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AN INVESTIGATION INTO ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF
REUSE OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AT THE
KANE'OH~ MARINE CORPS AIR STATION KLIPPER GOLF COURSE
~
. Steven Y.K. ChangReginald H.F. Young
Technical Memorandum Report No. 53
January 1977
Project Completion Reportfur
INVESTIGATION OF THE KANEOHE MARINE CORPS AIR STATIONLAND DISPOSAL SYSTEM
OWRT Project No. A-064-HIGrant Agreement No.: 14-34-0001-6012
Principal Investigator: Reginald H.F. YoungProject Period: 1 July 1975 to 30 September 1976
The programs and activities described herein were supported in part by fundsprovided by the United States Department of the Interior as authorized underthe Water Resources Act of 1964, Public Law 88-379; and the Water ResourcesResearch Center, University of Hawaii.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF
REUSE OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT AT THE
KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STATION KLIPPER GOLF COURSE
by
Steven Y.K. ChangReginald H.F. Young
Technical Memorandum Report No. 53
January 1977
Project Completion Reportfor
INVESTIGATION OF THE KANEOHE MARINE CORPS AIR STATIONLAND DISPOSAL SYSTEM
OWRT Project No. A-064-HIGrant Agreement No.: 14-34-0001-6012
Principal Investigator: Reginald H.F. YoungProject Period: 1 July 1975 to 30 September 1976
The programs and activities described herein were supported in part by fundsprovided by the United States Department of the Interior as authorized underthe Water Resources Act of 1964, Public Law 88-379; and the Water ResourcesResearch Center, University of Hawaii.
iii
ABSTRACT
An investigation of waste water reuse by spray irrigation was conducted
at the Kane 'ohe Marine Corps Air Station (KMCAS) Klipper Golf Course on Oahu.
The study was conducted in three phases: (l) waste water characterization of
the KMCAS Sewage Treatment Plant3 (2) groundwater quality analysis~ and (3)
air quality analysis of indicator bacterial levels during spray irrigation
with waste water.
Waste water analyses showed that the KMCAS Sewage Treatment Plant3 em
ploying the trickling filter process with a final polishing pond3 is capable
of removing a high percentage of biodegradable substances and suspended sol
ids.The effluent appears to be of good quality for agricultural irrigation
use. .High concentrations of sodium and chloride3 due to brackish groundwater
infiltration into the sewage system3 were not considered to be a hazard to
the salt-tolerant be~dagrass.
The two predominant soils on the KMCAS KUpper GoZfCourse.3 the Ewa sil
ty clay loam (Low Humic Latosois) and the Jaucas (Regosols).3 appeared to be
very effective in removing nitrogen3 phosphorus3 and fecalcoliforms from the
applied effluent. The quality of the percolate does not present a hazard to
the groundwater quality. Runoff from the golf course does not present a haz
qrd to the adjacent surface waters.
Analyses of spray irrigation fallout samples at the KMCAS Klipper Golf
Course resulted in the isolation of coliform bacteria up to 91 m (300 ft)
downwind of the sprinkler sources. Coliform bacteria recovery rates depended
upon the initial coliform bacterial concentrations in tne effluent and upon.
wind velocities. The presence and concentration of aerosolized coliform bac
teria were not considered a public health hazard to golf course users3 workers.3
or nearby residents.
iii
ABSTRACT
An investigation of waste water reuse by spray irrigation was conducted
at the Kane 'ohe Marine Corps Air Station (KiVJCAS) KUpper Golf Course on Oahu.
The study was conducted in three phases: (l) waste water characterization of
the KMCAS Sewage Treatment Plant3 (2) groundWater quality analysis3 and (3)
air quality analysis of indicator bacterial levels during spray irrigation
with waste water.
Waste water analyses showed that the KMCAS Sewage Trea-tment Plant3 em
ploying the trickling filter process with a final polishing pond3 is capable
of removing a high percentage of biodegradable substances and suspended sol
ids. The effluent appears to be of good quality for agricultural irrigation
use. High concentrations of sodium and chloride3 due to brackish groundWater
infiltration into the sewage system3 were not considered to be a hazard to
the salt-tolerant bermudagrass.
The two predominant soils on the KMCAS KUpper Colf Course3 the Ewa sil
ty clay loam (Low Humic Latosols) and the Jaucas (Regosols)3 appeared to be
very effective in removing nitrogen3 phosphorus3 and fecal coli forms from the
applied effluent. The quaZity of the percolate does not present a hazard to
the groundwater quality. Runoff from the golf course does not present a haz
ard to the adjacent surface waters.
Analyses of spray irrigation fallout samples at the KMCAS Klipper Colf
Course resulted in the isolation of coliform hacteria up to 91 m (300 ft)
downwind of the sprinkZer sources. Coliform hacteria recovery rates depended
upon the initial coliform hacterial concentrations in the effluent and upon
wind velocities. The presence and concentration of aerosolized coliform hac
teria were not considered a puhlic health hazard to golf course users3 workers3or nearby residents.
v
CONTENTS
SAMPLING STATIONS AND FIELD METHODS .
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..
Waste Water Characterization .Groundwater Quality..Ai r Qual ity. . . . .
Waste Water Characterization of the KMCAS Treatment Plant..Groundwater Qual ity. . . . ... . .. .Air Quality. . ...
1
3
6
6
B
11
14
14
2127
36
37
37
41
iii
'.
. . . .
CONCLUSIONS . . .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..
REFERENCES.
APPENDICES.
ABSTRACT. . .
INTRODUCTI ON.
BACKGROUND STUDY.
FIGURES
. . . .. .
l.
2.
3.
4.5.
6.7.B.,
9.
10.
11.
12.
Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Station, Mokapu Peninsula, Oahu.Location Map of the Sewage Treatment Plant .Sewage Treatment Pl ant Layout. . . . . .. .....Location Map of Test Well No.1 .Schematic Cross Sections of Test Well Nos. 1, 2, and 3 •Location Map of Test Well No.2 .Location Map of Test Well No.3 .Determined Downwind Azimuth for Air Sampling ....Air Sampling Configuration .Hourly Flow Pattern, KMCAS Sewage Treatment Plant.Klipper Golf Course and Groundwater Test Wells ..Coliform Bacteria Densities Downwind of Spray IrrigationSource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
6
7
9
10
121315
16
lB23
31
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT. . .
INTRODUCTION.
BACKGROUND STUDY ..
SAMPLING STATIONS AND FIELD METHODSWaste Water Characterization .Groundwater Quality..Air Quality.....
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..Waste Water Characterization of the KMCAS Treatment Plant.Groundwater Quality. ..Air Qual ity.
CONCLUSIONS . .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES.
APPENDICES.
FIGURES
v
1
3
6
6
8
11
14
14
21
27
36
37
37
41
l.
2.
3.
4.5.
6.
7.8.
9.
10.
ll.
12.
K~ne'ohe Marine Corps Air Station, M6kapu Peninsula, Oahu.Location Map of the Sewage Treatment Plant.Sewage Treatment Plant Layout .Location Map of Test Well No.1 .Schematic Cross Sections of Test Well Nos. 1, 2, and 3 .
Locati on Map of Test Well No.2. . . . . .Location Map of Test Well No.3•..•..
Determined Downwind Azimuth for Air Sampling ..Air Sampling Configuration .Hourly Flow Pattern, KMCAS Sewage Treatment Plant ..Klipper Golf Course and Groundwater Test Wells ..Coliform Bacteria Densities Downwind of Spray IrrigationSource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
6
7
9
10
1213
15
1618
23
31
vi
13. Coliform Bacteria Densities Downwind of Spray IrrigationSource. · · · · · · · · · · . . . . · · · . . . · · · 31
14. Coliform Bacteria Densiti es Downwind of Spray IrrigationSource. · · · · · · · · · · . . . . · · . . · · . . . · · · 32
15. Coliform Bacteria Densiti es Downwind of Spray IrrigationSource. · · · · · · · · · · · · . . · 32
16. Normalized Air Quality Data for No. 2 Green · · · · · . 3317. Normalized Air Quality Data for No. 15 Green. · · · · . 33
18. Normalized Air Quality Data for No. 16 Green. · 34
19. Normalized Air Quality Data for Putting Green · 34
TABLES
5.
8.
6.
7.
24
30
19
19
21
30
25
29
25
26
l.
2.
3.4;
IWaste Water Analyses of Treatment Plant Efficiencies. . ...Suspended Solids Removal in the KMCAS STP Polishing Pond ..Runoff Analysis, 6 February 1976........•....•
Mean Constituent Concentration Changes between KMCAS STPPond Effluent and Klipper Golf Course Sprinkler Effluent.Mean Constituent Concentration Change Between Test WellNos. 1 and 3 Groundwater Samples•.............Mean Constituent Concentration Change of Effluent throughLow Humic Latosols on the KMCAS Golf Course. . . • . . .. ..Mean Constituent Concentration Change of Applied Effluentthrough Jaucas Sands (Test Well No.2) on the KMCAS GolfCourse. . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . '.' . . ....Meteorological, Environmental, and BacteriologicalConditions during Air Sampling on the KMCAS KlipperGolf Course ........•...... ; .... ~ .•....
9. Air Sampling Results of Aerosolized Coliform BacteriaCollected at the KMCAS Klipper Golf Course.Normalized Data for the Air Sampling at the KMCAS KlipperGolf Course ..............•...•.....
10.
vi
13. Coliform Bacteria Densities Downwind of Spray IrrigationSource. · · · · · · · · · . . . · · · . . . . . . . . . 31
14. Coliform Bacteria Densities Downwind of Spray IrrigationSource. · · · · · · . · · · . . . . · · · . . . . . . . . . 32
15. Coliform Bacteria Densiti es Downwind of Spray IrrigationSource. · · · · · · . · · · · · . . . 32
16. Normalized Air Quality Data for No. 2 Green . · 33
17. Normalized Air Quality Data for No. 15 Green. · 33
18. Normalized Air Quality Data for No. 16 Green. 3419. Normalized Air Quality Data for Putting Green 34
TABLES
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7 .
8.
9.
10.
I
Waste Water Analyses of Treatment Plant Efficiencies ....Suspended Solids Removal in the KMCAS STP Polishing Pond.Runoff Analysis, 6 February 1976 .Mean Constituent Concentration Changes between KMCAS STPPond Effluent and Klipper Golf Course Sprinkler Effluent.Mean Constituent Concentration Change Between Test WellNos. 1 and 3 Groundwater Samples .Mean Constituent Concentration Change of Effluent throughLow Humi c La toso1s on the KMCAS Golf Course . . . . . . . . . . .I~ean Constituent Concentration Change of Applied Effluentthrough Jaucas Sands (Test Well No.2) on the KMCAS GolfCourse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Meteorological, Environmental, and BacteriologicalConditions during Air Sampling on the KMCAS KlipperGo1f Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . .Air Sampling Results of Aerosolized Coliform BacteriaCollected at the KMCAS Klipper Golf Course.Normalized Data for the Air Sampling at the KMCAS KlipperGo1f Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . .
19
19
21
24
25
25
26
29
30
30
INTRODUCTION
The Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Station (KMCAS) is located on the M6kapuPeninsula, adj acent to the Class "AA'I coastal waters of Kane' ohe Bay (Fig. 1).The Hawaii State Department of Health (1974, chaps. 37-A, 38) restricts thedisposal of point pollution into coastal waters classified "AN'. The lGJICASSewage Treatment Plant (STP) presently disposes its effluent irito Kane'oheBay, near the KMCAS small boat harbor (Class "B" waters). However, the KMCASSTP will be redirecting its sewage effluent to the City and County ofHonolulu's M6kapu Outfall (presently under construction) located outsideKailua Bay. The ~lCAS will be assessed a service charge for the use andmaintenance of the Mokapu Outfall.
The Air Station has sought an alternative for the disposal of its wastewaters because of the restrictions on the disposal of wastewaters intoKane'ohe Bay and the future service charges for the use of the M6kapu Outfall.Since June 1973, the KMCAS has been irrigating the base golf course with aportion of its secondary treatment plant effluent. Between 29 and 93% of theplant's effluent daily flow has been utilized for the Klipper Golf Courseirrigation during a year. Approximately 1,060 m3 (280,000 gal) of freshwater is saved each day due to the irrigation practice~
During the past two decades, there have been numerous studies on wastewater reuse for various applications in industrial, recreational, and agricultural products for human consumption. The reuse of waste waters can be analternative to the expensive advanced waste treatment facilities that may berequired by 1 July 1983 to satisfy the requirements of Public Law 92-500(u.S. Congress 1972). However, the disposal of waste waters through an irrigation system must be examined to determine if any adverse environmentaleffects can occur. The reuse of waste water for the irrigation of a recreational facility, such as the Klipper Golf Course, must be carefully evaluatedto assure the public health safety.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of waste waterreuse on groundwater and air quality at the Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air StationKlipper Golf Course. Specifically, the investigation \vas to determine theremoval of some selected chemical and biological pollutants from waste waterpercolating through the soils on the golf course and the presence of aerosolized organisms dispersed into the air by spray irrigation practices.
INTRODUCTION
The Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Station (KMCAS) is located on the M6kapu
Peninsula, adj acent to the Class "AA'I coastal waters of Kane' ohe Bay (Fig. 1).
The Hawaii State Department of Health (1974, chaps ..37-A, 38) restricts the
disposal of point pollution into coastal waters classified "AN'. The KMCAS
Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) presently disposes its effluent into Kane'ohe
Bay, near the KMCAS small boat harbor (Class "B" waters). However, the KMCAS
STP will be redirecting its sewage effluent to the City and County of
Honolulu's M6kapu Outfall (presently under construction) located outside
Kailua Bay. The KMCAS will be assessed a service charge for the use and
maintenance of the M6kapu Outfall.
The Air Station has sought an alternative for the disposal of its waste
waters because of the restrictions on the disposal of wastewaters into
Kane'ohe Bay and the future service charges for the use of the MBkapu Outfall.
Since June 1973, the KMCAS has been irrigating the base golf course with a
portion of its secondary treatment plant effluent. Between 29 and 93% of the
plant's effluent daily flow has been utilized for the Klipper Golf Course
irrigation during a year. Approximately 1,060 m3 (280,000 gal) of fresh
water is saved each day due to the irrigation practice.
During the past two decades, there have been numerous studies on waste
water reuse for various applications in industrial, recreational, and agri
cultural products for human consumption. The reuse of waste waters can be an
alternative to the expensive advanced waste treatment facilities that may be
required by 1 July 1983 to satisfy the requirements of Public Law 92-500
(u.s. Congress 1972). However, the disposal of waste waters through an irri
gation system must be examined to determine if any adverse environmental
effects can occur. The reuse of waste water for the irrigation of a recrea
tional facility, such as the Klipper Golf Course, must be carefully evaluated
to assure the public health safety.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of waste water
reuse on groundwater and air quality at the Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Station
Klipper Golf Course. Specifically, the investigation was to determine the
removal of some selected chemical and biological pollutants from waste water
percolating through the soils on the golf course and the presence of aero
solized organisms dispersed into the air by spray irrigation practices.
N
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::::::::::::;::::::.««:} I.:-:-:-:-:.:-:-:.:-:.................... I.............................
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MOKAPU
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I KILOMETER
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oIo
III1I11111 Kl i pper Go 1f Course
...... Hi 1ita ry Hous i ng::::::::::::
FIGURE 1. KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STATION, HOKAPU PENINSULA, OAHU
3
Research in this study was done in three phases: waste water character
ization, grotmdwater quality analysis, and air quality analyses. The waste
water characterization of the KMCAS STP was used to determine the quality of
the applied sewage effluent on the golf course. Parameters for monitoring
the waste water quality included, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, biochem
ical oxygen demand, suspended solids, total dissolved solids, nitrogen (ammo
nia, organic, nitrate and nitrite), phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chloride,
sulfate, and total and fecal coliform bacteria. The groundwater quality be
low the Klipper Golf course was monitored to determine the effects of the
waste water reuse. The parameters for observing the movement of sewage ef
fluent through the two predominant soils (Ewa silty clay loam and Jaucus
sand) included, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrogen (ammonia, organ
ic, ili trate and nitrite) ,phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chlo:I-lde, and fecal
coliform bacteria. Parameters for the monitoring of air quality, during the
spray irrigation of the golf course, included, temperature, relative humidi
ty, wind velocity and direction, and total coliform and fecal coliform bac
teria.
BACKGROUND STUDY
The reuse of man's waste water has been practiced in the United States
for at least 75 years. Municipalities and industries in the arid and semi
arid areas of the western United States have pioneered reuse systems (Merz
1956). Today, waste waters are being reused inindustry~ agriculture, and
recreation. This reuse provides a practical alternative and method for the
disposal of waste waters as well as a supplement to our freshwater demands.
In an agronomic sense, waste waters can provide irrigation water of agricul
tural value for plant crops and recreational areas. In the past, the dis
posal of waste waters was often considered a major problem. Now, waste
waters can be considered as an asset, a recovered resource, when applied
through a reuse system.
The reuse of sewage in the state of Hawaii extends back at least 50
years but no documentation has been available on past or most present systems.
Various sugar companies located in Wailua and Waimea on Kaua'i and Lahaina on
Maui,have indirectly used sewage. Waste waters from th.e plantation. housing
were emptied into nearby ditches. The diluted sewage eventually was stored
3
Research in this study was done in three phases: waste water character
ization, groundwater quality analysis, and air quality analyses. The waste
water characterization of the n1CAS STP was used to determine the quality of
the applied sewage effluent on the golf course. Parameters for monitoring
the waste water quality included, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, biochem
ical oxygen demand, suspended solids, total dissolved solids, nitrogen (ammo
nia, organic, nitrate and nitrite), phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chloride,
sulfate, and total and fecal coliform bacteria. The groundwater quality be
low the Klipper Golf course was monitored to determine the effects of the
waste water reuse. The parameters for observing the movement of sewage ef
fluent through the two predominant soils (Ewa silty clay loam and Jaucus
sand) included, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrogen (ammonia, organ
ic, nitrate and nitrite), phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chloride, and fecal
coliform bacteria. Parameters for the monitoring of air quality, during the
spray irrigation of the golf course, included, temperature, relative humidi
ty, wind velocity and direction, and total coliform and fecal coliform bac
teria.
BACKGROUND STUDY
The reuse of man's waste water has been practiced in the United States
for at least 75 years. Municipalities and industries in the arid and semi
arid areas of the western United States have pioneered reuse systems (Merz
1956). Today, waste waters are being reused in industry, agriculture, and
recreation. This reuse provides a practical alternative and method for the
disposal of waste waters as well as a supplement to our freshwater demands.
In an agronomic sense, waste waters can provide irrigation water of agricul
tural value for plant crops and recreational areas. In the past, the dis
posal of waste waters was often considered a major problem. Now, waste
waters can be considered as an asset, a recovered resource, when applied
through a reuse system.
The reuse of sewage in the state of Hawaii extends back at least 50
years but no documentation has been available on past or most present systems.
Various sugar companies located in Wailua and Waimea on Kaua I i and Lahaina on
Maui,have indirectly used sewage. Waste waters from the plantation housing
were emptied into nearby ditches. The diluted sewage eventually was stored
4
in a reservoir and used for the irrigation of sugarcane. This practice of
sewage disposal has probably been used by most of the sugar companies in the
past. 1
Sewage effluents for irrigation have been used at the Royal Ka'anapali
Golf Course on Maui and at a baseball park in Kailua, Kona on Hawaii. 2 Since
1969, the Makaha Nursery on Oahu has obtained septic tank effluent from the
Makaha Inn on Oahu. 3 In 1972, use of oxidation pond effluent as a partial
supplement for golf course irrigation began at the Kuilima Hotel on Oahu. 4
At the Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Station Klipper Golf Course, use of the
trickling filter effluent frOTII the station waste water-treatment plant for
irrigation began in 1973. 5 Activated silldge effluent has been used at the
Hawaii-Kai Golf Course on Oahu since 1973. s
The increasing reuse of waste water -for agricultural and recreational
activities has resulted in many studies on the movement of chemical and bio
logical pollutants through soils. The high removal of various forms of ni
trogen in percolating waters through soils has been observed by many inves
tigators (McMichael and McKee 1966; Bouwer, Lance, and Riggs 1974; Lau et al.
1975). However, this removal is often due to the conversion from one form
to another. The disappearance of ammonium ion from percolating systems can
be partially attributed to oxidation by nitrifying bacteria. Adsorption by
clays retains anunonium ions, but this is not necessarily a stable condition
because biological oxidation can occur (Lance 1972). This oxidation is mere
ly a conversion of anunoniuni ion to nitrates. The actual removal of nitrogen
from a soil system can be obtained by the reduction of nitrates to nitrogen
gas by biological denitrification and the removal of plant tissue from the
soil system after plant uptake of the nitrate.
A high removal of phosphorus from percolating waters has been observed
in clays. The immobility of phosphorus is attributed to the adsorptive ca
pacity of soils (Taylor 1967). The latosol soils of Hawaii have a high fix
ing capacity for phosphorus (Fox 1972; Chu and Sherman 1952; Coleman 1944).
In some areas, the soil competes with plants for the available phosphorus.
Very little movement of adsorbed phosphorus has been observed over a period
IDr. Paul C. Ekern 1975: personal communication.2 Dennis Lau 1976: personal communication.3Makaha Nursery caretaker 1976:, personal cOTIlffiunication.4Herbert Hirota 1976: personal communication.5Melvyn A. Yoshinaga 1975: personal communication.6Herbert Yamaguchi 1976: personal communication ..
4
in a reservoir and used for the irrigation of sugarcane. This practice of
sewage disposal has probably been used by most of the sugar companies in the
past. 1
Sewage effluents for irrigation have been used at the Royal Ka'anapali
Golf Course on Maui and at a baseball park in Kailua, Kona on Hawaii. 2 Since
1969, the Makaha Nursery on Oahu has obtained septic tank effluent from the
Makaha Inn on Oahu. 3 In 1972, use of oxidation pond effluent as a partial
supplement for golf course irrigation began at the Kuilima Hotel on Oahu. ~
At the Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Station Klipper Golf Course, use of the
trickling filter effluent from the station waste water treatment plant for
irrigation began in 1973. 5 Activated sludge effluent has been used at the
Hawaii-Kai Golf Course on Oahu since 1973. 6
The increasing reuse of waste water -for agricultural and recreational
activities has resulted in many studies on the movement of chemical and bio
logical pollutants through soils. The high removal of various forms of ni
trogen in percolating waters through soils has been observed by many inves
tigators (McMichael and McKee 1966; Bouwer, Lance, and Riggs 1974; Lau et al.
1975). However, this removal is often due to the conversion from one form
to another. The disappearance of ammonium ion from percolating systems can
be partially attributed to oxidation by nitrifying bacteria. Adsorption by
clays retains ammonium ions, but this is not necessarily a stable condition
because biological oxidation can occur (Lance 1972). This oxidation is mere
ly a conversion of ammonium ion to nitrates. The actual removal of nitrogen
from a soil system can be obtained by the reduction of nitrates to nitrogen
gas by biological denitrification and the removal of plant tissue from the
soil system after plant uptake of the nitrate.
A high removal of phosphorus from percolating waters has been observed
in clays. The immobility of phosphorus is attributed to the adsorptive ca
pacity of soils (Taylor 1967). The latosol soils of Hawaii have a high fix
ing capacity for phosphorus (Fox 1972; Chu and Sherman 1952; Coleman 1944).
In some areas, the soil competes with plants for the available phosphorus.
Very little movement of adsorbed phosphorus has been observed over a period
IDr. Paul C. Ekern 1975: personal communication.2Dennis Lau 1976: personal communication.3Makaha Nursery caretaker 1976: personal communication.4Herbert Hirota 1976: personal communication.5~!elvyn A. Yoshinaga 1975: personal communication.6Herbert Yamaguchi 1976: personal communication.
5
of several years. The removal of phosphorus in sand and gravel requires
longer underground travel. High concentrations of phosphorus in percolating
groundwater, up to 91 m (300 ft) from the source, may be attributed to the
lmver fixation capacity of sands and gravels (Bouwer, Lance, and Riggs 1974).
Coliform bacteria and viruses have been successfully removed from perco
lating waste water by sand and gravel as well as by clay soils. The nearly
complete removal of the bacteria and viruses has been attributed to surface
straining (clogging) and physical adsorption. Laboratory and epidemiological
studies on human contact with reclaimed waters have revealed no health haz
ards (Lau et al. 1975; Houser 1970; Merrell 1968; Tanimoto et al. 1968).
The presence of bacteria has long been associated with waste waters.
Aerosolized bacteria have been collected up to 1.6 kill (1 mile) downwind of
trickling filter and activated sludge units of sewage treatment plants. Lab
oratory and field studies have found that 1mv temperature, high relative hu
midity, high wind velocities, and darkness results in higher recoveries and
greater downwind travel of coliform bacteria. The mechanism of aerosol for
mation has been studied by several investigators (Brownet al. 1950; Druet
et al. 1953; Woodcock 1955; Wozniack 1976). Water droplets dispersed into
the air from spray irrigation may carry bacteria into the atmosphere. Upon
evaporation, nuclei of dissolved and suspended matter may be retained in the
air. Pathogenic organisms are present in most waste waters and may also be
come aerosolized. The transfer of waterborne contaminants into the atmos
phere may result in gastrointestinal and/or respiratory infections.
Ledbetter and Randall (1969) studied the bacterial emissions from acti
vated sludge units. They used three sampling procedures during their inves
tigations. The most successful procedur~.which was also the simplest, con
sisted of exposing poured agar plates up to 30 m (100 ft) downwind from the
aeration tank. They concluded that the bacterial population of air is in
creased with passage over an activated sludge unit. Despite a rapid die-off
of bacteria, the bacterial population increase persisted over a long distance
and time. They also found that the distance of bacterial presence was depen
dent on wind velocity. However, no correlation of bacterial concentrations
with either relative humidity or temperature was observed.
Adams and Spendlove in 1970 investigated the aerosols emitted by trick
ling filter sewage treatment plants and observed the presence of coliforms to
a downwind distance of 1.3 km (0.8 mile). High wind velocities, high rela
tive humidity, darkness, and low temperature were determined to produce the
5
of several years. The removal of phosphorus in sand and gravel requires
longer underground travel. High concentrations of phosphorus in percolating
groundwater, up to 91 m (300 ft) from the source, may be attributed to the
1mver fixation capacity of sands and gravels (Bouwer, Lance, and Riggs 1974).
Coliform bacteria and viruses have been successfully removed from perco
lating waste water by sand and gravel as well as by clay soils. The nearly
complete removal of the bacteria and viruses has been attributed to surface
straining (clogging) and physical adsorption. Laboratory and epidemiological
studies on human contact with reclaimed waters have revealed no heal th haz~
ards (Lau et al. 1975; Houser 1970; Merrell 1968; Tanimoto et al. 1968).
The presence of bacteria has long been associated with \vaste waters.
Aerosolized bacteria have been collected up to 1.6 km (1 mile) downwind of
trickling filter and activated sludge units of sewage treatment plants. Lab
oratory and field studies have found that low temperature, high relative hu
midity, high wind velocities, and darkness results in higher recoveries and
greater downwind travel of coliform bacteria. The mechanism of aerosol for
mation has been studied by several investigators (Brownet al. 1950; Druet
et al. 1953; Woodcock 1955; Wozniack 1976). Water droplets dispersed into
the air from spray irrigation may carry bacteria into the atmosphere. Upon
evaporation, nuclei of dissolved and suspended matter may be retained in the
air. Pathogenic organisms are present in most waste waters and may also be
come aerosolized. The transfer of waterborne contaminants into the atmos
phere may result in gastrointestinal and/or respiratory infections.
Ledbetter and Randall (1969) studied the bacterial emissions from acti
vated sludge units. They used three sampling procedures during their inves
tigations. The most successful procedur~which was also the simplest, con
sisted of exposing poured agar plates up to 30 m (100 ft) downwind from the
aeration tank. They concluded that the bacterial population of air is in
creased with passage over an activated sludge unit. Despite a rapid die-off
of bacteria, the bacterial population increase persisted over a long distance
and time. They also found that the distance of bacterial presence was depen
dent on wind velocity. However, no correlation of bacterial concentrations
with either relative humidity or temperature was observed.
Adams and Spendlove in 1970 investigated the aerosols emitted by trick
ling filter sewage treatment plants and observed the presence of coliformsto
a downwind distance of 1. 3 km (0.8 mile). High wind velocities, high rela
tive humidity, darkness, and low temperature were determined to produce the
6
greatest recoveries, also at greater dm~wind distances, of coliforms.
King, Mill, and Lawrence (1973) examined the bacterial emissions from
an activated sludge plant. Their recovery scheme also incorporated an iden
tification of colony groups collected. The BaciUus species was the most
predominant organism upwind and downwind of the aeration unit. Escherichia
coli was found solely downwind of the aeration unit. Staphylococcus av~eus
was also found and suggested the probability of primary pathogenic bacterial
dispersion from the plant process. In general, an in-colony count was ob
served with an increase of temperature, but only in excess of 24°C (76°F).
A combination of low humidity and elevated temperature reduce colony counts
more than either factor alone.
Clark (1974) studied the coliform-containing aeTosols emitted by
activated-sludge (AS) and trickling-filter (TF) units at the Kailua TF and
the Maunawili AS treatment plants on Oahu. Fewer coliform organisms were
emitted from the trickling-filter unit than from the activated sludge unit.
In both cases, colonies were collected as far as a mile dO\~wind of the
respective plants.
SAMPLING STATIONS AND FIELD METHODSWaste Water Characterization
The KMCAS STP is located on the south side of the Air Station, adjacent
to Kane'ohe Bay (Fig. 2). The STP utilizes a single stage trickling filter
K~ne'ohe Ma~ine Corps Air Station
o 1000 fee'I , L
o 300 melers
N
\Kane' ohe Bay
o ao 0
GKMCAS STP
FIGURE 2. LOCATION MAP OF THE ~1CAS SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
6
greatest recoveries, also at greater downwind distances, of coliforms.
King, Mill, and Lffivrence (1973) examined the bacterial emissions from
an activated sludge plant. Their recovery scheme also incorporated an iden
tification of colony groups collected. The Bacillus species was the most
predominant organism upwind and downwind of the aeration unit. Escherichia
co Zi was found so Ie ly downwind of the aeration unit. Staphy lococcus aureus
was also found and suggested the probability of primary pathogenic bacterial
dispersion from the plant process. In general, an in-colony count was ob
served with an increase of temperature, but only in excess of 24°C (76°F).
A combination of low humidity and elevated temperature reduce colony counts
more than either factor alone.
Clark (1974) studied the coliform-containing aerosols emitted by
activated-sludge (AS) and trickling-filter (TF) units at the Kailua TF and
the Maunawili AS treatment plants on Oahu. Fewer coliform organisms were
emitted from the trickling-filter unit than from the activated sludge unit.
In both cases, colonies were collected as far as a mile downwind of the
respective plants.
SAMPLING STATIONS AND FIELD METHODSWaste Water Characterization
The KMCAS STP is located on the south side of the Air Station, adjacent
to Kane'ohe Bay (Fig. 2). The STP utilizes a single stage trickling filter
Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Station
a 1000 feelI , I
a 300 malers
o 0o 0
6KMCAS STP
-:-~.~---,*",,_ ....~ .....- ..-
-- .~~---~~~
'i~~~~-'~:~~..~~~=:~
-.-··-A __ ":-
,;;;{ftj"
Kcme 'ohe BayN
\
FIGURE 2. LOCATION MAP OF THE ~~CAS SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
7
for the biological treatment of the waste water. Following secondary treatment, the effluent is chlorinated and passed through an aerated polishingpond (Fig. 3). Flow from the pond is either pumped to the golf course forirrigation or through an outfall into Kane'ohe Bay~
~. . Sump Pumps______12~~R~MAIN~~L~OURS!-~ • _ • _ ~
Grit
J>r"l;;u
Pol i shi ng ~
~PondFinal
Clarifier
~Q... ~erf'- N' /0' .D~~bo,'
2 ~ Chlori neIContactl, ~
Cumm i nu I orc:CDSAMPLING STATION
- --0- O'"l:andfi 11 :1-1-,--.J..I""'!"';"'""T:d~...J~::::Anarobic Digesters
FIGURE 3. KMCAS SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT LAYOUT
Four, 24-hr composite samples were obtained at the STP on 8 to 9 October 1975, 20 to 21 November 1975, 11 to 12 February 1976, and 12 to 13 July1976. Three stations were established for grab sampling. Station 1 was located at the raw sewagein£low, prior to comminution, Station 2 was locatedin the final clarifier at the outlet pipe, and Station 3 was located next tothe golf course irrigation pumps in the polishing pond (Fig. 3).
Twenty-four, hourly grab samples of raw sewage at Station 1 were collected during each of the four sampling dates. During the October and November sampling dates, grab samples were collected at Station 2 every fourhours. Grab samples were collected every two hours at Station 3 during theOctober and November sampling dates. During the February sampling period,six grab samples were collected at random at Station 3. During the Julysampling period, hourly grab samples were collected at Station 3.
Grab samples from Stations 1, 2, and 3 were collected with a plastic
7
for the biological treatment of the waste water. Following secondary treat
ment, the effluent is chlorinated and passed through an aerated polishing
pond (Fig. 3). Flow from the pond is either pumped to the golf course for
irrigation or through an outfall into Kane'ohe Bay.
12 in. FORCE MAIN TO GOLF COURSE------------------------
........:Sump Pumps
-- ==:G)
Pond
ChlorineIContact/ J ~
JIII:II
Po 1ish i ng ~az
rove,f'- ,..;, too -.,c8MlMe b<Jy.
FinalClarifier
~Q.... 2"'
Cumm i nul a r c::::(D SAMPLING STATION
- --0 -O""Landfill :f-I--r-.L'T!-""i~...J~::::Anarobic Digesters
Grit Chamber
FIGURE 3. KMCAS SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT LAYOUT
Four, 24-hr composite samples were obtained at the STP on 8 to 9 Octo
ber 1975, 20 to 21 November 1975, 11 to 12 February 1976, and 12 to 13 July
1976. Three stations were established for grab sampling. Station 1 was lo
cated at the raw sewage inflow, prior to comminution, Station 2 was located
in the final clarifier at the outlet pipe, and Station 3 was located next to
the golf course irrigation pumps in the polishing pOnd (Fig. 3).
Twenty~four, hourly grab samples of raw sewage at Station 1 were col
lected during each of the four sampling dates. During the October and Novem
ber sampling dates, grab samples were collected at Station 2 every four
hours. Grab samples were collected every two hours at Station 3 during the
October and November sampling dates. During the February sampling period,
six grab samples were collected at random· at Station 3. During the July
sampling period, hourly grab samples were collected at Station 3.
Grab samples from Stations 1, 2, and 3 \.,rere collected with a plastic
8
"scoop" bucket and then placed into plastic bottles, for all four sampling
dates. During the February and July composites, automatic samplers were used
as a supplement for early morning sample collection. A refrigerated sampler
(Sigma motor automatic sequential sampler) was used for the February compos
ite and an Isco automatic sequential sampler was used in July.
Individual plastic bottles were used to collect two 500-m£samplesat
Station I and t\'1O, 1,OOO-m£ samples at Stations 2 and 3 for each sampling
hour. All samples were kept in iced containers or refrigerated at 4°C. All
sample bottles were cleaned with chromic acid and rinsed with distilled de
ionized water prior to sample collection. Two milliliters of concentrated
sulfuric acid were added, as a preservative, to one sample 'bottle of each
sampling for nutrient analysis.
The collected grab samples from each station were analyzed individually.
This provided information on the composition as well as the hourlyfluctua- .
tions of various constituents in the waste water.
Groundwater Quality
SELECTION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF S.AMPLING SITES. , Three factors determined
the location of the wells for groundwater sampling:
1. Soil characteristics of the area (soil descriptions for the Jaucas
sand and the Ewa silty clay loam are in App. A)
2. Depth of soil to the groundwater
3. Distance of wells from sprinkler heads.
The location, description, and construction details of the sampling
wells are as follows:
Tes t We 11 1. Control well; located 46 m (ISO ft) east of the golf course
clubhouse, adjacent to the NCO Club building and 38 m (125 ft) from the near
est sprinkler (Fig. 4). A 4-m (13-ft) deep trench was dug using a backho3
from the KMCAS Public Works department. The top l-ft of soil appeared to be
fill material of a different clay group. The surface cover was bermudagrass.
The remaining soil down to the groundwater had the characteristic reddish
brown color of the Ewa silty clays. A 4-m long, 3. 8-cm (1. 5 in.) ID poly
vinylchloride (PVC) pipe was positioned vertically in the backfilled trench.
The ground surface was at 109.96 (datum plane of 100.00 is mean low water
[MLW]). The groundwater level was at 101.8, 2.68 m (8.78 ft) below the ground
surface. The bottom cap of the well was 0.98 ill (3.20 ft)below the ground
water level (Fig. 5).
8
"scoop" bucket and then placed into plastic bottles, for all four sampling
dates. During the February and July composites, automatic samplers were used
as a supplement for early morning sample collection. A refrigerated sampler
(Sigma motor automatic sequential sampler) was used for the February compos
ite and an Isco automatic sequential sampler was used in July.
Individual plastic bottles were used to collect two SOO-m~ samples at
Station 1 and two, 1,000-m~ samples at Stations 2 and 3 for each sampling
hour. All samples were kept in iced containers or refrigerated at 4°C. All
sample bottles were cleaned with chromic acid and rinsed with distilled de
ionized water prior to sample collection. Two milliliters of concentrated
sulfuric acid were added, as a preservative, to one sample bottle of each
sampling for nutrient analysis.
The collected grab samples from each station were analyzed individually.
This provided information on the composition as \vell as the hourly fluctua
tions of various constituents in the waste water.
Groundwater Quality
SELECTION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF SAMPLING SITES .. Three factors determined
the location of the wells for groundwater sampling:
1. Soil characteristics of the area (soil descriptions for the Jaucas
sand and the Ewa silty clay loam are in App. A)
2. Depth of soil to the groundwater
3. Distance of wells from sprinkler heads.
The location, description, and construction details of the sampling
wells are as follows:
Test WeI I I. Control well; located 46 m (150 ft) east of the golf course
clubhouse, adjacent to the NCO Club building and 38 m (125 ft) from the near
est sprinkler (Fig. 4). A 4-m (13-ft) deep trench was dug using a backho3
from the KMCAS Public Works department. The top l-ft of soil appeared to be
fill material of a different clay group. The surface cover was bermudagrass.
The remaining soil down to the groundwater had the characteristic reddish
brown color of the Ewa silty clays. A 4-m long, 3.8-cm (1.5 in.) ID poly
vinyl chloride (PVC) pipe was positioned vertically in the backfilled trench.
The ground surface was at 109.96 (datum plane of 100.00 is mean low water
[MLW]). The groundwater level was at 101.8, 2.68 m (8.78 ft) below the ground
surface. The bottom cap of the well was 0.98 m (3.20 ft)belOlv the ground
water level (Fig. 5).
\ 0N
OSPRINl<I.ER HeAD
10
0 0 0 0 1.0 0
pullill9 Driv i ng0 graen /:> 0
~0 Range
0 ....... - Tees11/ KMCAS~?
Course Clu
[KMCASTEST WELL
Showboot ] • NO. 1~ concrete I
slob
N.C.O. Club~ c 1.r:--tMANNING stREET :::J
0 100 faet -...... r---:::I iII I
,0 30met~ I
..-
FIGURE 4. LOCATION MAP OF TEST WELL NO. 1
9
I \J
NOSPRWKL.ER HEAD
10
0 0 0 0 .0 0
pulling(
0 0 .~ grae" p 0 Driving0 Range\,
Tees0
1[1 KMCAS G:'J?Course Club11
-[KMCAS
TEST WELLShowboot ] • NO. 1
[ concr.t. 1slob
( N.C.O. Club.J t= 1r--,
MANNING STREEt :::::J
0 100 feel J'::I III I
I
0 30 metere
~
FIGURE 4. LOCATION MAP OF TEST WELL NO.1
9
Gr0
r---
-1I
Su
rfa
ce
Gro
un
d
RS
urf
ace
106.
62I
II
107.
64.....
.... .... 4-
........
a....
"4
-,
-..0
a.....
...0
)E
0)
........
...::r a
EN
.NG
rou
nd
'wa
ter
--I10
1.14
aL
eve
l.
CV
\
Gro
un
Jw
ate
rl--
19
8.7
2
Le
ve
l
,..-
.--
~!<
cGro
un
dS
urf
ace
•10
9.96
......... .... 4-
a:> " a:> ........ E a:>
-..0 N ,
101.
80
Gro
un
dw
ate
r--
Le
ve
l
-
TE
ST
WE
LLNO
.1T
ES
T.W
EL
LN
O.2
&.-
TE
ST
WE
LLN
O.3
·
a
FIG
UR
E5
SC
HE
MA
TIe
CR
OS
SS
EC
TIO
NS
OF
TE
ST
WE
LLN
OS
.1
,2
,an
d3.
----
-:-.
--~..~,----
~
lei; CG round Surface! 109.96
........j...J
4-
cor---
co----
E
co'-D
N,101.90
Groundwater -- Level
L.-.-
TEST WELL NO. 1
-
Ground Surface! 106.62
.......ol-'4-
00\
0\
----E
N0
r
CV\
,99.72
Groundwater - - Level""""-
TEST \-JELL NO. 2
Ground r--l SurfaceI 107.84
E
...::t'oN
l----...!.'--~ __ l--_--.:..:10:.:.;1.~14:....__ _J
Groundwater Level
TEST WELL NO. 3
FIGURE 5 SCHEMATIC CROSS SECTIONS OF TEST WELLNOS.1, 2, and 3- ------
11Test Well 2. Located 11 m (35 ft) southeast of the No. 11 tee (Fig. 6).This well was located 0.61 m (2 ft) from a sprinkler head. A hole 3.5 m(11.5 ft) deep was drilled using a 6.4-cm (2.5 in.) diameter hand auger (Fig;5). The surface cover was bermudagrass and the soil material down to thegroundwater was Jaucas sand. A 3.l7-cm (1.25-in.) ID PVC pipe was insertedinto the hole and the zone around the pipe was compacted. The ground surfacewas 2.02 m (6.62 ft) above MLW (106.62). The groundwater level was 3 m(9.90 ft) below the ground surface at 96.72. The depth of water in the wellwas 0.51 m (1.68 ft).
Test Well 3. Located 12.2 m (40 ft) north of the No.3 women's tee andsprinkler heads (Fig. 7). The surface cover was bermudagrass. The PublicWorks department's backhoe was used to dig a 4.6-m (15 ft) deep trench atthis site (Fig. 5). The soil here resembled a typical Ewa silty clay loam.A 4.9-m (16-ft) long, 3.8 em PVC pipe was placed vertically into the backfilled trench. The ground surface level was at 107.84 (2.39 m [7.84 ft]above MLW). The groundwater level was 2.0 m (6.70 ft) below the ground surface at 101.14. The depth of water in the well was 2.6 m (8.4ft).The PVC pipe served as a casing for the sampling wells. Each casingwas capped on the bottom. A series of four, 0.32-cm (0.125-in.) diameterholes were drilled into the PVC pipe at 2.54-cm (I-in.) intervals from thebottom cap. A total of 48 holes (a30.48-cm [12-in.] sectlon of pipe) provided entry for groundwater infiltration. into the sampling wells.Groundw~ter from Test Wells 1, 2, and 3 and the sprinkler effluent werecollected during March through May 1976. Eighteen sets of test well samples(Test Wells 1, 2, 3) and nine sprinkler effluent samples were collectedduring the three months. The duration between the collection of sample setsvaried from one to fourteen days.
A Masterflex No. 7015 pump head adapted onto a "D.C. Puppy" pump motor(for 12 V battery operation) was used to draw groundwater samples from thetest wells. Sprinkler effluent was collected by "tapping" a sprinkler head.
Air Quality
The Klipper Golf Course is spray irrigated daily between 6 PM and 6 AM.All 18 greens and the putting green are irrigated each night. One-half ofthe fairways and tees are irrigated on alternate nights. The three majorfactors determining site selection were: accessibility, visibility, and time
11
Test Well 2. Located 11 ill (35 ft) southeast of the No. 11 tee (Fig. 6).
This well was located 0.61 m (2 ft) from a sprinkler head. A hole 3.5 ill
(11.5 ft) deep was drilled using a 6.4-cm (2.5 in.) diameter hand auger (Fig.
S). The surface cover was bermudagrass and the soil material do~m to the
groundwater was Jaucas sand. A 3.l7-cm (l.2S-in.) ID PVC pipe was inserted
into the hole and the zone around the pipe was compacted. The ground surface
was 2.02 m (6.62 ft) above MLW (106.62). The grounmvater level was 3 ill
(9.90 ft) below the ground surface at 96.72. The depth of water in the well
was 0.51 ill (1.68 ft).
Test Well 3. Located 12.2 m (40 ft) north of the No.3 women's tee and
sprinkler heads (Fig. 7). The surface cover was bermudagrass. The Public
Works department's backhoe was used to dig a 4. 6-m (15 ft) deep trench at
this site (Fig. 5). The soil here resembled a typical Ewa silty clay loam.
A 4.9-m (16-ft) long, 3.8 em PVC pipe was placed vertically into the back
filled trench. TIle ground surface level was at 107.84 (2.39 m [7.84 ft]
above MLW). The groundwater level was 2.0 m (6.70 ft) below the ground sur
face at 101.14. The depth of water in the well was 2.6 m (8.4 ft).
The PVC pipe served as a casing for the sampling wells. Each casing
was capped on the bottom. A series of four, O.32-cm (0.12S-in.) diameter
holes were drilled into the PVC pipe at 2. 54-em (I-in.) intervals from the
bottom cap. A total of 48 holes (a 30.48-cm [12-in.] section of pipe) pro
vided entry for groundwater infiltration into the sampling ~vells.
Groundwater from Test Wells 1, 2, and 3 and the sprinkler effluent were
collected during March through May 1976. Eighteen sets of test well samples
(Test Wells 1, 2, 3) and nine sprinkler effluent samples were collected
during the three months. The duration between the collection of sample sets
varied from one to fourteen days.
A Masterflex No. 7015 pump head adapted onto a "D.C. Puppy" pump motor
(for 12 V battery operation) was used to draw groundwater samples from the
test wells. Sprinkler effluent was collected by "tapping" a sprinkler head.
Air Quality
The Klipper Golf Course is spray irrigated daily between 6 PM and 6 AM.
All 18 greens and the putting green are irrigated each night. One-half of
the fairways and tees are irrigated on alternate nights. The three major
factors determining site selection were: accessibility, visibility, and time
12
oo
o
o
o
Kane 'ohe Bay
oo
oo
oo
b
o
o
o 0
o
o o o
OND. °11 Tee
o 0 • TEST WELL NO. 2
o
(c;) 0
U Women' 5 Tee·
o
N
1 o
o IOOf.et11--.....,...--1.'.,.,_.,.,...J'o 30 meters
o o
o SPRINKLER HEAD
FIGURE 6. LOCATION MAP OF TEST WELL NO.2
12
a
aa
a
a
Kane'ohe Bay
aa
aa
aa
b
a
a
a a
a
a a a
OND. 11 Tee
a o. TEST WELL NO.2
o
aWomen I~ Tee
o
N
1 a
o 100 feel11---....-1-'.-,-'-,...,o 30melers
a a
o SPRINKLER HEAD
FIGURE 6. LOCATiON MAP OF TEST WELL NO.2
13
o
o
o
o
o
o
N
j
o
o
~O"'.tw.
o
o,o
• TEST WELL NO ~ 3o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
HOUSING
o Sprinkler head
MI UTARY
FIGURE 7. LOCATION MAP OF TEST WELL NO.3
13
N
j100 lee.
:domeme
aIo
oHOUSING
o Sprinkler head
00
0 0
0
0
0
0
00
• TEST WELL NO. 30
0 0
v~omen's0
0 Tee0
0 00
0
MILITARY0
0
0
FIGURE 7. LOCATION MAP OF TEST WELL NO.3
14
of night.
The area near the greens \l1as selected for air quality analysis because
of three qualifying factors. Most greens are accessible from adjacent roads.
During the month of June, the greens were irrigated during the twilight hours
between 6:20 PM and 8 PM when sufficient light was available for the setup
and removal of test equipment. The early evening period of sampling was also
ideal because there was minimal interference and inconvenience to the resi-
dents adjacent to the golf course.
The greens selected for the air quality sampling were Nos. 2,15, and 16
and the practice putting green.
Once wind speed and direction were determined at each green, a downwind
azimuth was selected through the center line of the green (Fig. 8). Covered
petri dishes were mounted on O.9l-m (3-ft) long, 0.32-cm diameter wQoden dow
els. These mounted dishes were then staked into the ground along the deter
mined downwind azimuth .. The dishes were placed at distances up to 91 m
(300 ft) from the nearest downwind sprinkler (Fig. 9). The only modification
of the sampling procedure was at green Nos. 15 and 2. The farthest downwind
station was located at 60.96 m (200 ft) because of physical obstructions (a .
steep hill near No. 15 and residential housing near No.2).
The petri dishes with M-Endo medium were exposed to the air between 2
and 4 min. prior to the start of the irrigation ata specific green. The··
petri dishes remained exposed to the atmosphere during the irrigation of the
specific green. At the conclusion of the irrigation cycle, the petri dishes
were covered and collected beginning at the dish nearest the green.
Between 9 and 16 June 1976, 18 sets of air samples were collected at the
four greens.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Waste Water Characterization of the KMCAS Treatment Plant
The primary purpose of the waste water characterization of the KMCAS
treatment plant was to determine the quality of sewage effluent that was be
ing used for the irrigation of the air station golf course. A secondary pur
pose was to determine the overall efficiency of the STPoperation. The re
sults of the four waste water composites are reported in Appendix B.
The average waste water flows through the ~1CAS STP were 2,233, 1,136,
1,438, and 3,709 m3 /day (0.59, 0.30, 0.38, and 0.98 mgd) for the October,
14
of night.
The area near the greens was selected for air quality analysis because
of three qualifying factors. Most greens are accessible from adjacent roads.
During the month of June, the greens were irrigated during the twilight hours
between 6 :20 PM and 8 PM when sufficient light was available for the setup
and removal of test equipment. The early evening period of sampling was also
ideal because there was minimal interference and inconvenience to the resi-
dents adjacent to the golf course.
The greens selected for the air quality sampling were Nos. 2, 15, and 16
and the practice putting green.
Once wind speed and direction were determined at each green, a downwind
azimuth was selected through the center line of the green (Fig. 8). Covered
petri dishes were mounted on O.9l-m (3-ft) long, 0.32-cm diameter wooden dow
els. These mounted dishes were then staked into the ground along the deter
mined downwind azimuth. The dishes were placed at distances up to 91 m
(300 ft) from the nearest downwind sprinkler (Fig. 9). The only modification
of the sampling procedure was at green Nos. 15 and 2. The farthest downwind
station was located at 60.96 m (200 ft) because of physical obstructions (a
steep hill near No. 15 and residential housing near No.2) .
The petri dishes with M-Endo medium were exposed to the air between 2
and 4 min. prior to the start of the irrigation at a specific green. The
petri dishes remained exposed to the atmosphere during the irrigation of the
specific green. At the conclusion of the irrigation cycle, the petri dishes
\vere covered and collected beginning at the dish nearest the green.
Between 9 and 16 June 1976, 18 sets of air samples were collected at the
four greens.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Waste Water Characterization of the KMCAS Treatment Plant
The primary purpose of the waste water characterization of the KMCAS
treatment plant was to determine the quality of sewage effluent that was be
ing used for the irrigation of the air station golf course. A secondary pur
pose was to determine the overall efficiency of the STP operation. The re
suI ts of the four \vaste water composites are reported in Appendix B.
The average waste water flows through the JGvlCAS STP were 2,233, 1,136,
1,438, and 3,709 m3 /day (0.59, 0.30, 0.38, and 0.98 mgd) for the October,
15
• TEST WELL NO. 3
N
~Wind
DirectiOft
100 feeti'
30 meters.1o
oI
HOUSING
MILITARY
FIGURE 8. DETERMINED DOWNWIND AZIMUTH FOR AIR SAMPLING
15
• TEST WELL NO. 3
N
~Wind
Direction
Tee
100 feeti'
30 met"""o
oI
HOUSING
MI LlTARY
FIGURE 8. DETERMINED DOWNWIND AZIMUTH FOR AIR SAMPLING
16
No. 1 Tee
N
om. iDire~
C2 11 Tee
100 feetoIo
o SPRINKLER HEAD
OAIR SAMPLER
FIGURE 9. AIR SAMPLING CONFIGURATION
16
C2 11 Tee
oNo. 1 Tee
o SPRINKLER HEAD
o AIR SAMPLERoIo
IOOf",
I30metMS
N
",' jm~-r1
FIGURE 9. AIR SAMPLING CONFIGURATION
17
November, February; and July composite dates, respectively. The higher flows
during the October and July composites can be attributed to higher water
usage at the air station. A general trend was observed in the pattern of
hourly flow fluctuations during each of the 24-hr composites (Fig. 10). Peak
flows occurred at about 7 AM, 1· PM, and 7 PM; the low flow period \vas between
1 AM and 6 AM.
In general, the raw sewage, secondary effluent, and pond effluent were
of fairly uniform composition.
The mean values for BODs, suspended solids, total nitrogen, and total
phosphorous concentrations in the raw sewage were respectively, 116, Ill,
21.6, and 7.2 mg/~. These low concentrations are indicative of a mild or
weak domestic sewage (Metcalf and Eddy 1972). TheKMCAS sewage system is lo
cated close to the brackish water table of the M6kapu Peninsula. The rela~
tively weak domestic sewage at the KMCAS sewage treatment plant can beattri
buted to the infiltration of brackish groundwater into the sewage system.
The mean values of chloride concentrations in the raw sewage and ground
water were respectively 450 and 18,000 mg/~~ The chloride concentration in
the drinking water on the KMCAS was 30 mg/L Between 20 and 28% of the flow
into the STP can be attributed to the infiltration of brackish or saline
groundwater.
The KMCAS sewage system is fairly old and its close proximity to the
groundwater table results in the high infiltration into the system.
Grab samples of secondary effluent, prior to chlorination, were collect
ed in October and November 1975. The various removal efficiencies of the
treatment plant process (raw to secondary effluent, secondary effluent to
pond effluent, and raw to pond effluent) are listed in Table 1. Removal of
82% of the BODs and 80% of the suspended solids was accomplished between the
influent raw sewage and the trickling filter effluent. These removal rates
are typical of many trickling filter plants in Hawaii and the mainland U.S.
(Chun, Young, and Anderson 1972; McGauhey 1968).
Removal of an additional 33% BODs, 59% suspended solids~ and 12.5% organ
ic nitrogen was accomplished in the polishing pond (between the secondary ef
fluent and the polishing pond effluent). This removal of BODs and organic
nitrogen can be attributed to the settling of organic solids and biological
activity in the pond. Between 17 and 25 kg/day (38 and 54 lb/day) of sus
pended solids are settling into the pond (Table 2). This accumulation of··
solids eventually will require the dredging of the polishing pond. However,
17
November, February; and July composite dates, respectively. The higher flows
during the October and July composites can be attributed to higher water
usage at the air station. A general trend was observed in the pattern of
hourly flow fluctuations during each of the 24-hr composites (Fig. 10). Peak
flows occurred at about 7 AM, l· PM, and 7 PM; the low flow period was between
1 AM and 6 AM.
In general, the raN sewage, secondary effluent, and pond effluent were
of fairly uniform composition.
The mean values for BODs, suspended solids, total nitrogen, and total
phosphorous concentrations in the raw sewage were respectively, 116, Ill,
21.6; and 7.2 mg/5I,.These low concentrations are indicative of a mild or
weak domestic sewage (Metcalf and Eddy 1972). The KMCAS se\vage system is lo
cated close to the brackish water table of the M6kapu Peninsula. The rela
tively weak domestic sewage at the KMCAS sewage treatment plant can beattri
buted to the infiltration of brackish groundwater into the sewage system.
The mean values of chloride concentrations in the raw sewage and ground
water were respectively 450 and 18,000 mg/~. The chloride concentration in
the drinking water on the KMCAS was 30 mg/5I,. Between 20 and 28% of the flow
into the STP can be attributed to the infi! tration of brackish or saline
groundwater.
The KMCAS sewage system is fairly old and its close proximity to the
groundwater table results in the high infiltration into the system.
Grab samples of secondary effluent, prior to chlorination, were collect
ed in October and November 1975. The various removal efficiencies of the
treatment plant process (raw to secondary effluent, secondary effluent to
pond effluent, and raw to pond effluent) are listed in Table 1. Removal of
82% of the BODs and 80% of the suspended solids was accomplished between the
influent raw sewage and the trickling filter effluent. These removal rates
are typical of many trickling filter plants in Hawaii and the mainland u.s.(Chun, Young, and Anderson 1972; McGauhey 1968).
Removal of an additional 33% BODs, 59% suspended solids, and 12.5% organ
ic nitrogen was accomplished in the polishing pond (between the secondary ef
fluent and the polishing pond effluent). This removal of BODs and organic
nitrogen can be attributed to the settling of organic solids and biological
activity in the pond. Between 17 and 25 kg/day (38 and 54 lb/day) of sus
pended solids are settling into the pond (Table 2). This accumulation of
solids eventually will require the dredging of the polishing pond. However,
-0 01
'E ~
~ ......J
IJ...
ii
I2.
0,I
08
-9O
ctob
er19
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20~21
Nov~mber
1975
A11
-12
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ruar
y19
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ly19
76
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E
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AS
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o 8-9 October 1975o 20-21 November 19756 11-12 February 1976o 12-13 July 1976
O. a'-- ---1.- --l- --l.- ,-----J
6 AM 12 N 6 PM 12 M 6 AMTIME
FljJURE 10. HOURLY FLOU PATTERN, l<.MCAS SEVlAGE TREATMENT PLANT
19
TABLE 1. \~ASTE WATER ANALYSES OF KMCAS 'TREATMENT PLANT EFFI·CIENCIES.. ... . .
. 10/75a 11/756 2/76c 7/76d--'0 +J O+J 0 +J O+J O+J O+J+J o e +J e +J oe +J e +J e +J e>- >-+J OJ OJ >- >-+J OJ (l) OJ OJOJ 1-+J 1- ::J OJ ::J OJ 1- +J 1- ::J OJ ::J OJ ::J OJ ::JOlroe ro+J~ Ol~ Olro e ·ro+J~ Ol~ Ol~ Ol~
Constituent l'O-o OJ -oe4- ro4- ro-o OJ -oe4- l'O4- l'O4- ro4-3 e ::J e OJ 4- 34- 3 e ::J e OJ 4- 34- 34- 34-OJ o·~ O::JW OJW OJ 0""'" O::JW OJW OJW OJWV') U4- u~ V') V') U4- u~ V') V') V')OJ 4- OJ 4--0 -0 OJ 4- OJ 4- -0 "'0 "'0 -0·3V')W V') 4- e 3 e 3V')W V') 4- e 3: e 3 e 3 ero W 0 l'O 0 ro W 0 ro 0 l'O 0 ro 00::: 0- 0:::0- 0::: 0... 0:::0... 0:::0... 0::: 0..-~-------------------------(mg/t)----------------------------
TDS10. 1
SS 82.7 57·9 92.7 78. 1 60.0 91.2 93.9 88.7BODs 82.3 33.3 88.2 90.3 93~7NH 3 -N 56.7 - 6.8 53.5 45.3 0.0 45.3 33. 1 36.8Org. N 59.7 -";25.0 46.3 65.6 25.0 74.2 74.4 62.2N02 + N0 3 -N -99.5 59.5 -98.8 -98.6 65.8 ~96.0 -97.1 -98.8Total N 36.7 15.0 46.2 47. 1 14.6 54.5 47.9 42.0Total P 9.4 - 2.7 11.9 7.4 - 1.1 6.4 3.7 -24.5Na
K
e1- 20.8 0.8 - 7.9 - L8 - 9.6 - '. 1.0 - 7.9S04 14.2NOTE: Constituent reduction reported as percent removal.aBase1ine values obtained from App. Tables B.1-B.3.bBaseline values obtained from App. Tables B.4-B.6.cBaseline values obtained from App. Tables B.7-B.8.dBase 1ine values obtained from App. Tables B.9-B.10.
TABLE 2. SUSPENDED SOLIDS REMOVAL IN THEKMCAS STP POLISHING POND
Date Avg. Sec. Pond RemovalFlow Eff. Eff.------(mg/t)----- (mg/t) (1 b/day)
Oct. 1975 0.59 19 8 11 54. 1Nov. 1975 0.30 25 10 15 37.5
19
TABLE l. WASTE WATER ANALYSES OF KMCAs TREATMENT PLANT EFFICIENCIES
lO/75a 11/756 2/76 c 7/76 d0 +J O~ 0 .j..J O+.J O+.J o -I-'.j...J o C .j...J C .j...J o C +.J C .j..J C .j..J C
>- >- +J O.l O.l >- >- +-' O.l O.l <Il (!)<Il\.....j...J \.... ::J O.l :::J <Il L. +.J \.... ::J (J) :::J (!) ::J (!) ::JOlCOC CO-l-'~ tn~ tnCOC CO.j..J~ OJ~ tJ) ~ tJ)~
Constituent CO"'D O.l "'Dc4- C04- CO"'D O.l "'DC4- CO 4- ro4- CO 4-3 C :::J C(J)4- 3:4- 3: C ::::l C<lJ4- 3:4- 34- 3:4-O.lO~ O:::JW (!)W O.lO~ O::JW (J)W (!)W (!)W
if) U 4- u~ if) (./)U4- u~ (./) (./) (./)
<Il4- 0.l4-"'D "'D (1)4- Q) 4- -0 -0 -0 -03:(./)w (./)4-C 3: C 3: (./) W (./) 4- C 3: C 3: c 3 Cro W 0 co 0 co w 0 co 0 ro 0 ro 0
rr: 0- rr: 0- rr: 0- rr: CL rr: 0- rr: 0..
---------------------------(mg/l)----------------------------
TDS 10. 1
SS 82.7 57.9 92.7 78. 1 60.0 91.2 93.9 88.7
BODs 82.3 33.3 88.2 90.3 93·7NH 3 -N 56.7 - 6.8 53.5 45.3 0.0 45.3 33. 1 36.8
Org. N 59.7 -25.0 46.3 65.6 25.0 74.2 74.4 62.2
N0 2 + N0 3 -N -99.5 59.5 -98.8 -98.6 65.8 -96.0 -97. 1 -98.8
Total N 36.7 J5.0 46.2 47. 1 14.0 54.5 47.9 42.0
Total P - 9.4 - 2.7 11.9 7.4 - 1.1 6.4 3.7 -24.5
Na
K
Cl- 20.8 0.8 - 7.9 - 1.8 - 9.6 - .1.0 - 7.9
S04 14.2
NOTE: Constituent reduction reported as percent removal.aBaseline values obtained from App. Tables 8.1-B.3.bBaseline values obtained from App. Tables 8.4-B.6.cBaseline values obtained from App. Tables 8.7-B.8.dBase 1i ne values obtained from App. Tables B.9-B.l0.
TABLE 2. SUSPENDED SOLIDS REMOVAL IN THEKMCAS STP POLISHING POND
Date Avg. Sec. Pond RemovalFlow Eft. Eff.------(mg/l)----- (mg/l) (lb/day)
Oct. 1975 0.59 19 8 I1 54.1
Nov. 1975 0.30 25 10 15 37.5
20
the polishing pond's maj or function appears to be that of anequalization and
retention basin.
In general, the quality of the effluent used for golf course irrigation
is considered good. The overall reduction of BODs and suspended solids (raw
sewage to the pond effluent) of 90% is achieved by the sewage treatment plant.
The total nitrogen and phosphorous levels of the waste waters are not de
creased by the treatment plant operation. This is expected because removal
of nitrogen and phosphorus is not among the primary objectives of secondary
treatment plants. On 6 June 1976, a single grab salilple ofchlorinated pond
effluent from the STP was collected for preliminary viral analysis. The re
sults of the viral analysis by Dr. Roger S. Fujioka at the University of
Hawaii's Virology Labo:ratory \'las negative, i. e., no viruses were isolated.
The KMCAS STP operation produces a high quality effluent that can be attri
buted to the relatively weak domestic sewage and the use of the polishing
pond.
From an agricultural standpoint, the quality of the applied pond efflu
ent is acceptable for the irrigation of the golf course. According to Dye
(1958), sewage effluent containing total solids between 800 and 1,200 ~g/~,
total nitrogen between 16 and 20 mg/~, total phosphorus between 7 and 13 mg/~,
and sulfates between 120 and 180 mg/~ is of good agricultural value. The
pond effluent at the KMCAS STP has characteristics similar to those cited by
Dye. The two major plant nutrients, nitrogen (total N)and phosphorus (total
P), have been applied (through the irrigation system) onto the golf course at
respective rates of 94 and 66 kg/wk (208 and 145 lb/wk). This application is.
an additional supplement to regular fertilization.
The mean sodium and chloride concentrations in the applied effluent were
high (230 mg/~ and 342 mg/~, respectively). A high concentration of sodium
in irrigation water can produce an undesirable condition in soils. Sodium
can react with the clay in some soils to decrease permeability. This is a
common occurrence in Hawaiian Vertisols (tropical black earths). However,
the Oxisols (low humic latosols) are tropical red earths that are not affected
by the high sodium concentration (El-pwaify and Swindale 1968).
Sodium and chloride concentration (salinity) can reduce the growth rates
of various types of plants (Ackerson and Younger 1975), The high salt concen
tration in irrigation water can damage grass. The KMCAS uses various types
of bermudagrasses for the golf course. In general, bermudagrasses are salt
tolerant grasses that survive well in coastal areas (Ackerson and Younger
20
the polishing pond's major function appears to be that of an equalization and
retention basin.
In general, the quality of the effluent used for golf course irrigation
is considered good. The overall reduction of BODs and suspended solids (raw
sewage to the pond effluent) of 90% is achieved by the sewage treatment plant.
The total nitrogen and phosphorous levels of the waste waters are not de
creased by the treatment plant operation. This is expected because removal
of nitrogen and phosphorus is not among the primary objectives of secondary
treatment plants. On 6 June 1976, a single grab sample of chlorinated pond
effluent from the STP was collected for preliminary viral analysis. The re
sults of the viral analysis by Dr. Roger S. Fujioka at the University of
Hawaii's Virology Laboratory was negative, i.e., no viruses were isolated.
The KMCAS STP operation produces a high quality effluent that can be attri
buted to the relatively weak domestic sewage and the use of the polishing
pond.
From an agricultural standpoint, the quality of the applied pond efflu
ent is acceptable for the irrigation of the golf course. According to Dye
(1958), sewage effluent containing total solids between 800 and 1,200 mg/~,
total nitrogen between 16 and 20 mg/~, total phosphorus between 7 and 13 mg/~,
and sulfates between 120 and 180 mg/~ is of good agricultural value. The
pond effluent at the KMCAS STP has characteristics similar to those cited by
Dye. The two major plant nutrients, nitrogen (total N) and phosphorus (total
P), have been applied (through the irrigation system) onto the golf course at
respective rates of 94 and 66 kg/wk (208 and 145 Ib/wk). This application is
an additional supplement to regular fertilization.
The mean sodium and chloride concentrations in the applied effluent were
high (230 mg/~ and 342 mg/~J respectively). A high concentration of sodium
in irrigation water can produce an undesirable condition in soils. Sodium
can react with the clay in some soils to decrease permeability. This is a
common occurrence in Hawaiian Vertisols (tropical black earths). However,
the Oxisols (low humic latosols) are tropical red earths that are not affected
by the high sodium concentration (Eli$waify and Swindale 1968).
Sodium and chloride concentration (salinity) can reduce the growth rates
of various types of plants (Ackerson and Younger 1975). The high salt concen
tration in irrigation water can damage grass. The KMCAS uses various types
of bermudagrasses for the golf course. In general, bermudagrasses are salt
tolerant grasses that survive well in coastal areas (Ackerson and Younger
21
1975). None of the species on the KMCAS golf course have shown adverseeffects due to the high salinity of the applied effluent; however, the sprayirrigation should be carefully monitored. During hot and sunny days, therapid evaporation of the effluent may result in the additional concentrationof salt on the grass blades. This could cause damage (discoloration) to thebermudagrasses.
Due to the large scale use of sewage effluent for irrigation, runofffrom the golf course could result in the contamination of nearby surfacewaters. On 6 February 1976, surface water runoff was collected during aheavy rainstorm. Runoff samples were collected near the No. 2 and No. 18greens. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen, combined nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, andtotal phosphorous analyses were performed on the samples. The results ofthe Tunoffanalysis (Table 3) indicate that pollution of surface water isnot due to runoff from the KMCAS Klipper Golf Course.
TABLE 3. RUNOFF ANALYSIS, KMCAS KUPPER GOLF COURSE,6 FEBRUARY 1976
Constituent No.2Green
No. 18Green
Contro 1Area~\-
-------------(mg/~)----~--------~
Groundwater Quality
The groundwater test wells permitted the observation of the movement ofvarious waste water constituents through the two major soils on the golfcourse. The Ewa silty clay loam is the pr~dominant soil type over approxi-
\mately 50% of the golf course. The Jaucas sand is the second most abundantsoil type, covering approximately 25% of the golf course. The remaining soiltypes on the golf course are: Mokuleia clay loam (15%), Makalapa clay (2%),and fill land (8%). Soil descriptions are listed in Appendix A. The Ewasil ty clay loam and the Mokuleia clay loam belong to the same soil order(Mollisols) . In general, both soils have some similarqualities.
21
1975). None of the species on the KMCAS golf course have shmm adverse
effects due to the high salinity of the applied effluent; however, the spray
irrigation should be carefully monitored. During hot and sunny days, the
rapid evaporation of the effluent may result in the additional concentration
of salt on the grass blades. This could cause damage (discoloration) to the
bermudagrasses.
Due to the large scale use of sewage effluent for irrigation, runoff
from the golf course could result in the contamination of nearby surface
waters. On 6 February 1976, surface water runoff was collected during a
heavy rainstorm. Runoff samples were collected near the No.2 and No. 18
greens. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen, combined nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, and
total phosphorous analyses were performed on the samples. The results of
the runoff analysis (Table 3) indicate that pollution of surface water is
not due to runoff from the KMCAS Klipper Golf Course.
TABLE 3. RUNOFF ANALYSIS, KMCAS KLIPPER GOLF COURSE,6 FEBRUARY 1976
Constituent No.2Green
No. 18Green
Contro 1Area*
-------------(mg/~)----~--------~
TKN 1• I 1.5 1.3
N02 + N03-N 0.02 0.03 0.02
Total P 0.68 0.69 0.68
*Control area was located 61 m (200 ft) due south ofthe No.2 green, and adjacent to a drainage ditchacross Lawrence Rd. near the baseball diamond.
Groundwater Quality
The groundwater test wells permitted the observation of the movement of
various waste water constituents through the two major soils on the golf
course. The Ewa silty clay loam is the pr~dominant soil type over approxi-\
mately 50% of the golf course. The Jaucas sand is the second most abundant
soil type, covering approximately 25% of the golf course. The remaining soil
types on the golf course are: Mokuleia clay loam (15%), Makalapa clay (2%),
and fill land (8%). Soil descriptions are listed in Appendix A. The Ewa
silty clay loam and the Mokuleia clay loam belong to the same soil order
(Mollisols) . In general, both soils have some similarquali ties.
22
The Ewa silty clay loam and the Jaucas sand were selected for the loca
tion of the groundwater test wells. The two soil types were representative
of the soil characteristics that are predominant on the ~~CAS golf course.
The specific test well sites were selected with respect to the soil
depth to the grounrnvater and their distance to the spray irrigation sprink
lers (Fig. 11). The test wells were constructed using a 6-cm (2.5 in.) hand
auger and a trench digger (backhoe). These methods of contruction limited
the effective depth of the wells to approximately 4.6 m (15 ft). Test Well
No. 1 was established as a control \vell outside the effective range of the
sprinklers on the southern boundary of the golf course. Test Well No. I was
used to examine the quality of uncontaminated groundwater near the golf
course. Test Well Nos. 2 and 3 were established within the spray irrigation
range of the sprinklers. These two wells were used to examine the quality
of groundwater below the spray irrigation system of the golf course. The
movement of groundwater appeared to be toward the ocean (south to north
across the golf course)~ thus the use of Test Well No. I as a control well.
The determination of the actual quantity of applied effluent proved to
be quite difficult. The quantity of waste water applied onto the golf
. course was controlled by the groundskeeper and varied according to the re
quirements of each grass species. The automatic sprinkler system controls
are usually modified every few months to maintain the desired quality of the
greens and fairways. The greens and fairways received different quantities
of effluent. The effluent discharge pump system at the STP was not metered.
The quantity of effluent is not necessarily distributed evenly through
out the, golf course and the variations in types of sprinkler heads, water
pressure, and wind patterns also complicated the analysis of applied efflu
ent applied onto the golf course was indirectly determined. Determination
of the application rate was based on the following: (1) number of sprinkler
heads on the golf course, (2) average flow of the sprinkler heads, (3) aver
age "on time" of the sprinklers, and (4) average area covered by the sprink
ler heads. Approximately I cm (0.4 in.) of pond effluent per week is applied
on the fairways and tees of the golf course. The greens receive six times as
much effluent than the fairways (S. 6 em [2.2 in.] per week).
The Klipper Golf Course receives treated waste water pumped through a
30.S-cm (12 in.) diameter force main. Minor quality changes of pond effluent
occurs during the retention time in the force main (Table A) . The most sig-.
nificant change occurs in the concentration of nitrogen. Combined nitrite
.122
The Ewa silty clay loa~m and the Jaucas sand were selected for the loca
tion of the groundwater test wells. The two soil types were representative
of the soil characteristics that are predominant on the KMCASgolf course.
The specific test well sites were selected with respect to the soil
depth to the groundNater and their distance to the spray irrigation sprink
lers (Fig. 11). The test wells were constructed using a 6-cm (2.5 in.) hand
auger and a trench digger (backhoe). These methods of contruction limited
the effective depth of the wells to approximately 4.6 m (15 ft). Test Well
No. I was established as a control well outside the effective range of the
sprinklers on the southern boundary of the golf course. Test Well No. 1 was
us ed to examine the quality of uncontaminated groundwater near the golf
course.· Test Well Nos. 2 and 3 were established within the spray irrigation
range of the sprinklers. These two wells were used to examine the quality
of groundwater below the spray irrigation system of the golf course. The
movement of groundwater appeared to be toward the ocean (south to north
across the golf course), thus the use of Test Well No. I as a control well.
The determination of the actual quantity of applied effluent proved to
be quite difficult. The quantity of waste water applied onto the golf
. course was controlled by the groundskeeper and varied according to the re
quirements of each grass species. The automatic sprinkler system controls
are usually modified every few months to maintain the desired quality of the
greens and fainvays. The greens and fairways received different quantities
of effluent. The effluent discharge pump system at the STP was not metered.
The quantity of effluent is not necessarily distributed evenly through
out the golf course and the variations in types of sprinkler heads, water
pressure, and wind patterns also complicated the analysis of applied efflu
ent applied onto the golf course was indirectly determined. Determination
of the application rate was based on the following: (1) number of sprinkler
heads on the golf course, (2) average flow of the sprinkler heads, (3) aver
age "on time" of the sprinklers, and (4) average area covered by the sprink
ler heads. Approximately 1 cm (0.4 in.) of pond effluent per week is applied
on the fairways and tees of the golf course. The greens receive six times as
much effluent than the fairways (5.6 ern [2.2 in.] per week).
The Klipper Golf Course receives treated waste water pumped through a
30.5-cm (12 in.) diameter force main. Minor quality changes of pond effluent
occurs during the retention time in the force main (Table A) . The most sig
nificant change occurs in the concentration of nitrogen. Combined nitrite
~Q·'':P5
........
..·..i
iilft:
i'f.
.::::z
;;:::;
:;;:...
....
....
...c
;;;
•TE
ST
WE
LLK
ane'
ohe
Ba
y
@G
REE
N
FIG
UR
E11
.KM
CAS
KLI
PPER
GO
LFCO
URSE
AND
GRO
UNDW
ATER
TEST
WEL
LSN tN
• TEST WELL
Ka:ne 'ohe Bay
@ GREEN
FIGURE 11. KMCAS I<LlPPER GOLF COURSE AND GROUNDWATER TES, WELLS
6
24
TABLE 4. MEAN CONSTITUENT CONCENTRATION CHANGESBETV/EEN KMCAS STP POND EFFLUENT ANDKLIPPER GOLFtbuRSE SPRINKLER ~FFLUENT
Constituent Pond Sprinkler PercentEffluent* Effluent t Reduction------- (mg/ Q.) --------
NH 3 -N 7.8 10.9 -28.4
Organic N 2.8 1.84 +34.3
NO z + NO -N 1.0 I 0.03 +97.03 .
Total N 1J .39 12.75 -10.7
Total P 7.78 8.9 -12.6
K 20 22 - 9.0
Cl- 475 329 +30.7
*Baseline values obtained from App.Tables B:3,B.6, B.8, and B.l0.
tBaseline values obtained from App. Table c.4;
and nitrate concentration was decreased to 0.01 mg/Q.. Apparently, denitrifi
cation occurs during the retention period. The force main is 1. 6 kin (1 mile)
long and contains 117 m3 (31,000 gal) of pond effluent. Therefore, only 11%
of the total quantity of pond effluent (1,060 m3 or 280,000 gal used for one
night of irrigation) is retained in the force main for the 12-hr period.
The results of the groundwater sampling are listed in AppendixE. Two
groundwater testing wells (Nos. 1 and 3) on the Klipper Golf Course are lo
cated in Ewa silty clay loam. Test Well 1 was the control well located out
side the influence of the spray irrigation system and Test Well 3 was locat
ed in the area receiving waste water irrigation. Changes in groundwater
quality were observed between Test Wells 1 and 3. Irrigation with waste
water resulted in the increase of ammonia nitrogen (0.20 mg/Q.), organic ni
trogen (0.20 mg/Q.), sodium (177 mg/Q.), and chloride (10 mg/Q.) in the ground
water (Table 5).
In Table 6, the change in constituent concentration can be noted with
the passage of sewage effluent through the low humic latosol on the KMCAS
golf course. Substantial decreases occurred for total nitrogen (98.2%),
total phosphorus (100%), and fecal coliforms (100%). Similar results were
obtained in the Mililani Recycling Project (King, Mill, and Lawrence 1973;
Clark 1974; Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1972). TIle Mililani soil was also a low
humic latosol (Lahaina series) in which nitrogen removal of 97.5 to 99.9%
was at.tributed to: (1) sorption to the soil complex, (2) uptake bymacro~
24
TABLE 4. MEAN CONST ITUENT CONCENTRAT ION CHANGESBETIJEEN KMCAS STP POND EFFLUENT ANDKLIPPER GOLF COURSE SPRINKLER EFFLUENT
Constituent Pond Sprinkler PercentEffluent* Effluent t Reduction-------(mg/~)--------
NH 3 -N 7.8 10.9 -28.4
Organic N 2.8 1.84 +34.3
N0 2 + N0 3 -N 1.01 0.03 +97.0
Tota 1 N 1J .39 12.75 -10.7
Total P 7.78 8.9 -12.6
K 20 22 - 9.0
Cl- 475 329 +30.7
*Basel ine values obtained from App. Tables B.3,B.6, B.8, and B.l0.
tBaseline values obtained from App. Table c.4.
and nitrate concentration was decreased to 0.01 mg/~. Apparently, denitrifi
cation occurs during the retention period. The force main is 1.6 km (1 mile)
long and contains 117 m3 (31,000 gal) of pond effluent. Therefore, only 11%
of the total quantity of pond effluent (1,060 m3 or 280,000 gal used for one
night of irrigation) is retained in the force main for the 12-hr period.
The results of the groundwater sampling are listed in Appendix E. Two
groundlvater testing wells (Nos. 1 and 3) on the Klipper Golf Course are lo
cated in Ewa silty clay loam. Test Well I was the control well located out
side the influence of the spray irrigation system and Test Well 3 was locat
ed in the area receiving waste water irrigation. Changes in groundwater
quality were observed between Test Wells 1 and 3. Irrigation with waste
water resulted in the increase of ammonia nitrogen (0.20 mg/~), organic ni
trogen (0.20 mg/~), sodium (177 mg/~), and chloride (10 mg/~) in the ground
water (Table 5).
In Table 6, the change in constituent concentration can be noted with
the passage of sewage effluent through the low humic latosol on the KMCAS
golf course. Substantial decreases occurred for total nitrogen (98.2%),
total phosphorus (100%), and fecal coliforms (100%). Similar results were
obtained in the Mililani Recycling Project (King, Mill, and Lmvrence 1973;
Clark 1974; Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1972). TIle Mililani soil was also a low
humic latosol (Lahaina series) in which nitrogen removal of 97.5 to 99.9%
was attributed to: (1) sorption to the soil complex, (2) uptake by macro-
25
TASLE 5. MEAN CONSTITUENT CONCENTRATION CHANGEBETWEEN TEST WELL NOS. 1 AND.3GROUNDWATER SAMPLES
Constituent
NH3-NOrganic NN02 + N03-NTotal NTotal PCl-NaK
FecalCo 1i form
Test Well Test Well Net.No. ]'" No. 2t Increase
-------~-----(mg/~)-------------·0.10 0.30 +0.200.43 0.63 +0.200.26 0.16 -0.100.76 1.04 +0.280.66 0.11 -0.55
2087 2097· +102041 .2218 +177
90 82 - -8--~-~----(No./I00 m~)-----~---000
*Baseline values obtained from App. Table C.l.tBaselinevalues obtained from App. Table C.2.
TABLE 6. MEAN CONSTITUENT CONCENTRATION CHANGEOF EFFLUENT THROUGH LOW HUMIC LATOSOLSON THE KMCAS GOLF COURSE
ConstituentPond Low Humic Percent
Effluent* Latosols ReductiQnPerc. Ql tyt
NH3- NOrganic NN02 + N03-NTotal NTotal PCl-NaK
Feca 1 Co 1i form
--------(mg/~)----~--10.9 0.201.84 0.200.03
12.75 0.288.9
329 10230 17722
-----(No./I00 m~)-~--160 0
·+98.2+89.1
+100+97.8
+100+97.0+23.0
+100
+100*Baseline values obtained from App. Tables B.3,B.6, B.8, and B.IO.tBaseline values obtained from Table 5.
and microorganisms (including plants), (3) volatilization to ammonia gas athigher pH values, (4) biological oxidation (nitrification of ammonia tonitrate), and (5) denitrification (reduction of nitrates to nitrogen gas).
According to Lance (1972), a significant amount of the removal of nitrogen in soil can be attributed to denitrification and the adsorption of the
.'ammonium ion. Denitrification of nitrate to nitrogen gas can occur in anae-
25
TAS LE 5. MEAN CON STITU ENT CON (EN TRATION CHANG EBETWEEN TEST WELL NOS. 1 AND 3GROUNDWATER SAMPLES
Can s t i tuen t
NH3-NOrganic NN02 + N03-NTotal NTotal PCl -NaK
FecalCo 1iform
Test Well Test Well NetNo. ]"- No. 2t Increase
-------------(mg/~)-------------·
0.10 0.30 +0.200.43 0.63 +0.200.26 0.16 -0.100.76 1.04 +0.280.66 0.11 -0.55
2087 2097' +102041 2218 +177
90 82 -8--~------(No./IOO m2)---------000
*Baseline values obtained from App. Table C. l.tSaselinevalues obtained from App. Table C.2.
TABLE 6. MEAN CONSTITUENT CONCENTRATION CHANGEOF EFFLUENT THROUGH Lm" HUMI C LATOSOLSON THE KMCAS GOLF COURSE
Pond low Humic PercentCons t i tuent Eftl uent* Latosols Reduction
Perc. Q1 tyt
--------(mg/t)-------NH3- N 10.9 0.20 +98.2Organic N 1. 84 0.20 +89.1N0 2 + N0 3-N 0.03 +100Total N 12.75 0.28 +97.8Total P 8.9 +100Cl - 329 10 +97.0Na 230 177 +23.0K 22 +100
-----(No./100 mi)----Fecal Coliform 160 0 +100
*Base1ine values obtained from App. Tables B.3,B.6, B.8, and B.10.
tBase1ine values obtained from Table 5.
and microorganisms (including plants), (3) volatilization to ammonia gas at
higher pH values, (4) biological oxidation (nitrification of ammonia to
nitrate), and (5) denitrification (reduction of nitrates to nitrogen gas).
According to Lance (l972), a significant amount of the removal of nitro
gen in soil can be attributed to denitrification and the adsorption of the
ammonium ion. Denitrification of nitrate to nitrogen gas can occur in anae-
26
Tobic pockets in the soil. The adsorption of the ammonium ion is not a
stable condition because of biological oxidation which can occur, producing
nitrates. However, the temporary adsorption can retain nitrogen in the root
zone of the grass. This retention may provide substantial time for the up
take of nitrogen by the grass.
The removal of 99.7% of the phosphorus in the Mililani Recycling Project
(Lau et ale 1975) was attributed to soil fixation and/or to uptake by plants
(Goudy 1931; Butler,Orlob, and McGauhey 1954). The high fixing capacity of
the Hawaiian latosols has been confirmed by Fox (1972) .. Taylor (1967) ob
served that phosphorus applied as fertilizer on a clay soil was converted to
water-insoluble forms within a few hours.
In Table 7, the change in constituent concentrations can be observed
when the sewage effluent passed through the regosol (Jaucas sand atTest Well
2). Losses between 77.2 and 100% of nitrogen, phosphorus, and fecal coliform
occurred. The oxidation of ammonium ion to nitrate, asdlscussed by Lance ..
(1972), accounts for some reduction in ammonia levels and the .large increase
of combined nitrite and nitrate nitrogen (0.3 mg/~ to 1.47mg/~). Movement
of nitrates through the Jaucas sand appeared to be unrestricted as evidenced
by the high concentration in the percolate. The high removal of nitrogen can
be attributed to plant uptake, biological oxidation, volatilization of ammo
nia, and possible adsorption by the soil.
TABLE 7. MEAN CONSTITUENT CONCENTRATION CHANGEOF APPLIED EFFLUENT THROUGH JAUCASSANDS (TEST WELL NO.2) ON THE KMCASGOLF COURSE
Pond Perc. from PercentConstituent
...Test Wellt ReductionEff 1uen t'-
No. 2
------(mg/~)------~--
NHrN 10.9 0.01 +99.1Organic N 1. 84 0.42 +77.2NOz + N03-N 0.03 1.47 ~-98.0
Total N 12.75 1.82 +85.7Total P 8.9 O. 15 +98.4Cl- 329 447 -'26.4Na 230 306 -24.8K 22 22 0
Fecal ---(No./100 m~)------
Col iform 160 +100
*Baseline values obtained from App. Tables B.3,B.6, B.8, and B.l0.
tBasel ine values obtained from App. Table C.2.
26
Tobie pockets in the soil. The adsorption of the ammonium ion is not a
stable condition because of biological oxidation which can occur, producing
nitrates. However, the temporary adsorption can retain nitrogen in the root
zone of the grass. This retention may provide substantial time for the up
take of nitrogen by the grass.
The removal of 99.7% of the phosphorus in the Mililani Recycling Project
(Lau et al. 1975) was attributed to soil fixation and/or to uptake by plants
(Goudy 1931; Butler, Grlob, and McGauhey 1954). The high fixing capacity of
the Hmvaiian latosols has been confirmed by Fox (1972). Taylor (1967) ob
served that phosphorus applied as fertilizer on a clay soil was converted to
water-insoluble forms within a few hours.
In Table 7, the change in constituent concentrations can be observed
when the sewage effluent passed through the regosol (Jaucas sand at Test Well
2). Losses between 77.2 and 100% of nitrogen, phosphorus, and fecal coliform
occurred. The oxidation of ammonium ion to nitrate, as discussed by Lance
(1972), accounts for some reduction in ammonia levels and the large increase
of combined nitrite and nitrate nitrogen (0.3 mgj£ to 1.47 rngj£). Movement
of nitrates through the Jaucas sand appeaTed to be unrestricted as evidenced
by the high concentration in· the peTcolate. The high Temoval of nitTogen can
be attributed to plant uptake, biological oxidation, volatilization of ammo
nia, and possible adsorption by the soil.
TABLE 7. MEAN CONSTITUENT CONCENTRATION CHANGEOF APPLIED EFFLUENT THROUGH JAUCASSANDS (TEST WELL NO.2) ON THE KMCASGOLF COURSE
ConstituentPond
Effluent;',Perc. fromTest Wellt
No.2
PercentReduction
NH 3-NOrganic NN02 + NOrNTotal NTotal PCl-NaK
FecalCo 1iform
------(mg/£)------~--
10.9 0.011. 84 0.420.03 1.47
12.75 1.828.9 0.15
329 44]230 306
22 22
---(No./100 m£)-----160
+99.1+77.2-98.0+85.7+98.4-26.4-21f.8
a
+100
*Base1 ine values obtained from App. Tables 8.3,8.6, 8.8, and 8.10.
tBase1 ine values obtained from App. Table C.2.
27
Phosphorous removal for the Flushing Meadoh's Project (Bouwer, Lance, andRiggs 1974) was due to the precipitation of calcium phosphate compounds,ammonium magnesium phosphate, and other insoluble compounds because the sandand gravels of the infiltration basin contained no iron and aluminum oxidesor other phosphate-fixing material. The high removal of 98.4% phosphorus atTest Well 2 (Jaucas sand) may be due to the alkaline character of the soilattributed to such precipitation as well as plant uptake. However, the shortdistance of percolate travel (3m [9.9 ft]) is suggestive that phosphorous fixing occurred. In the Flushing Meadows Project, at least 91 m (300 ft) ofunderground travel was required for 90% removal of phosphorus.·
Percolate from the two test wells in the spray irrigation area (TestWells 2 and 3) contained no fecal coliform bacteria. During the 3-mo. periodof analysis (March, April, and May), no fecal coliform organism was isolatedfrom the test wells. These results are comparable to the Flushing Meadowsand Mililani projects. Surface straining and adsorption are probably themechanisms for the removal of fecal coliform bacteria.
Air Quality
The sampling procedure for air quality was very simple. However, thetechnique was excellent for the collection of air samples in a short timeperiod. Between five and seven air samples could be collected at varyingdo\~wind distances from the green being sprayed with effluent. Alternativesampling methods (vacuum and impinger systems) were too bulky and the sa~plerset-up time too long. This would result in only one air sample collection ateach green.
The agar plate air sampling method was selected because of its simplicity, versatility, and effectiveness. M-Endo agar culture media was selectedfor air sampling. This media provided the recovery of total. coliform bacteria that was settling out of the atmosphere. The total coliform bacterialmedia was selected over fecal coliform media because of the high concentration of total coliform bacteria (15,000 and 400,000 colonies/lOa m~) in theeffluent increased the probability of isolating bacterial aerosols from thespray irrigation. The low concentration of fecal coliform bacteria (20 to420 colonies/lOa m ) did not assure the positive recovery of bacterialaerosols.
Air quality analysis at the KMCAS golf course was ·performed during the
27
Phosphorous removal for the Flushing Meadows Project (Bouwer, Lance, and
Riggs 1974) was due to the precipitation of calcium phosphate compounds,
ammonium magnesium phosphate, and other insoluble compounds because the sand
and gravels of the infiltration basin contained no iron and aluminum oxides
or other phosphate-fixing material. The high removal of 98.4% phosphorus at
Test Well 2 (Jaucas sand) may be due to the alkaline character of the soil
attributed to such precipitation as well as plant uptake. However, the short
distance of percolate travel (3m [9.9 ft]) is suggestive that phosphorous fix
ing occurred. In the Flushing Meadm'ls Project, at least 91 m (300 ft) of
underground travel was required for 90% removal of phosphorus.
Percolate from the two test wells in the spray irrigation area (Test
Wells 2 and 3) contained no fecal coliform bacteria. During the 3-mo. period
of analysis (March, April, and May), no fecal coliform organism was isolated
from the test wells. These results are comparable to the Flushing Meadows
and Mililani projects. Surface straining and adsorption are probably the
mechanisms for the removal of fecal coliform bacteria.
Air Quality
The sampling procedure for air quality was very simple. However, the
technique was excellent for the collection of air samples in a short time
period. Between five and seven air samples could be collected at varying
downwind distances from the green being sprayed with effluent. Alternative
sampling methods (vacuum and impinger systems) were too bulky and the sa~pler
set-up time too long. This would result in only one air sample collection at
each green.
The agar plate air sampling method was selected because of its simpli
city, versatility, and effectiveness. M-Endo agar culture media was selected
for air sampling. This media provided the recovery of total coliform bac
teria that was settling out of the atmosphere. TIle total coliform bacterial
media was selected over fecal coliform media because of the high concentra
tion of total coliform bacteria (15,000 and 400,000 colonies/IOO m~) in the
effluent increased the probability of isolating bacterial aerosols from the
spray irrigation. The low concentration of fecal coliform bacteria (20 to
420 colonies/lOa m ) did not assure the positive recovery of bacterial
aerosols.
Air quality analys is at the KMCAS golf course was performed during the
28
early evening hours of June 1976. The meteorological and environmental con
ditions, during each of the sampling periods, are listed Table 8. The condi
tions existing at the golf course, during the spray irrigation, were consid
ered to be the optimal conditions for the survival of bacterial aerosols.
Adams and Spendlove (1970) obtained the greatest recoveries of bacterial
aerosols during periods of high relative humidity, 1mV' temperature, high wind
velocities, and darkness. Solar radiation during the daylight hours had a
deleterious effect on the recovery rates of coliforms. Twilight and evening
operation of the sprinkler system eliminated the adverse effect of solar ra
diation. Clark (1974) also noted that ultraviolet radiation in sunlight may
result in the higher death rate of bacteria.
The results of ai~ sampling are reported in Table 9. This actually rep
resents the fallout concentration of coliform bacterial aerosols and not of
the concentration of bacteria in the air. The coliform bacteria isolated on
the agar dishes are those that are settling out of the atmosphere. A zero
colony isolation for this study does not necessarily mean the nonexistence
of coliform bacterial aerosols.
The graphical relationship between agar dish densities of total coliform
bacteria and the downwind distances from the sprinkler sources are in Figures
12 to 15. No distinct pattern of bacterial fallout is discernable in the
graphs. Variations in wind velocities and initial coliform densities (from
the sprinkler effluent) resulted in varying recovery rates of the' coliform
bacteria.
Data plots were normalized in an attempt to dampen the effects of the
varied initial coliform concentrations. The highest coliform plate density
collected for each sampling set was assigned a value of 100%. This reference
plate assignment was independent of the downwind distance from the sprinkler
source because the highest plate density occurred at varying downwind dis
tances. All the other coliform plate densities, for the respective set, were
then assigned a percentage with respect to the reference plate. Table 10
lists the results of the normalized data.
The normalized air quality data was plotted with respect to the downwind
distances (Figs. 16 to 19). In Appendix D, the graphs were grouped with re
spect to the various ini tial effluent coliform concentrations (15 , 000 to
20,000 colonies/lOO mQ" 46,000 colonies/IOO m!l.,and 319,000 to 400,000 colo
nies/IOO m!l.). Appendix E presents the normalized data with respect to the
varying \\find velocities (0 to 8 kn, 9 to 12 kn, and 13 to 18 kn) .In all
28
early evening hours of June 1976. The meteorological and environmental con
ditions, during each of the sampling periods, are listed Table 8. The condi
tions existing at the golf course, during the spray irrigation, were consid
ered to be the optimal conditions for the survival of bacterial aerosols.
Adams and Spendlove (1970) obtained the greatest recoveries of bacterial
aerosols during periods of high relative humidity, low temperature, high wind
velocities, and darkness. Solar radiation during the daylight hours had a
deleterious effect on the recovery rates of coliforms. Twilight and evening
operation of the sprinkler system eliminated the adverse effect of solar ra
diation. Clark (1974) also noted that ultraviolet radiation in sunlight may
result in the higher death rate of bacteria.
The results of ai:;: sampling are reported in Table 9. This actually rep
resents the fallout concentration of coliform bacterial aerosols and not of
the concentration of bacteria in the air. The coliform bacteria isolated on
the agar dishes are those that are settling out of the atmosphere. A zero
colony isolation for this study does not necessarily mean the nonexistence
of coliform bacterial aerosols.
The graphical relationship between agar dish densities of total coliform
bacteria and the downwind distances from the sprinkler sources are in Figures
12 to 15. No distinct pattern of bacterial fallout is discernable in the
graphs. Variations in wind velocities and initial coliform densities (from
the sprinkler effluent) resulted in varying recovery rates of the coliform
bacteria.
Data plots were normalized in an attempt to dampen the effects of the
varied initial coliform concentrations. The highest coliform plate density
collected for each sampling set was assigned a value of 100%. This reference
plate assignment was independent of the downwind distance from the sprinkler
source because the highest plate density occurred at varying downwind dis
tances. All the other coliform plate densities, for the respective set, were
then assigned a percentage with respect to the reference plate. Table 10
lists the results of the normalized data.
The normalized air quality data was plotted with respect to the downwind
distances (Figs. 16 to 19). In Appendix D, the graphs were grouped with re
spect to the various initial effluent coliform concentrations (15,000 to
20,000 colonies/laO ~, 46,000 colonies/laO m£, and 319,000 to 400,000 colo
nies/lOa m£). Appendix E presents the normalized data with respect to the
varying \vind velocities (0 to 8 kn, 9 to 12 kn, and 13 to 18 kn). In all
29TABLE 8. METEOROLOGICAL, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND BACTERIOLOGICAL CONDITIONSDURING AIR SAMPLING ON THE KMCAS KLIPPER GOLF COURSE
Rei. Wind Vel. Wind TotalTime'-' Green Temp. Humidity and Range Dir. Coliform -r(PM) (No.) (oF) . (%) (kn)· (#/100 m£)6:45 16 75 76 10 ENE 15,000
9-127:30 2 75 .76 2 ENE 15,000
1-86:45 16 76 69 7 ENE 16,000
6-8.57:00 15 76 69 10 ENE 16;000·
8-116:20 PGr 76 66 4 ENE 17,000
3-56:45 16 76 66 4 ENE 17,000
3-57:00 15 76 66 4 ENE 17,000
3-56:20 PGt 76 69 4 ENE 319,000
3-57:00 1576 69 5 ENE 319,000
5-:-76:20 PG~ 76 79 9 ENE 46,000
8-116:45 16 76 79 9 ENE 46,000
8-11. 57:00 15 76 79 10 ENE 46,000
9-137:30 2 76 79 7 ENE 46,000
6-9.56:20 PGt 75 87 10 ENE 400,000
9-14.56:45 16 75 87 10 ENE 400,000
9-14.57:00 15 75 87 14 ENE 400,000
12-18
Date(1976)
June 9
June 9
June 10
June 10
June 11
June 11
June 11
June 12
June 12
June 14
June 14
June 14
June 14
June 16
June 16
June 16
June 16 7:30 2 75 87 97-13
ENE 400,000
*Starting time for the 15-min spray irrigation of the greens.tl nitia1 concentration found in the sprinkler effluent.fPutting green.
29
TABLE 8. METEOROLOG ICAL, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND BACTERIOLOGICAL CONDITIONSDURING AIR SAMPLING ON THE KMCAS KLIPPER GOLF COURSE
Re I. Wind Vel. \lInd TotalDate Time'-' Green Temp. Humidity and Range Oi r. Coliform-r
( 1976) (PM) (No. ) ( oF) (%) (kn) (#/100 m£)
June 9 6:45 16 75 76 10 ENE 15,0009-12
June 9 7:30 2 75 76 2 ENE 15,000~
1-8
June 10 6:45 J6 76 69 7 ENE 16,0006-8.5
June 10 7:00 15 76 69 10 ENE 16,0008-11
June 11 6:20 PGt 76 66 4 ENE 17,0003-5
June 11 6:45 16 76 66 4 ENE 17,0003-5
June 11 7:00 15 76 66 4 ENE 17,0003-5
6:20J.
76 69 4June 12 PGt ENE 319,0003-5
June 12 7:00 15 76 69 5 ENE 319,0005-7
June 14 6:20 PGf 76 79 9 ENE 46,0008- J 1
June 14 6:45 16 76 79 9 ENE 46,0008-11 .5
June 14 7:00 15 76 79 10 ENE 46,0009-13
June 14 7:30 2 76 79 7 ENE 46,0006-9.5
June 16 6:20 PGf 75 87 10 ENE 400,0009-14.5
June 16 6:45 16 75 87 10 ENE 400,0009-14.5
June 16 7:00 15 75 87 14 ENE 400,00012-18
June 16 7:30 2 75 87 9 ENE 400,0007-13
*Starting time for the IS-min spray irrigation of the greens.tl nitia1 concentration found in the sprinkler effluent.:FPutting green.
30
TABLE 9. AIR SAMPLING RESULTS OF AEROSOLIZED COLIFORM BACTERIACOLLECTED AT THE KMCAS KLIPPER GOLF COURSE
Upwind Downwind Distance l ( i n ft)
Date Time Green Con- -75 -100 -125 -150 -200· -250 -300(1976) (PH) (No. ) t ro 1 (No .. tota 1 col iform colonies/plate)
June 9 6:45 16 0 4 2 ";'~ 0 0 0 0June 9 7:30 2 0 7 1 It, 0 0 "l: "';~
June 10 6:45 16 0 2 1 2 3 2 0 '";'~
June 10 7:00 15 0 15 13 0 0 '1~ '1: -;',
June 11 6:20 PGt 0 -;': 1 a *~ * ,'~ .;:
June 11 6:45 16 a 10 3 10 0 1 aJune 11 7:00 15 0 9 7 2 0 4 ";" oJ:
June 12 6:20 PGt a 5 5 2 2 0 1 aJune 12 . 6:45 16 0 4 5 12 2 2 5 1June 12 7:00 15 a 64 24 19 7 5 i':: ?'-;
June 14 6:20 PGt 0 11 6 8 8 2 10 0June 14 6:45 16 0 37 42 80 43 21 10 6June 14 7:00 15 0 311 86 36 4 14 ~~ '1::
June 14 7:30 2 0 107 25 25 12 7 * *June 16 6:20 PGt 0 12 10 8 5 3 2 1June 16 6:45 16 0 77 36 38 38 35 13 8June 16 7:00 15 0 109 ,,;':: 1 2 25 ";': *June 16 7:30 2 0 86 75 95 21 15 ,;':: -;'"
IFrom sprinkler source.*No sample collectedtPutting green.
TABLE 10. NORMALJ ZED DATA FOR THE AIR SAMPL ING ATTHE KMCAS KLIPPER GOLF COURSE
Date Green Downwind Distance ( in ft)-75 -100 -125 -150 -200 -250 -300
(1976) (No. )
June 9 16 100 50 * 0 a 0 aJune 9 2 100 14 ~': 0 0 oJ:: i~
June 10 16 67 33 67 100 67 0 ;~
June 10 15 100 87 0 0 ";'; * iT;
June 11 PGt oj:: 100 0 -;" oJ:: ,,;': *June 11 16 100 30 100 0 10 0 10June 11 15 100 78 22 0 44 * *June 12 PGt 100 100 40 40 a 20 0June 12 16 33 42 100 17 17 42 8June 12 15 100 38 30 27 8 ':I': 1:
June 14 PGt 100 55 73 73 18 91 aJune 14 16 46 53 100 54 26 13 8June 14 15 100 28 12 1 5 ,,;':: 1::
June 14 2 100 23 23 11 7 ;':: "";~
June 16 PGt 100 83 67 42 25 17 8June 16 16 100 48 49 49 45 17 10June J6 15 100 ,,;':: 1 2 23 ";'\ it,
June 16 2 91 80 100 22 16 ;':: ·k
;'~No samp 1e collected.tPutting green.
31
10
0 6/09, No. 2w 0 6/09, No. 16f- B<t: 6/10, No . 16....J •a. 6/11, No. 15........ l:>
.U'lW D, 6/11, P.G.-:z:0 6 0 6/12, P.G.. ....J0u
<t:
ecu.!f-u -4.:r.o:l
::<::0:::: -0
.!.L.~
....J0 -2u
O'__ __'___...u..__"'--.,----'-_~-%J<"':--....L...---'----'---;u
-75 -100 -125 -150 -200 -250 -300DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ft \
FIGURE 12. COLIFORM BACTERIA DENSITIES DOWNWIND OF SPRAYIRRIGATION SOURCE
wf-<t:....Ja.........U'lW
Z0....J0u
<t:
ecwf-uc:(en
:::<::~
0I.L..
....J0U
15
0 6/10 No. 150 6/11 No. 16 .
6/12 16l:> No.
D, 6/14 P.G.10
0 6/16 P.G.
5
O'-_--'-.,--_-A-__==--- -'-----,. -="'-- ...<J
·-75 -100 -125 -150 -200 -250 -300DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ft
FIGURE 13. COLIFORM BACTERIA DENSITIES "DOWNWIND O~.SPRAY
IRRIGATION SOURCE
31
10
0 6/09, No. 2uJ 0 6/09, No. 16I- 8« 6/10, No . 16-l •0- 6/11, No. 15........ 6.V"luJ
b,. 6/11, P.G.:z.c 6 0 6/12, P.G.. -l0U
«0::wI-u -4«ca~0::: -0
.LL...:.-.-l0 -2u
0-75 -100 -125 -150 -200 -250 -30~
DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ftFIGURE 12. COLIFORM BACTERIA DENSITIES DO\·nI'.4 IND OF SPRAY
IRRIGATION SOURCE
15
L.LJ 0 6/10 No. 15I- 6/11 No. 16-« 0-li:L 6. 6/12 No. 16........V"l
6/14uJ b,. P.G.:z: 10- .0 0 6/16 P.G.-l0U
«0::uJI-u
5«co
:=::~
0LL
-l0U
0'-75 -100 -125 -150 -200 -250 -300
DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ft
FIGURE 13. COLIFORM BACTERIA DENSITIES DOWNVIND OF SPRAYIRRIGATION SOURCE
-.1.0- i
j~200 -250 -300
IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ftDOWNWIND OF A SPRAY IRRIGATION SOURCE
OL-_-,L-_-"......=~_--JL-_-,l.-_----l__-L-_----i._~
',75 -100 -125 -150DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM
14. COLIFORM BACTERIA DENSITIES320 ~----,---...-----r---.--------r----.-------,r----r---'---;
32 120
° 6/12 No, 150 6/14 No. 2
• 6/14 No . 16lJJ
A 6/i6 No. 2I-« 6/16 No, 15...J ...a.......... o 6/16 No, 16V> 80w
z0...J0U
«0::wI-u«co
r 400';0lL.
...J0U
FI GURE
° 6/14 No. 15wI-«...J 240a..........V>W
Z0...J0U
« 1600::wI-u«co
20lL. 80...J0U
0L--_---l.__-L.__.l.L--...,..-_L-_-.L__-'-_---:~----J'---_:_'
~75 -100 -125 -150 -200 -250 -300DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ft
FIGURE 15. COLIFORM BACTERIA DENSITIES DOWNWIN~ OF A SPRAY lRRIGATION SOURCE
~200 -250 -300IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ftDOW'NWIND OF. A SPRAY IRRIGATION SOURCE
o'"75 -100 -125 -150
DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM14•. COLIFORM BACTERIA DENSITIES
320
0 6/14 No. 15wI-«....:I 2400...--...tilW
:z0....J0U
« 160a:::wI-u«co
.~a:::0l.1.. 80....J0U
o-75 -100 -125 -150 -200 -250 . -300
DOWNHIND DISTMCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ftFIGURE 15. COLIFORM BACTERIA DENSI.TIES DOWNWIN~ OF A SPRAY IRRIGATION SOURCE
32120
0 6/12 No. 150 6/1 Lf No. 2
• 6/14 No . 16w
.b. 6/i6 No. 2l-e:(
6/16 No . 15....J ....0...--... o 6/16 No. 16VJ 80w
z0....J0U
e:(
a:::wI-u«co
~ 40cr~
0l.1..
....J<)
U
FIGURE
33
0 6/096/140
6/16A
50
>t-
::E0:::o\J..
....JoU
r.nzUJa
100 cr-----,-----,;r--...----r---.---.---,.--------,---~
«.. 0:::
UJtu«co
....J.«::Ea:.oz
OL--_-..L__-'-_~_=___ _"'__""'O'__~ ~_"____4
-75 -150 -225 -300DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS
0 6/10o 6/11A 6/12
6/14•• 6/16
....Jou
aUJN
FIGURE 16. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY PATA FOR THE NO.2 GREEN
100
«0:::UJtu«co::E 500:::o\J..
r.n:z:UJa
~
>t-
....J«::Ecr:o:z:
o L_.1...-__i!t:::::::::lt::::::=:~_ __l........c._---L.-_ __l...__ _L__...J-75
FIGURE 17. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR THE NO. 15 GREEt"
a 6/09o 6/14[:, 6/16
-150 -225 -300DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS
NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR THE NO.2 GREEN
o 6/10o 6/11[:, 6/12• 6/14• 6/16
o L_.1---__k::==:::::lf::::::::::~_...L....o..._ _L..__ ___l..__ ___1.__....J-75 -150 -225 -300
DOWNWIND DiSTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS
FIGURE 17. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR THE NO. 15 GREEN
33
III
. I
0 6/090 6/10Do 6/11
• 6/12
• 6/14.... 6/16
06/11o 6/12Do 6/14• 6/16
-100 -125"'" 150 -200 -250 -30P~~DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ft ".
FIGURE 18: ~ORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR THE NO~ 16 GREEN
100 .,....---.::.._---r-,----,.--~-.._-_r--.,_--_r_-__,~~__,
0'---~'__--.:A---:_=_:~-~-_::":7_---'--__::_':_:_--'----IJ-75 -100 -125 -150 -250 -300
DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ftFIGURE 19. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR THE PUTTING GREEN
~
>r
oWN
...J<:t:::::a:::oz
:::::a:::oLL.
...JoU
34
100
&<
>-rV'l:zw0
<:t
0::wru.«co 50:::::0::0LL.
...J0U
0IJ-!N
...J<:t
~0z
0-75
o 6/09o 6/10[:,. 6/11• 6/12• 6/14A 6/16
-100 -125-150 -200 . -30p::DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ft'
FIGURE 18: NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY ,DATA FOR THE NO, 16 GREEN
100
eN
~
>-I-
Vl:<:::LLJCl
c:l::
c:::LLJI-uc:l::co:::;:c:::0~
-'0U
ClLLJN
-'«:::;:c:::0:z
a-75
FIGURE
06/11o 6/12[:,. 6/14• 6/16
-100 -125 -150 -200 '-250 . -300,DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ft
19. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR THE PUTTING GREEN
35three cases, there was still no distinct pattern in the distribution of aerosols containing coliform bacteria. However, general trends can be observedin the normalized curves. An approximately 90% decrease in coliform bacteriaconcentration was observed within 91 m downwind of sprinkler heads. Windvelocities during the air sample collection affected the recovery patterns.Wind velocity ranges of 0 to 8 kn (low) and 13 to 18 kn (high) resulted in arapid decrease in bacterial aerosols within 46 m(150 ft) dowmvindof thesprinklers. The mid-range wind velocity (9 to 12 kn) did not appear to follow the pattern. It is possible that, between 9 and 12 kn, more irregular"gust:lng" may occur. This could result in the "masking" of the normal settling pattern of the bacteria.
The presence of aerosols containing pathogenic organisms can only be.implied by this study. The presence of aerosols of coliform bacteria mayormay riot be·indicative of the presence of pathogens in these aerosols. However, even the presence of coliform bacteria in the air poses a very seriousquestion: is the continued use of the KMCAS STP effluent for spray irriga~
tion on the golf course safe?The health hazards from the spray irrigation system must be similar to
that from other systems that generate aerosolized coliform bacteria. In paststudies, activated sludge and trickling filter plants have been examined, andfound to be positive, for the emission of aerosols of coliform bacteria (Ledbetter and Randall 1965; Adams and Spendlove 1970; King, Mill, and Laurence1973).
From the present air sampling results at the KMCAS Klipper Golf Course,three observations can be made:
1. Aerosols of coliform bacteria can be found at least 91 m downwindfrom the spray irrigation sprinkler source.
2. Higher concentrations of coliform bacteria in the sprinkler effluentresulted in recovery of a greater concentration of aerosolized bacteria and at greater distances from the source.
3. The downwind transport of aerosolized coliform bacteria was dependent on wind velocity. Higher wind velocities for a s.imilar effluent concentration of coliform bacteria resulted in the isolation ofbacteria at greater distances from the source.
The results of the air quality analysis were obtained at the optimumcondition (high relative humidity, high wind velocities, darkness, and mildtemperatures) for the recovery of· bacteria emitted by spray irrigation with
35
three cases, there was still no distinct pattern in the distribution of aero-
sols containing colifonn bacteria. HO\",rever, general trends can be observed
in the normalized curves. An approximately 90% decrease in coliform bacteria
concentration was observed within 91 m downwind of sprinkler heads. Wind
velocities during the air sample collection affected the recovery patterns.
Wind velocity ranges of 0 to 8 kn (low) and 13 to 18 kn (high) resulted in a
rapid decrease in bacterial aerosols within 46 m (150 ft) downwind of the
sprinklers. The mid-range wind velocity (9 to 12 kn) did not appear tofol
low the pattern~ It is possible that, between 9 and 12 kn, more irregular
"gusting" may occur. This could result in the "masking" of the nonnal set
tling pattern of the bacteria.
The presence of aerosols containing pathogenic organisms can only beim
plied by this study. The presence of aerosols of coliform bacteria mayor
may not be·indicative of the presence of pathogens in these aerosols. How
ever, even the presence of colifonn bacteria in the air poses a very serious
question: is the continued use of the KMGAS STP effluent for spray irriga-:
tion on the golf course safe?
The health hazards from the spray irrigation system must be similar to
that from other systems that generate aerosolized coliform bacteria. In past
studies, activated sludge and trickling filter plants have been examined, and
found to be positive, for the emission of aerosols of colifonn bacteria (Led
better and Randall 1965; Adams and Spendlove 1970; King, Mill, and Laurence
1973) .
From the present air sampling results at the ~lCAS Klipper Golf Course,
three observations can be made:
1. Aerosols of coliform bacteria can be found at least 91 m downwind
from the spray irrigation sprinkler source.
2.. Higher concentrations of colifonn bacteria in the sprinkler effluent
resulted in recovery of a greater concentration of aerosolized bac
teria and at greater distances from the source.
3. The doWnwind transport of aerosolized colifonn bacteria was depen
dent on \vind velocity. Higher wind ve locities for a similar efflu
ent concentration of coliform bacteria resulted in the isolation of
bacteria at greater distances from the source.
The results of the air quality analysis were obtained at the optimum
condition (high relative humidity, high wind velocities, darkness, and mild
temperatures) for the recovery of· bacteria emitted by spray irrigation with
36
sewage effluent; therefore, this probably represents the extreme condition
for public health and safety. However, at this extreme condition, the levels
and range of indicator bacterial emissions from the KMCAS spray irrigation
system are still lower than those reported for most trickling filter and
activated sludge units at waste water treatment plants. The incidence of
disease directly due to bacterial aerosols to sewage treatment plant workers
has not been reported in the literature (Hickey and Reist 1975). On this
basis, the continued use of sewage effluent for spray irrigation at the KMCAS
Klipper Golf Course should not be considered a health hazard.
CONCLUS IONS
The following conclusions may be drawn from the results of this study:
1. The KMCAS raw sewage is a weak se\vage of fairly consistentquality
2. The KMCAS sewage treatment plant achieves a high overall efficiency
through its biological process and final polishing pond
3. Settling of organic matter and the biological uptake resulted in
the decrease of BODs, suspended solids, and organic nitrogen in the
KMCAS STP polishing pond
4. The quality of the effluent from theKMCAS STP appears to be a good
source of irrigation water for the KMCAS KlipperGolf Course
5. The effective removal of nitrogen, phosphorus, and fecal coliform
bacteria on the KMCAS golf course can be attributed to the bermuda
grass soil cover, the Ewa silty clay (low humic latosol soil group),
and the Jaucas sand (regosols soil group)
6. On the basis of nitrogen, phosphorus, and fecal coliform bacteria,
the quality of the percolate from the effluent-irrigated golf course
soil does not detrimentally alter the quality of the groundwater.
7. On the basis of total Kjeldahl nitrogen, combined nitrate and
nitrite nitrogen, and total phosphorus, the quality of runoff from
the KMCAS golf course is not a source of contamination for the adj a
cent surface waters
8. Airborne coliform bacteria were isolated up to 91 m downwind of
various effluent sprinkler sources. Higher concentrations of coli
form bacteria in the sprinkler effluent resulted in greater recovery
of bacterial aerosols and at farther distances downwind from the
36
sewage effluent; therefore, this probably represents the extreme condition
for public health and safety. However, at this extreme condition, the levels
and range of indicator bacterial emissions from the KMCAS spray irrigation
system are still lower than those reported for most trickling filter and
activated sludge units at waste water treatment plants. The incidence of
disease directly due to bacterial aerosols to sewage treatment plant workers
has not been reported in the literature (Hickey and Reist 1975). On this
basis, the continued use of sewage effluent for spray irrigation at the KMCAS
Klipper Golf Course should not be considered a health hazard.
CONCLUS IONS
The following conclusions may be drawn from the results of this study:
1. The KMCAS raw sewage is a weak sewage of fairly consistent quality
2 . The KMCAS sewage treatment plant achieves a high overall efficiency
through its biological process and final polishing pond
3. Settling of organic matter and the biological uptake resulted in
the decrease of BODs, suspended solids, and organic nitrogen in the
KMCAS STP polishing pond
4. The quality of the effluent from theKMCAS STP appears to be a good·
source of irrigation water for the KMCAS KlipperGolf Course
5. The effective removal of nitrogen, phosphorus, and fecal coliform
bacteria on the KMCAS golf course can be attributed to the bermuda
grass soil cover, the Ewa silty clay (low humic latosol soil group),
and the Jaucas sand (regosols soil group)
6. On the basis of nitrogen, phosphorus, and fecal coliform bacteria,
the quality of the percolate from the effluent-irrigated golf course
soil does not detrimentally alter the quality of the groundwater.
7. On the basis of total Kjeldahl nitrogen, combined nitrate and
nitrite nitrogen, and total phosphorus, the quality of runoff from
the KMCAS golf course is not a source of contamination for the adj a
cent surface waters
8. Airborne coliform bacteria were isolated up to 91 m downwind of
various effluent sprinkler sources. Higher concentrations of coli
form bacteria in the sprinkler effluent resulted in greater recovery
of bacterial aerosols and at farther dist.ances downwind from the
37
source. Coliform baCteria density downwind from the source was alsodependent on wind velocity.
9. The reuse of sewage effluent for the spray irrigation of the KMCASgolf course is an effective method of waste water disposal and canbe continued, as well as expanded, to other areas of the !O'ICAS.
ACKNOWLEDGr~ENTS
The authors would like to thank Melvyn A. Yoshinaga, Chief Engineer,Department of Public Works; Jeffrey P. Havlin, Field Superintendant, Department of Public Works; Lt. Col. David L. Ross, Services and Recreation Officer,and Francis Reynon, Klipper Golf Course Manager, of the Kane 'oheMarine CorpsAir Station for their assistance and cooperation during this research.
REFERENCES·
Ackerson, R.C., and Younger, V.B. 1975. Responses of Bermuda grass tosalini ty. Agron. Jour. 67 :678-8l.Adams, A.P., and Spendlove, J.C. 1965. Coliform aerosols emitted by sewagetreatment plants. Science 169 (9) :1218-20.Bouwer, H.; Lance, J.C.; and Riggs, M.S. 1974. High-rate land treatment.II. Water quality and Economic aspects of the Flushing Meadows project.Jour. Water Poll. Control Fed. 46(5) :844-59.Brown, J.H.; Cook, K.M.; Ney, F.G.; and Hatch, T. 1950. Influence of particle size upon the retention of particulate matter ln the human lung.Amer. Jour, Pub. Health 41:450-59.Butler, R.G.; Or1ob, G.T.; and McGauhey, P.H. 1954. Underground movement ofbacterial and chemical pollutants. Jov~. ArneI'. Water Works Assn. 46(2):97Ill.
Chu, A.C., and Sherman, G.D. 1952. Differential fixation of phosphate by'typical soils of the HCJh)aii Great Soil Groups. Tech. BulL 16, Agricul. tura1 Experiment Station, University of Hawaii.Chun, M.J.; Young, R.H.F.; and Anderson; G.K. 1972. Wastewater effluentsand surface runoff quality. Tech. Rep. No. 63, Water Resources ResearchCenter, University of Hawaii.Clark, W.N. 1974. A comparison of numbers of aerosolized coliforms associated \;'i th sewage treatment by the trickling filter and the activatedsludge processes. A report submitted to the University of Hawaii Schoolof Public Health.
Coleman, R. 1944. Phosphate fixation by the coarse and fine clay fractionsof kaolinitic and montmori11onitic clays. Soil Sci. 58:71-77.
37
source. Coliform bacteria density downwind from the source was also
dependent on wind velocity.
9. The reuse of sewage effluent for the spray irrigation of the KMCAS
golf course is an effective method of waste water disposal and can
be continued, as well as expanded, to other areas of the IO'!CAS.
ACKNOWLEDGr~ENTS
The authors would like to thank Melvyn A. Yoshinaga, Chief Engineer,
Department of Public Works; Jeffrey P. Havlin, Field Superintendant, Depart
ment of Public Works; Lt. Col. David L. Ross, Services and Recreation Officer,
and Francis Reynon, Klipper Golf Course Manager, of the Kane'ohe Marine Corps
Air Station for their assistance and cooperation during this research.
REFERENCES
Ackerson, R.C., and Younger, V.B. 1975. Responses of Bermuda grass tosalinity. Agron. Jour. 67:678-81.
Adams, A.P., and Spendlove, J.C. 1965. Coliform aerosols emitted by sewagetreatment plants. Science 169(9):1218-20.
Bouwer, H.; Lance, J.C.; and Riggs, M.S. 1974. High-rate land treatment.II. Water quality and Economic aspects of the Flushing Meadows project.Jour. Water Poll. Control Fed. 46(5) :844-59.
Brown, J.H.; Cook, K.M.; Ney, F.G.; and Hatch, T. 1950. Influence of particle size upon the retention of particulate matter in the human lung.Amer. Jour. Pub. Health 41:450-59.
Butler, R.G.; Orlob, G.T.; and McGauhey, P.H. 1954. Underground movement ofbacterial and chemical pollutants. Jov~. Amer. Water Works Assn. 46(2):97Ill.
Chu, A.C., and Sherman, G.D. 1952. Differential fixation of phosphate bytypical soils of the Hawaii Great Soil Groups. Tech. Bull. 16, AgriCUltural Experiment Station, University of Hawaii.
Chun, M.J.; Young, R.H.F.; and Anderson, G.K. 1972. Waste0ater effluentsand surface runoff quality. Tech. Rep. No. 63, Water Resources ResearchCenter, University of Hawaii.
Clark, W.N. 1974. A comparison of numbers of aerosolized coliforms associated with sewage treatment by the trickling filter and the activatedsludge processes. A report submitted to the University of Hawaii Schoolof Public Health.
Coleman, R. 1944. Phosphate fixation by the coarse and fine clay fractionsof kaolinitic and montmoril1onitic clays. Soil Sci. 58:71-77.
38
Druet, H.A.; Henderson, D.W.; Packman, L.P.; Peacock,S. 1953 .. Studies onrespiratory infection. I. The influence of particle size on respiratoryinfection 1'lith anthrax spores. Jour. Hyg. 51:359-7L
Dye, E.O. 1958. Crop irrigation with se\'lage effluent-Sew. & Ind. Wastes·30(6):825-28.
E1-Swaify, S.A., and Swinda1e, L.D. 1968. Hydraulic conductivity of sometropical soils as a guide to irrigation water quality. 9th InternationalCongress of SoiZ Science Transactions, vol. 1, paper 40.
Foote, D.E.; Hill, E.L.; Nakamura S.; and Stevens, F. 1972. Soil survey ofislands of Kauai., Oahu., Maui., Molokai.) and Lanai.) state of HaLJaii. u.s.Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service, in cooperation withthe University of Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. .
Fox, R.L. 1972. Solubility, uptake and leaching of plant nutrients: Phosphate, sulfate and calcium. In Proc. 5th HaLJaii Fertilizer Conference,pp. 25-32, Misc. Pub. 86, Cooperative Extension Service, University ofHawaii.
Goudey, R.F. 1931. Reclamation of treated sewage. JoUr'. Amer. Water WorksAssn. 23:230-40.
. . .'.
Hickey, J.L.S., Reist, P.C. 1975. Health significance of airborne micro-organisms from wastewater treatment processes. Part 1. Summary of investigations. Jov.r. fvater Poll. Control Fed. 47(12) :2741-73.
Houser, E.W. 1970. Santee project continues to show the way. Water &Wastes Eng. 7(5):40-44.
King, E.n.; Mill, R.A.; and Lawrence, C.H. 1973. Airborne bacteria from anactivated sludge plant. Jour. Environ. Health 36(1):50-54.
Lance, J.C. 1972. Nitrogen removal by soil mechanisms. Jour. Water Pall.Control Fed. 44(7):1352-61.
Lau, L.S.; Ekern, P.C.; Loh, P.C.S.; Young, R.H.F.; Burbank, N.C., Jr.; andDugan, G.L. 1975. Water recycling of sewage effZuent by irrigation: Afield study on Oahu. Tech. Rep. No. 94,Water Resources Research Center,University of Hawaii. .
Ledbetter, J.O., and Randall, C.W. 1965. Bacterial emissions from activatedsludge units. Industrial Medicine & Surgery 32 (2) :130-33.
McGauhey, P.H. Engineering management of water quali-ty. New York: McGrawHill.
McMichael, F.C., and McKee, J.E. 1966. Wastewater reclamation at WhittierNarrows, State of California Resources Agency. Pub. No. 33, State WaterQuality Control Board, California.
Merrell, J.C., Jr. 1968. Virus control at the Santee, California project.Jour. Amer. Water Works Assn. 60(1) :145-53.
Merz, R. C. 1956. Direct utilization of waste waters. Proc. llth IndustrialWaste Conference.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1972. Wastewater engineering. New York: McGraw,Hill.
State of Hawaii. 1974. Water quality standards. Public :health regulations.chaps. 37-A and 38.
38
Druet, H.A.; Henderson, D.W.; Packman, L.P.; Peacock, S. 1953. Studies onrespiratory infection. I. The influence of particle size on respiratoryinfection with anthrax spores. JoUX'. Hyg. 51:359-71.
Dye, E.G. 1958. Crop irrigation with sewage effluent. Sew. & Ind. Wastes30(6):825-28.
El-Swaify, S.A., and Swindale, L.D. 1968. Hydraulic conductivity of sometropical soils as a guide to irrigation water quality. 9th InternationalCongress of Soil Science Transactions, vol. 1, paper 40.
Foote, D.E.; Hill, E.L.; Nakamura S.; and Stevens, F. 1972. Soil sv~vey ofislands of Kauai~ Oahu~ Maui~ Molokai~ and Lanai~ state of Hawaii. U.S.Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service, in cooperation withthe University of Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station.
Fox, R.L. 1972. Solubility, uptake and leaching of plant nutrients: Phosphate, sulfate and calcium. In Froc. 5th Hawaii Fertilizer Conference,pp. 25-32, Misc. Pub. 86, Cooperative Extension Service, University ofHawaii.
Goudey, R.F. 1931. Reclamation of treated sewage. JoUX'. Amer. Water WorksAssn. 23:230-40.
Hickey, J.L.S., Reist, P.C. 1975. Health significance of airborne microorganisms from wastewater treatment processes. Part 1. Summary of investigations. Jov~. Water Poll. Control Fed. 47(12) :2741-73.
Houser, E.W. 1970. Santee project continues to show the way. Water &Wastes Eng. 7(5):40-44.
King, E.D.; Mill, R.A.; and Lawrence, C.H. 1973. Airborne bacteria from anactivated sludge plant. Jour. Environ. Health 36(1):50-54.
Lance, J.C. 1972. Nitrogen removal by soil mechanisms. JoUX'. Water Poll.Control Fed. 44(7):1352-61.
Lau, L.S.; Ekern, P.C.; Loh, P.C.S.; Young, R.H.F.; Burbank, N.C., Jr.; andDugan, G.L. 1975. Water recycling of sewage effluent by irrigation: Afield study on Oahu. Tech. Rep. No. 94, Water Resources Research Center,University of Hawaii.
Ledbetter, J.G., and Randall, C.W. 1965. Bacterial emissions from activatedsludge units. Industrial Medicine & Surgery 32 (2) :130-33.
McGauhey, P.H. Engineering management of water quality. New York: McGrawHill.
McMichael, F.C., and McKee, J.E. 1966. Wastewater reclamation at WhittierNarrows, State of California Resources Agency. Pub. No. 33, State WaterQuality Control Board, California.
Merrell, J.C., Jr. 1968. Virus control at the Santee, California project.Jour. Amer. Water Works Assn. 60(1) :145-53.
Merz, R. C. 1956. Direct utilization of waste waters. Froc. Uth IndustrialWaste Conference.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 1972. fvastewater engineering. New York: McGrawHill.
State of Hawaii. 1974. Water quality standards. Public health regulations~
chaps. 37-A and 38.
39
Tanimoto, R.M.; Burbank, N.C., Jr.; Young, R.H.F.; and Lau, L.S. 1968.Migration of bacteriophage TIf in percolating water through selected Oahusoils. Tech. Rep. No. 20, Water Resources Research Center, Universith ofHawaii.
Taylor, A.W. 1967. Phosphorus and water pollution. Jour. Soit & ivater Cons.22(6):228-30.
U.S., Congress, Senate. 1972. Federal ~later Pollution Control Act cunendments of 1972. Public Law 92-500, 92d Cong., S.2770.
Woodcock, A.H. 1955: Bursting bubbles and air pollution. Sew. & Ind.Wastes 27(10) :1189-92.
Wozniak, D.H.; Kiwak, C.; Cahoon, C.; and Edgerton, R.H. 1976. Water to airbacterial transfer by bursting bubbles. Jou:t'. Environ. Eng. Viv., Proc.Amer. Soc. Civil Engr. l02(EE3):567-70.
39
Tanimoto, R.M.; Burbank, N.C., Jr.; Young, R.H.F.; and Lau, L.S. 1968.Migration of bacteriophage Tit in percolating water through selected Oahusoils. Tech. Rep. No. 20, Water Resources Research Center, Universith ofHawaii.
Taylor, A.W. 1967. Phosphorus and water pollution. Jour. Soit & Water Cons.22(6) :228-30.
U.S., Congress, Senate. 1972. Federal "(later Pollution Control Act amendments of 1972. Public Law 92-500, 92d Cong., S. 2770.
Woodcock, A.H. 1955. Bursting bubbles and air pollution. Sew. &Ind.Wastes 27(10) :1189-92.
Wozniak, D.H.; Kiwak, C.; Cahoon, C.; and Edgerton, R.H. 1976. Water to airbacterial transfer by bursting bubbles. Jour. Environ. Eng. Div., Proc.Amer. Soc. Civil Engr. 102(EE3) :567-70.
41
APPENDICES
CONTENTS
APPENDIX A. KMCAS GOLF COURSE SOIL DESCRIPTIONS.
APPENDIX B. WASTE WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS, KMCAS STP.
APPENDIX C. GROUNDWATER QUALITY ANALYSIS, KMCAS KLIPPERGOLF COURSE _ .
APPENDIX D. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR VARIOUS INITIALCOLIFORM BACTERIA DENSITIES IN THE SPRINKLEREFFLUENT . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
45
50
52
. APPENDIX E. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA AT VARIOUS WINDVELOCITIES ; .
FIGURES
. . ". . . .. . 55
D.l.
0.2.•..
0.3.
L1.
L2.
E.3.
Normalized Air Quality Data for Initial Coliform BacteriaConcentration Between 15,000 and 20,000 Colonies/lOO m.Q. ..
I
Normalized Air Quality Data for Initial Coliform BacteriaConcentration of 46,000 Colonies/100 m .Normalized Air Quality Data for Initial Coliform BacteriaConcentration Between 319,000 and 400,000 Colonies/100 m ....Normalized A-jr Quality Data for Wind Velocities Betweeno and 8 Knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Normalized Air Quality Data for Wind Velocities Between9 and 12 Knots .Normalized Air Quality Data for Wind Velocities Between13 and 18 Knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TABLES
52
53
54
55
56
57
A.l. Soil Descriptions of the KMCAS Klipper Golf Course, MokapuPeninsula, Oahu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
B.l. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof~~ater Qual ity Parameters of 24-hr Raw Sewage Composite,8-9 October 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP. . . . 45
B.2. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Secondary EffluentComposite, 8-9 O~tober 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta.STP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
41
APPENDICES
CONTENTS
APPENDIX A. KMCAS GOLF COURSE SOIL DESCRIPTIONS.
APPENDIX B~ WASTE WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS, KMCAS STP...
APPENDIX C. GROUNDWATER QUALITY ANALYSIS, KMCAS KLIPPERGOLF COURSE _ , .
APPENDIX D. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR VARIOUS INITIALCOLIFORM BACTERIA DENSITIES IN THE SPRINKLEREFFLUENT . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
45
50
52
. APPENDIX E. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA AT VARIOUS WINDVELOCITIES ~ .
FIGURES
. . ". . . . . 55
D.l.
0.2....
0.3.
E.l.
E.2.
E.3.
Normalized Air Quality Data for Initial Coliform BacteriaConcentration Between 15,000 and 20,000 Colonies/lOa m~ . . 52Normalized Air Quality Data for Initial Coliform BacteriaConcentration of 46,000 Colonies/lOa m . . . . . . . . . 53Normalized Air Quality Data for Initial Coliform BacteriaConcentration Between 319,000 and 400,000 Colonies/lOa m 54Normalized Air Quality Data for Wind Velocities Betweeno and 8 Knots . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Normalized Air Quality Data for Wind Velocities Between9 and 12 Knots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Normalized Air Quality Data for Wind Velocities Between13 and 18 Knots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
TABLES
A.l. Soil Descriptions of the KMCAS Klipper Golf Course, MokapuPeninsula, Oahu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
B.l. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof l~ater Quality Parameters of 24-hr Raw Sewage Composite,8-9 October 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP. . . . 45
B.2. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximums·of Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Secondary EffluentComposite, 8-9 O~tober 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta.STP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
42
B.3. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Pond Effluent Composite,8-9 October 1975, Kane10he Marine Corps Air Sta. STP. . . . . 46
B.4. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Raw Sewage Composite,20-21 November 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP . . 46
B.S. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof l~ater Quality Parameters of 24-hr Secondary Effl uent Composite, 20-21 November 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta.STP . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . • . . . . .' . '.' 47
B.6. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hrPondEffluent Composite,20-21 November 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP . . .. 47
B.7. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Raw Sewage Composite,11-12 February 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP . . 48
B.8. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Pond Effluent Composite,11-12 February 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP ... 48
B.9. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Raw Sewage Composite,12-13 July 1976, Kane'oheMarine Corps Air Sta. STP •. , . .. 49
B.10. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Pond Effluent Composite,12-13 July 1976, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP . . . . 49
(
C.l. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of Groundwater Test Well No.1,KMCAS Golf Course . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
C.2. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of Groundwater Test Well No.2,KMCAS Golf Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
C.3. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Qual ity Parameters of Groundwater Test ~~e11 No.3,KMCAS Golf Course . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... 51
C.4. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of Sprinkler Effluent, KMCASGolf Course ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
42
B.3. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Pond Effluent Composite,8-9 October 1975, K~ne'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP. . . . 46
8.4. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Raw Sewage Composite,20-21 November 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP . . 46
B.S. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof ~~ater Qua I ity Parameters of 24-hr Secondary Effl uent COlllposite, 20-21 November 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta.STP . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
8.6. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Pond Effluent Composite,20-21 November 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP . . 47
8.7. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Raw Sewage Composite,11-12 February 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP . . 48
B.8. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Pond Effluent Composite,11-12 February 1975, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP . . .. 48
8.9. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Raw Sewage Composite,12-13 July 1976, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP . . . . 49
B.10. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of 24-hr Pond Effluent Composite,12-13 July 1976, Kane'ohe Marine Corps Air Sta. STP . . . . 49
C.l. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of Groundwater Test Well No.1,KMCAS Go1f Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
C.2. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of Groundwater Test Well No.2,KMCAS Golf Course. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
C.3. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of Groundwater Test Well No.3,Kl"1CAS Golf Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
C.4. Means, Standard Deviations, Medians, Minimums, and Maximumsof Water Quality Parameters of Sprinkler Effluent, KMCASGolf Course. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
APP
END
IXA
.KM
CAS
GOLF
COUR
SESO
ILD
ESCR
IPTI
ON
S
APP
END
IXTA
BLE
A.l
.SO
ILD
ESCR
IPTI
ON
SOF
THE
KMCA
SK
UPP
ERGO
LFCO
URS
E,M
OK
APU
PEN
INSU
LA,
OAHU
Ewa
Ser
ies
l
Loc
atio
n:T
est
~/el
lN
o.3
Cla
ssif
icat
ion
:M
oll
iso
ls,
To
rro
xic
Hap
lust
oll
s(L
owH
umic
Lat
oso
ls)
Des
crip
tio
n:
Thi
sse
ries
con
sist
so
fw
ell-
dra
ined
soil
sin
bas
ins
and
onal
luv
ial
fans
onth
eis
lan
dof
Oah
u.T
hese
soil
sde
velo
ped
inal
luvI
umd
eriv
edfr
omb
asic
igne
ous
rock
.T
hey
are
nea
rly
lev
elto
mod
erat
ely
slo
pin
g.
Ewa
Silt
yC
lay
Loam
,m
oder
atel
ysh
allo
w,
0to
2%(E
mA
)an
d2
to6%
(Em
S).s
lop
es.
Ina
rep
rese
nta
tiv
ep
ro
file
,th
esu
bsu
rfac
ela
yer
isda
rkre
ddis
h-br
own
silt
ycl
aylo
amab
out
46cm
(18
in.)
thic
k.
The
sub
soil
,ab
out
107
cm(4
2in
.)th
ick
,is
dark
redd
ish-
brow
nan
dda
rkre
dsi
lty
clay
loam
wit
hsu
ban
gu
larb
lock
yst
ructu
re.
The
sub
stra
tum
Isco
ral
lim
esto
ne,
sand
,an
dg
rav
elly
all
u
vium
.P
erm
eab
ilit
yis
mod
erat
e,ru
no
ffis
slow
,an
dth
eer
osi
on
haza
rdis
slig
ht.
The
dept
hto
cora
l1i
mes
tone
is51
to12
7cm
(20
to50
in.)
deep
.Th
eu
nd
erly
ing
mat
eria
lsha
dth
efo
llow
ing
pro
per
ties
:0
to15
2cm
(0to
60in
.),
dark
redd
ish-
brow
nsi
lty
clay
loam
,da
rkre
ddis
h-br
own
whe
ndr
y;cl
oddy
,br
eaki
ngto
wea
k,fi
ne,
and
ver
yfi
ne
gra
nu
lar
stru
ctu
re;
har
d,
fria
ble
,st
ick
yan
dp
last
ic;
abun
dant
fin
ean
dve
ryfi
ne
roo
ts.
152
to45
7cm
(60
to18
0in
.),
silt
ycl
aylo
am,
dark
red;
fin
esu
bang
ular
bloc
kyst
ruct
ure
;ha
rd,
fria
ble
,st
ick
yan
dp
last
ic;
fin
etu
bu
lar
po
res;
sand
gra
ins.
Jauc
asS
erie
s
Loc
atio
n:T
est
Wel
lN
o.2
Cla
ssif
icat
ion
:E
nti
sols
,T
ypic
Ust
ipsa
mm
ehts
(Reg
osol
s)D
escr
ipti
on
:T
his
serie~
con
sist
so
fex
cess
ivel
y-d
rain
ed,
calc
areo
us
soil
sth
at
occ
ur
asna
rrow
stri
ps
onco
asta
lp
lain
s,ad
jace
nt
toth
eoc
ean.
The
yde
velo
ped
inw
ind-
and
wat
er-d
epo
site
dsa
ndfr
omco
ral
and
seas
hel
ls.
Jauc
asS
and,
0to
15%
slo
pes
.In
are
pre
sen
tati
ve
pro
file
,th
eso
ilis
sin
gle
gra
ined
,pale
brow
nto
very
pal
ebr
own,
san
dy
,an
dm
ore
than
3m
(11
ft)
deep
.In
man
yp
lace
sth
esu
rfac
ela
yer
isda
rkbr
own
asa
resu
lto
fac
cum
ulat
ion
of
org
anie
mat
ter
and
allu
viu
m.
The
soil
isn
eutr
alio
mod
era
tely
alk
alin
eth
roug
hout
the
pro
file
.P
erm
eab
ilit
yis
rap
id,
and
run
off
isve
rysl
owto
slow
.Th
eh
azar
do
fw
ater
ero
sio
nis
slig
ht
but
win
der
osi
on
isa
sev
ere
haz
ard
whe
rev
eget
a-'
tio
nha
sbe
enre
mov
ed.
Wo
rkab
ilit
yIs
51Ig
htl
yd
iffl
cu
ltbe
caus
eth
eso
ilis
loos
ean
dla
cks
stab
ilit
yfo
rus
eo
feq
uipm
ent.
'Th
eun
derl
ying
mat
er,i
als
had
the
foll
owin
gp
rop
erti
es:
0to
30cm
(Oto
12in
.),
pal
ebr
own
sand
,li
gh
tye
llow
ish-
brow
nw
hen
dry;
sin
gle
-gra
ined
,lo
ose
,no
nsti
cky
and
nonp
1as
tic
;an
dp
len
tifu
lro
ots
.30
to61
cm(2
4in
.),
lig
ht
yell
owis
h-br
own
sand
,ve
ryp
ale
brow
nw
hen
dry;
sin
gle
-gra
ined
,lo
ose
,n
on
stic
ky
and
no
np
last
ic;a
nd
few
roo
ts.
61to
274c
m(1
08in
.),
very
pal
ebr
own
sand
;si
ng
le-g
rain
ed;
loo
se,
nb
nst
ick
yan
dn
on
pla
stic
.27
4to
335
cm(1
32In
.),
very
pla
ebr
own
sand
;m
ois
t,si
ng
le-g
rain
ed;
loo
se,
no
nst
ick
yan
dn
on
pla
stic
.33
5to
351
cm(1
38in
.),
very
pal
ebr
own
sand
,or9_anJ~ITla~te_r_,_~nd
allu
vium
;m
oist
gra
nu
Jar_
clay
;fi
rm,_
stic
ky
and
pla
stic
.
If.it::~i"S~::~,.;~:~7'~..
:~ll.-
t",:'
_~_.~~~:>I"l;"
••~:
-'"
.",'••
'C:'
....~-_--=-_~
l~...
-~
..--
-,
....
.
-Po
c.N
APPENDIX A. KMCAS GOLF COURSE SOIL DESCRIPTIONS
APPENDIX TABLE A.l. SOIL DESCRIPTIONS OF THE KMCAS KLiPPER GOLF COURSE, MOKAPU PENINSULA,OAHU
Ewa Series l
Location: Test ~/ell No.3 Classification: Mollisols, Torroxic Haplustolls (Low Humic Latosols)Description: This series consists of well-drained soils in basins and on alluvial fans on the island of
Oahu. These soils developed in alluvium derived from basic igneous rock. They are nearlylevel to moderately sloping.
Ewa Si lty Clay Loam, moderately shallow, a to 2% (EmA) and 2 to 6% (EmB) ,slopes. In a representative pro-file, the subsurface layer is dark reddish-brown silty clay loam about 46 cm (18 in.) thick.The subsoil, about 107 em (42 in.) thick, 1s dark reddlsh-brownand dark red silty clay loamwith subangularblocky structure. The substratum 1s coral limestone, sand, and gravelly alluvium. P~rmeability is moderate, runoff Is slow, and the erosion hazard is slight. The depthto coral limestone is 51 to 127 crrt (20 to 50 in.) deep.
The underlying materials had the following properties: 0 to 152 em (0 to 60 In.), dark reddish-brown siltyclay loam, dark reddish-brown when dry; cloddy, breaking to weak, fine, and very fine granularstructure; hard, friable, sticky and plastic; abundant fine and very fine roots. 152 to 457 em(60 to 180 in.), si lty clay loam, dark red~ fine subangular blocky structure; hard, friable,sticky and plastic; fin~ tubular pores; sand grains.
Jaucas Se ri es
Location: Test Well No.2 Classification: Entisols, Typic Ustipsamments (Regosols)Description: This serieS consists of excessively-drained, calcareous soi Is that occur as narrow strips on
coastal plains, adjacent to the ocean. They developed in wind- and water-deposited sand fromcoral and seashells.
Jaucas Sand, 0 to 15% slopes. In a representative profile, the soil is single grained,pale brown to verypale brown, sandy,and more than 3 m (11 ft) deep. In many places the surface layer is dark,brown as a result of accumulation of organic matter and alluvium. The soil is neutral to moderately alkaline throughout the profile. Permeability is rapid, and runoff is very slow toslow. The hazard of water erosion Is 51 ight but wlrid erosion is a severe hazard where vegeta-'tion has been removed. Workability is slightly difficult because the soil is loose and lacksstability for use of equipment. '
The underlying materials had the following properties: 0 to 30 em (0 to 12 in.), pale brown sand, lightyellowish-brown when dry; single-grained, loose, nonsticky and nonplastie;and plentiful roots.30 to 61 em (24 in.), light yellowish-brown sand, very pale brown when dry; single-grained,loose, nonstieky and nonplastie;andfew roots. 61 to 2]4 em (108 in.), very pale brown sand;single-grained; loose, nbnstieky and nonplastic. 2]4 to 335 em (132 In.), very plae brownsand; moist, single-grained; loose, nonstieky and nonplastic. 335 to 351 em (138 in.), verypale brown sand, organic matter, and alluvium; moistgranular clay; fIrm, sticky and plastic.
APPE
NDIX
TABL
EA
.1-tO
NTI
NU
EDM
oku1
eia
Ser
ies
Cla
ssif
icat
ion:
Mo1
1is
o1s
,Typ-ic--HapTu-stolTs~rAfTuvial)---~-
Des
crip
tio
n:
Thi
sse
ries
co
nsi
sts
of
wel
l-d
rain
edsoi1~
alo
ng
the
coas
to
fOahu~
The
seso
ils
are
form
edin
rece
nt
allu
viu
md
epo
site
do
ver
cora
lsa
nd
.T
hey
are
shal
low
and
nea
rly
lev
el.
Mok
u1ei
aC
lay
Loam
(Mt)
.In
are
pre
sen
tati
ve
pro
file
,th
esu
rfac
ela
yer
isv
ery
dar
kg
ray
ish
-bro
wn
clay
loam
abo
ut
41cm
(16
in.)
thic
k.
The
next
.la
yer
,86
cm(3
4in
.)to
mor
eth
an12
2cm
(48
in.)
thic
k,
isd
ark
brow
nan
dli
gh
tg
ray
,si
ng
le-g
rain
edsa
ndan
dlo
amy
snad
.P
erm
eabi
1it
yis
mod
era
tein
the
surf
ace
lay
eran
dra
pid
inth
esu
bso
il.
Run
off
isv
ery
slow
,an
dth
eer
osi
on
haza
rdis
mor
eth
ansl
igh
t.M
akal
apa
Ser
ies
Cla
ssif
icati
on
:V
ert
iso
ls,
Typ
icC
hro
mu
ster
ts{Dark-Magnesium~aysJ
Des
crip
tIo
n:
Thi
sse
ries
co
nsi
sts
of
wel
l-d
rain
edso
ils
onup
land
so
fth
eM~kapu
Pen
insu
la.
The
seso
ils
are
form
edin
vo
lcan
ictu
ff.
The
yar
eg
entl
ysl
op
ing
tom
od
erat
ely
stee
p.
Mak
a1ap
aC
lay,
6to
12%
slo
pes
(MdC
).In
are
pre
sen
tati
ve
pro
file
the
surf
ace
lay
eris
ver
yda
rkg
ray
fsh
br
own
clay
abou
t20
cm(8
in.)
thic
k.
The
nex
tla
yer
,20
to91
cm(3
6in
.)th
ick
,is
very
dar
kg
ray
ish
-bro
wn
clay
tosil
tycl
aylo
amw
ith
sub
ang
ula
rbl
ocky
stru
ctu
re.
Itis
un
der
lain
byli
gh
tgr
ayto
dar
kg
ray
ish
-bro
wn
,w
eath
ered
vo
lcan
ictu
ff.
The
clay
sar
ev
ery
stic
ky
and
ver
yp
last
ic,
and
crac
kw
idel
yup
ond
ryin
g.
Per
mea
bil
ity
issl
ow;
run
off
issl
owto
med
ium
;th
eer
osi
on
haz
ard
issl
igh
tto
mo
der
ate.
Wo
rkab
ilit
yis
dif
ficu
ltbe
caus
eth
ecl
ayis
ver
yst
ick
yan
dv
ery
pla
stic
;th
esh
rin
k-s
wel
lp
ote
nti
alis
hig
h.
Fil
lLa
nd(F
LD
escr
ipti
on
:T
his
land
typ
eo
ccu
rsm
ost
lyn
ear
the
oce
an.
Itco
nsi
sts
of
area
sfi
lled
wit
hm
ater
ial
dred
ged
from
the
ocea
no
rha
uled
from
near
byar
eas
and
gen
eral
mat
eria
lfr
omo
ther
sou
rces
.G
ener
ally
,th
ese
mat
eria
lsar
edu
mpe
dan
dsp
read
ov
erm
arsh
es,
low
-ly
ing
area
sal
ong
the
coas
tal
flats
,co
ral
san
d,
cora
lli
mes
ton
e,o
rar
eas
sha1
low
tob
edro
ck.
IFoote~eTar:---C19-72).
.j::>
. ..,.APPENDIX TABLE A.1-cONTINUED
Mokuleia SeriesClassification: Mol lisols, Typic Haplustolls (Alluvial)Description: This series consists of well-drained soils along the coast of Oahu~ These soils are formed in
recent alluvium deposited over coral sand. They are shallow and nearly level.Mokuleia Clay Loam (Mt). In a representative profile, the surface layer is very dark grayish-brown clay
loam about 41 cm (16 in.) thick. The next. layer, 86 cm (34 in.) to more than 122 cm (48 in.)thick, is dark brown and 1ight gray, single-grained sand and loamy snad. Permeabi 1ity is moderate in the surface layer and rapid in the subsoil. Runoff is very slow, and the erosionhazard is more than sl ight.
Makalapa SeriesClassification: Vertisols, Typic Chromusterts (Dark Magnesium Clays)Description: This series consists of well-drained soils on uplands of the Mokapu Peninsula. These soils
are formed in volcanic tuff. They are gently sloping to moderately steep.Maka1apa Clay, 6 to 12% slopes (MdC). In a representative profile the surface layer is very dark graylsh
brown clay about 20 cm (8 in.) thick. The next layer, 20 to 91 cm (36 in.) thick, is verydark grayish-brown clay to silty clay loam with subangular blocky structure. It is underlainby light gray to dark grayish-brown, weathered volcanic tuff. The clays are very sticky andvery plastic, and crack widely upon drying .. Permeability is slow; runoff is slow to medium;the erosion hazard is slight to moder~te. Workability is difficult because the clay is verystick and ver lastic; the shrink-s~vell potential is high.
Fill Land FL
IFoote et al. (1972).
Description: This land type occurs mostly near the ocean. It consists of areas filled with materialdredged from the ocean or hauled from nearby areas and general material from other sources.Generally, these materials are dumped and spread over marshes, low-lying areas along thecoastal flats, coral sand, coral limestone, or areas shallow to bedrock.
APPENDIX B. WASTE WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS, KMCAS STP
45
APPENDIX TABLE B.l. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, t1INlt1UMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR RAW SEWAGE COMPOSITE, 8-9 OCTOBER 1975,KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mg/~) ---------(mg/~)------~----
TDSSS 24 110 ± 71 100 74 264BODs 24 102 ± 38 105 44 204NH3-N 23 12.7 ± 3.7 12.9 5·0 19.4Organic N 24 6.7 ±. 2.3 7.3 2.5 10.6NOz + N03-N 24 0.02 ± 0.02 0.02 0 0.08Total N 23 19.54 ± 5.34 20.97 2:83 29.68Total P 24 7.19 ± 2.76 7.67 2.32 11.47NaKCl- 24 596 ±181 540 370 950SOIf
APPENDIX TABLE B.2. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAX (MUMS OF WATER QUALI TY PARAMETERS OF24-HR SECONDARY EFFLUENT COMPOSITE, 8-9 OCTO-BER 1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. t1edi an Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mg/~) ~----------(mg/~)----------
TDSSS 6 19 ± 2 19 15 21BODs 6 18 ± 3 18 13 21NH 3-N 6 5.5 ± 1.1 5.9 3.6 6.6Organic N 6 2·7 ± 0.5 2.9 1.8 3. 1NOz + N03-N 6 4. 15 ± 0.30 3.99 3.89 4.66Total N 6 12·37 ± 1. 23 12.79 10.06 13.64Total P 6 7.94 ± 0.38 7.94 7.76 8.13NaKCl- 6 472 ±54 470 370 510SOIf
APPENDIX B. WASTE WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS, KMCAS STP
4S
APPENDIX TABLE B. l. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR RAW SEWAGE COMPOSITE, 8-9 OCTOBER 1975,KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples . Dev. mum mum
(mg/Q,) -----~---{mg/Q,)------~----
TDSSS 24 110 ± 71 100 74 264BODs 24 102 ± 38 105 44 204NHrN 23 12.7 ± 3.7 12.9 5·0 19.4Organ ic N 24 6.7 ± 2.3 7.3 2.5 10.6N02 + N03-N 24 0.02 ± 0.02 0.02 0 0.08Total N 23 19.54 ± 5.34 20.97 2.83 29.68Total P 24 . 7.19 ± 2.76 7.67 2.32 11.47NaK --Cl- 24 596 ±181 540 370 950SOlf
APPENDIX TABLE B.2. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR SECONDARY EFFLUENT COMPOSITE, 8-9 OCTO-BER 1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std.t~ed ian Mini- Maxi-
Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum(mg/Q,) --~--------(mg/Q,)----------
TDSSS 6 19 ,± 2 19 15 21BODs 6 18 ± 3 18 13 21NH 3-N 6 5.5 ± 1. 1 5.9 3.6 6.6Organic N 6 2·7 ± 0.5 2.9 1.8 3.1N02 + N03-N 6 4. 15 ± 0.30 3.99 3.851 4.66Total N 6 12·37 ± 1. 23 12.79 10.06 13.64Total P 6 7.94 ± 0.38 7.94 7.76 8.13NaKCl- 6 472 ±S4 470 370 510S04
46
APPENDIX TABLE B.3. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS,MINIMUMS,AND MAXI MUMS OF WATER QUALI TV PARAMETERS OF24-HR PQND EFFLUENT COMPOSITE, 8-9 OCTOBER1975, KANE 'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP .
± 3 10 3 13± 3· 13 3 17± 0.5 6.0 5.0 6.9± 1.5 2.9 2.2 6.9± 0.30 1. 72 0.88 2.07± 0.61 10.47 9·37 11.95± 0.36 8.08 7.34 9.01
±30 480 420 510
Std. Min i-Maxi -Mean MedianDev. mum mum---~~------(mg/,Q,)---------
No. ofConstituent Samples
(mg/,Q,)
TDSSS 24 8
. BODs 24 12NH3-N 18 5.9Organic N 18 3.6N02 + N03-N 24 1.68Total N 24 10.51Tota 1 P 24 8. 16NaKCl- 24 468S04
APPENDIX TABLE 8.4. STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,I
MEANS, ,
AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUA~ITY PARAMETERS OF I24-HR RAW SEWAGE COMPOSITE, 20-21 NOVEMBER I
I
1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIRSTA. STPI
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent . Samp 1es Dev. mum mum
(mg/,Q,) ---~~----~-(mg/,Q,)----------
TDS55 24 114 ± 92 104 20 332BOD 24 123 ± 58 124 40 261NH3-N 24 15.2 ± 2.9 14.8 9.2 21.0Organic N 24 9.3 ± 4.2 8.6 2.8 20.4N02 + N03- N 24 0.02 ± 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.05Tota 1 N 24 24.54 ± 6.86 .23.32 12.01 41.43Total P 24 8.00 ± 2.77· 8.83· 3.00· 14.75NaKCl- 24 444 ±156 420 240 840S04 --
46
APPENDIX TABLE B.3. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR PQND EFFLUENT COMPOSITE, 8-9 OCTOBER1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- t'1axi -Cons t i tuen t Samples Dev. mum mum
(mg/9.,) ----~------(mg/9.,)---------
TDS55 24 8 ± 3 10 3 13BOD5 24 12 ± 3 13 3 17NH3-N 18 5.9 ± 0.5 6.0 5.0 6.9Organic N 18 3.6 ± 1.5 2.9 2.2 6.9N02 + N0 3-N 24 1. 68 ± 0.30 1. 72 0.88 2.07Total N 24 10.51 ± 0.61 10.47 9·37 11.95Tota 1 P 24 8. 16 ± 0.36 8.08 7.34 9.01NaKCl- 24 468 ±30 480 420 510SOl.;
APPENDIX TABLE 8.4. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR RAW SEWAGE COMPOSITE, 20-21 NOVEMBER1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mg/9.,) ---------~-(mg/9.,)----------
TD555 24 114 ± 92 104 20 332BOD 24 123 ± 58 124 40 261NH3-N 24 15.2 ± 2.9 14.8 9.2 21.0Organ i c N 24 9.3 ± 4.2 8.6 2.8 20.4N02 + N0 3-N 24 0.02 ± 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.05Total N 24 24.54 ± 6.86 .23.32 12.01 41.43Total P 24 8.00 ± 2.77 8.83 3.00 14.75NaKCl- 24 444 ±156 420 240 840SOl.;
47
APPENDIX TABLE B.5. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR SECONDA~Y EFFLUENT COMPOS ITE, 20-21 NOV-EMBER 1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mg/R.) -------~---(mg/R.)---------~
TDS _.-SS 6 25 ± 7 26 17 36BODsNH 3-N 6 8.3 ± 0.7 8.5 7.0 9.2Organic N 6 3.2 ± 0.5 3.3 2.4 3.8N0 2 + N0 3-N 6 1.46 ± 0.18 1. 38 1. 31 1. 78Total N 6 12.99 ± 0.73 13. 16 11.61 13.66Total P 6 7.41 ± 0.49 7.62 6.73 7.93NaKCl- 6 482 ±35 480 440 520S04
APPENDIX TABLE B.6. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS Of WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR PQND EFFLUENT COMPOSITE, 20-21 NOVEMaER1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mg/R.) -----------(mg/R.)----------
TDSSS . 12 10 ±2 9 8 15BODsNH 3-N 12 8.3 ±0.3 8.3 7.8 8.7Organic N 12 2.4 ±0.2 2.4 2.1 2.7N02 + N03-N 12 0.50 ±0.01 0.50 0.40 0.59Total N 12 11. 17 ±0.22 11. 21 10.84 11; 54Total P 12 7.49 ±o.45 7.50 7.10 8.00NaKCl- 12 491 ±9 490 480 500SO 4
47
APPENDIX TABLE B.5. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS,MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR SECONDARY EFFLUENT COMPOSITE, 20-21 NOV-EMBER 1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples . Dev. mum mum
(mg/~) -----------(mg/~)----------
TDSSS 6 25 ± 7 26 17 36BODsNHa-N 6 8.3 ± 0.7 8.5 7·0 9.2Organic N .6 3.2 ± 0.5 3.3 2.4 3.8NO z + NOa-N 6 1. 46 ± 0.18 1. 38 1. 31 1. 78Total N 6 12.99 ± 0·73 13.16 1J .61 13.66Total P 6 7.41 ± 0.49 7.62 6.73 7.93NaKCl- 6 482 ±35 480 440 520S04
APPENDIX TABLE B.6. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR PQND EFFLUENT COMPOSITE, 20-21 NOVEHeER1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mg/~) --------~--(mg/~)--------~-
TDSSS 12 10 ±2 9 8 15BODsNH3-N 12 8.3 ±0.3 8.3 7.8 8.7Organic N 12 2.4 ±0.2 2.4 2. 1 2.7NOz + NOa-N 12 0.50 ±O.Ol 0.50 0.40 0·59Total N 12 11. 17 ±0.22 11. 21 10.84 11054Total P 12 7.49 ±o.45 7.50 7.10 8.00NaKCl- 12 491 ±9 490 480 500S°lt
48
APPENDIX TABLE B.7.
No. ofConstituent Samples
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR RAW SEWAGE COMPOSITE, 11-12 FEBRUARY1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
Std. Md' Mini- Maxi-Mean I e I anDev. mum mum(mg/.Q,) ----------- (mg/.Q,)----------
TDSSSBODsNH 3-NOrganic NN02 + N03-NTotal NTotal PNaKCl-S04
24242424242424
24
11511313.88.60.03
22.4].64
485
± 68± 42± 5.7±3.4± 0.02± 8.26± 2.05
±143
9711912.98.40.02
21.967.85
460
30423.93.90.018.924.19
300
34118926.320.20.03
42.0311. 07
900
APPENDIX TABLE B.8. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR POND EFFLUENT COMPOSITE, 11~12 FEBRUARY1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median ~1 i ni- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mg/.Q,) -----------(mg/t)----------
TDS --SS 5 7 ± 1 7 6 8BODs 5 11 ± 1 11 9 13 .NH 3-N 5 8.4 ± 0.2 8.5 8. 1 8.7Organic N 5 2.2 ± 0.2 2. 1 2. 1 2.5N0 2 + N0 3-N 5 1.02 ± 1.5 1.04 0.84 1. 23Total N 5 11. 66 ± 0.36 11.66 11. 14 12.03Tota 1 P 5 7.36 ± 0.62 7.00 6.77 8.05NaK --CI 5 490 ±10 490 480 500S04
48
APPENDIX TABLE B.7. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAX f MUMS OF WATER QUAL ITY PARAt1ETERS OF
. 24-HR RA....' SEWAGE COMPOSITE, 11-12 FEBRUARY1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- t1ax i -Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mgj£) -----------(mgj£)----------
TDSSS 24 115 ± 68 97 30 341BODs 24 113 ± 42 119 42 189NH3-N 24 13.8 ± 5.7 12.9 3.9 26.3Organic N 24 8.6 ± 3.4 8.4 3·9 20.2N02 + N03-N 24 0.03 ± 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.03Total N 24 22.4 ± 8.26 21.96 8.92 42.03Total P 24 7.64 ± 2.05 7.85 4. 19 J 1.07NaKCl- 24 485 ±143 460 300 900S04
APPENDIX TABLE B.8. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR POND EFFLUENT COMPOSITE, 11-12 FEBRUARY1975, KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. t1ed ian ~1i ni - Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mgj£) -----------(mgj£)----------
TDSSS 5 7 ± 1 7 6 8BODs 5 11 ± 1 11 9 13 .NH 3-N 5 8.4 ± 0.2 8.5 8. 1 8.7Organic N 5 2.2 ± 0.2 2. 1 2. 1 2.5N0 2 + N0 3 -N 5 1. 02 ± 1. 5 1.04 0.84 1. 23Total N 5 11 .66 ± 0.36 11.66 11. 14 12.03Total P 5 7.36 ± 0.62 7.00 6.77 8.05NaKCl 5 490 ±JO 490 480 500SO 4
49
APPENDIX TABLE B.9. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS,MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR RAW SEWAGE COMPOS ITE, 12-13 JULY 1976,KANEtOHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini"; Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum(mg/.Q,) . -----------(mgj.Q,)------~~---
TDS 24 1227 ±366 1124 656 2212SS 24 106 ±65 106 31 326BODs 24 127 ± 55 132 44 260NH 3-N 24 13.6 ± 4.2 13.4 4.5 23.5Organic N 24 7.4 ± 2.5 8.4 2.8 10.6N02 + N03-N 24 0.01 ± 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.05Total N 24 21.06 ± 5.95 21.56 7.31 32.52Total P 24 6. 11 ± 2.57 6.62 1.54 9.85Na 24 351 ±1l5 316 223 643K 24 25 ± 4 22 22 33Cl-. 24 478 ±155 326 313 851504 24 113 ± 25 106 81 192
APPENDIX TABLE B. 10. MEANS, STANDARD DEV IAT IONS, MED IANS, MINI t1UMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF2~-HR POND EFFLUENT COMPOSITE, 12-13 JULY 1976,KANEtOHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
. No. ofMean Std . Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum(mgj.Q,) . ~----------(mgj.Q,)-------~---
TDS 24 1103 ±30 1109 996 . 114755 24 12 ± 2 13 8 14BODs 24 8 ± 4 9 3 15NH 3-N 16 8.6 ± 0.5 8.6 8.0 9·3Organic N 16 2.8 ± 0.5 2.6 . 2.5 4.6N0 2 + N0 3-N 24 0.85 ± O. 11 0.83 0.67 1. 10Total N 16 12.21 ± 0.61 12.22 11.25 13.65Total P 12 8.09· ± 0.59 7.99 7.08 9.31NaK 12 20 ± 0.6 20 19 21Cl- 24 450 ± 7 450 440 46050 4 12 97 ± 7 96 92 120
49
APPENDIX TABLE B.9. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF24-HR RAW SEWAGE COMPOSITE, 12-13 JULY 1976,KANEJOHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. MedianMini~ Maxi-
Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum(mg/Q,) -----------(mg/Q,)--~---~~---
TDS . 24 1227 ±366 1124 656 2212SS 24 106 ± 65 106 31 326BODs 24 127 ± 55 132 44 260NH 3-N 24 13.6 ± 4.2 13.4 4.5 23.5Organic N 24 7.4 ± 2.5 8.4 2.8 10.6N02 + N03-N 24 0.01 ± 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.05Total N 24 21.06 ± 5.95 21.56 7.31 32.52
. Tota 1 P. 24 6.11 ± ·2.57 6.62 1.54 9.85Na 24 . 351 ±115 316 223 643K 24 25 ± 4 22 22 . 33Cl- 24 478 ±155 326 313 851S04 24 113 ± 25 106 81 192
APPEND(X TABLE B.10. MEANS, STANDARD DEV IAT IONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF2~-HR POND EFFLUtNT COMpOSITE, 12-13 JULY 1976,KANE'OHE MARINE CORPS AIR STA. STP
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mg/Q,) . -----------(mg/Q,)-------~---
TOS 24 n03 ±30 1109 996 1147SS 24 12 ± 2 13 8 14BODs 24 8 ± 4 9 3 15NH 3-N 16 8.6 ± 0.5 8.6 8.0 9·3Organic N 16 2.8 ± O.S 2.6 2.5 4.6
. N0 2 + N0 3-N 24 0.85 ± O. 11 0.83 . 0.67 1.10Total N 16 12.21 ± 0.61 12.22 11.25 13.65Total P 12 8.09 ± 0.59 7.99 7.08 9.31NaK 12 20 ± 0.6 20 19 21Cl- 24 450 ± 7 450 440 460S04 12 97 ± 7 96 92 120
50
APPENDIX C. GROUNDWATER QUALITY ANALYSIS, ~~CAS KLIPPER GOLF COURSE
APPENDIX TABLE C.l. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS,MINIMUMS~
AND MAXI MUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OFGROUNDWATER TEST WELL NO.1, KMCAS GOLF COURSE
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum . mum
(mg/9-) -------~--(mg/9-)----------~-
. NH 3-N 16 O. 10 ± 0.04 0.10 0.06 0.17Organic N 16 0.43 ± 0.21 0.39 0.22 1. 12N02 + NO 3-N 18 0.26 ± 0.19 0.22 0.03 0.80Total N 14 0.76 ± 0.22 0.]0 0.41 1.34Total P 18 0.66 ±. 0.08 0.69 0.44 0.75Na 18 2041 ±186 1934 1747 2371K 18 90 ± 5 87 87 104Cl- 7 2087 ±196 2153 1761 2250Fecal Co 1i- (#/100 m9-) --------(#/100 m9-)---~------
form 18 0 0 0 0 0
APPENDIX TABLE C.2. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OFGROUNDWATER TEST WELL NO. 2, KMCAS GOLF COURSE
(mg/9-)Cons t i tuen t
No. ofSamples
Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Dev. mum mum
-----~----(mg/9-)------------
NH3-NOrganic NN0 2 + N0 3-NTotal NTotal PNaKCl-Fecal Coliform
161817141817187
18
0.010.421.471. 75O. 15
30622
447(#/100 m9-)
o
± 0.01± O. 19± 0·52± 0·30± 0.10±22
o±52
o
0.01 0.01 0.050.39 0.22 0.781.43 0.94 3.241. 67 l .36 2. 30O. 12 0.06 0.45
311.273 36022 22 22
489 391 489--------(#/100 m9-)----------00 0
50
APPENDIX C. GROUNDWATER QUALITY ANALYSIS, ~~CAS KLIPPER GOLF COURSE
APPENDIX TABLE C.l. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS J
AND MAX IMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OFGROUNDWATER TE~T WELL NO.1, KMCAS GOLF COURSE
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum
(mglQ,) ------w~--(mg/Q,)---~--------
NH3-N 16 0.10 ± ·0.04 0.10 0.06 o. 17Organic N 16 0.43 ± 0.21 0.39 0.22 l. 12NOz + NO 3-N 18 0.26 ± 0.19 . 0.22 0.03 0.80..
Total N 14 0.76 ± 0.22 0.]0 0.41 1.34Total P 18 0.66 ± 0.08 0.69 0.44 0.75Na 18 2041 ±186· 1934 1747 . 2371K 18 90 ± 5 87 87 104Cl- 7 2087 ±196 2153 1761 ··2250Fecal Co 1i- (#/100 mQ,) --~-----(#/l00 mQ,)---~~-----
form 18 0 0 0 0 0
APPENDIX TABLE C.2. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OFGROUNDWATER TEST WELL NO. 2, KMCA~ GOLF COURS~
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Cons t i tuen t Samples Dev. mum mum
(mglQ,) -----~----(mg/Q,)------------
NH3-N 16 0.01 ± 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05Organ ic N 18 0.42 ± 0.19 0.39 0.22 0.78NO z + N0 3-N 17 1.47 ± 0.52 1.43 0.94 3.24Total N 14 1. 75 ± 0.30 1. 67 1. 36 2.30Total P 18 0.15 ± 0.10 O. 12 0.06 0.45Na 17 306 ±22 31 1 273 360K 18 . 22 0 22 22 22el- 7 447 ±52 489 391 489Feca 1 Col i- (#/100 rnQ,) --------(#/100 mQ,)----------form 18 0 0 0 0 0
51
APPENDIX TABLE C.3. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS, ..AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF .GROUNDWATER TEST WELL NO.3, KMCAS GOLF COURSE
No. of Mean Std. Median Mini- Maxi-Constituent Samples Dev. mum mum(mgl,Q,) ----------(mg/,Q,)----~--~----
NH3-N 16 0.30 ± O. 10 0.31 0.08 0.49Organic N 18 0.62 ± 0.22 0.53 0.34 1. 01NOz + N0 3-N 18 O. 16 ± 0.18 0.09 0.01 0.62Total N 16 1.04 ± 0.42 0.84 0.47 1.79Total P 18 O. 11 ± 0.03 0.10 0.06 O. 16Na 17 2218 ± 186 2226 1914 2454K 17 82 ± 6 . 79 79 104Cl- 7 2097 ± 95 2055 1957 ·2250Fecal Co 1i- (#/100 m,Q,) --------- (#/100 mQ,) ----------form 18 a 0 0 a a
APPENDIX TABLE C.4. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAX I MUMS OF WATER QUALI TY PARAMETERS OFSPRINKLER EFFLUENT, KMCAS GOLF COURSE
420(#/100 m,Q,)
111
10.9 9.6 13.81. 79 1. 40 2.240.b1 0.01 . 0.13
12.77 11.63 J5.718.7 7.3 10.8
230 218 24022 22 22
328 323 342
M Std. Md' Mini- Maxi-ean elanDev. mum mum----------(mgl,Q,)~-----------
(mgl,Q,)
10.9 ± 1.11.84 ± 0.210.03 ± 0.04
12.75 ± 1. 128.9 ± 1.2
230 ± 1022 a
329 ± 12(#/100 m,Q,)
160 ±1508
121212121012126
No. ofSamplesConstituent
NH 3-NOrgani c NNOz + N0 3-NTotal NTotal PNaKCl-Fecal Col iform
1. ~
51
APPENDIX TABLE C.3. ~EANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS, .AND MAXIMUMS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF .GROUNDWATER TEST WELL NO.3, KMCAS GOLF COURSE
ConstituentNo. ofSamples Mean
(mg/i)
Std. Mini- Maxi-MedianDev. mum mum---------;.,(mg/i)------------
NH3-NOrganic NN02 + N0 3 -NTotal NTotal PNaKCl-Fecal Col iform
1618181618I]177·
18
0.300.62O. 161.04o. 11
221882
2097(#/100 mi)
a
± 0.10± 0.22± 0.18± 0.42± 0.03±186± 6± 95
o
0.31 0.08 0.490.53 0.34 1.010.09 0.01 0.620.84 . 0.47 1.790.10 0.06 0.16
2226 1914 245479 79 104
2055 1957 2250--------- (#/100 mQ.) ----------000
APPENDIX TABLE c.4. MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, MEDIANS, MINIMUMS,AND MAX IMUMS OF WATER QUALI TY PARAMETERS OFSPRINKLER EFFLUENT, KMCAS GOLF COURSE
420(#/100 mi)
11 1
10.9 9.6 13.81.79 1.40 2.240.01 0.01 0.13
12.77 11.63 15.718.7 7.3 10.8
230 218 24022 22 22
328 323 342
M Std. M d· Mini- Maxi-.ean elanDev. mum mum----------(mglQ,)------------(mg/i)
10.9 ± 1.11. 84 ± 0.210.03 ± 0.04
12.75 ± 1. 128.9 ± 1.2
230 ± 1022 0
329 ± 12(#/l00 mi)
160 ±1508
121212121012126
No. ofSamplesConstituent
NH 3-NOrganic NN0 2 + N0 3 -NTotal NTotal PNaKCl-Fecal Col iform
U1
N
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-10
0-1
25
-15
0-2
00
.,.25
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OW
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06
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06
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No.
16z U
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-<2:I>?,:;AJr rnO;:oc
"VlrrI".-
-300~ :::c-;rn _.z):>-;,
-roo -125 -150 -200 "'250DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ft
FIGURE D. I. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR INlTIAL COLIFORM BACTERIA CONCENTRATIONBETWEEN 15,000 AND 2(),000 COLONIE$ill.O~m~,Q,~_. ~
o-75
100
0 6/09 No. 2
• 6/09 No • 16<N'
6/100 No. 15~
>- • 6/10 No . 16l-
(/) l:>. 6/11 No. 152I.LJ .A 6/11 No • 160
c:( D. 6/11 P. G.0:::I.LJI-uc:(CD
~ 500:::0LJ...
'-l0U
0I.LJN
-lc:(~0:::0:z
-300
-100
-125
-150
-200
-250
DO\m\~IND
DIST
ANCE
SFR
Gt1
'IRRI
GA
TIO
NSP
RIN
KLE
RS,
ft
FIGU
RE0
.2.
NORM
ALIZ
EDA
IRQU
ALIT
YDA
TAFO
RIN
ITIA
LCO
LIFO
RMBA
CTER
IACO
NCEN
TRAT
ION
OF46
,000
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IES/
100
m~
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I
-75
100
It1
\
°6/
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=""'._
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-300-100 -125 -150 -200 -250DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRIKKLERS, ft
FIGURE 0.2. NORt1ALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR INITIAL COLIFORM BACTERIACONCENTRATION OF 46,000 COLONIES/100 m£
O'-- --'- -L- ---'L- ---'-- ..L- .J.- ---'-- -! ~
-75
100
° 6/14 No, 20 6/14 No. 15
<N' • 6/14 No . 16>- 0 6/14 P.G.l-
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ES
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FI.G
UR
ED
.3.
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RM
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AIR
QU
ALI
TY
DAT
AFO
RIN
ITIA
LC
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O~ -"-__~--=~ --L--'-__---JL..-- ---L. l-- -l- ---J.~__--.J.
-75 -100 -125 -150 -200 -250 -300DOWNWlND DiSTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRIKKLERS, ft
FI.GURE 0.3. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR INITIAL COLlfORWBACTERIA CONCf:NTRATIONBETv/EEN 319,000 AND 400,OOOCOLONIES/100 m~
U1+:>
100
0 6/12 tlo. 15
• 6/12 No • 16
eN' o 6/12 P,G.~
6/1 11 No. 2>- 0I-- • 6/14 No .. 15V)
z A 6/14 No. 16UJ0
<:1;. /:::;. 6/1 11 P.G.
0:::UJI-u<:1;co
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CE
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NS
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INK
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ft
F'IG
UR
EE
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ZED
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QU
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TY
DAT
AFO
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VE
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AND
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No.
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6/1
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06
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f- -6
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No
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V'l
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66
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P.G
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0 6/09 No. 2
0 6/11 No. 15o'fl II 6/11 No. 16
~ 0 6/11 P.G.>-f-
6/12 No. 156.til-~ ... 6/12 No . 16wa
6-« 6/12 P.G.er::wf-u«co
50~er::0L.L
-l0U
awN
-l«:::i:cr::.0z
o-75 -laO -125 -150 -200 -250
DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ft
FIGURE E.1. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR WIND VELOCITIES BETWEEN
»-0-0rn:z:;;:;:I
x
rn.z
·0;;03:J>rNfTI0
J>
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fT1r0n
0 AND 8 KNOTS -I
fT1·Vl
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o -75
-10
0-1
25
-15
0-2
00
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0-3
00
DO
HN
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DD
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ES
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OH
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INK
LER
S,
ft·
FIG
UR
EE
.2.
NO
RH
ALI
ZED
AIR
QU
ALI
TY
DAT
AFO
RW
IND
VE
LOC
ITIE
SBE
TV!E
EN9
AND
12KN
OTS
100~
1\
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6/0
9N
o.16
o.6
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No.
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•6
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No.
16>-
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No
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No.
16V
lz w
66
/14
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W f- u <::!; co ~
500:
:·0 lJ
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0 U 0 W N - ...J
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100
0 6/09 No. 160 6/10 No. 15
~
6/10 No • 16•>- A 6/14 No. 2l-
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0:::lJ.JI-u<:J:oj
~ 500:::0u.....J0U
ClJ.JN
...J<:J:::;:0:::0:z.
o-75 -100 -125 -150 -200 -250 -300
DOWNWIND DISTANCES FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS~ ft .
FIGURE E.2. NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY DATA FOR WIND VELOCITfES BETWEEN 9 AND 12 KNOTS·
-30
0-1
00
-12
5-1
50
-20
0-2
50
DOW
NWIN
DD
ISTA
NC
ES
FRO
MIR
RIG
AT
ION
SP
RIN
KLE
RS
,ft
FIG
UR
EE
.3.
NO
RM
ALI
ZED
AIR
QU
AL
ity
DA
TAFO
RW
IND
VE
LOC
ITIE
SB
En
/fE
N13
an
d18
KNO
TS
100
I+-..
/\
06
/14
No.
150
6/1
6N
o.2
•6
/16
No.
15D.
6/1
6N
o.16
6.
6/1
6P
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a -75
« c::
l1J
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50~ 0:
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l1J
N -' « ~ 0:: o Z
Ln -...,J
,Sii
iii
'I#
Hj~uil'-
D..
..i
..-J
....
",..
.,.,
_
-300
and 18 KNOTS
-200 -250FROM IRRIGATION SPRINKLERS, ft
DATA FOR WIND VELOCiTIES BETWEEN 13
-125 -150DO'I'iNW IND DISTANCES
NORMALIZED AIR QUALITY
-100
FIGURE E,3.
o-75
100 0 6/14 No. 150 6/16 No. 2
• 6/16 No . 15eN: L::,. 6/16 No. 16
~
6- 6/16>- P.G.l-
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