AN INTRODUCTION TO

CONTENT ANALYSIS

9310021A SALLY

9310001A HELEN

9310003A STAN

CONTENT ANALYSIS AS A TECHNIQUE

- for making theory- by analyzing, examining, and selecting data

- systematically & objectively

CRITERIA OF SELECTION

- clearly & fully expressed rules- set up before analysis - explain various data completely

- applied strictly

CATEGORIES = MAJOR POINTS = PROS & CONS

SHOULD BE- connected with what is being discussed

in the messages - exact wording used in the statement

SHOULD NOT BE- based on personal opinions - irrelevant to the messages

QUANTITATIVE 量化 vs. QUALITATIVE 質性

- Quantitative : objective, systematic, procedures of analysis arbitrary limitation, relevant categories

- Qualitative : definitions, symbols, detailed explanations, etc no absolute truth, but context-bound

MANIFEST vs. LATENT CONTENT ANALYSIS

- manifest content (surface structure): perceptible, clear, comprehensible message

- latent content (deep structure): implied, unstated message

COMMUNICATION COMPONENTS

1. message ↓ 2. Sender (participants) ↓3. Audience (interviews)

- in vivo codes: wording that participants use in interview- constructed codes: coded data from in vivo codes, created by researcher, academic terms

LEVELS & UNITS OF ANALYSIS

words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, sections, chapters, books, ideological stance, subject topic, elements relevant to the context

I. Random Sampling 1. Simple Random Sampling 簡單隨機抽樣 to draw subjects from an identified popul

ation ( 母群體 )

2. Systematic Sampling 系統抽樣 (Interval Random Sampling 間隔隨機抽樣 )

select nth name from the population Population 母群體

總數 Sampling interval = Numbers of persons desired

抽樣間隔 取樣數目

* Random Numbers Table 亂數表

SAMPLING STRATEGIES

3. Stratified Sampling 分層抽樣 - divide population into stratum - ensure : dissimilarity between stratum ↑ similarity inside of each strata ↑

∴ produce a representative sample

II. Non-random Sampling Purposive Sampling 立意抽樣 researcher select subjects according to his/her research purpose and understanding of the population

- researcher: with sufficient knowledge or expertise - subjects: represent the population

GROUNDED THEORY 紮根理論

a process of constructing: various data →induction/deduction→theory* explain the phenomena

- development of theory - collect, analyze, & compare data systematically- theory is grounded on data

7 MAJOR ELEMENTS IN WRITTEN MESSAGES

1. Words – the smallest unit, frequently used2. Themes: simple sentences, string of words

with S + predicate (e.g. You are beautiful)3. Characters: persons4. Paragraphs: difficult to classify ∵ various

things are stated & implied in a single paragraph, infrequently used

5. Items: books, letter, diary, etc

6. Concepts: an idea, more latent e.g. crime7. Semantics: how affected the words may be

Combinations of Elements

Interview #1 Ah…I do not think I improve grammar and word dictions because my teacher did not correct my grammar and word dictions. Actually, I know I am not good at writing, and I really want to improve my writing ability. Hmm……However, I also wrote articles which were asked from professors as homework while I wrote dialogue journal writing. Well, for the first time, I can accept that I had so many writing mistakes, and I know I still have room to improve it after teacher’s correction. Unfortunately, after many times corrections, the articles which were corrected by professors still appeared many grammar problems and sometimes had word dictions problems. This is why I do not think dialogue journal writing can improve our writing ability. (Shake head)

Units and Categories

Units = Codes

‘Code’ the elements into ‘Inductive Categories’

ex. Words, items, themes…

Classes and Categories

3 major procedures:

1. Common classes

2. Special classes

3. Theoretical classes

Classes and Categories

Common Classes:-- a culture in general

People in society to tell apart persons, things, and events

Ex. Age, gender, mother…

Classes and Categories

Special Classes:

-- the labels used by members of certain areas

to tell apart persons, things, and events within their limited province

out-group – people in society

in-group – people in the specific group

Classes and Categories

Theoretical Classes:

-- emerge in the process of analyzing the data

-- Function:

1. grounded in the data

2. Get a theory

Open Coding

1. Major Problems:

-- can not read between the line

-- do not get the real motivation

2. Can get the points Coding can continue.

Open Coding

4 basic guidelines:

1. Ask the data a specific and consistent set of questions.

-- What study are these data suitable?

-- What category does this incident indicate?

Benefits:

-- sometimes find unexpected results

Open Coding

2. Analyze the data minutely. categories, incidents, interactions, and the like be coded <during open coding>

extensive theoretical coverage <be thoroughly grounded>

systematic coding

★Stop! When it appears repetitious codes!!!

Open Coding

3. Frequently interrupt the coding to write a theoretical note.

-- comments ideas <take notes>

4. Never assume the analytic relevance of any traditional variable until the data show it to be relevant.

-- any traditional variable ex. Age, sex, social class…-- earn their way into the grounded theory

Coding Frames

Purposes:

1. To organize the data

after open coding

has been completed

2. To identify findings

Coding Frames

Axial Coding:

1. Different ideas organize and construction

2. New ideas

Coding Frames

Data

MJ 1 MJ 2 MJ 3 Open coding

Axial Coding

MJ 1 MJ 3

Axial

*MJ=Major Point

A Few More Words on Analytic Induction

Involve several refinements.

Glaser and Strauss suggest:

- Combine 2 data analysis.

1. Analysis of data after coding.

2. Analysis of data while integrating.

Incorporate all appropriate modes of inquiry:

Induction, deduction, and verification

Interrogative Hypothesis Testing

4 steps of negative case testing:

1. Make a rough hypothesis.2. Conduct a thorough search.3. Discard or reformulate hypothesis.4. Examine all relevant cases.

4 Safeguards against the potential flaws

1. Examples should be lifted at random.

2. Assertion should be more than 3 examples.

3. Analytic interpretations should be examined by independent reader.

4. Check no invalidated overall patterns.

Use safeguards can avoids “exampling”

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE CONTENT ANALYSIS PROCESS

Advantages:

1. It can be virtually unobtrusive.

2. It is cost effective.

3. It provides a means of study a process.

Weaknesses:

1. Limited to examining already recorded messages.

2. Ineffective for testing causal relationships between variables.

3. Not appropriate in every research situation.

COMPUTERS AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

Using qualitative research programs:

1. Help qualitative sorting and data management.

2. Takes times to learn.

3. Researchers still need to think.

4. Offer clear directions for novice.

Quantitative research programs help researchers to deal with the vast number of statistical data.