopotamia: Presargonic Nabada (Tell Beydar) Asâtheâprecedingâsectionâhasâshown,âwoolâforâtradeâwasâprovidedâbyâtheâcommunalâorganizationsâthatâmanagedâtheâeconomyâinâEarlyâBronzeâAgeâMesopotamia,âinâtheseâinstancesâbyâtheâpalaceâofâtheâcity-rulerâorâtheâLadyâofâGirsuâsâorganizationâinâPresargonicâLagaĹĄ,âandâbyâtheâgovernorâand his officials in Ur III Umma. The control of flocks of sheep by such organizations is attested inâ hundreds,â probablyâ thousandsâ ofâ cuneiformâ documentsâ fromâ allâ overâ third-millenniumâMesopotamia. Excellent evidence for the control of flocks of sheep comes from Tell Beydar, ancientâNabada.
Nabadaâwasâaâsecond-rankâcityâinâtheâHaburâplainâinâUpperâMesopotamia,âdependentâonâtheâpoliticalâcapitalâatâNagarâ(modernâTellâBrak),âandâitâhousedâroughlyâtwoâthousandâinhabitantsâatâtheâtimeâcoveredâbyâitsâmainâarchiveâinâtheâearlyâ24thâcenturyâBC.28âTheâinhabitantsâlivedâinâsmallâhouses,âwhereâtheyâalsoâpreparedâtheirâfood,âespeciallyâonâtheâbasisâofâbarley,âwhichâtheyâreceivedâasâmonthlyâallocationsâfromâtheâcommunalâorganization.âAsâwasâcommonâinâearlyâMesopotamia,âfromâSumerâinâtheâsouthâtoâUpperâMesopotamiaâinâtheânorth,âtheyâworkedâcollectivelyâbothâinâthe fields and in the workshops, and the harvested grain was stored in communal granaries. Life wasâthusâdeterminedâbyâcollectiveâ labourâandâprivateâ foodâconsumption.âAnâ importantâsourceâforâourâunderstandingâofâsheepâhusbandryâisâprovidedâbyâaâgroupâofâďż˝8âroundâsmallâtablets,â3.ďż˝âtoâ4.ďż˝âcmâinâdiameter.29â
23ââASâ7/07,âLedgersâno.âďż˝0;âASâ7/09,âLedgersâno.ďż˝0.24âââHoneyââ(lal3)âappearsâinâtheâmerchantsââaccountsâandâsoâitâmayâwellâhaveâbeenâimportedâtoâSumer,âsinceâtheâhoney-beeâwasânotânativeâtoâ lowlandâMesopotamiaâ(Volkâďż˝999).âTheâ interpretationâofâ lal3âasâ âdateâsyrupââ isâproblematicâasâlongâasâitsâproductionâisânotâattestedâinâtheâenormousâeconomicâdocumentationâofâtheâUrâIIIâperiod.2ďż˝ââOuyangâ20ďż˝3,âďż˝2ďż˝.26ââStolâ2004,â922â926.27 Garfinkle 2012, 36â71 with earlier literature. 28ââOnâtheâeconomyâofâNabadaâseeânowâSallabergerâandâPruĂâinâprint.â29ââSubartuâ2,âno.â��8;âSubartuâďż˝2,âno.â���âďż˝67;âseeâSallabergerâ2004;âPruĂâandâSallabergerâ2003/2004.âTheâgoatâherdsâ
Walther Sallaberger�00
The texts maintain the following form:
ďż˝.â Typeâofâsmallâlivestockâ(sheepâorâgoats)â2.â personalânameâ3.â numberâofâanimalsâ4.â furtherâtypesâofâsheepâ(sheepâtextsâonly)âandârespectiveânumbersâďż˝.â monthânameâ(exceptâonceââMonthâofâtheâSun-godâ).
Inâtabulatedâform,âtheseâtextsâprovideâinformationâonâtheâcompositionâandâsizeâofâtheâherdsâofâsheepâatâTellâBeydarâ(Tableâ6.3).â
The persons named are the shepherds, who cared for the flocks entrusted to them by the communal organization of the city of Nabada. The flocks were of a perfect size to be managed by oneâperson,âconsistingâofâďż˝60âtoâ300âanimals.âTheârelativelyâhighârateâofâmaleâanimalsâ(relationâof rams or probably more often wethers to ewes lies between 1:1.6 and 1:2.3) indicates that they wereâkeptânotâonlyâ forâhusbandry,âbutâprimarilyâ forâwoolâproduction.âThereâ isânoâevidenceâatâall that sheep cheese was delivered. The flocks of sheep also appear in another group of similar documentsâ(Tableâ6.4),âsmallâtabletsârecordingâtheâamountsâofâwoolâpluckedâ(ur4)âfromâtheâsheepâand all dated to the âMonth of the Sun-Godâ, thus clearly to be identified with the period of plucking andârevisionâofâtheâherds.âTheâtextsâmostâlikelyâdateâtoâaâspanâofâoneâorâatâmostâtwoâyears.â
Finally,â theâ shepherdsâ appearâ inâ listsâ concerningâ theâ deliveryâ ofâ sheepâ forâ slaughterâ orâ ofâhidesâ toâ theâ management.â Theâ documentsâ keptâ inâ theâ centreâ ofâ theâ city30â andâ writtenâ byâ theâurban scribes demonstrate that the flocks of sheep belonged to the communal organization of Nabada,âandâthatâtheâshepherdsâwereâthusâconsideredâanâintegralâpartâofâtheâurbanâcommunity.âThe small documents on the inspection of herds allow us to calculate the average size of a flock.
equallyâpresentâatâNabadaâ(andâlikewiseâtabulatedâinâSallabergerâ2004)âareânotâdiscussedâhere.30 On the find-spots of the herd inspection texts Subartu 12, 151â167, see Lebeau 2004, 1. 5 pl. I. 8, fig. 1â2.
Table 6.3. Flocks of sheep at Nabada/Tell Beydar according to herd inspection documents. Following Sallaberger 2004, 19, table 4.
Herdsman Total Sheep Rams/wethers
Ewes He-goats Lambs Text Subartu 2 and 12
type 1aĂŹr-Ăb-sĂĄ-lim â97 82 ďż˝ ďż˝4 ďż˝6�῞Ă-la-gi-mu ďż˝64 ďż˝38 4 22 ďż˝62Ma-ti ďż˝6ďż˝ ��3 2 ďż˝0 ��2Ĺ u-na-na ďż˝68 ďż˝29 ďż˝ 38 ���An-na-kun 20ďż˝ ďż˝6ďż˝ 2 34 ��8Gi-la-nu 2�� ďż˝â?â60 2 49 ďż˝67type 1báżžĂ-ĹĄa-lum ďż˝6ďż˝+ 20+ ďż˝0ďż˝ 40+ ďż˝64A-ḍu-du10 2ďż˝3 60 ďż˝39 ďż˝ ďż˝3 ďż˝66ud-il 286 2ďż˝9 67 ���Ê-gAl 306 ďż˝00 ďż˝60 â 46 ��3Lu-sĂĄ-lim 33ďż˝ ďż˝00 ďż˝8ďż˝ 3 43 ��8
�0�6. The Value of Wool in Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia
Consequently,â theâ totalâ numberâ ofâ shepherdsâ knownâ fromâ largerâ listsâ ofâ personsâ allowâ forâ aâconservativeâestimateâofâtheâtotalânumberâofâsheepâcontrolledâbyâNabadaâasâcomprisingâc.â4000âheadsâ(andâaâslightlyâsmallerânumberâofâgoats).
In the environment of Tell Beydar, fallow land and fields provided fodder after the harvest. During the humid season in winter and spring the flocks could stay in the hills stretching to the west, and one could also imagine a seasonal transhumance to the Jebel áżžAbd al-áżžAziz. 3ďż˝
Accordingâ toâ theâ textualâ documentation,â theâ pastoralistsâ ofâ Upperâ Mesopotamianâ Nabadaâwereâintegratedâinâtheâurbanâcommunalâmanagement.âThereâisâevenâfurtherâevidenceâthatâtheâanimalâherdsâwereâanâessentialâpartâofâtheâurbanâperspectiveâonâtheirâworld,âandâthisâevidenceâcomes from an unexpected side, namely the find of zoomorphic terracottas. Alexander PruĂâs analysis of the terracotta figurines found in private houses excavated at Tell Beydar showed that depictionsâ ofâ domesticâ animalsâ clearlyâ outnumberâ thoseâ ofâ wildâ animalsâ (bears,â foxes,â lions).âLocal differences can be noted, however. More bovine figurines are attested in the Euphrates
3ďż˝ââTheâformulaâsikiâbarâAĹ 3 sikilâremainedâunclearâtoâVanâLerbergheâďż˝996,âďż˝09,âandâwasânotâdiscussedâbyâSallabergerâ2004;âsikiâbarâ AĹ = âsingle, one complete fleeceâ, sikil âfreeâ; so these numbers indicate the number of sheep that did not deliver wool, probably because they had already lost their fleece before plucking. No more than 4 fleeces were usuallyâ lostâ fromâaâstandardâherdâofâ2ďż˝0âsheepâ(Sallabergerâ2004,âďż˝9â20).âThisâseemsâtoâbeâaâveryâ lowârateâofâ lossesâand confirms the strict control of the flocks of sheep. The interpretation of the wool weight is confirmed by Subartu 2, no. 6, which says that âone complete fleeceâ (siki bar AĹ )âhasâtheââweightâ(ki-la2)âofâ2â,âi.e.âminasâ(c.âďż˝âkg),âasâalreadyânoticedâbyâVanâLerbergheâďż˝996,â��2.
Table 6.4. Small round tablets documenting flocks of small cattle (Excerpted from Sallaberger 2004, 14, table 1); minas of wool, probably representing a ratio of 2 minas of wool per ram or wether, 1.5 minas per ewe (Sallaberger 2004, 20).3ďż˝
Personal name
Total From sheep From rams or wethers
From ewes Text Subartu 2 and 12
ážżĂ-ĹĄa-lum 463 (minas of) wool +3 âfree of fleeceâ1 463 ďż˝03BĂš-[en] ďż˝02+â(minasâof)âwool ďż˝02+ ��Dab6-ra ��3â(minasâof)âwool ��3 9�Ê-gAl 4ďż˝7â(minasâof)âwool 200 2ďż˝7 82ĂŠ-gAl 526 (minas of) wool + 5 âfree of fleeceâ ďż˝26 60ĂŹr-Ăb-sĂĄ-lim ďż˝96? (minas of) wool + 4 âfree of fleeceâ ďż˝96? 6ďż˝kĂšn- bĂ d 580 (minas of) wool + 4 âfree of fleeceâ ďż˝80 ďż˝0Uri-Apin 923â(minasâof)âwoolâ+â24ââfreeâ 400 ďż˝23 ďż˝6
Table 6.5. Total number of sheep and goats kept by the local adminstration of Nabada. From Sallaberger 2004, 20
Number of animals attested in individual documents
Average size of flock
Additional herdsmen
Estimated additional animals
Estimated total (low estimate)
Sheep 2347+ in 11 flocks 213 7 1491 c. 3840 in 18 flocksGoats 2072 in 7 flocks: 296 5 1480 c. 3550 in 12 flocksTotal 4419+ in 18 flocks: 12 2971 c. 7400 in 30 flocks
Walther Sallaberger�02
valley, which is more suited for cattle breeding, as also attested by the finds of animal bones. Equid figurines predominate in the capital at Nagar/Tell Brak, which concentrates on this sector ofâ theâpalaceâeconomy.â Inâ theâHaburâplains,â sheepâareâmoreâprominentâ thanâ inâ theâEuphratesâvalley.âWhateverâtheâfunctionâofâtheâterracottasâmayâhaveâbeen,âtheyâillustrateâtheâpersonalâviewâof the inhabitants on their environment. Whether the terracottas represent magical figurines or toys,âbothâusesâwouldârepresentâanâidealâworld.âInâthisâwayâtheâhighânumberâofâsheepâandâgoatâfigurines within the city attests to the social integration of shepherding in urban society.32
Canâweâassumeâthatâindependentânomadicâorâpastoralistâgroupsâmigratedâinâtheâsameâregion,âtheâHaburâplains?âTheâdenseâsettlementâinâthatâperiod,âwellâdocumentedâbyâarchaeologicalâsurveys,âprecludesâsuchâanâassumption.âTheâspaceânecessaryâforâtheâsheepâandâgoatsâofâNabadaâcorrespondsâtoâaboutâhalfâofâtheâprovinceâsâtotalâsurface;âthisâleavesâlittleâroom,âifâany,âforâindependentâgroups,âespeciallyâifâoneâallowsâforâcattle,âequids,âandâroyalâherdsâasâwell.33âTheâ24th-centuryâsituationâinâtheâHaburâplainsâthusâisâdirectlyâopposedâtoâtheâsituationâinâtheâsameâregionâhalfâaâmillenniumâlaterâinâtheâOldâBabylonianâperiod,âtheâMiddleâBronzeâAge,âwhenâtheâregionâwasâpredominantlyâinhabited by pastoralists, as attested in the written sources and confirmed by the archaeological evidence.34
Theâ tabletsâ fromâ Tellâ Beydarâ documentâ theâ strictâ controlâ ofâ animalâ herdsâ byâ theâ urbanâorganization,âandâthisâcontrolâ includedâtheâexactânumberâofâsheepâentrustedâtoâtheâshepherdsâandâtheâweighingâofâtheâwoolâpluckedâeveryâspring.âFurthermore,âtheâlossâofâsheepâwasâregisteredâbyâtheâtallyâofâhidesâfromâshipmentsâdeliveredâbyâshepherds.3ďż˝
TheâsubsequentâuseâofâtheâpluckedâwoolâisânotâattestedâinâtheâtextualâdocumentationâfromâTellâBeydar.âIndustrialâproductionâofâtextilesâisâoftenâlinkedâtoâtheâroyalâsector,âandâsoâtheâwoolâmayâ
32ââPruĂâandâSallabergerâ2003/2004.33ââSeeâPruĂâandâSallabergerâ2003/2004,â298â299.âWithâaâstandardâvalueâofâ2âtoâ3âhectaresâofâlandâusedâperâsheep,âourâ7,400âanimalsâofâsmallâcattleâwouldâuseâďż˝48âtoâ222âkm².âThisâcorrespondsâtoâhalfâofâtheâestimatedâsizeâofâtheâprovinceâofâNabada.âAdditionalâspaceâhasâprobablyâtoâbeâcalculatedâforâtheâroyalâherdsâofâNagar.â34ââSeeâtheâreferencesâtoâtheâarchaeologicalâdataâinâLyonnetâ2004.3ďż˝ââSeeâSallabergerâ2004,âďż˝4âďż˝7,âespeciallyâonâdocumentsâSubartuâ2,ânosâ4âandâ70,âlistsâofâhidesâ(kuĹĄ)âofâsheepâandâofâgoatsâdeliveredâbyâherdsmen.
Figs 6.1a and b. Figurine of a ram from Halawa from the 24th c. BC (âEB IVAâ, courtesy A. PruĂ: PruĂ and Link 1994, 114; 125, Abb. 35 and Taf. 16, there âSchafterrakotte Nr 79â (HLW.78T121)).
a b
�036. The Value of Wool in Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia
haveâbeenâdeliveredâdirectlyâthere.36âSimilarlyâtoâtheâPresargonicâarchiveâofâtheâLadyâofâGirsu,âaâsingleâdocumentâfromâNabadaâattestsâtoâtheâsaleâofâwool.âInterestingly,âasâatâGirsu,âwoolâisâsoldâby fleeces in order to obtain a luxury good, namely wine, a delicacy in ancient Mesopotamia.37
4. The urban control of herds of sheep on the alluvial plain: Presargonic Girsu, Ur III Umma, Girsu, and Ur4.1. Presargonic GirsuTurningâfromâUpperâMesopotamianâNabadaâtoâtheâcontemporaryâsouthernâarchiveâofâtheâLadyâof Girsu, we note both parallels and differences. First, shepherds of sheep raised for wool (sipa uduâ siki-ka)â areâ partâ ofâ theâ workforceâ ofâ theâ organization,â andâ upâ toâ threeâ shepherdsâ appearâtogetherâwithâsixâherdingâassistants.38âTheâsizeâofâtheirâherdsâcannotâbeâascertained,âsinceâonlyâsmallânumbersâofâsheep,âaroundâ40âtoâ60âheads,âappearâinâlistsâofâbarleyâasâfodder.âThisâsuggestsâthatâtheseâanimalsâwereâearmarkedâforâslaughter.âAsâwithâtheâNabadaâlistsâofâhides,âtheâshepherdsâofâGirsuâalsoâhadâtoâdocumentâallâlossesâbyâreturningâhidesâforâfallenâanimals.39âTheâfewâpreservedâtabletsâ thatâ dealâ withâ pluckingâ (ur4)â listâ onlyâ surprisinglyâ lowâ numbersâ forâ theâ threeâ orâ fourâshepherds,âsuchâasâ42â(VSâ2ďż˝,â��),â63â(DPâ2ďż˝8),âorâ68â(VSâďż˝4,â73)âsheep.âTheseâtexts,âhowever,âdealâwithâspecialâtaxesâforâsheep,40âand,âinâcontrastâtoâtheâNabadaâdocuments,âdoânotârecordâtheâtotalâamountâofâwoolâplucked.
Interestingly,âtheâEmunusâorganizationâhousedâbothâshepherdsâandâfemaleâtextileâworkers,âbutâapparentlyâdidânotâcontrolâtheâwoolâitself.âAlthoughâtheâdocumentationâcoversâpracticallyâallâaspectsâofâsubsistenceâeconomy,âitâdoesânotâmentionâtheâpluckingâofâwool,âitsâstorageâorâitsâprocessing.âTheseâaspectsâwereâapparentlyâreservedâforâtheâpalaceâofâtheâruler,âandâthisâisâinâlineâwithâtheâvalueâofâwool,âwhichâwasâhandedâoverâtoâtradersâasâmerchandiseâ(seeâSectionâ2.ďż˝âabove).âThisâagainâdovetailsâwith the Tell Beydar documents: although there the wool was plucked locally, it then disappeared fromâtheârecords,âprobablyâbecauseâitâwasâhandedâoverâtoâtheâpalace.âAnâimpressiveâcontemporaryâexampleâofâtheâpalatialâmanagementâofâtheâvaluableâcommodityâofâwoolâstemsâfromâtheâarchivesâofâEbla,âwhereasâ theâsecond-rankâtownâNabadaâandâtheâsubordinateâEmunusâorganizationâwereâinvolvedâinâtheâproduction,âbutânotâinâtheâultimateâcontrolâofâwool.4ďż˝âTakenâtogetherâthisâsuggestsâthatâwoolâwasâregardedâasâaâvaluableâgoodâtreatedâbyâtheâpalatialâeconomy.
4.2. Ur III Umma TheâabundantâevidenceâfromâtheâUrâIIIâperiodâallowsâforâanâin-depthâanalysisâofâsheepâhusbandryâand the production of wool. Only two aspects will be discussed here: the institutional control of herdsâofâsheepâkeptâforâwoolâandâtheâtypesâofâsheepâbred.âThisâandâtheâsubsequentâsectionsâonâtheâ
36ââSallabergerâ20ďż˝3.37ââSubartuâ2,âno.â6.âSeeâVanâLerbergheâďż˝996,â��2.38ââDPâďż˝2ďż˝.âTheâpertinentâtextsâonâsheepâwereâcollectedâbyâDeimelâďż˝926a,â24â48;âseeâhisâsummaryâDeimelâďż˝93ďż˝,â9ďż˝;âWuâ2006,âďż˝â4,âlistsâtheseâtextsâwithoutâreferringâtoâearlierâstudiesâandâwithoutâanyâdiscussion.39ââTheârespectiveâtermâisânaâdeďż˝-g;âseeâSallabergerâ200ďż˝.40ââFoxvogâďż˝994âwithâearlierâliterature.4ďż˝ââDespiteâmanyâstudiesâonâtheâsubjectâ(seeâe.g.âtheâliteratureâcitedâbyâFoxvogâďż˝994),âtheâwoolâbusinessâinâtheâEmunusâorganizationâandâtheâexactâinterpretationâofâtheâpertinentâpassagesâfromââUrukaginaâsâReformsââwouldâbeâworthâaânewâinvestigation. The differentiation of commodities according to their control by the palace, the seat of the political ruler,âorâbyâotherâorganizationsâisâaâtopicâstudiedâbyâSallabergerâ20ďż˝3,âdiscussing,âhowever,âonlyâtextiles,ânotâwoolâforâtheâEarlyâBronzeâAge.
Walther Sallaberger�04
UrâIIIâperiodâareâbasedâonâexcellentâstudiesâonâtheâterminologyâofâsheep-raisingâinâtheâUrâIIIâperiod,42âtheâorganisationâofâanimalâhusbandryâatâ Umma,43â andâ theâ productionâ ofâ wool.44âAnimalsâkeptâforâslaughterâasâdocumentedâinâtheâ royalâ archivesâ ofâ PuzriĹĄ-Daganâ (modernâDrehem)âareânotâofâconcernâhere.
AtâUrâIIIâUmma,âtheâherdsâofâtheâgovernorâ(ensi2) contained two types of sheep. The first type was called ânativeâ or âSumerian sheepâ (udu eme-gi),4ďż˝âwhileâtheâsecondâtypeâwasâusuallyâcalledââmountainâsheepââ(uduâkur-ra),âonlyâexceptionallyâreferredâtoâasââfat-tailedâsheepââ(gukkAl).46âTheâmostâimportantâdocumentâisâanâinventoryâofâUmmaâsâsheepâandâgoatsâthatâwereâhandedâoverâbyâtheâgovernorâAiakalaâtoâhisâsuccessorâDadagaâinâtheâyearâĹ u-Suenâ7â(seeâTableâ6.6).47
Theâtotalâofâ4,398âsheepâseemsâquiteâmodest,âespeciallyâcomparedâtoâtheâPresargonicâsecond-rankâtownâNabadaâwithâanâestimatedânumberâofâ3,840âsheep.âThisâcannotâbeâexplainedâbyâtheâdifferent environmental conditions, since other towns in the southern alluvial plain show impressivelyâhighânumbersâofâsheep,ânamelyâGirsuâ(Tableâ6.8,âTUT 27: 74,533 sheep) and, especially, Ur (Section 4.4 below: an estimated 320,000 sheep). Only institutional differences explain the low numbers,ânamelyâthatâonlyâaâpartâofâtheâgovernorâsâherdsâwasâlistedâhere;âtheâgovernorâofâUmmaâwas,âasâstatedâaboveâ(Sectionâ2.2),âtheâmainâproviderâofâwoolâforâtheâmerchants.â
Theâ lowâ numberâ ofâ âblack,â darkâ sheepââ (uduâ gegge(mi), lessâ than 7%) is a confirmation that the two standard sheep types, the âfat-tailedâ (49%) and the normal âSumerianâ sheep (44%) were ofâwhiteâorâ lightâcolour.âTheâ leastâvaluableâ typeâofâwool,â âblackââorâ âdarkââwoolâwasâalwaysâputâatâtheâendâofâlists.âWoolâwasâusuallyââwhite,âlightâ;âwoolâwasâoftenânotâdyedâinâthisâperiod.48âTheâgroupingâofâtheâgovernorâsâherdsâaccordingâtoâcolorâimpressivelyâdemonstratesâthatâobtainingâandâkeepingâwhiteâsheepâwasâanâaimâofâtheâcontrolâofâtheâherdsâandâtheirâbreeding.âAmongâtheâtwoâtypesâofâsheep,âtheââSumerianââandâtheââfat-tailedââorââmountainââsheep,âtheâlatterâprovidedâmoreâandâbetterâwool.49âAsâtheâdesignationâindicates,âtheââmountainââsheep,âopposedâtoâtheâânativeââorââSumerianâ sheep, came from the eastern hilly flanks and mountains (called kur in Sumerian). The designationâasââfat-tailedââexplainsâthatâtheseâwereâtheâtypicalâsheepâofâmigratingâpastoralists.âTheâprice of their wool also differs: a talent of âSumerian woolâ (siki (eme-)gi) was worth only around 42ââHeimpelâďż˝993,âSteinkellerâďż˝99ďż˝43 StÄpieĹ 1996a44ââWaetzoldtâďż˝9724ďż˝ââ Jacobsenâ (ďż˝970,â423â footnoteâďż˝0â [reprintâofâďż˝9ďż˝3âarticle])âproposedâ theâreadingâuli-giâ forâeme-gi,â followedâe.g.âbyâWaetzoldtâďż˝972,â6,âbasedâonâNabnituâXXIIIâ23ďż˝â(MSLâďż˝6,â2ďż˝8)âemeĂş-ligiâ=â[...].âWhetherâ/uli/âappliesâtoâemeâorâtoâeme.gi,âitâisâaâuniqueâreading,ânotârepeatedâe.g.âinâtheâEaâgroupâandâotherâlexicalâlistsâ(seeâMesZL,âBorgerâ2003,âďż˝8â=âsubâno.â6ďż˝),âwhereâtheâonlyâreadingâforâemeâisâ/eme/.âTheâAkkadianâentryâisânotâpreserved,âbutâaccordingâtoâtheâcontextâitâshouldâbeâaâwordâincludingâtheâsequenceâĹĄ â r,âsoâeme-giâ=âĹ umerumâisâpossible.âShouldâtheâreadingâ/uli/âreferâtoâulu3ââSouthâ(wind)â?46ââTheâreadingâofâ theâwordâwrittenâwithâtheâsignâgukkAl,âAkkadianâk/gukkallu,â remainsâunknownâinâUrâ IIIâSumerian,âsince the word ends in -n; the etymology kuĹ2-galâ âbigâtailââ thusâdoesânotâapplyâforâtheâUrâIIIâword.â InâGermanâthisâsheepâtypeâisâcalledâFettsteiĂschafâ(oralâinformationâkindlyâprovidedâbyâJorisâPeters).47 Heimpel 1993, 137â138 and 152, tables 15â16; StÄpieĹ 1996a, 51; ibid.âďż˝996b,âďż˝72âďż˝7ďż˝.48ââWaetzoldtâ20ďż˝0a,â20ďż˝â202.â49ââWaetzoldtâďż˝972,â4â6;âforâtheâidentityâofâtheâtwoâdesignationsâatâUmmaâseeâHeimpelâďż˝993,âďż˝37âďż˝38.
Table 6.6. YOS 4, 237 vii (Umma Ĺ S 7), distribution of types of sheep.
âFat-tailedâsheepâ uduâgukkAl ďż˝,939 44%âSumerianâsheepâ uduâeme-gi 2,��0 49%âBlackâsheepâ uduâgegge 289 7%Total number of sheep udu ḍi-a 4,398 100%
�0�6. The Value of Wool in Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia
sixâshekelsâ(fromâ4.7ďż˝âtoâ7.ďż˝)âfor,âwhileâaâtalentâofââmountainâwoolââ(sikiâkur-ra)âwasâsoldâforâc.âeightâshekelsâ(6âtoâalmostâ9.97).ďż˝0
Asâ theâ uniqueâ documentâ YOSâ 4,â237 shows, the governorâs flocks of sheepâwereâheldâbyâtheâtemplesâofâtheâprovinceâ(Tableâ6.7).��âThisâinformationâisâ ofâ crucialâ importanceâ forâ theâhistorical dimension: the temples caredâ forâ theâ subsistenceâ economy,âfarming,âandâanimalâhusbandry.âInâthisâway,âtheâeconomyâofâSumerâremainedâstableâ despiteâ politicalâ changesâ andâturmoils.âThusâtheâUrâIIIâstateâmainlyârepresented a new overlying structure, which despite its general influence left the base intact.ďż˝2âInâYOSâ4,â237,âoneâandâtheâsameâoverseerâcouldâbeâresponsibleâforâherdsâinâvariousâtemples,âindicatingâthatâtheâactualâmanagementâbyâtheâprovinceâandâtheâgovernorâ(ensi2)âdidânotâsimplyâduplicateâtheâgroupingâofâanimalsâthroughâtheâtemples.â
Theâ distributionâ ofâ animalsâ amongâ Ummaâsâ templesâ (Tableâ 6.7)â leadsâ toâ twoâ interestingâobservations. The majority of fat-tailed sheep, 1,520 heads, or 78%, belonged to Ninura, the wife ofâUmmaâsâpatronâgodâĹ ara.âThisâbreedâprovidedâwoolâofâhigherâquality,âandâtheâtextileâindustryâwasâusuallyâsituatedâwithinâtheâladyâsâorganization,âhereâapparentlyârepresentedâbyâtheâtempleâofâNinura.âSecondly,âitâisânoteworthyâthatâblackâsheepâareâkeptâseparateâbyâtheâtemplesâofâInanaâand of Ninḍilisu, apparently an Inana figure, although the consequences of this distribution remainâunclearâtoâme.
ďż˝0 Pomponio 2010, 194â195 gives the following prices: s ik i eme-gi : 4.75, 4.98, 6.66, 7.5 shekels/talent, s ik i kur-ra : 6,â7,â7.ďż˝,â9,â9.97âshekels/talent.â�� StÄpieĹ 1996b, 172 points to the fact that the last group of sheep headed by Seskala under the foreman Urnungal does notâbelongâtoâaâtemple.âBPOAâ6,âďż˝274â(Umma,âĹ Sâ2)ânotesâmountainâ(sheep)âwoolâ(sikiâkur-ra)âfromâSeskalaâcollectedâbyâ Urnungalâ fromâ theâ âsheepâ ofâ Urlisinaâ,â probablyâ referringâ toâ theâ formerâ governorâ (ensi2)â ofâ Umma.â Seskalaâ andâUrnungalâappearâtogetherâalsoâe.g.âinâNisabaâ��,â6âii-iiiâ([Ĺ Sâ7?],âseeâtheâcommentsâbyâal-RawiâandâVerderameâadâv.âiâ18): Seskala, the âshepherdâ (sipa), delivers wool from fat-tailed and [black?] sheep (iii 15â17), which are then said to beââatâUrnungal,âtheââaccountantâââ(kiâur-dnun-gal beĹĄeĹ-dub-ba); so the âforemenâ of YOS 4, 237 are those collecting the wool from their shepherds, who care for flocks under various temples. For other documents on the role of the temples in the organization of animal husbandry at Umma see StÄpieĹ 1996a, 40â63.ďż˝2ââThisâviewâofâtheâUrâIIIâstateâasâaâsupra-structureâonâexistingâpolitical,âsocialâandâeconomicâorganizationsâisâgainingâeverâgreaterâacceptance.âTheâmassâofâadministrativeâdocumentsâfromâtheâUrâIIIâperiodâformerlyâledâtoâtheâimpressionâofâaâdominantâstateâthatâintroducedâtheâgeneralâmanagementâofâtheâlandâsâresources;âthisâviewâledâtoâvariousâproblemsâalso in understanding animal husbandry, as exemplified by Adams 2006. Adams implicitly assumes that the Ur III administrationâ wasâ alwaysâ andâ onlyâ stateâ administration,â andâ thatâ thisâ wasâ builtâ upâ fromâ scratch;â soâ heâ speaksâ ofââshepherd-agentsâasâtheâinterfaceâbetweenâtheâeliteâandâpastoralâsectorsââ(ibid.âďż˝49),âandâforâexampleâformulatesâthatââweâhaveânoâinformationâorâ[sic]âhowâshepherdsâwereârecruitedâ.âTheâdocumentâYOSâ4,â237,âdescribingâtheâcontrolâofâtheâgovernorâsâherdsâbyâtheâtemples,âwellâexplainsâtheâorganizationâofâanimalâhusbandry.âThusâthereâisânotâsuchâaâlargeâgapâbetweenâaâmanagerialâ âeliteââandâ âpastoralistsâ,âasâAdamsâassumed;âtheâso-calledâ âpastoralistsââareâtheâherdsmenâlistedâasâcaringâforâtheâsheepâofâtheâvariousâtemples.
Temple Fat-tailed sheep
Sumerian sheep
Black sheep
Foremen (ugula)
Ĺ ara ďż˝47 94ďż˝ â KaĹĄNinura ďż˝,ďż˝20 ďż˝,ďż˝20 â UreâeSulgi â ďż˝6 âInanaâofâZabalam â â 20ďż˝GulaâofâUmma â 29 âInanaâofâIbgal â â 68(Nin-)Eâe â â âNinhilisu â â ďż˝6ââ(directlyâunderâgovernor,âensi2?)
272 â â Urnungal
Table 6.7. Distribution of types of sheep according to the temples of the province of Umma in YOS 4, 237 (Ĺ S 7). Herds of goats listed in the same text are not included.
Walther Sallaberger�06
4.3. Ur III GirsuTheâdistributionâofâtheâtwoâtypes,ââSumerianââandââfat-tailedââsheep,âisâsimilarâinâtheâprovinceâofâGirsu,âalthoughâthisâisârarelyâexplicitlyânotedâ(seeâtheâtwoâexamplesâinâTableâ6.8).âTheâcontrolâofâtheseâtypesâandâtheâproductionâofâwoolâseemâtoâbeâlargelyâcomparableâtoâUmma.
Documentsâ fromâ Girsuâ mentionâ âherdingâ assistantsâ forâ theâ fat-tailedâ sheepââ (gab2-us2â (udu)âgukkAl)ârelativelyâoften.âTheyâalsoâreceiveâgrainârationsâ(e.g.âASJâ3,âďż˝76âno.ďż˝77),âagainâindicatingâthatâemployeesâofâtheâcommunalâorganizationâcaredâforâtheâfat-tailedâsheep.
4.4. Ur III UrFromâUrâIIIâUrâcomeâtwoâlargeâtabletsâlistingâaâcompleteâincomeâforâwhatâmustâhaveâbeenâaâroyalâtextileâadministration,âasâsuggestedâbyâtheâroleâplayedâbyâEĹĄnunaâandâotherâstateâcentresâasâwellâas by the appearance of the royal ladies AbÄŤ-simtÄŤ and Bizua in the texts (Table 6.9).ďż˝3âTheâtotalâamountâofâwoolâdeliveredâinâoneâyearâ isâaroundâ8,000âtalents,âwhichâmustâhaveâbeenâcollectedâfromâ c.â 320,000â sheep.ďż˝4â Theâ twoâ documentsâ nameâ theâ twoâ standardâ breedsâ ofâ sheep,â namelyââSumerianâ and âfat-tailedâ sheep. The difference in wool quality is reflected in their heirarchical listing,âwithâtheâshepherdsâofâfat-tailedâsheepâdeliveringâmoreâthanâtwiceâorâevenâthriceâtheâsumâofâthoseâofâtheâSumerianâsheep.��âSinceâtheyâwereâcalledââshepherdsâ,âtheâherdsmenâthemselvesâwereâdirectlyâsubjectâtoâtheâroyalâadministration.âTheseâtextsâindicateâthatâmostâwoolâwasâalreadyâsortedâatâtheâspotâwhereâtheâpluckingâtookâplace.
ďż˝3âUETâ3,â��04,âISâ2,âandâ��0ďż˝,âISâďż˝.ďż˝4ââ8,024âtalentsâ=â240,720âkgâofâwoolâplucked;âwithâ0.7ďż˝âkg/sheep,âthisâamountsâtoâ320,960âsheep.��ââUETâ3,â��0ďż˝;âinâ��04âevenâmore.
Table 6.8. Examples for âSumerianâ and âfat-tailedâ sheep and the control of flocks of sheep in Girsu documents
ASJ 18, 159 no. 3: 16â18 (undated): Document about the âpossession of the governorâs son within Girsuâ (niĹ2-gur��âdumuâensi2-kaâĹĄa3 Ĺir2-suki), including:
Fat-tailedâsheep uduâgukkAl ḍi-a ďż˝,0ďż˝9Sumerianâsheep udu eme-gi ḍi-a 2,607Fattenedâsheepâandâgoats uduâmaĹĄ2ânigaâ 36
TUT 27: 10嫉r.8 (section dated to AS 2): Sheep in Girsu, subscript not preserved
âWithinâGirsuâ Ewesâ(u8) Rams(uduâninta2)
Femaleâlambsâ(kir��)â
Maleâlambsâ(sila4âninta2)â
Judasâgoatsâ(maĹĄ2 saĹ)
Total: 74,�33
Fat-tailedâsheepâ(uduâgukkAl)
2�,308 �8,999 �,�9� �,�88 86� Total: �2,3��
Sumerianâsheepâ(uduâeme-gi)
8,362 6,928 2,640 3,60� 647 Total: 22,�82
BPOA 2, 1882 (Ĺ ulgi 43): âTotal of fat-tailed sheep stationed and their wool, within Girsu; overseer: herding controllerâLudugaââ(kilib3-baâuduâgukkAlâgub-baâu3âsiki-bi,âĹĄa3 Ĺir2-suki,âugulaâlu2-duďż˝0-gaâĹĄuĹĄ3).âTheâpercentageâofâlossesâcorrespondsâtoâanâaverageâlifetimeâofâsheepâofâ4âďż˝âyears.
âstationedâ gub-ba-am3 47,7ďż˝6âsheepâtheir woolâ siki-bi 1,480.3 talents = 44,409 kgsâdispensedâ zi-ga-am3 2,ďż˝96âsheeplossesâ(lit.ââcollectedâ) deďż˝-deďż˝-ga-am3 ��,��8âsheepâoutstandingâ la2-ni-am3 ďż˝,008âsheep
�076. The Value of Wool in Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia
UETâ3,â��0ďż˝â([ISâďż˝]) UETâ3,â��04â([ISâ2])âCapitalââ(total) saĹ niĹ2-gur��-ra-kamâ ďż˝3,7��+â [...] ďż˝6,000+a)â Remainderâfromâpreviousâ
year(ofâĹ Sâ9) ďż˝,727 [...] [...]
b)â âFromâtheâshepherdsâofâtheâfat-tailedâsheepâ
=âbďż˝)â âsortedâatâtheâpluckingâplaceâ
+âb2)â âsortedâinâUrâ
kiâsipaâuduâgukkAl-[na]-ke4-ne-taigi saĹ-Ĺa2âkiâzu2-si-kaâigi saĹ-Ĺa2âĹĄa3âurimďż˝
ki-ma
3,603
3,�27
66
kiâsipaâuduâgukkAl-[na]-ke4-ne-ta
c.â3,000?!
23c)â âFromâtheâshepherdsâofâ
theâSumerianâsheepâkiâsipaâuduâeme-gi-ke4-ne-ta ďż˝,424 kiâsipaâuduâeme-gi-ra-ke4-
ne-ta867
d)â âwoolâofâtheâhighlandâfat-tailedâsheepâ
sikiâuduâgukkAlâigi-nim-maâ 688 uduâgukkAlâigi-nim-maâ 870
e)â âwoolâinâEĹĄnuna,âfromâtheâgovernorâIturayaââ
sikiâĹĄa3âaĹĄ2!-nun-na-ka,âkiâ[i]-
tu-ra-aâensi2-ta9 sikiâuduâaĹĄ2
!-nun-naki-ta,âkiâ[i]-tu-ra-aâensi2-ta
8
f)â âwoolâfromâsheepâofâGirsuâ=âfďż˝)â âatâtheâpluckingâplaceâ+âf2)â âinâUrâ
siki udu Ĺir2-sukiâĹĄa3âzu2-si-kaâĹĄa3âurimďż˝
ki-ma
33ââ23ďż˝
g)â âwoolâbroughtâfromâtheâpalaceââorââwoolâforâculticâmaĹĄdaria-deliveriesâandâfromâtheâpalaceâofâ(theâpredecessor)âĹ u-Suenâ
sikiâe2-gal-taâde6-aâ(viaâ6âpersons)
8 sikiâmaĹĄ2-da-ri-aâandâe2-galâdĹĄu-dzuen-taâ(via variousâpersons)
ďż˝
h)â âroyalâdedication,âfromâvariousâlegaciesâ
a-ru-aâlugalâe2-du6-laâdili-dili-ta
206+?46 [...]
includingâhďż˝)ââsortedâinâUrâ
igi saĹ-Ĺa2âĹĄa3âurimďż˝ki-ma ââ46
i)â âvariousâdedicationsââorââdedicationsâforâSuenâ
a-ru-aâdili-dili-taâ ďż˝8 a-ru-aâdzuen 47
j)â âfromâtheâfatteningâpenâ e2âguruĹĄta-taâ ��k)â âfromâtheâoverseersâofâtheâ
weaversâkiâugulaâuĹĄ-bar-ke4-ne-taâ 27ďż˝ kiâugulaâuĹĄ-bar-ke4-ne-ta 276
l)â fromâvariousâorganizations
6 �72
Table 6.9. Wool from various sources according to UET 3 1504 (IS 2) and 1505 (IS 1).
Theâdesignationââwoolâfromâfat-tailedâsheepâfromâtheâhighlandsââ(sikiâuduâgukkAlâigi-nim-ma)âdeservesâspecialâattention.âWouldâthisâhintâatâwoolâfromâforeignâpastoralists?âEvidentlyâinâthisâcontextâ theâ termâ âhighlandsââ (igi-nim-ma)âdoesânotâreferâ toâ theâplaceâwhereâ theâanimalsâwereâkept,âbutâtoâtheâspecialâtypeâofââhighlandâsheepââ(uduâigi-nim-ma).ďż˝6âSuchâwoolâwas,âforâexample,âpluckedâinâtheâregionâ(ma-da)âofâAdab.ďż˝7 Furthermore, flocks of Ur were sometimes stationed at various places, but as far as one can see, only in the floodplain. Documents from Girsu also attest toâtheâlocalâcareâofâroyalâherds.ďż˝8âAllâthisâevidenceâthusâsuggestsâthat,âdespiteâtheâtermââhighlandâsheepâ,âtheâwoolâlistedâinâtheâtwoâmajorâaccountsâfromâUrâ(andâinâsimilarâdocuments)âwasâneverâpluckedâinâtheâhighlands.â
ďż˝6 Also UET 3, 1538:2, Ĺ 46.ďż˝7ââUETâ3,â��37,âĹ â46.ďż˝8ââForâroyalâherdsâatâGirsuâseeâMTBMâ2ďż˝7.
Walther Sallaberger�08
To summarize the evidence, the picture from various Ur III provinces is fairly consistent: the flocks of sheep under their shepherds stayed on the alluvial plain, they were strictly controlled byâ theâ standardâ organizationsâ ofâ Sumer,â primarilyâ theâ temples,â andâ fat-tailedâ sheepâ wereâ theâmoreâprominentâtypeâinâwoolâproduction.
5. The absence of other pastoralists, ânomadsâ or Mardu in the wool businessTheâ textualâ sourcesâ demonstrateâ thatâ theâ woolâ usedâ inâ Sumerâ cameâ fromâ theâ herdsâ ofâ sheepâcontrolledâ byâ theâ communalâ organizations.â Woolâ wasâ notâ boughtâ fromâ outside,â andâ althoughâanimalsâwereâsentâfromâtheâperiphery,ďż˝9âtheâhillsâandâmountainsâinâtheâeast,âaâregionâmostâsuitableâforâanimalâbreeding,âthereâisânoâtextualâhintâthatâwoolâwasâimported.âOnâtheâcontrary,âwoolâwasâstillâexportedâfromâSumerâinâtheâUrâIIIâperiod.
ThisâisâallâtheâmoreâsurprisingâsinceâtheâAmorites,âcalledâMarduâinâSumerian,âwereâatâtheâsameâtimeâpresentâinâregionsâstretchingâfromâtheâeastâtoâtheânorthâofâlowlandâMesopotamia.âBootyâfromâtheââMarduâlandââ(kurâmar-du2)âincludedâanimals,60âbutâtheyâdidânotâdeliverâwool.âTheâdesignationâofâanâethnicâgroupâasâMarduâmustâhaveâhadâaâbasisâinârealityâforâtheâinhabitantsâofâSumer.âTheâcharacterizationsâofâtheâMarduâinâtheâliteraryâtextsâtogetherâwithâvariousâotherâfeaturesâshowsâthatâtheâtermââMarduââhadâaâveryâgeneralâmeaning,âoscillatingâbetweenâtheâmeaningsââwesternerââandâânomadâ.6ďż˝ This vague term certainly implies different regions of habitation or various forms of nomadism. The specialized lifestyle also influenced the ethnic culture, including language as a most notable feature. To avoid misunderstandings: my main intent in translating Mardu as ânomadsââisânotâtoâgiveâaâmodernâdescription,âbutâtoâparaphraseâtheâancientâtermâinâaâmeaningfulâwayâsoâthatâmostâcontextsâareâaptlyâcovered.âItâisâlessâimportantâifâtheâMarduâalsoâlivedâaâsedentaryâlife,âwhetherâtheirâ languageâwasâtheâsameâasâthatâofâ theâcity-dwellersâandâfarmersâorânot,âbutâapparentlyâtheirâsocialâandâeconomicâindependenceâofâtheâurbanâinstitutionsâandâorganizationsâled to a perception of ânomadsâ as different ethnic groups in the eyes of the urban population, theâsocialâgroupâtoâwhichâweâoweâtheâwrittenâdocumentation.â
TheâappearanceâofâtheâMarduâatâtheâendâofâtheâ3rdâmillenniumâcan,âinâmyâview,âstillâbeâbestâdescribedâasâanâethnogenesis,âintrinsicallyâlinkedâtoâtheâlarge-scaleâtransformationsâinâland-useâwellâdocumentedâforâUpperâMesopotamia.62âTheâstatesâofâUpperâMesopotamiaâneverârecoveredâfromâ theâ strugglesâ atâ theâ endâ ofâ theâ Presargonicâ period,â manyâ settlementsâ inâ theâ Balikhâ andâHaburâ plainsâ andâ adjacentâ regionsâ wereâ reducedâ inâ sizeâ orâ deserted,â andâ byâ theâ endâ ofâ theâmillennium,âfewerâandâsmallerâsettlementsâwereâleftâinâNorthernâMesopotamia.63âTheâsubstantialâ
ďż˝9âââPeripheryââasâusedâbyâSteinkellerâďż˝987,âcorrespondingâtoâtheââdefenseâzoneââofâMaedaâďż˝992.60ââSallabergerâ2007,â447;âMichalowskiâ20��,âďż˝00âďż˝04.âOtherârecentâsummariesâonâtheâMarduâincludeâVerderameâ20ďż˝0âandâPorterâ20ďż˝2.6ďż˝ââTheâtranslationâisâtheâoneâgivenâbyâSallabergerâ2007,â444â44ďż˝,âwhoâarguesâexplicitlyâinâtheâspiritâofâVerderameâ20ďż˝0,â2ďż˝2â2ďż˝3,ânamelyâthatâtheâtermâdoesânotârepresentâanâobjectiveâdescription,âbutâaâperceptionâbyâtheâurbanâculture.âTheâstereotypesâthatâMarduâknowânoâgrainâandânoâcities,âandâthusâliveâinâtheâsteppeâonâanimalâherding,âareâconvenientlyâsummarizedâbyâPorterâ20ďż˝2,â290.âThisâsemanticâapproachâwasânotâacceptedâbyâMichalowskiâ20��,â82âďż˝2ďż˝,âwhoâinsteadâreferredâtoâvariousâfacetsâofâtheâMarduâ(âAmurrumâ)âinâtheâtextualârecord.â62ââSallabergerâ2007,â444â4ďż˝0âforâaâsynthesisâofâtextualâandâarchaeologicalâevidence;âVerderameâ20ďż˝0âandâMichalowskiâ20��,â82âďż˝2ďż˝âconcentrateâonâtheâMesopotamianâtextualâsources.â63ââ Latestâ descriptionâ byâ Schmidtâ 20ďż˝3,â ďż˝0ďż˝â��2,â whoâ presentsâ aâ newâ ceramicâ chronologyâ basedâ onâ theâ Tellâ Mozanâstratigraphy;âlevelâC7âthereâdatesâtoâtheâUrâIIIâperiod,âcontemporaryâlevelsâareâfoundâonlyâinâChagarâBazar,âTellâBarri,â
�096. The Value of Wool in Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia
transformationsâ becomeâ evidentâ byâ mappingâ theâ politicalâ centresâ ofâ Upperâ Mesopotamiaâ andâSyria in the Ur III period: no first rank centre was any longer situated in the Upper Mesopotamian plains,âaâregionâthatâhadâstillâbeenâofâimportanceâforâtheâkingsâofâAkkade.âThisâisâtheâregionâthatâwasâinhabitedâbyâsheep-breedingâpastoralistsâearlyâinâtheâ2ndâmillennium.
Inâ theâ administrativeâ documentsâ ofâ theâ Urâ IIIâ period,â theâ Marduâ appearâ asâ personsâ whoâpredominantlyâdeliverâaâspecialâtypeâofâsheepâtoâtheâroyalâorganizationâatâPuzriĹĄ-Dagan,ânamelyâfat-tailedâsheepâââtheâtypeâthatâwasâkeptâforâwoolâinâtheâtemplesâandâotherâcommunalâorganizationsâofâSumerâ(seeâSectionâ4âabove).âThisâagreesânicelyâwithâtheâchargesâofâanimalsâdesignatedâasâgun2âma-daâ âtributeâ ofâ theâ landâ,â whichâ arrivedâ atâ Drehemâ fromâ theâ easternâ hillyâ andâ mountainousâregions,âtheâmainâareaâinhabitedâbyâtheâMardu.âButâwhyâdidâcomparativelyâfewâfat-tailedâsheepâarriveâfromâtheâherdsâheldâatâSumer?64 The answer lies in the specific use of the animals: at PuzriĹĄ-Daganâanimalsâwereâmostâoftenâear-markedâforâslaughter,âaâfactâthatâmayâhaveâsavedâtheâwool-bearingâsheepâfromâBabylonia.âPerhapsâtheâfat-tailedâsheepâfromâtheâAmoritesâwereâconsideredâasâgiftsâfromâoutsideâthatâwereâthenâintegratedâintoâtheâherdsâofâsheep?
Althoughâ itâcanâreasonablyâbeâassumedâthatâgroupsâofâpastoralists,â livingâaânomadic,â semi-nomadicâorâsedentaryâlifeâtoâtheânorthâandâeastâofâlowlandâMesopotamia,âobtainedâwoolâinâlargeâquantities,âneitherâMarduânorâotherâforeignersâareâattestedâasâproducersâorâsuppliersâofâwoolâinâtheâUrâIIIâcorpus.6ďż˝âSomeâMarduâalsoâservedâUrâIIIâ institutionsâandâtookâoverâvariousâfunctionsâinâ theâ controlâ ofâ persons,â animals,â andâ farming,66â likeâ otherâ personsâ designatedâ asâ lu2-
ĹeĹĄtukulââweapon-bearerâ,â sugal7â âassistantâ,âorâaga3-us2â âgendarmeâ.67âThisâ setâofâdataâ thusâalsoâexcludesâthatâMarduâwereâproducersâofâwoolâinâMesopotamia.
Inâconclusion,âtheâwide-spreadâopinionâthatâpastoralistsâinhabitingâtheâsteppesâandâmountainsâaroundâtheâMesopotamianâlowlandsâlivedâonâtheâsaleâorâbarterâofâtheirâproducts,âincludingâwool,âto the farming regions cannot be confirmed by the textual evidence from the Ur III period. In reachingâthisâconclusion,âweâconcentratedâonâtheâethnicâgroupâdesignatedâasâMardu,âsinceâthisâoffered the best chances of finding relevant data. The absence of such an exchange in the sources may lead to two conclusions: either there existed no such specialized pastoralists living off their Tell ArbÄŤd and Tell al-Rimah, furthermore in other sites in Western Syria, the Middle Euphrates region and Mesopotamia. ThisâdistributionâagreesâwithâtheâmappingâofâtheâpoliticalâcentresâofâtheâUrâIIIâperiodâbyâSallabergerâ2007,â433â44ďż˝.â64ââSallabergerâ2007,â448,âbasedâonâaâcountâofârespectiveâdocumentsâ(38âdeliveriesâbyâMardu,âbutâonlyâ34âbyâallâotherâpersons,âwherebyâMarduâappearâonlyârarelyâinâtheârecords);âcf.âMichalowskiâ20��,â89.âAlthoughâfat-tailedâsheepâwereâalsoâcontrolledâbyâtheâSumerianâorganizationsâ(seeâsectionâ4âabove),âtheâhighâproportionâofâthisâbreedâinâPuzriĹĄ-Daganâisânoteworthy,âsinceâtheâroyalâadministrationâprimarilyâdealsâwithâmeatâforâconsumption.âInâthisâcontext,âinhabitantsâofâBabyloniaâusuallyâdidânotâdeliverâfat-tailedâsheep.6ďż˝ This is based on a search in BDTNS (http://bdtns.filol.csic.es/) on the combination of âsikiâ and âmar-tuâ in the same documentsâ(Januaryâ20ďż˝3âandâJulyâ20ďż˝3)âandâonâaâreviewâofârelevantâliteratureâonâanimalâhusbandryâinâtheâUrâIIIâperiodâ(seeâsomeâreferencesâbelow).âItâisâpossible,âhowever,âthatâIâmayâhaveâoverlookedâsomeâtracesâofâwoolâsoldâorâbarteredâbyâMarduâorâotherâindependentâgroupsâtoâMesopotamia.66ââMichalowskiâ20��,âďż˝07âďż˝09âspeaksâofâaââmilitaryââfunctionâexercisedâbyâMarduâ(âAmurrumâ)âinâSumer.âHeâunderlinesâtheâfactâthatâsomeâMarduâservedâasâguardsâorâinâtheâmilitary,ââbutâthereâareâotherâoccasionsâinâotherâtimesâ[andâalsoâinâ theâ sameâ periodâ ââ W.â S.]â whenâ theâ termâ referredâ toâ anâ area,â ethnicâ groups,â asâ wellâ asâ toâ aâ language,â andâ whileâultimatelyâtheseâmeaningsâareâallârelated,âtheyâareânotâtheâsubjectâofâtheâpresentâ investigationââ (ibid.âďż˝09â��0).âTheâserviceâofâtheâMarduâinâ(para)militaryâfunctionsâagreesâwellâwithâtheirâgeneralâdesignationâasâânomadsââv.s.,âforâwhichâseeâtheâcomparativeâexamplesâprovidedâbyâMichalowskiâ20��,âďż˝08.67ââ Notiziaâ 2009,â ďż˝09âďż˝84â givesâ aâ veryâ usefulâ catalogueâ ofâ theâ reasonsâ forâ travelsâ inâ theâ Urâ IIIâ messengerâ textsâ fromâGirsu.âHowever,âbeforeâusingâtheseâtabletsâoneâshouldâbeâawareâofâtheâfactâthatâNotiziaâonlyânotesâMardu,âbutânoâotherâdesignationsâorâprofessionsâinâtheâcommentaryâcolumnâ(âaltroâ).â
Walther Sallaberger��0
herdsâinâtheâregionsâadjacentâtoâtheâUrâIIIâempire,âorâtheâexchangeâwasârestrictedâtoâareasâthatâwereânotâcoveredâbyâwrittenâdocumentation.âBothâconclusionsâagreeâinâthatâindependentâpastoralistsâdidânotâplayâanâimportantâroleâinâtheâinstitutionalâeconomyâofâtheâUrâIIIâstate.
6. Control and organized labour for high quality woolFinally,âhowâcanâweâexplainâtheâeconomicâsuccessâofâtheâEarlyâBronzeâAgeâcitiesâinâtheâproductionâof wool? Their flocks of sheep yielded enough wool (Sections 3 and 4) so that instead of receiving itâfromâpastoralistsâorâneighbouringâregions,âatâleastâatâtheâendâofâtheâ3rdâmillenniumâ(Sectionâďż˝),âtheâmerchantsâofâSumerâsoldâlocallyâproducedâwoolâ(seeâSectionâ2).â
Two factors may at least partly explain this phenomenon:68
1) the control of the flocks of sheep2)â theâlabourâinvestedâinâsortingâwool
Ad 1) The strict control of the flocks of sheep by the urban organizations is attested in documents suchâ asâ thoseâ presentedâ aboveâ inâ sectionsâ 3â andâ 4.69â Theâ controlâ ofâ theâ herdsâ includedâ cross-breedingâwithâwildâsheep,70âandâcertainlyâledâtoâtheâbestâbreedingâresults,âmostânotablyâtheâcontrolâofâtheâwhiteâcolourâ(seeâaboveâ4.2).â
The flocks of sheep of the communal organizations in the city-states and provinces were kept by their shepherds, who apparently migrated to find suitable pasture. Ur III documents from Girsu indicate that some central control of these flocks was necessary, since officials received aâ freeâ mealâ whenâ theyâ wereâ onâ theâ wayâ toâ theâ sheep;â thisâ disbursementâ ofâ breadâ andâ beerâ isâregisteredâinâtheâso-calledâmessengerâtexts.âInâparticular,âtheâtransferâofâherdsâofâsheepâorâtheâcrossingâofâaâriverârequiredâadditionalâworkforcesâthroughoutâtheâyear.7ďż˝âAttentionâwasâpaidâtoâtheâpluckingâofâwool,âwhichâaccordingâtoâtheseâdocumentsâmostlyâwasâpreparedâandâtookâplaceâinâtheâďż˝0thâtoâďż˝2thâmonthsâofâtheâlocalâcalendar,âi.e.âaroundâJanuaryâtoâMarchâ(Tableâ6.ďż˝0).âTheâpeopleâcommissionedâwithâpluckingâandâinâchargeâofâtheâwoolâincludedâarmedâmenâandâpeopleâof high status, even a prince, Etel-pĂť-DagÄn. The value of the collected wool called for special care,âandâmostâreferencesâtoâtheâtransportâofâwoolâdateâtoâtheâsecondâandâthirdâmonths,âi.e.âafterâharvestâaroundâMayâtoâJune.72
Pluckingâ usuallyâ tookâ placeâ inâ springtime,â aroundâ harvest,â soâ theâ animalsâ mayâ alsoâ haveâreturned from their winter pastures to stay in the harvested fields.
Adâ2)âAsâWaetzoldtâhasâpointedâout,73âwomenâundertookâtheâlaboriousâtaskâofâpluckingâtheâsheep.âTheyâmayâbeâcalledâsimplyââ(working)âwomenââ(geme2), but are sometimes specifically designated asâ âfemaleâweaversââ (geme2âuĹĄ-bar),âas,â forâexample,â inâaâGirsuâdocumentâthatâ listsâ8ďż˝6âfemaleâweaversâunderâtheirâoverseers.74âAsâtheâlargeâaccountsâofâtheâincomeâofâwoolâfromâUrâ(Tableâ6.9)7ďż˝âshow, most of the wool was âsortedâ (igi saĹ-Ĺa2)âeitherâ inâUrâorâatâ theâplaceâofâplucking.âTheâ68ââAsâalreadyâacknowledgedâinâfootnoteâďż˝,âAntoinetteâRast-EicherâandâEvaâAnderssonâStrandâ(seeâalsoâherâpaperâinâthisâvolume)âmadeâmeâawareâofâtheâimportanceâofâtheseâtwoâaspects.69 Note, e.g., the studies of Heimpel 1993, Steinkeller 1995, StÄpieĹ 1996a, or Sallaberger 2004.70ââSteinkellerâďż˝99ďż˝.7ďż˝ââTheâcontrolâofâsheepâisâconvenientlyâtabulatedâbyâNotiziaâ2009,âďż˝46âďż˝49.72ââNotiziaâ2009,â��7â��9.73ââWaetzoldtâďż˝972,âďż˝4â��.74ââTUTâďż˝64ďż˝9,âASâďż˝/��.7ďż˝ââUETâ3,â��04âandâ��0ďż˝.
���6. The Value of Wool in Early Bronze Age Mesopotamia
inspectionâandâsortingâofâwoolârequiresâtechnicalâskillâandâaâlargeâworkforce.âMostâinstructiveâisâtheâlistâofâpeopleâstationedâbetweenâGirsuâandâGuabaââtoâinspectâwoolââ(sikiâigiâkara2-de3): 600 âfemaleâweaversââ(geme2âuĹĄ-bar),âďż˝2ââtextileâworkersââ(lu2.tug2),â8ââoverseersâofâtheâweaversââ(ugulaâuĹĄ-bar),âandâ8ââdrivers,âskippersââ(ra2-gaba).76
Woolâwasâsortedâaccordingâtoâvariousâgradesâofâquality.âTheâlargeâUrâaccountsâ(Tableâ6.9),âforâexample, enumerate a total of ten different grades, including âblack woolâ.77âSomeâdocumentsâproveâthatâprovisionallyâsortedâwoolâwasâthen,âinâaâsecondâprocess,âmoreâcarefullyâassignedâtoâvariousâgrades,âandâagainâtheâwomenâactiveâhereâareâsometimesâexplicitlyâdesignatedâasââfemaleâweaversâ.78
Theâsortingâofâwoolâapparentlyâwasâaânormalâtaskâforâtheâfemaleâweavers,âsoâitâisâlittleâwonderâthatârelativelyâfewâdocumentsâexplicitlyâmentionâthisâprocess.âTheâtreatmentâofâtheâwoolârequiredâskillâandâexperienceâandâaâperfectâorganizationâofâtheâworkforce.âInâmyâopinionâthisâisâââbesidesâtheâ controlâ ofâ theâ herdsâ ââ theâ mainâ factorâ relevantâ toâ theâ qualityâ ofâ theâ woolâ fromâ lowlandâMesopotamia: the long tradition of organizing the urban workforce and the acquired experience andâskillsâledâtoâaâperfectâhandlingâofâtheârawâmaterialâpluckedâfromâtheâsheep.â
*
Theâdocumentationâdemonstratesâthatâinâtheâsecondâhalfâofâtheâ3rdâmillenniumâurbanâinhabitantsâofâMesopotamiaâsoldâwoolâevenâtoâthoseâwhoâimportedâgoldâorâbitumen,âthusâcomingâfromâtheâmountainousâ regions.â Despiteâ theâ deliveryâ ofâ sheepâ toâ Sumer,â neitherâ mountainâ dwellersâ norâpastoralistsâinâtheâsteppeânorâMarduâbarteredâtheirâwoolâonâtheâmarketsâagainstâgrainâââatâleastâin the sectors of the economy that are reflected in the preserved documents.
Thus,âforâtheâ3rdâmillennium,âitâisâaâfalseâassumptionâthatâpastoralists,âspecializedâinâanimalâhusbandryâ andâ independentâ ofâ theâ urbanâ organizations,â playedâ aâ majorâ roleâ inâ theâ importâ ofâwool.âTheâevidenceâfromâNabada/TellâBeydar,âdiscussedâinâSectionâ3,âleavesânoâplaceâforânomadsâin that region, which differs substantially from the later Middle Bronze Age situation. Even at
76ââDASâ2��,âĹ Sâďż˝/02.77ââTabulatedâbyâWaetzoldtâďż˝972,â66.78ââWaetzoldtâďż˝972,â40â44âandâWaetzoldtâ20ďż˝0b,â247â249.
Table 6.10. Sheep-plucking in messenger texts from Girsu. For references see Notizia 2009, 147â149.
Task: âgone ...â month(/day) (01 â April) â...âtoâpluckâsheepâ uduâur4-de3 Ĺen-na/tuĹĄ-a* ďż˝0,âďż˝0/ďż˝9ââ 11*â...âtoâpluckâfat-tailedâsheepâ uduâgukkAlâur4-de3 Ĺen-na ďż˝0â...âtoâpluck(!?)âsheepâ uduâur-ra-de3
sic?! Ĺen-na ��/ďż˝3,â��/26
â...âtoâpluckâsheep;â...âway(?)âtoâthe fields(?)â
uduâur4-de3 Ĺen-na duâu2-gara3-ĹĄe3 Ĺen-na 06
â...âtoâpluckâsheep,âtoâUruâaâ uduâur4-de3âu2uruĂAaâki-ĹĄe3 du-... 07
âwayâofâpluckingâ Ĺiri3âzu2-siâ ďż˝0ââ...âtoâtheâpluckingâ zu2-si-ĹĄe3 Ĺen-na v.s.â ��,â��/��,â
��2/2ďż˝,âďż˝2,âďż˝2/2ďż˝
â...âtoâtheâpluckingâofâfat-tailedâsheepâ
zu2-siâuduâgukkAl-ĹĄe3âv.s. Ĺen-na ďż˝0 ďż˝2
â...âtoâcountâsheepâ lu2âuduâĹĄid-de3 im-ĹĄi-Ĺen-na-me ďż˝2â...âtoâtheâfat-tailedâsheepâ uduâgukkAl-ĹĄe3 Ĺen-na v.s.â 06â 09 ��2/26,âďż˝2/ďż˝2
Walther Sallaberger��2
theâendâofâtheâ3rdâmillennium,âtheâpresenceâofâMardu,âAmorites,âwhoâmayâhaveâbeenâofânomadicâbackground,âandâexchangeâwithâtheâeasternâregionsâdidânotâleadâtoâanâimportâofâwool.â
Secondly,âoneâmayâimplicitlyâhaveâassumedâthatâwoolâwasâaârawâmaterialâtoâbeâtransformedâintoâhigh-qualityâtextilesâinâtheâworkshopsâofâtheâcities.âTheâevidenceâpresentedâwithâsomeâexamplesâaboveâdemonstratesâthatâwoolâwasâaâproduct,âandânotâjustâaârawâmaterial,âwhoseâqualityâdependedâonâaâcarefulâcontrolâofâtheâanimalâherdsâandâbreedingâandâonâtheâinputâofâaâskilledâandâorganizedâworkforceâtoâsortâtheâwool.âTheseâtwoâaspectsâareâamplyâattestedâinâtheâ3rdâmillenniumâarchivalâdocuments,âsinceâtheâorganizationâofâtheâworkforceâisâoneâofâtheâmainâcharacteristicsâofâtheâEarlyâBronzeâAgeâcity-statesâandâtheirâsuccessors,âtheâprovincesâinâtheâempiresâofâAkkadâandâUr.âThisâsystem did not stop completely at the end of the 3rd millennium: the state still controlled herds ofâsheepâinâtheâOldâBabylonianâperiod,âandâtheâwoolâobtainedâwasâsoldâbyâmerchantsâââjustâasâinâtheâprecedingâ3rdâmillennium.79â
The texts do not permit an exact identification of the types of sheep and their wool, except forâtheâveryâgeneralâdesignationâofââfat-tailedââandââSumerianââsheep.âButâoneâmayâsupposeâaâhighâqualityâofâtheâwoolâatâthatâtime,âifâoneâconsidersâsuccessfulâbreedingâstrategiesâinâtheâwell-guardedâandâassortedâsheepâherdsâandâtheâorganizationâofâtheâworkânecessaryâtoâpluckâandâsortâwool.âInâthisâway,âwoolâbecameâanâexportâproductâofâlowlandâMesopotamiaâthatâmayâhaveâsubstantiallyâcontributedâtoâitsâeconomicâwealthâinâtheâEarlyâBronzeâAge.â
AbbreviationsReferencesâ toâ textualâ sourcesâ correspondâ toâ theâ abbreviationsâ givenâ byâ theâ Reallexikon fĂźr Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie.â
ASâ Amar-SuenaISâ Ibbi-SuenLedgersâ Snellâďż˝982Ĺ â Ĺ ulgiĹ Sâ Ĺ u-SuenJESHOâ Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
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