An Introduction to Small Groups

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Ayza C. Quintinita

Group Dynamics, Psychology of Small Group Behavior Chapters 1 to 3

Shaw, Marvin

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Introduction to Small Groups

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Any number of persons engaged in interaction with one another in a single face-to-face meeting or series of such meetings, in which each member receives some impression or perception of each others member distinct enough so that he can, either at the time or in later questioning, give some reaction to each of the others as an individual person, even though it be only to recall that the other was present (Bales, 1950)

Definition of Group

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A collection of individuals whose existence as a collection is rewarding to the individuals (Bass, 1960)

These are units composed of two or more people who come into contact meaningful (Miller, 1967)

An organized system of two or more individuals who are interrelated so that then system performs some function, has a standard set of role relationships among its members, and has a set of norms that regulate the function of the group and each of its members (McDavid & Harari, 1968)

Definition of Group

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A set of individuals who share a common fate, that is, who are interdependent in the sense that an event which affects one member is likely to affect all (Fiedler, 1967)

An open interaction system in which actions determine the structure of the system and successive interactions exert coequal effects upon the identity of the system (Slogdill, 1959)

A collectivity that has psychological implications for the individual, based upon the person’s awareness of the other group members, his or her membership in the group, and the emotional significance of the group (Shaver, 1977)

Definition of Group

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Motivation of members may account for the formation of a group

The group members may veridically perceive that the group exists or that they are members of a group

Organization may be an inevitable consequence of group process

Basic Elements of the concept Group

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Two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person.Small group is having twenty or less members

Groups that endure for a reasonable period, have a common goal and have developed at least a rudimentary group structure

Group

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Methods of AnalysisField theory- behavior is a result of a field of

interdependent forces.Kurt Lewin analyzed both individual and group behavior as

parts of a system of interrelated events.The method of analysis is similar that of physics and

assumes that the properties of any given behavioral event are determined by its relations to other events in the same system.

Interaction theoryViews the group as a system of interacting individuals.

There are three basic elements: activity, interaction and sentiment.

All aspects of group behavior can be understood by spelling out the relations among the three basic elements.

Issues in Group Dynamics

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Systems theory- almost the same concept as interaction theory however the elements of this theory describes the group as a system of interlocking elements such as positions and roles, with much emphasis upon group inputs and outputs

Sociometric Orientation- emphasizes interpersonal choices among group members.The morale and performance of the group are seen

as depending upon the interpersonal relations among group members that are reflected in sociometric choices.

Issues in… Methods of Analysis

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Psychoanalytic orientation- concerned with the motivational and defensive processes of the individual as related to group life.

General Psychology orientation- extends individual theories into group behavior. Various theoretical formulation with regard to such individual processes as learning, motivation and perception are applied directly to group processes.

Empirical-statistical orientation- holds the basic concepts of group theory can be discovered through the applications of statistical procedures.


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Formal models of orientation- construct formal models of group behavior, using rigorous mathematical procedures. Model builders are concerned with the internal consistency of their models than with the degree of correspondence between model and natural situations.

Reinforcement theory- attempts to explain interpersonal behavior in terms of the outcomes for group members

Transactional approach explains group behavior as an interchange of inputs and outputs. Each member is seen as making contributions that are valued by other group member.


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Values of GroupsDeindividuationAnonymityDiffusion of responsibilityModeling the uninhibited behavior of othersRiskier decisionsHighly cohesive groups may become victims of

“groupthink”Collective panicSocial movements may engulf people and

become victims of the distorted visions of political leaders

Issues in…

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Pressures toward uniformity lead to conformity and may have undesirable consequences

Group leadership often results from appointment, communication networks, type and amount of communication, and the leader’s similarity to other group members

Issues in…

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Approaches to the Study of Groups

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Group Syntality TheoryFormulated by R. CattellSyntality- personality of the group as any effect that

the group has totalityHis theory consists of two interrelated parts,

dimensions of groups- consists of panels labeled as population traits- characteristics of an individual members

who compose the group syntality traits- effects which the group has, acting as a

group, which may be in relation to another group or to the environment in which the group exists

characteristics of internal structure- relationships among group members, and the structural characteristics describe the organizational patterns within the groups

dynamics of syntality

Theoretical Approaches

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Group Syntality TheoryMajor concept for analyzing the dynamics of

syntality is SYNERGYActivities of the group are two kinds: activities

directed toward the maintenance of the group and those directed toward achievement of the group’s goals

A portion of synergy must be diverted to establishing cohesion and harmony in the group is called maintenance synergy

Activities which have been supplied with synergy are called effective synergy


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Group Syntality TheoryTheorems proposed by Cattell

Groups are formed to satisfy individual need and cease to exist when no longer serve this purpose

The total synergy of a group is the vectorial resultant of the attitudes all members toward the group

Effective synergy may be directed toward goals outside the group; hence groups may establish patterns of reacting which are subsidiary to some ultimate goal of the group

Individual group members may also use groups to achieve personal goals; that is, group activities may be subsidiary to some ultimate personal goal


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Group Syntality TheoryTheorems proposed by Cattell

Patterns of behavior in groups are learned in accordance with the law of effect

Group memberships may be overlap, but the total synergy in such overlapping groups remains constant so long as individual energy directed toward non-group goals remains constant and group activities relative to goal distance do not vary.

There exists a close parallelism between the personality traits of the group members and the syntality traits of the group


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Exchange TheoryThibaut and Kelley (1959)Explains interpersonal behavior and group processesPrimarily functionalistic, since their focus was upon

what is useful or effective from viewpoint of the groupThe theory assumes that the existence of the group is

based solely upon the participation and satisfaction of individuals in the group

According to the authors, the analysis of interaction involvesDefinition of key conceptsConsideration of the consequences of interactionAn analysis of members’ evaluation of interpersonal

relationships


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Exchange theoryCentral feature of INTERACTION is INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIP, hence they are interdependent“by interaction, it is meant that they emit behavior in

each other’s presence, they create products for each other or they communicate with each other”

BEHAVIOR SEQUENCE consists of a number of specific motor and verbal acts that are sequentially organized and directed toward some immediate goal

BEHAVIOR REPERTOIRE refers to all the possible behavior sequences that a given person might enact during interaction with another person, including combinations of possible behavior sequence


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Exchange TheoryThe consequences or outcomes of interaction are

described in terms ofRewards- aspects which the individual finds

pleasurable, enjoyable or gratifyingCosts- anything that inhibits the performance of a

behavior sequenceExogenous factors- external to the interpersonal

relationshipEndogenous factors- inherent in the relationship

itself; actions depends not only upon the actions of the individual but also upon the behaviors of the other person

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Exchange TheoryUsed a behavior matrix as prototype of group

interaction to predict the course of interaction if rewards and costs are identified

Proposed that an individual generally repeats a rewarded response but does not repeat a costly response

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FIRO: A Theory of Interpersonal RelationsTheory of interpersonal behavior that derives

from the psychoanalytic orientation; Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation

Formulated by Schultz (1955); attempts to explain IB in terms of orientation to others

Particular char. that an individual exemplifies: InclusionControlAffection


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FIROInclusion- the need of togetherness, the need

to be associatedControl- the decision-making process between

people.Affection- close personal and emotional

feelings between two individuals, and its extremes are represented by love and hate.

Three types of compatibility-incompatibility in the need areas:Interchange compatibilityOriginator compatibilityReciprocal compatibility

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FIROInterchange compatibility

Based upon the mutual expression of inclusion, affection and control

This exists when the two persons interacting are similar with respect to the amount of exchange desired; incompatibility results from dissimilarity in this respect.

OriginatorDerives from the originator-receiver dimension of

interactionTwo persons are compatible to the degree of that the

expression of the three needs corresponds to that with the other person wishes to receive in that area

ReciprocalDegree to which two persons “reciprocally satisfy

each others behavior preferences

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Group Congruency TheoryBenoit- Smullyan observed that a person in a

given society can be ranked on a variety of dimensions such as age, education, income, occupational prestige, and power and suggested that such rankings tend toward equilibration

Hrycenko and Minton hypothesized that satisfaction with one’s power position in a group will be determined by the interaction of preference for locus of control and the actual degree of power possessed

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Group Congruency TheoryNon-conflicting, harmonious relationships

among group elements; hence congruent groups should have characterized by harmonious group process and greater productivity.

Group performance is assumed to be the consequence of a complex set of variables or group elements and the interactions among those elements.

Group elements- all those aspects of the group and the group situation that influence or may be expected to influence group process

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Theoretical prepositions:1. Groups vary in the degree to which elements of

the group fit together harmoniously, in the degree of group congruency

2. The less congruent the group elements, the greater the disruption of the internal functioning of the group

3. The more the internal functioning of the group is disrupted, the poorer the performance of the group

4. The more the internal functioning of the group is disrupted, the lower the morale (general satisfaction) of the group members

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Comparisons of theoriesTheory Precision Other characteristics

Exchange >relatively precise predictions on group behavior but suffers from measurement problem

>most comprehensive

Group Syntality

>lacks precision in the definition of some terms

>aspire generality but are not easily extended to all forms of group behavior

FIRO >relatively precise predictions on group behavior but suffers from measurement problem

>requires measurement of needs and the combining of these measures to predict compatibility

Group Congruency

>lacks precision since no specifications of rules or determining objectively

>aspire generality but are not easily extended to all forms of group behavior

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Field studiesDescriptive-exploratory studiesNatural experimentsField experiments

Laboratory experimentsExperienced groupsSelected naïve groupsRandom naïve groups

Role playingRole visualizationRole enactment

Empirical Approaches

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Descriptive-exploratoryDescribe groups under investigation, often

with the intention of identifying relationships among variables

The exact purpose served by this approach varies from a mere description of the characteristics of the groups to the formulation of precise hypotheses about functional relationships

Attractive to investigators concerned with the relevance of empirical studies to natural situations

Field Study

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Natural experimentsInvestigators take advantage of naturally

occurring changes to study their effects upon group processes

The naturality can sometimes be planned advance however does not have control over the manipulation, uncontrolled and unknown variables may be contaminating to the results

Field experimentsCarries the degree of experimental control but

does so in a field setting

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Field experimentsThe investigator controls the manipulation of

certain variables but does in a field settingHas more control over the variables rather

than those at natural experiments

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Experienced groupsWhen natural groups are brought into the

laboratory; members of the group have already established relationships among themselves, and the many processes of group formation have already been completed

Selected Naïve groupsThe advantage of permitting relatively precise

specification of group characteristics, but care must be taken to ensure that such selection does not result in the unwitting variation of other significant variables

Laboratory Experiments

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Random naïve groupsSubjects are randomly assigned to the groups

and exposed to different treatmentsNote: Both random and selected naïve groups

are criticized to be “artificial” since they do not entirely exist in the whole world

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Role VisualizationRequires the subject to passively visualize another

person’s role and to predict the other person’s behavior

Often used to test some theory about psychological processes occurring in typical social psychological experiments

Role EnactmentFor purposes of interest in understanding the

behavior of other persons in response to the behavior of the role player(s) and/or in the consequences of specific role enactments for group processes and outcome

Role playing Experiments

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Individuals and Groups

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Social FacilitationConcerned with the influence of the mere

presence of others on individual behaviorThrough history, inconsistent results were

showed; the presence of others (facilitating, inhibiting or irrelevant seems to be unpredictable without knowledge of other factors

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Triplett’s HypothesisBelieved that “dynamogenic factors” played a bigger roleThe presence of others releases a latent energy that is not

usually available to the individualZajonc’s Drive Theory

Mere presence of others has arousal consequences; an audience is drive-producing

Cottrell’s Theory of Learned Social DriveThe presence of other people does not necessarily increase

drive unless it arouses anticipations of positive or negative outcomes

Distraction-Conflict TheorySocially mediated drive-arousal will occur whenever there is

some reason to shift attention from the task to social stimuli

Social Facilitation

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Individual vs. Group JudgmentDoes the quality of group judgment exceed that of

the average individual performance of the group members?

Does the quality of group performance exceed that of the most proficient member of the group

Individual vs. Group Problem SolvingIndividual vs. Group Learning

Individual vs Group Performance

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An Introduction to Small Groups